3/5/2024

Geometric Design of Highway

Lecture # 3: Stopping, Decision, & Passing Sight

Distances
Lecturer: Asst. Prof. Dr. Hardy Kamal Karim
Ph.D. in Highway Engineering
University of Sulaimani

Road Characteristics
Sight Distance

• Sight distance is the length of the roadway ahead that is visible to the driver. The
available sight distance on a roadway should be sufficiently long to enable a
vehicle traveling at or near the design speed to stop before reaching a stationary
object in its path.

• The three types of sight distance are:

1) Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
2) Decision Sight Distance (DSD)
3) Passing Sight Distance (PSD)

Note : greater lengths of visible roadway are desirable.

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Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

Stopping sight distance is the sum of two distances:

1) the distance traversed by the vehicle from the instant the driver sights an object
necessitating a stop to the instant the brakes are applied, and

2) the distance needed to stop the vehicle from the instant brake application
begins.

SSD = Brake Reaction Distance + Braking Distance

Brake Reaction Time

• Brake reaction time is the interval from the instant that the driver recognizes the
existence of an obstacle on the roadway ahead that necessitates braking until the
instant that the driver actually applies the brakes.

• The amount of time needed varies considerably with the distance to the object,
the visual acuity of the driver, the driver’s reaction time, the atmospheric
visibility, the type and the condition of the roadway, and the nature of the
obstacle.

• Vehicle speed and roadway environment probably also influence reaction time.

• Minimum brake reaction times for drivers could be at least 1.64 s, 0.64 s for
alerted drivers plus 1 s for the unexpected event. 4

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• Even under these simple conditions, it was found that some drivers took over 3.5
s to respond.

• Studies show that a 2.5-s brake reaction time for stopping sight situations
encompasses the capabilities of most drivers, including those of older drivers

• The recommended design criterion of 2.5 s for brake reaction time exceeds the
90th percentile of reaction time for all drivers.

• A brake reaction time of 2.5 s is considered adequate for conditions that are more
complex than the simple conditions used in laboratory and road tests, but it is not
adequate for the most complex conditions encountered in actual driving.

• The need for greater reaction time in the most complex conditions encountered
on the roadway, such as those found at multiphase at-grade intersections and at
ramp terminals on through roadways, can be used as “Decision Sight Distance.”
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Braking Distance
• Breaking distance is the distance traveled by the vehicle after the application of the
brakes.

• The approximate braking distance of a vehicle on a level roadway traveling at the design
speed of the roadway may be determined from the following equation:

𝑢
𝑑 = 𝑎
30 ∗ 𝑔
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:

𝑑 = 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑓𝑡

𝑢 = 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑, 𝑚𝑝ℎ

𝑓𝑡
𝑎 = 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒,
𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑓𝑡
𝑔 = 32.2, 6
𝑠𝑒𝑐

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• Studies show that most drivers decelerate at a rate greater than 14.8 ft/s² [4.5 m/s²]
when confronted with the need to stop for an unexpected object in the roadway.

• Approximately 90% of all drivers decelerate at rates greater than 11.2 ft/s² [3.4 m/s²].
Such decelerations are within the driver’s capability to stay within his or her lane and
maintain steering control during the braking maneuver on wet surfaces.

• Therefore, 11.2 ft/s² (a comfortable deceleration for most drivers) is recommended as

the deceleration threshold for determining stopping sight distance.

• Implicit in the choice of this deceleration threshold is the assessment that most vehicle
braking systems and the tire-pavement friction levels of most roadways are capable of
providing a deceleration rate of at least 11.2 ft/s².

• The friction available on most wet pavement surfaces and the capabilities of most
vehicle braking systems can provide braking friction that exceeds this deceleration7 rate

Effect of Grade on Stopping

When a highway is on a grade, this Equation for braking distance is modified as follows:

𝑢
𝑑 = 𝑎
30 ∓𝐺
32.2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒

𝑑 = 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒, 𝑓𝑡

𝑢 = 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑, 𝑚𝑝ℎ

𝑓𝑡
𝑎 = 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 11.2
𝑠
𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑓𝑡
𝐺 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒, ,
𝑟𝑢𝑛 𝑓𝑡 8

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Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

• The SSD is the sum of the distance traversed during the brake reaction time and
the distance to brake the vehicle to a stop. The general equation that is used is:

𝑢 −𝑢
𝑆𝑆𝐷 = 1.47 𝑢 𝑡 + 𝑎
30 32.2 ∓ 𝐺
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:

𝑆𝑆𝐷 = 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑓𝑡

𝑢 = 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑, 𝑚𝑝ℎ

𝑡 = 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒, 2.5 𝑠

𝑓𝑡
𝑎 = 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 11.2
𝑠 9

• The SSD, for design purposes, is usually taken as the minimum sight distance
required for a driver to stop a vehicle after seen an object in the vehicle’s path
without hitting that object.

• It is essential that highways be designed such that SSD along the highway is at
least to the SSD

• The SSD requirements dictate the minimum lengths of vertical curves and
minimum radii for horizontal curves that should be designed for any given
highway.

 Question/ The recommended stopping sight distances are based on passenger

car operation and do not explicitly consider design for truck operation. Why?
 Answer/ The truck driver is able to see substantially farther beyond vertical
sight obstructions because of the higher position of the seat in the vehicle.
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Question: what is the distance required to stop an average passenger car when
brakes are applied on a 2% downgrade if that vehicle was originally traveling at
40 mph?
Answer:

𝑢
𝑑 =
𝑎
30 𝑔 ∓ 𝐺

40
𝑑 = = 162.7 𝑓𝑡
11.2
30 32.2 − 0.02

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Question: A driver on a level two-lane highway observes a truck completely blocking the
highway. The driver was able to stop her vehicle only 20 ft from the truck. If the driver
was driving at 60 mph, how far was she from the truck when she first observed it?
Answer:

𝑢
𝑆𝑆𝐷 = 1.47𝑢𝑡 +
𝑎
30 ∓𝐺
𝑔

60
𝑆𝑆𝐷 = 1.47 ∗ 60 ∗ 2.5 + = 565.5 𝑓𝑡
11.2
30 32.2 ∓ 0

Therefore, the distance from the point at which the driver observed the stopped
truck to the truck is 20 + 565.5 = 585.5 ft 12

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Question: A temporary diversion has been constructed on a highway of +4% gradient due to major
repairs that are being undertaken on a bridge. The maximum speed allowed on the diversion is 20
mph. Determine the minimum distance from the diversion that a road sign should be located
informing drivers of the temporary change on the highway.
• Maximum allowable speed on highway = 70 mph
• Letter height of road sign = 4 "
Assume that a driver can read a road sign within his or her area of vision at a distance of 40 ft for
each inch of letter height
Answer:

𝑢 −𝑢 70 − 20
𝑆𝑆𝐷 = 1.47𝑢𝑡 + = 1.47 ∗ 70 ∗ 2.5 + = 644 𝑓𝑡
𝑎 11.2
30 𝑔 ∓ 𝐺 30 32.2 + 0.04

The sign can be read at = 4 inches * 40 feet / inch = 160 feet 13

The distance from the diversion the sign should be placed=SSD - readability distance =664 – 160 = 504 ft

Decision Sight Distance (DSD)

• Stopping sight distances are usually sufficient to allow reasonably competent and alert
drivers to come to a hurried stop under ordinary circumstances. However, greater
distances may be needed where drivers must make complex or instantaneous decisions,
where information is difficult to perceive, or when unexpected or unusual maneuvers
are needed.

• Among the locations where the drivers may be called on to make unexpected maneuver
are approaches to intersections, interchanges, toll plazas, and lane drops where
information provided the driver may be incomplete.

• DSD is defined by AASHTO as the “distance required for a driver to detect an unexpected
or otherwise difficult-to-perceive information source or hazard in a roadway
environment that may be visually cluttered, recognize the hazard of its threat potential,
select an appropriate speed and path, and initiate and complete the required safety
maneuvers and efficiency.” 14

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• The decision sight distances depend on the type of maneuver required to avoid the
hazard on the road, and also on whether the road is located in a rural or urban area.

𝑢
𝐷𝑆𝐷 & = 1.47 𝑢 𝑡 + 𝑎 𝐷𝑆𝐷 , & = 1.47 𝑢 𝑡
30 32.2 ∓ 𝐺

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:

𝐷𝑆𝐷 = 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑓𝑡

𝑢 = 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑, 𝑚𝑝ℎ

𝑡 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒-𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒, 𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 3-3

𝑓𝑡
𝑎 = 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, 11.2 15
𝑠

• Avoidance Maneuver A: Stop on road in a rural

area ⇒ t = 3.0 s

• Avoidance Maneuver B: Stop on road in an urban

area ⇒ t = 9.1 s

• Avoidance Maneuver C: Speed/path/direction

change on rural road ⇒ t = 10.2 to 11.2

• Avoidance Maneuver D: Speed/path/direction

change on suburban road or street ⇒ t = 12.1 to
12.9 s

• Avoidance Maneuver E: Speed/path/direction

change on urban, urban, urban core, or rural
town road or street ⇒ t =14.0 to 14.5 s
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Passing Sight Distance (PSD)

• Most roads in rural areas are two-lane, two-way highways on which vehicles
frequently overtake and pass slower moving vehicles using the lanes regularly used by
opposing traffic.

• PSD is the minimum sight distance required on a two-lane two-way highway that will
permit a driver to complete a passing maneuver without colliding with an oncoming
vehicle and complete a passing maneuver without cutting off the passed vehicle.

• Where frequent slow-moving vehicles are present on a two-lane highway upgrade, a

climbing lane may be provided to provide opportunities to pass the slow-moving
vehicles without limitations due to sight distance and opposing traffic.

• The frequency and length of passing sections for highways depend principally on the
topography, the design speed of highway, and the cost. 17

• d = distance travelled during the perception- reaction time and during the initial acceleration
to the point of encroachment on the left lane.
• d = the actual distance covered by the overtaking vehicle during the overtaking maneuver.
• d = the distance between the overtaking vehicle at the end of its maneuver and the opposing
vehicle and is known as the clearance length
• d = the distance travelled by an opposing vehicle at the design speed while the overtaking
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maneuver is taking place

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𝑎𝑡
𝑑 = 1.47 𝑡 𝑢−𝑚+
2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:

𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑢𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟, 𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑚𝑖
𝑎 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒, /𝑠
ℎ
𝑢 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒, 𝑚𝑝ℎ
𝑚 = 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠

2
𝑑 = 1.47 𝑢 𝑡 𝑑 = 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 3.6 𝑑 = 𝑑
3
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒, 𝑠𝑒𝑐
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𝑢 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒, 𝑚𝑝ℎ

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Question: Calculate the minimum passing sight distance required for a two-lane rural roadway that
has a posted speed limit of 45 mi/hr. The local traffic engineer conducted a speed study of the
subject road and found the following: average speed of the passing vehicle was 47 mi/hr with an
average acceleration of 1.43 mi/hr/sec, and the average speed of impeder vehicles was 40 mi/hr.
Time to initiate maneuver, 𝑡 = 4.0 sec
Answer:
𝑎𝑡 1.43 ∗ 4
𝑑 = 1.47 𝑡 𝑢−𝑚+ = 1.47 ∗ 4 ∗ 47 − 47 − 40 + = 252 𝑓𝑡
2 2
From Table 3.6 ⇒ 𝑡 = 10 𝑠𝑒𝑐.
𝑑 = 1.47 𝑢 𝑡 = 1.47 ∗ 47 ∗ 10 = 690.9 𝑓𝑡
From Table 3.6 ⇒ 𝑑 = 180 𝑓𝑡
2 2
𝑑 = 𝑑 = ∗ 690.9 = 460 𝑓𝑡
3 3
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𝑑 = 𝑑 + 𝑑 + 𝑑 + 𝑑 = 252 + 690.9 + 180 + 460 = 1582.9 𝑓𝑡

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To determine the minimum PSD based on MUTCD, certain assumptions are made:
1) The speeds of the passing and opposing vehicles are equal and represent the design
speed of the highway.
2) The passed vehicle travels at uniform speed and speed difference between the passing
and passed vehicles is 12 mph [19 km/h].
3) The passing vehicle has sufficient acceleration capability to reach the specified speed
difference relative to the passed vehicle by the time it reaches the critical position, which
generally occurs about 40% of the way through the passing maneuver.
4) The lengths of the passing and passed vehicles are 19 ft [5.8 m].
5) The passing driver’s perception-reaction time in deciding to abort passing a vehicle is 1 s.
6) If a passing maneuver is aborted, the passing vehicle will use a deceleration rate of 11.2
ft/s² [3.4 m/s²], the same deceleration rate used in stopping sight distance design
criteria.
7) For a completed or aborted pass, the space headway between the passing and passed
vehicles is 1 s.
8) The minimum clearance between the passing and opposing vehicles at the point at which
the passing vehicle returns to its normal lane is 1 s. 25

• Research has verified that the passing sight distance values in the table above are consistent with field
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observation of passing maneuvers

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30

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32

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Criteria for Measuring Sight Distance

• Sight distance is the distance along a roadway throughout which an object of specified height is
continuously visible to the driver.

• This distance is dependent on:

1) the height of the driver’s eye above the road surface,
2) the specified object height above the road surface, and
3) the height and lateral position of sight obstructions within the driver’s line of sight.

• Intersection sight distance object - As in the case of passing sight distance, the object to be seen by
the driver in an intersection sight distance situation is another vehicle. Therefore, design for
intersection sight distance is based on the same object height used in design for passing sight
distance, 3.5 ft.
SSD (ft) PSD (ft) DSD (ft)
Passenger Avg. height of driver eye above the ground surface 3.5 3.5 3.5
Car Avg. vehicle height above the ground surface 4.25 4.25 4.25
Large Avg. height of driver Eye above the ground surface 3.5 – 7.9 3.5 – 7.9 3.5 – 7.9
Truck Recommended driver eye above the ground surface 7.6 7.6 7.6
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Height of object 2 3.5 2

Homework 1: One vehicle is following another on a 4% downgrade two-lane two-way

highway at night according to the safe-driving “rule-of-thumb” of one car length spacing
for each 10 mph of speed. If both vehicles are travelling at 55 mph and the lead car
crashes at that speed into the rear of an unlighted parked truck, at what speed will the
following vehicle hit the wreckage? Assume a car length is 20 ft, and the reaction time is
0.5 second.
Answer:
55 ∗ 20
𝑆𝑆𝐷 = = 110 𝑓𝑡
10
𝑢 −𝑢 55 − 𝑢
𝑆𝑆𝐷 = 1.47 𝑢𝑡 + → 110 = 1.47 ∗ 55 ∗ 0.5 +
𝑎 11.2
30 𝑔 ± G 30 ∗ 32.2 − 0.04

𝑢 = 48.8 𝑚𝑝ℎ 36

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