Eastern African Literary and Cultural Studies

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Proper Names in Translation: Should They be

Translated or Not?

Nahashon A. Nyangeri & Rachel Wangari

To cite this article: Nahashon A. Nyangeri & Rachel Wangari (2019) Proper Names in Translation:
Should They be Translated or Not?, Eastern African Literary and Cultural Studies, 5:3-4, 347-365,
DOI: 10.1080/23277408.2019.1680914

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EASTERN AFRICAN LITERARY AND CULTURAL STUDIES
2019, VOL. 5, NOS. 3–4, 347–365
https://doi.org/10.1080/23277408.2019.1680914

Proper Names in Translation: Should They be Translated or

Not?
a
Nahashon A. Nyangeri and Rachel Wangarib
a
Department of Kiswahili Language, Linguistics and Literature, Jaramogi Oginga Odinga University of
Science and Technology, Kenya; bDepartment of Kiswahili Language, Linguistics and Literature, Mount
Kenya University, Kenya

Translated by Ken Walibora, Riara University, Nairobi, Kenya

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
One of the most problematic elements that translators grapple proper names; translation;
with in the translation of literary works is proper names. The foreignisation;
contention is whether or not proper names should be domestication; translators
translated. Proper names are the raw materials the writer
uses to mould credible characters and provide the reader
with both overt and implied information. Proper names in
literary texts are therefore central elements that a translator
has to handle with prudence. For instance, proper names in a
work of literature raise problems in translation from one
language to another, in that a name may have a meaning in
one culture but become meaningless in another. These may
be further complicated by the fact that names may suggest
information about gender, age, race, origin, particularised
meaning, and linguistic and cultural productivity. However,
quite often proper names are superficially considered in
translation presumably because they are untranslatable and
ought not to be translated. But, when we consider some of
the proper names in translated works, this is not the case.
Some scholars maintain that proper names have meaning;
they therefore need to be translated, but strategically.

Introduction
Proper names can be problematic elements in literary translation. The enduring
debate on translation of proper names has focused on whether to translate
proper names or not. Some translation scholars argue that proper nouns should
not be translated given that they entail nothing more than mere reference,
which explains why proper names are not included in dictionary explanations.
However, other scholars insist that proper names should be translated because
they are invested with a lot of semantic significance and perhaps more since
they have a semantic content (Searle 1975; Strawson 1975; Newmark 1988;
Bantas 1994; Wamitila 1999; Dollerup 2003; García-Ramírez 2010; Mäkinen 2010;

CONTACT Nahashon A. Nyangeri [email protected] © 2019 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
Eastern African Literary and Cultural Studies is co-published by NISC Pty (Ltd) and Informa Limited (trading as Taylor & Francis Group)
348 N. A. NYANGERI AND R. WANGARI

Bertills 2003; Nord 2003; Vermes 2001; 2003; Dukmak 2012; Butler 2013; Nyangeri
2014). This article identifies with the arguments of the second category of scholars
that a translator must at all times be critically sensitive to consider the choice of
names for use in the target language when translating literary texts. The translator
must select appropriate target language names (henceforth TL equivalents) in
translating literary texts since they contribute to achieving functional equivalence
(Kade 1968, quoted by House 2015).
Although normally regarded as referential elements, sometimes proper names
transcend identification functions to transmit of knowledge, enthral the reader,
and rouse emotions especially in a culture where they are deeply rooted (Van
Coillie, 2006). Names also influence how the reader thinks by activating a
reader’s prior information, thus allowing new ideas and interpretations to be
made (Rabadi 2012). Ultimately, names also contribute to the development of
presentation style of a literary work (Bertills 2003) by revealing information on
gender, age, background and the referent’s particularised features (Yuan 2016).
Through the use of the proper nouns we are enabled to understand vocations
of specific characters, common features of geographical spaces, and institutions
and to identify times and seasons (Greenbaum and Quirk 1990). Therefore,
given that proper names may convey some specific meanings, translators must
pay attention if they aim at transferring this information. This article evaluates
the significance of proper names in literary compositions and subsequently the
techniques that may be applied to purposively translate such names. This articles
attempts to answer three questions, thus:

a) Should proper names be translated or not?

b) What challenges does a translator face in translating proper names?
c) How can the challenges be circumvented and resolved?

To answer these questions, a few translated literary works from English to Kiswa-
hili have been selected and some of the proper nouns in these texts analysed, with
emphasis on their role in meaning construction. This is done to illustrate the pro-
blems that arise in the translation of literary texts. Besides, the article also empha-
sises how translation of proper names affects the message embedded in proper
names through information loss or gain during interpretation. Considering all
these, the next section of this article elucidates the importance of proper
names in literature.

The Significance of Proper Names in Literature

There is no complete literary text that does not incorporate a proper name, even if
it is just one. Besides being employed to mould and develop characters, these
names tend to be bequeathed with some ‘magical power’ of ‘assigning specific
characters their personality’, thus imbuing proper names with multiple functions
 EASTERN AFRICAN LITERARY AND CULTURAL STUDIES 349

besides mere reference. Proper names are used in the artistic development of
characterisation, metaphorically and figuratively Writers also imbue proper
names with tonal effects that have tremendous significance in a text. Accordingly,
literary writers purposely select names in respect of the characters they are devel-
oping. Thus, a translator who intends to grasp the purpose of a source text cannot
eschew prioritising the artistic and linguistic creativity of proper names (Rabadi
2012, 44). The translator interested in capturing the intention of the original
text carefully consider these names because they are artistically and linguistically
creative (Rabadi 2012, 44).
Since their semantic and thematic understanding is dependent on culture,
proper names in literature should be analysed by taking into account various
factors such as their general use, names that have some meaning, interpretation
of names, their contribution to characterisation, names as clues and signifiers, the
effect of names in meaning and thematic retrieval, and names in text construction.
It is on this basis that we examine the situation as it obtains in the translation of
literary works from English to Swahili and Swahili to English.

Proper Names in Translation

One of the major problems faced by translators of literary works is that of proper
names (Newmark 1993; Sanaty 2009), because these names do not occur as ordin-
ary words whose equivalent synonyms in the second language can be found in a
dictionary. This is because each language has certain names whose meanings are
culture specific and this meaning is bound to be lost once such names are ren-
dered out of the cultural contexts. Besides culture, some of these names have
certain historical, semantic, geographical, or social meanings only discernible in
a given culture. Therefore, translators should be sensitive whenever they come
across proper names in their translations so as to invoke the intended effects
because proper names play a critical role in the source texts.
The problem of translating proper names gets particularly complicated where
other covert or nuanced meanings are embedded in them, especially when they
are used metaphorically, as nicknames, or as loaded ordinary nouns. If they are
translated incorrectly, the embedded meanings are lost. In Kiswahili (and probably
in other African languages) most proper names have cultural meanings that may
refer to historical events, and suggest something additional. Understanding the
culture of characters entails understanding those characters’ knowledge of
proper names which have certain connotative meanings. A proper name can
have meaning in one culture but be meaningless in another culture.
There are two categories of proper names: ordinary proper names and proper
names that are embedded with additional meanings. Ordinary proper names are
rarely embedded with extra semantic meanings and they are typically used for
reference to identify a specific literary character. Proper names embedded with
additional meanings, however, function to signal how the author intended the
350 N. A. NYANGERI AND R. WANGARI

character to be understood as a person or a member of a given group. It is this

second category of proper names that poses challenges in translation, an issue
that this article turns to in the next section.

Strategies of Translating Proper Names

Translation of proper names is ordinarily a strategic undertaking. Various literary
translation scholars have cited some strategies that may be applied in the trans-
lation of proper names, which include domestication and foreignization (Venuti
1995); decoding and encoding (Hanaoka 2002); transliteration, graphic and pho-
netic changes, direct copying, quotation, explication, using equivalent target
language names, substitution and omission (Särkkä 2007); transcription, mixed
translation, descriptive translation (Nakhodkina 2012). Given the numerous strat-
egies of possible translation of proper names, a translator must select the skills
and strategies that will bring out the information contained in the source text
(henceforth ST). In this article, however, we employ van Coillie’s (2006) and
Davies’ (2003) classification of strategies as it is comprehensive, encompassing
those strategies mentioned by other scholars and emphasising linguistic, contex-
tual, historical, and cultural aspects. However, in this article a few adaptations have
been introduced so as to allow the inclusion of loan translation strategy since it
has been employed in some of the selected texts.
Borrowing from Venuti’s (1995) theoretical persuasion, Davies (2003) contests
these strategies and demonstrates how they help in achieving naturalness in
translation as shown in the following continuum.

Figure 1. A continuum between foreignisation and domestication (Davies 2003).

The strategy that is closest to the preservation of foreignization is the one that
transfers a name as it is wholesome without any changes or amendments. Altera-
tion and re-creation of proper names, on the other hand, are close to domesti-
cation, given that a name in the target language is used instead of that of the
source language. Omission and globalisation are in the middle of the continuum
because when a name is either globalised or omitted it alters the name in the ST,
and thus changes the ST significantly. It comes close to foreignization because the
translator is forced into explications of the name to remind the target audience
that the item is a foreign text. Conversely, localisation is close to domestication
 EASTERN AFRICAN LITERARY AND CULTURAL STUDIES 351

since the translator can use synonyms from the target culture or graphically spell
the name by adhering to the rules of the target language. According to van Coillie,
several factors are considered in the selection of a strategy to be used.
The following table demonstrates van Coille’s (2006) strategies.

Table 1. van Coillie’s Model of Translating Proper Names (2006, 123).

Types of strategy Character of translation
Reproduction Leaving foreign names unchanged
Non translation plus additional explanation Adding explanations, either in the form of a
footnote or in the text itself
Replacement of personal name by a common noun Replacing a proper name by a common noun that
characterizes the person
Phonetic or morphological adaptation to the target language Turning to phonetic transcription or morphological
adaptation
Exonym Replacing a name by a counterpart in the target
language
Replacement by a more widely known name from the source Opting for recognize ability without abandoning the
culture or an internationally known name with the same foreign context
function
Substitution Replacing a name by another name from the target
language
Translation of names with a particular connotation Reproducing the connotation in the target
language, when names have specific connotations
Replacement by a name with another or additional Adding or changing the connotation of a name
connotation
Deletion Omitting all the proper names

The choice of a strategy to be used in the translation of proper names in any

literary text is determined by the purpose of the translation and the context of
communication (van Coillie 2006; Särkkä 2007). Environmental features that con-
tribute to this choice of strategy include the purpose of the translation, the
identification of target audience, the differences between source culture and
target cultural, and the existing relationship between the languages involved. In
translating proper names, syntactical features and what these names may refer
to are important in making decisions. Thus far it is clear that there are two cat-
egories of translation strategies — conservative and transformative. By using
these two strategies which originate from linguistic and cultural approaches, we
investigate how translators perform their translational functions of rendering
messages entrenched in Source Text proper names into Target Text. Our taxon-
omy of various strategies is based on this combination of cultural and linguistic
approach while analysing how each of the approaches is reflected in the selected
texts and highlighting (in)effectiveness.

Preservation

Preservation — mainly retention of source text features — occurs where the trans-
lator transfers a name directly from the ST without any additional explication. This
strategy functions in two forms: first transferring the proper noun as it is; and sec-
ondly, transferring the proper noun through literal translation or loan translation.
352 N. A. NYANGERI AND R. WANGARI

This strategy was used to translate the title Animal Farm (Orwell 1960), as Shamba
la Wanyama (Orwell 1967). Likewise, the same strategy was used to translate the
character name Clementine (7) which is translated as ‘Klementina’ (14). In the ST,
the author uses Clementine to describe how the animals appropriately sang the
song they were trained. Clementine is a famous and popular song, especially in
the United States, which is used to convey the singer’s love towards the intended
listener. The ST author intended to arouse feelings of love and patriotism that the
animals had in their quest to defend their rights to the ownership and tendering
of the Manor Farm. However, this is not rendered in the Kiswahili translation and
its intended meaning is therefore lost at the expense of preserving form. It is on
this basis we suggest that even ‘la cucuracha’ could have been translated. La
cucuracha is a type of a Spanish song that has four lines and a refrain. This is
hugely ironic given that Kiswahili is famous for songs and poems which could
have enabled the translator to overcome this challenge.
Preservation as a translation strategy demands a perceptive sense of creativity
to demonstrate the richness of the source language (henceforth SL) in relaying the
message. That is why Manor Farm in Animal Farm translated as ‘Shamba Ibura’ in
Shamba La Wanyama. Manor is a large farm, which also has a huge house. This
posed specific challenges to the translator. Indeed, a seasoned translation
expert, Traoré (2013), argues that by using the name ‘Ibura’, the translator
focused on a specific place in Tanzania. This perspective that confines the trans-
lation to a specific locale, unlike what is in the source text, distorts the overall
translation. This is just a coincidence given that most proper names have
meaning that is discernible in the context of the culture of specific society.
Traoré demonstrates that the localisation translation perspective persuaded the
translator to opt for this name. Although Ibura is a specific place name in Tanzania,
it also has several other meanings (Mwangi 2017). It refers to an incident, or a
miracle; an instructive anecdote that educates society; or a blemish that leaves
a mark somewhere (Mohamed 2011; BAKITA 2015). Indeed, the story about a revo-
lution on the Ibura Farm edifies the community. This ability of a word to be
imbued with several meanings demonstrates the richness of Kiswahili language
and the inordinate creativity attained in this particular translation. Though the
translator does not explain the intended meaning, all these meanings eventually
emerge in this translation, thus demonstrating the rich repertoire available in the
language to convey the message embedded in the novel. Thus, the story about
revolutionary animals that has been ‘imported’ from a foreign culture performs
functions that exceed what was intended by the author of the ST because of
the use of the name Ibura in the TT.
The preservation/retention perspective has been widely used in translating The
Adventures of Jonathan Gullible (Schoolland 2001), something that gives it an unfa-
miliar alien taste. The protagonist’s name in the ST, Jonathan Gullible has neither
been changed nor modified to accord with Kiswahili language structural conven-
tions. Translators may leave all proper names intact as they are in the ST, thus
 EASTERN AFRICAN LITERARY AND CULTURAL STUDIES 353

preserving the sense of ‘otherness’ of the text, or they can translate those that
have meaning or connotation equivalents in the TL in their quest to make the
text familiar to their readers in the target language (Manini 1996, 171). Similarly,
in rendering proper names without modifications in literary translations, transla-
tors ‘bring the audience to the texts.’ In view of this the preservation/retention
perspective that has been widely used in this translation, The Adventures of
Jonathan Gullible sought to bring the text to the audience, consequently introdu-
cing ‘foreignness’ and maintaining ‘otherness’. A name is used to enable the com-
munity ‘assimilate’ the name’s reference to a specific character and thus allow it to
be owned by the target culture. This bequeaths such a name some sense and
ability of control and (Thomas 1997), retain the sense of the ‘otherness’ of alien
names. This, however, is similar to eschewing the source text message being com-
municated and excluding readers from the construction of meaning contained in
the text. Such translations make readers feel they do not own or control what they
are reading, hence isolate themselves from foreignized texts. Though it is not erro-
neous to retain features that are alien, especially where retention is the only avail-
able strategy, this introduces some distance that makes a reader experience some
loss because some proper names in the source text get lost.
This means that translators should carefully scrutinise the ST so as to discern
the meaning of proper names, hence calling for creativity. On the significance
of translating proper names, Apostolova recommends that:
The alteration of names in translation is deeply rooted in the cultural background of the
translator which entails a translator’s phonetic and phonological competence, morpho-
logical competence, the competence to recognize the complexity of the context,
correct and positive attitude to the message, respect for tradition, compliance with the
current state of cross-cultural interference of languages, respect for the cultural values
and understanding the responsibilities of the translator. The process is realized
through ‘an ear’ that is sensitive and responsive to aesthetic nuances to the extent of cap-
turing the philosophical motivation for using alternative of new name. (2004, 14)

Gullible means ‘too willing to believe or accept what other people tell you and
therefore easily tricked’. These qualities stand out for someone who is naive. The
name Jonathan has to do with a kind of apple that turns red when ripe. From its
Hebrew origins, it also means God the Giver (Jackson 1908). On this basis, and in
order to carry these meanings into Kiswahili translation, this name could have
been rendered as Karama Msungo. Gullible’s naivety is seen when he fails to
control the boat as soon as he begins his trip. Furthermore, Gullible does not
realise that the young woman captured by two men was a criminal. He did not
understand that the small lake was not somebody’s personal property. Given the
blessings he had received from God to save his life, Gullible’s name could have
been rendered as Karama Msungo in accordance with the TL culture. Alternatively,
if the translator can premise his/her reading on the various fruits such as guavas,
bananas and other fruits that Jonathan had gathered after swimming towards
the shore, then selecting one of the fruit names to be Jonathan’s name in the
354 N. A. NYANGERI AND R. WANGARI

translation would have been suitable. It is, however, important to consider a name
that fully encompasses the message presented at the entire work.
The name Drawbaugh has also been retained in the Kiswahili translation. This
introduces a lot of unfamiliar foreign flavour into the Kiswahili language. However,
the translator does not consider the author’s motivation in selecting this name. In
history, Daniel Drawbaugh is credited with the invention of a coin sorter, a clock
with a magnetically controlled pendulum, and the first telephone ten years before
Alexander Graham Bell. The intended message in using this name was to empha-
sise the importance of innovation in propelling development in society. In this
case this embedded information is not accessible to the target text reader who
has no access to the source text. Thus, if it was not possible to find an equivalent
name, using allegorical names such as Mvumbuzi (inventor) would be preferred.
Otherwise phonetic assimilation is the most appropriate.
The name P. T. Tanstaafl is also retained in the translation; it is rendered as it is in
the source text. Essentially this is an idiomatic acronym for ‘There ain’t no such thing
as a free lunch’ (cf. Advanced English Dictionary). It is a name intended to warn
people about free things. Transferring this name as it is into the Kiswahili text intro-
duces an alien idea which does not expressly bring out the intended meaning of the
original. It is important, therefore, for a translator to consider both languages and
their traditions and conventions in the translation of proper names, given that
these names are important tools in embedding meaning in the texts where they
are used. Perhaps using the proverb ‘yote yang’aayo si dhahabu’ (all that glitters
is not gold); or ‘uzuri wa mkakasi ndani kipande cha mti’ (appearances can be
deceiving) or ‘sihadaike na rangi, tamu ya chai ni sukari’ (‘the joy of tea is not in
its colour, rather in its taste’) or ‘nyumba njema si mlango, fungua uingie ndani’
(‘the devil is in the details’ , or ‘do not judge a book by its cover’) would more appro-
priate. Alternatively, the use of a footnote would make manifest the hidden
meaning embedded in a name.
Though the translator retains the name Lady Bess Tweed in the translation, little
attention was accorded the strategies of its formulation and the meaning that it
has been imbued with in the ST. ‘Bess’ is an abbreviation of the female given
name Elizabeth in some American and European communities. Given that this
character represents the Council of Lords in the ST, we can also associate her
with Queen Elizabeth. The name ‘Tweed’ originates from two characters in
Through the Looking Glass, Tweedle dee and Tweedle dum (Lewis Carol) who
are similar in appearance and behaviour (cf. OUP, 2010, 1608). In using these char-
acters therefore, the author suggests that all leaders, whoever they are and wher-
ever they may be, are alike. Boss Tweed was a leader in New York during its most
corrupt period in the 19th century. This information does not manifest itself clearly
in the translation provided. Perhaps the use of the phrase ‘lila na fila hawataga-
mani’ (lila and fila are inseparable) would have been more appropriate.
However, to make this phrase a noun that serves as a name of one character, it
may be rendered as Lila binti Fila (Lila daughter of Fila).
 EASTERN AFRICAN LITERARY AND CULTURAL STUDIES 355

The name of the library ‘LADY BESS TWEED PEOPLE’S LIBRARY’ as ‘MAKTABA YA
WATU YA BI TWEED’ completely changes the meaning of the original. Yet in the
English original, Animal Farm, this was a public library. In this context therefore
translating the word ‘people’s’ as ‘watu’ is not accurate. Here it refers to a particu-
larised group. It entails features of many people who share a common culture, the
same background, and have a common goal. That is, there is some sense of unity
and similarity in them. Therefore, the use of ‘umma’ (public) would be more
suitable.
The name Dame Whitmore has also been retained as it is in the translation.
Dame is the unofficial term used in reference to a young woman or girl in
many cultures that use the English language. In England, this is a title of
honour used to refer to a woman in recognition of her efforts. According to the
author’s explanations, Dame Whitmore greatly influenced his life, a fact that
demonstrates that names have tremendous significance in literature. Dame Whit-
more was a veteran teacher who taught with Ken Schoolland in Alaska. When, she
passed on there was tension among fellow teachers about who would inherit her
house. In this situation, the name is used as a clue about the house disputes
between tenants, landlords and the government. Using this name as it is,
however, introduces foreign tastes into Kiswahili culture. Hence, we find
Witimoo more appropriate as it will still bring the taste of ‘other’ into Kiswahili.
Maintaining the reference ‘Thumbs-up Party’ in the target text (henceforth TT),
completely negates the sense of naturalness. If it was not possible to find an
equivalent synonym for this kind of celebration, then the translator had the
liberty to coin a term while considering the various fetes in the TT culture so
that the embedded information reaches the readers. ‘Thumbs-up’ signals that
one supports the object of that action. So, this was a celebration of support for
the homeless. If referring to this party as ‘sherehe ya kuunga mkono’ (Celebratory
Feats) was not appropriate, then using any of the various Kiswahili festivals that
are associated with celebrations would be used here. In that context, it is plausible
to call the character referred to here as Siti or Nana in Kiswahili, thus rendering the
name as Siti Witimoo, considering these are women’s honorifics.
The name of GLIB library has been rendered as ‘Maktaba ya Baraza’ (Council
Library). It is true that GLIB has been used as an acronym for Government
Library, but the difference is that the interpretation has adopted the full name.
This confirms the existence of an interpretive challenge of contextually embedded
names. Apparently, the author sought to bring out the pun on the word glib.
However, the problem which arises in this specific translation is the difficulty of
finding a target language equivalent word that is imbued with this sense of polys-
emy. Later in the novel, this name has been translated as MAKSERI, a clipping of
‘Maktaba ya Serikali’ (Government Library). The rationale for changing interpret-
ations is not expressly clear, and may in the long run confuse the reader.
Frank and Lysander, the names of the tortoise and the hare in the Travels of
Jonathan Gulliver, have been rendered as they are in the source text. Lysander
356 N. A. NYANGERI AND R. WANGARI

was a Spartan General in Greece who defeated Athenians during the final Pelo-
ponnesian war. He died in 395 BC. Lysander Spooner was a 19th century philoso-
pher, when the post office faced no risk of commercial competition. It was illegal
for private individuals to transport letters, until the court ruled otherwise. This
ruling was celebrated by many people, including Lysander, who started his own
Letter Mail Company. He carried this business while educating his clients on
their rights, something that did not augur well with the government. On the
other hand, Frank is an 18th century name that was used as the signature of a
person authorised to send mail without any cost (Schoolland 2004, 108–109).
This is the situation that unfolds in the story of the tortoise and the hare. From
the foregoing, there is a need to inquire into the cultural history of the TL to
find equivalent of these names that may embed these historical connotations.
Alternatively, adapting these names or providing further information in footnotes
could have been preferable.

Loan Translations

Loan translation entails literal word for word, phrase for phrase, or morph for
morph translation form SL to TL. Here, a word or its structure is not borrowed,
but rather its meaning is rendered in the translation. An example from Animal
Farm is the interpretation and consequently the translation of the ‘Battle of the
Cowshed’ (32) which is rendered as ‘Vita vya Zizi la Ng’ombe’ (47). Further
examples are the translations of various book titles that Mr. Jones, the farm
owner, read: Farmer and the Storkbreeder (30) translated as ‘Mlimaji na Mfugaji’
(44), One Thousand Useful Things to Do About the House (30) rendered as
Mambo Elfu Moja Yafaayo Kwa Ujenzi (45), Every Man His Own Bricklayer (30) as
Kila Mmoja na Mwashi Wake (45), Electricity for Beginners (30) as Mafunzo ya
Mwanzo ya Umeme (45). Perhaps these titles ought to have been retained as
they are in translation since these are ‘existing’ publications in the Jones’ house.
It is not apparent whether these titles have embedded meanings. They are
mere references to the books mentioned.
In the Travels of Jonathan Gullible ‘Board of Fine Art’ has been rendered as ‘Hal-
mashauri ya Sanaa’. However, the translation available is partial in the sense that it
does not specify the type of art dealt with by the council itself as in the ST. In the
ST the main focus is fine art a form of art, particularly painting, drawing and sculp-
ture whose main aim is beauty and not functional utility. ‘Council’s Commission on
the Arts’ too has been translated as ‘Tume ya Sanaa ya Baraza’. Art as used in these
two contexts does not have similar meanings, therefore requires a distinction in
the translation, unlike the word sanaa which is used in the translation for both
fine art and art in general.
The name Uncle Samta that is used in ST, and which is sometimes referred to as
the Uncle Sam, has been translated as ‘Mjomba Samta’. This is a colloquial name in
the United States. However, without additional information it is difficult for the TT
 EASTERN AFRICAN LITERARY AND CULTURAL STUDIES 357

reader to understand what Uncle Sam refers to in the context of the United States,
as it is in English where the first two letters form US hence guide the ST reader.
There is a need to use a name that is more popular in TL for this information to
come out clearly. Translating ‘Circle Master’ as ‘Mkuu wa Duara’ is a merely a
literal translation. Circle is used here to refer to a group of people who are
friends or fraternal colleagues. The association in reference here is that of the
people who sponsor a politician and, when s/he ascends to power rewards them.
Despite its importance, the loan approach to translation violates the limits of
the natural conventions of Kiswahili word formation. From the foregoing
examples in this article, ST constructions were formed using words that are mean-
ingfully related to concepts in SL. The retention strategy that preserves features of
the source text makes the texts to always read as translations since retention pre-
cludes the emergence of naturalness in the translated text. Given that proper
names acquire meanings depending on their cultural contexts, it is necessary to
situate names in new contexts in the target language.

Non-Translation Plus Additional Explanation

In this strategy, a translator retains the proper name of the source text but is at
liberty to provide whatever additional cultural, semantic, or technical information
that is deemed necessary to make the target text accessible to the reader. Trans-
lators need to have insightful knowledge of their target audience and their cul-
tural background so as to accurately approximate what supplementary
information is necessary for inclusion. This supplementary information can be
inserted within the text or in a footnote, gloss, introduction, or even as end
notes (Davies 2003, 77). This strategy is intended to enable the TT reader to under-
stand the text as does that of the ST.
This strategy has been used in the interpretation and eventual translation of
Amezidi (Mohamed 1995), to clarify the challenge faced by the translators in
coining the names Tumach and Heezfar. The translators have supplied more infor-
mation in the footnote about the existing ambiguity in translating the names of
these characters. What happens in this translation is what Kristal (2014, p.30) refers
to as ‘genesis of the complexity of translation’. Although it is challenging to translate
proper names that are not in the TL culture, there are techniques and methods of
manipulating and adjusting them to ensure their content is transferred into the TT.
However, the translators have combined strategies with other techniques (loan trans-
lation and phonetic assimilation) to faithfully render in the target text the thematic
meaning so intricately nuanced in these names. They have translated the names
Ame and Zidi as, ‘He is far’ and ‘Too much’ respectively, then phonetically assimilated
them to read as one unified name, ‘Heezfar’ and ‘Tumach’. They have done this in
order to establish cohesive links between the ST and the TT.
However, this translation raises the question of gender marking where Ame is
associated with the male gender in English translation. Moreover, the morphs
358 N. A. NYANGERI AND R. WANGARI

involved in the formulation of this name in the ST are not the only ones that have
been considered in the translated name. The ‘far’ part has been brought into the
translation of Ame, yet it ought to be part of Zidi’s name. The name Ame is formed
by the morphs ‘he/ she/ it’ and ‘has’. Perhaps because these are the morphs of
prefixes that lack the root which contains the lexical meaning if the name, the
translators have brought forward far into them so that the name has an indepen-
dent meaning. Had they considered morphological assimilation as well in their
interpretation, ‘he/ she/ it has been’ would have been a more accurate interpret-
ation, thus referring to Ame as ‘Hasbeen’ and omitting the gender prefix. Here we
suggest that the gender problem is avoided through a synthesis of diverse strat-
egies to interpret this name. However, this shows creativity in translation, with the
possibility of blending various methods, techniques, and procedures in translating
proper names.

Adaptation

Adaptation describes the use of a name that brings more structural proximity to
that of SL. It entails how to pronounce the source text’s proper name or its use in
the TL culture. This technique manifests itself in two ways — graphological or
phonetic assimilation and morphological assimilation. The former focuses on
the grapheme (or phoneme) while the later focuses on the morpheme. This strat-
egy has been used to translate Ame and Zidi in Amezidi (Mohamed 1995) as
Heezfar and Tumach (Mohamed 2012). Ame and Zidi are two parts of the word
‘amezidi’ in which the author has split its morphs and assigned them to his char-
acters. ‘Ame’ refers to the perfect tense and ‘zidi’ means to exceed. The translation
provided has interpreted these morphs in English and then integrated them on
how they are pronounced. We may refer to this as ‘morphophonetic’ translation.
However, Ame in the translation poses a gender problem as it is neutral in the ST
unlike in the translation where it is masculine. To avoid this challenge, we suggest
that it be rendered as Isfar, if the adaptation strategy is used. But given that ‘far’
belongs to Zidi and not Ame, our selection of ‘Has been’ is favoured, as discussed
earlier.
This adaptation strategy has also been used in Nikolai Gogol’s Mkaguzi Mkuu
wa Serikali. Ivan is the modern form of the ancient Slavian name Ioannu of
Greek origin Ioannes or Johannes in Latin. The name John will be the conventional
equivalent (refer Tymoczko 2000) of Ivan. Yôh ānān in Hebrew means (God of)
grace or mercy. In this context then the appropriate translation would either be
Yohana or Fadhila. The name Alexander on the other hand originates from the
Greek name Alexandros, which means to ‘defend human beings’ by bringing
together alexo (to defend, to help) and aner (human). Therefore, Alezandors
Ivan in Kiswahili ought to be rendered as Mtetezi Fadhili (gracious defender).
This information is not manifest in the translation since it does not signify any-
thing extra other than the mere reference.
 EASTERN AFRICAN LITERARY AND CULTURAL STUDIES 359

When Yuan’s (2016, 77) contention that translators ought to give their char-
acters names that simplify reading names with foreign pronunciation is taken
into account, then in the translation of the names in The Travels of Jonathan Gul-
lible (Schoolland 2012), the TT readers will not be hampered by the phonologi-
cal peculiarities that may become a linguistic barrier in the translated text. This
problem is, however, more pronounced in the translation of character names in
The Government Inspector. The literal translation of names that has been used
ends up changing the emotional signaling role embedded in the names of
the ST. This is because the translation has not considered the Russian culture
of naming people. Russian names are semantically rich and culturally
embedded. The name of judge in the ST, Tyapkin-Lyapkin, means diligent but
uncaring, careless and slow to act. However, the translation opts for adapting
the first part of this name as Tyapkini. In this case, all the information associated
with this name is lost.
Zemlyanika is a name rich in irony though the author suggests that it has a
literal meaning of strawberries, given that its tree hangs down towards the
ground. This name is appropriate for a naïve person who likes to wheedle
herself or himself to their superiors so that they may get an opportunity to
assume an exalted position of authority. Zemlyanika is said to be physically
huge but is not wise at all. He is a pig with a human-head (Gogol 1892). Such infor-
mation is not transferred to the TT, as the Kiswahili culture does not associate this
name with such information.
Khlestakov is a name from the Russian verb that means to bamboozle by saying
a lot of empty words without action. This is the main trait exhibited by this char-
acter. So, the translator ought to have transfered this trait by using names associ-
ated with falsehoods and pretense like ‘Kahini’ or ‘Mzandiki’ (hypocrite) so as to
reduce the foreign taste that is discernible in the translation Mkaguzi Mkuu wa Ser-
ikali (Gogol 1979).
The functionality of any given name is dependent on how it is interpreted
and then finally translated. Derzhimorda, one of the soldiers in The Government
Inspector, is a call out that soldiers make when pursuing a suspect or criminal
which means ‘get hold him, ugly face!’ Therefore, the accurate translation
that brings out this sense relates to the shout out which soldiers make, possibly
‘afande’ - Kiswahili for ‘Yes Sir!’. In this context, Derzhimorda ridicules and
satirises the role of the police. This satirical tone is what ought to be retained
in the translation and not the form of the name itself. Other meanings associ-
ated with the name include ‘receiving colossal bribes’. If this second meaning
is considered, then he would be called ‘Hongo’ (bribe) in order to preserve
the important role of the name rather than rendering it in the translation
only in terms of its form.
This translation perspective that renders proper names in the target text as they
are in the source text, promotes linguistic multi-valence. However, the names so
rendered should be those that are meaning significant only and not every other
360 N. A. NYANGERI AND R. WANGARI

name that gets into the TT. Furthermore, it is important to localise these names so
that they can adhere to the preferred Kiswahili language structural conventions. In
the Travels of Jonathan Gulliver, the theme of improper administration that
plunges a country into various problems is exemplified by the deliberate selection
of the names of its characters. The names assigned to the characters relate to the
thematic underpinnings of ignorance, incompetence, theft, corruption, and syco-
phancy. By selecting names whose importance emanates from their embedded
meanings (historical or contextual), the ST author situates his work in the Ameri-
can context. These are the issues that the translator fails to consider in order to
successfully retell this story in a new target culture. When analysed historically, lin-
guistically and socio-culturally, based on the TC, names that are simply transferred
do not contribute much to the TT except being mere identifiers. The embedded
meanings as contained in the ST are lost completely, but may be retrieved only
if the TT reader understands the language and culture of the ST. Such a reader
can create a dual-language which enables him/her to simultaneously access all
meanings.

The Use of Common Nouns

The name “England” has been used in different contexts in Animal Farm. It is
important to consider these contexts since, the resultant translation should
reflect these contextual differences instead of assuming that England refers to a
specific geographical location in Europe. The the name England also points to
other possible meanings depending on the context of use. In order to successfully
render these various meanings in the translation, the translator has used common
noun expressions such as ‘nchi yetu’ (our country) and ‘dunia’ (the world) (10). We
know that England is a specific country in Europe. But when the translator refers to
it as ‘nchi yetu’, he localises it and at the same time globalises it so that it can be
read by anyone instead of confining it to a specific area as it is in the ST.
Orwell targeted the English audience when he wrote his work. Thus, most of
the names that he used for his characters are well known and common to that
particular audience. However, it is possible for some of these names to lack a
clear meaning to the reader of the Kiswahili translation, due to differences in
the worldviews of the two languages. In cases like this, it is important for the trans-
lator to make an accurate and correct interpretation of what is communicated by
the proper names. Therefore, we find that this strategy as used here has been
effective in achieving the desired effect.

Omission
In this translation strategy, a translator omits a name so as to avoid repetitiveness,
redundancy, or ambiguity. The translator also omits culture-specific names so that
no traces can be found in the TT and to tailor their texts to the needs of a specific
 EASTERN AFRICAN LITERARY AND CULTURAL STUDIES 361

local audience. It is possible for a character in the ST to use a particular dialect in the
ST, but in the TT the same character is depicted using the standard language in the
target paradigm. The translator may omit the name of a character because it is
unable to communicate the message that is specific to source culture, or the
meaning can emerge from the context itself. This is usually done in order to tailor
a translation for a specific target audience. Any proper name that is bound to be pro-
blematic because it is closely tied to its culture and has potential to introduce ambi-
guity or an unintended meaning effect, is what must be omitted (Davies 2003).
Where this omission is not possible, its meaning can be explained in a footnote.
Examples of names that had been omitted in Shamba la Wanyama include
Beasts of England, Beasts of Ireland (7–8), Midsummer’s Eve, Wellingdon, Red Lion
(11), Brussels Carpet and Queen Victoria (14). England is a geographical name
which has several connotations. In the culture of the East African countries,
England was their colonial ruler. In this situation, if names such as Beasts of
England, Beasts of Ireland and Brussels Carpet were to be translated, they would
have created a perception that the text was meant for the British, hence nega-
tively impacting on its reception among Kiswahili speakers in East Africa. By omit-
ting them, perhaps, the translator aimed to convey the message that this is a novel
about East Africans and they do not need to associate it with the English people.
The second name of the police chief in The Government Inspector is Ukhovertov.
This name has been omitted in the translation yet it has significant connotations
that are missing in the translation. This name means to ‘pinch and pull the ears’.
This is how the Russian soldiers were during Gogol’s time. The name of the district
doctor, Christian Ivanovich Hubner, has also been omitted in the translation
despite the significance of its message in relation to the actual material circum-
stances of his routine performance of hospital operations. This name means ‘a
completely inhumane doctor despite having a Christian name!’ So, the irony
entailed in the name is not rendered in the translation. Because of such oversights,
this strategy be used cautiously as a strategy of last resort when all others have
failed. Baker (1992, p.187) advises that the omission technique should only be
used where what is to left can be understood without necessarily stating it.

Conclusion
This article sought to explore the significance of proper names in literary texts and
the problems they pose in translating them from source texts to target texts. It
also undertook, an analysis of the various strategies used to translate these
names. Various strategies have been evaluated to demonstrate their contextual
and semantic significance and to show their flaws in translated literary texts in Kis-
wahili literature. Where semantic, pragmatic, and cultural inadequacies have been
cited, and the meanings embedded in the names is lost in the translational
process, suggestions have been made and the appropriate strategy rec-
ommended. Translators use various techniques and strategies depending on
362 N. A. NYANGERI AND R. WANGARI

the structure and message contained in a name, text type and the role of that
name in the text. Generally, the target audience directs and dictates the type of
strategy that is selected. We have shown that proper nouns are not just labels
for identity but are also loaded with other meanings. So, their interpretation
becomes a strategic issue and requires careful attention.
This article has argued that proper names are fundamental structural and the-
matic elements is literary texts that require strategic theoretical approach for their
accurate translation. Besides identifying characters, proper names are critical cues
in highlighting character traits and how the characters relate with other characters
and their overall contribution to the work in general, considering that nicknames
and allegorical names are also important stylistic devices in literature. The article
has also shown that proper names that are semantically, culturally, or contextually
loaded with nuanced meanings should be translated. This translation is only poss-
ible through the integration of technical and professional knowledge gained from
the field of onomastics. Onomastics as a discipline enables a translator to analyse
and determine how an author utilises realistic circumstances to present reality in a
literary text. It is on this basis that we can develop a discipline of trans-onomastics
in literary studies. The onomastics perspective of translation provides insights and
evidence on the importance of proper names and proposes appropriate strategies
for their contextual translation. This awareness is critical in enabling the translator
to carefully opt for a translation perspective that is appropriate and responsive to
the target audience. It is even possible to integrate several strategies to translate a
particular name, guided by the purpose of the translation.
There are more examples of proper names that we could have given from the
texts we selected in this analysis, but the few that we have discussed here are
sufficient to prove that their translation is a complex undertaking that requires
strategic selection of translation perspective to overcome the challenges they
pose. The translator should be guided by a number of considerations such as
text type, the context of use and the function or purpose of the ST and TT in
order to ensure those meanings are transferred.
Considering that proper names are complex devices consisting of layers of
meaning that need to be variously translated to make manifest their embedded
meanings, it is imperative that their analysis should bring into play the contri-
butions of literature, psychology, geography, history, ethnography and anthropol-
ogy in order to understand the embedded message. Because these disciplines
have relevance beyond the confines of science and art, they depict the extent
of the application of literary onomastics, which is indeed a combination of
complex perspectives of analysis focusing on structure and meaning.

Acknowledgments
We wish to thank Prof Zaja Omboga, Centre for Translation Studies, University of Nairobi,
Nairobi, Kenya for checking the translations.
 EASTERN AFRICAN LITERARY AND CULTURAL STUDIES 363

ORCID
Nahashon A. Nyangeri http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2162-3763

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