Results in Earth Sciences 2 (2024) 100023

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Results in Earth Sciences

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Paleogene to Neogene sequence stratigraphy and deepwater depositional

systems in Kribi-Campo/Rio-Muni margin (Offshore Cameroon-Equatorial
Guinea Margin)
Joseph Bertrand Iboum Kissaaka a, *, Paul Gustave Fowe Kwetche a,
Jeannette Ngo Elogan Ntem b, François Mvondo Owono a, Marie Joseph Ntamak-Nida a
a
The University of Douala, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Earth Sciences, PO. Box 24157, Douala, Cameroon
b
The University of Yaoundé 1, Ecole Normale Supérieureaoundé, Yaoundé, PO. BOX 47, Yaoundé, Cameroon

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: 2D seismic data and Gamma Ray logs were interpreted to document the Tertiary deepwater depositional system
Kribi-Campo sub-basin observed in the southern part of the Kribi-Campo sub-basin and the northern part of the Rio Muni basin, both
Rio-Muni basin basins separated by the Campo high. The sedimentary filling of both basins occurred with cyclicity during the
Lobes complexes
Tertiary. The Paleogene filling exhibits at least three Seismic Unit Packages (SUP1 to SUP3) interpreted as some
Channel-levee system
Feeder Channels-Lobe Complexes (FCLC). The units with Mass Transport Complexes (MTCs) are low amplitude
Distributary channels-lobes systems
and chaotic to transparent seismic facies. They are interpreted as mud-rich complexes. The units related to FCLC,
features high to moderate amplitude with shingled oblique progradational clinoforms. The Neogene filling is
dominated by some submarine Leveed-Channels Complexes associated to Lobes (LCCL) with low to moderate
amplitude and concave-up mounded configuration. The well log analysis revealed three main electrofacies
namely, shale, siltstone, and sandstone that were deposited in various depositional environments. Shale lithology
are underlined by irregular, bell and bow gamma ray log motifs which may be deposited in inner shelf, tidal
channels and channel-levees systems that are associated with transgressive to regressive depositional sequences.
Sandstone and siltstone lithology are typified by funnel and cylindrical gamma ray log motifs that are deposited
in prograding marine shelf fans and slope channels. Influenced by the high slope of paleotopography around the
Campo High, the submarine channel-levee are confined to a western part of Kribi-Campo sub-basin. The FCLC
shows large planar distribution, while the MTC are poorly structured.

1. Introduction existence and studied the deep-water channels as well as the turbidite
systems along the offshore West African margin. Sprague et al. (2005)
The study of deepwater depositional systems is a challenge well proposed a hierarchical stratigraphic framework of deepwater channel
known to scientists around the world, in addition to being a target for oil complexes with the amalgamated channel complex evolving towards the
and gas exploration. The lobes represent the most distal part supplied leveed channel complex from bottom to top system. Navarre et al.
upstream by canyons or deep-water slope valleys associated with (2010) analyzed the West Africa deepwater turbidite system with 3D
channel-levee systems (Mutti et Normark, 1987, 1991; Mulder and Eti­ seismic and proposed a channel phase succession framework as
enne, 2010). The channels significantly impact on the architecture of following: an erosive phase at the base followed up by fill phase, then the
deepwater depositional systems. Their evolution responds very well to constructive phase made of channel levees and starvation phase formed
sea level change, sediment flux, tectonics and climate. mainly of shaly internal levee deposits. Ngueutchoua and Giresse (2010)
The Kribi-Campo sub-basin and the Rio Muni basin both are located mapped several Neogene fluvial paleodrainage systems well preserved
on the West African passive margin, between 3◦ 20’-1◦ N and 8◦ 18’-10◦ beneath the Kribi-Campo shelf and individual filled channels related to
30’ E (Fig. 1a and b). Several authors have already reported the westerly drainage shifts during a presumed lowered base level. Anh

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (J.B.I. Kissaaka), [email protected] (P.G.F. Kwetche), [email protected] (J.N.E. Ntem), francois_mvondo@
hotmail.com (F.M. Owono), [email protected] (M.J. Ntamak-Nida).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rines.2024.100023
Received 25 September 2023; Received in revised form 27 March 2024; Accepted 31 March 2024
Available online 3 April 2024
2211-7148/© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Inc. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
J.B.I. Kissaaka et al. Results in Earth Sciences 2 (2024) 100023

Fig. 1. Structural and geological framework of a part of Gulf of Guinea. a) Geological map showing the Cameroon Volcanic Line, the Kribi Fracture Zone, the Niger
Delta, the major crustal elements and the basins of Cameroon- Equatorial Guinea margin, b) Location map showing the Campo High and subsurface data used in this
study (modified from Lawrence et al., 2002).

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J.B.I. Kissaaka et al. Results in Earth Sciences 2 (2024) 100023

Ngoc Le et al. (2015) then Loule et al. (2018) using a 3D seismic survey, (Fig. 1a). Their common evolutionary history is related to the opening of
indicated the presence of amalgamated channels complexes associated the South Atlantic, which began in the Upper Jurassic, following the
to the fan systems in the Neogene units and submarine fans associated to Gondwana break-up, and ended in the Lower Cretaceous with the sep­
feeder channels in the Paleogene units. These previous works reveal that aration of the African and South American plates (Rabinowitz and
the deepwater depositional systems of West African Margin are seismi­ LaBrecque, 1979). The Atlantic margin between these two West African
cally mappable on 2D or 3D seismic data and present a stratigraphic salt basins exhibits several major structural features including the
hierarchy useful for reservoir prediction. Thus, a framework of the ge­ Campo high that forms the boundary between the two basins, the Kribi,
ometries and dimensions of the lobes and channels is required to un­ Campo and Ascension Fracture Zones that basically structure the Pre­
derline their stacking pattern, their structural control in the study area, cambrian basement (Turner, 1995; Dailly, 2000; Turner et al., 2003;
and especially the distribution of the reservoir facies. The study made by Wilson et al., 2003). This Precambrian basement is made up of crystal­
Secke et al. (2022) allowed to characterize a late Cretaceous submarine line rocks, the oldest of which belong to the Archean craton, which was
channel system in the Kribi-Campo sub-basin. This submarine channel affected by the Eburnean orogeny and remobilized during the
system with U-shaped morphology consists of an early to late-stage Pan-African and Proterozoic orogenic cycles (Fig. 1a and b). The crys­
channel trending NE-SW in cross-section. Its evolution was controlled talline rocks related to these orogenic cycles are well known in the
by tectonics, relative sea level and slope gradient. basement of these two sedimentary basins.
The main goal of this study is to document the Tertiary deepwater Like most basins of the Gulf of Guinea salt series, their tectonosedi­
depositional systems in the Kribi-Campo sub-basin to aid in the devel­ mentary history has undergone three major evolutionary phases (Turner
opment of untapped petroleum resources. We focus on two objectives: i) et al., 1995; Meyers et al., 1996; Dailly, 2000; Benkhelil et al., 2002): the
document the high resolution sequence stratigraphic framework of syn-rift phase from the Neocomian (Rio Muni)-Barremian (Kribi-Campo)
Tertiary succession in Kribi-Campo basin using 2D seismic data and well to the Aptian, the transition phase dated Apto-Albian and the post-rift or
logs; ii) on ‘’isochron-isopach’’ and seismic attributes maps, highlight drift phase from the Albian to the Present (Fig. 2). A pre-rift phase dated
the existence and quantify the dimensions of submarine channels and of Upper Jurassic age will has particularly influenced the evolution of
lobes related to deepwater depositional systems. We also discuss the the Rio Muni basin (Turner et al., 1995; Meyers et al., 1996). The sub­
occurrence of these submarine lobe complexes and channels, their sidence history and thermal evolution of the Kribi-Campo sub-basin
stacking pattern and their control in view of external parameters which reveal an extensive subsidence zone in the western part with some
can impact their implementation and evolution. extension factor values ranging from 1.04 to 1.09 (Iboum et al., 2021).
The latest studies made by Iboum et al. (2023) show that the Paleogene
2. Geological setting to Neogene deposits contain some feeder channel-lobe complexes cut­
ting the unstable shelf edge of the Campo High and some submarine
The Kribi-Campo and Rio Muni basins located along the West African channel complexes associated to lobes towards the northern part of the
passive margin belong to the southern segment of the Gulf of Guinea Kribi-Campo sub-basin. Their evolution was controlled by local changes

Fig. 2. Tectono-Lithostratigraphy summary of Kribi-Campo sub-basin and Rio-Muni basin, compiled from previous study (Wornardt et al., 1999; Lawrence et al.,
2002; Iboum et al., 2016).

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J.B.I. Kissaaka et al. Results in Earth Sciences 2 (2024) 100023

of paleotopography driven by tilting and uplift of Campo High. further mapped the high-frequency systems tracts of SS4, SS5 and SS7
In the Kribi-Campo sub-basin, two morphostratigraphic domains sequences by using 2D seismic data and well log data. The seismic units
emerge from seismic lines (Fig. 3): were identified by description of stacking patterns of stratal units, types
of stratal terminations and the overall shape of the units. Ming Zang
- A slope continental domain that is short and steep near the Campo et al. (2015) used this approach to realize the detailed stratigraphic
high in the south-eastern part (Figs. 1 and 3) while it forms a rise framework of Paleocene strata in the Lishui Sag basin. Four seismic
continental domain underlined by the salt diapirs in the northern systems tracts defined following sequence stratigraphic concepts intro­
part of basin (Fig. 3). The Campo high is highly structured by the duced by Cataneanu et al. (2002, 2006, 2009) (i.e., falling stage, low­
normal listric faults associated with the tilted blocks system of con­ stand, transgressive and highstand systems tracts) are recognized in the
tinental crust (Fig. 3). The salt diapirs are associated to anticlines. Paleogene strata, which are bounded by stratigraphic surfaces whose
- A basin-floor to basin plain which is a low zone with a very low slope subaerial unconformity, basal surface of forced regression, regressive
that extends westward following the slope domain (Fig. 3). surface of marine erosion, correlative conformity, maximum regressive
surface and maximum flooding surface.
Anh Ngoc et al. (2015) described this slope of the margin in the The facies analysis of deepwater channels is based on two ap­
Kribi-Campo sub-basin using two terms: high gradient slope (HGS) to­ proaches: a facies-descriptive approach of the channel-levee systems
wards the east with slopes between 1,4 and 3,6◦ and low gradient slope according to Catteral et al. (2010) and a numerical approach defined by
(LGS) towards the west for lower slopes between 0,7 and 2◦ . Konsoer et al. (2013), but previously presented by Lei Li et al. (2018). In
the descriptive approach, the channel-levee systems are subdivided into
3. Data sets and methods sedimentation domains according to an architecture related to the
sedimentary dynamics of a submarine channel. Two important elements
3.1. Data sets of this architecture were identified on the overlay maps: the submarine
channel axis associated to the levees and the overbank area (Fig. 5).
Within the framework of this study, more than 2000 km of 2D From a numerical perspective, the main morphometric parameters of
seismic lines and 20 offshore wells drilled in the 1980 s and 2000 s were this approach include:
used (Fig. 1b). These subsurface data were made available to the Pet­
romines Laboratory of the University of Douala by the University of - the bankfull widths B, defined as the maximum horizontal distance
Rennes 1. Oriented Dip, Strike or Random, the seismic lines cover an measured between the two leveed sides of the channel;
area between the northern offshore part of the Rio Muni basin and the - the bankfull depth H, which is the maximum vertical relief measured
southern offshore part of the Kribi-Campo sub-basin (Fig. 1b). Well data between the lowest points of the channel in the axial area and the
provided valuable information on the porosity, lithology, depositional leveed sides of the channel;
environment and age of the Formations drilled. All wells are located in - the B/H ratio, defined as the ratio between the width and the depth
the Kribi-Campo sub-basin and none of them reached the basement of filling;
(Fig. 1b). - the sinuosity SI, defined as the ratio between the width of the thal­
weg (taken along the axis of the channel) and the width of the
channel (distance measured along a straight line drawn between the
3.2. Methods two extreme points of the channel);
- the channel path angle Tc and the ratio between lateral migration
The seismic sections analysis was conducted according to the and Lm/Va aggradation, two parameters defined by the equations of
fundamental principles of seismic stratigraphy, as defined by Mitchum Gong et al. (2017) below.
et al. (1977), Sangree and Widmier (1977), Mitchum (1985), then ( )
Catuneanu et al. (2009, 2011): i) sequence analysis, ii) facies analysis Tc = arctan
dy
(1)
and iii) mapping of lobe complexes as well as deepwater channels. In dx
this study, the sequence analysis is based on second to third-order
sequence framework established by Iboum Kissaaka et al. (2016). We

Fig. 3. Maps summarizing the morphostructural framework of the Kribi-Campo sub-basin (Iboum et al., 2021, 2023). A) Map highlights three main morphostructural
domains that are the slope domain, the rise continental margin then the basin floor to basin plain; B) The map depicts TWT structure of the d1 horizon.

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J.B.I. Kissaaka et al. Results in Earth Sciences 2 (2024) 100023

dx where D is the calculated depth (Km) and T the travel time below sea­
Lm /Va = (2)
dy floor measured on the seismic profiles (Second two-way travel time (Sec
TWT). We imposed a uniform 1480 m/sec for the velocity of sound in
where dx and dy are the lateral and vertical components of a growing
water. In the northern part of the Kribi-Campo sub-basin, a paleo­
channel. In this study, the dynamic parameters of the approach
environmental analysis based on the electrofacies of the Gamma Ray
including flow velocity and channel flow were not calculated. Thirty-
was carried out manually. These are electrofacies morphologically
three points were sampled along the submarine channels observed on
defined by Shell engineers and formerly used or described by many
the overlay maps. For the deepwater lobe complexes, three parameters
authors such as Serra and Abbott (1982), Cant (1992), Emery and Myers
related to their morphology were measured: length, width and planar
(1996) or Posamentier and Allen (1999).
distribution.
Subsequently, thanks to Petrel software, isochron and isopach maps
were produced and converted to depth using the polynomial relation­
ship previously proposed by Iboum et al. (2016):

D = 0, 0177T 3 + 0, 015T 2 + 0, 9425T + 0, 0255 (3)

Fig. 4. Well log correlation, depositional systems and genetic sequence stratigraphy of the syn- to post-rift succession in the Kribi-Campo sub-basin.

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J.B.I. Kissaaka et al. Results in Earth Sciences 2 (2024) 100023

4. Results onlap terminations above it in upstream part. The uppermost unit of this
package is discrete on the 483 seismic line. On 480 seismic line, the unit
4.1. Well log facies is composed of two facies onlapping the underlying LST: (a) a low to
medium facies with parallel configuration of reflectors deposited in the
Five electrofacies patterns are abundantly observed on the logs: basinward direction, and (b) a transparent facies deposited around the
irregular trends, funnels shape, bell shape, cylindrical trends and bow topographic break. These seismic characters suggest a retrogradational
trends. Several vertical successions of patterns were observed in the trend in response to low rate sediment supply during the rapid relative
Neogene well logs more than in the Paleogene well logs. sea-level rise. The unit is interpreted as transgressive systems tract and
Irregular trends were observed respectively on the gamma rays of the the onlap surface as maximum regressive surface. In addition, these
KE-1, KR-1 and KY-1 wells for the Neogene deposits and KY-1 for the units laterally extend by decreasing thickness towards the eastern end of
Paleogene deposits (Fig. 4). Cleaning upward pattern is serrated and the margin (Figs. 5b and 6b).
specific to Neogene deposits (Fig. 4). It is generally observed above the On the isochron-isopach map of the Paleogene unit package 1, two
irregular trend. Cylindrical-shaped successions are serrated to smoothed lobes complexes were distinguished by their size, position and especially
(Fig. 4). The basal and apex boundaries of these shapes are steep in most by the arrangement style of individual elements (Fig. 7a and b). The first
cases. Bell-shaped is observed only in well KM-1 (Fig. 4). It ranges from a lobe complex consists of lobes A and B extending close to the Campo
cylinder-shaped log at the base to a bow trend log at the top, in the High. These lobes complexes have a fairly wide base and oriented to­
Neogene sedimentary interval and is serrated. Bow-shaped is common wards the downstream part of the system. The bases of these lobes
within the sedimentary interval of the Neogene age (Fig. 4). In the KM-1 extend in an area with a high gradient of slope with uncompacted depths
well, this morphology is observed at the base of a bell trend (Fig. 4). not exceeding 4 km. They are located in a zone with a gentle slope for
However, in wells KL-3 and KH-1, it is rather located at the top of a depths between 4 and 5 km. This lobe complex would have been fed by a
cylindrical trend log (Fig. 4). system of sloping channels crossing the Campo high as indicated by
traces of channels on the isochron of the basal surface (Fig. 7a and b).
4.2. Stacking patterns from well data Lobe A is more proximal while lobe B is more distal to the source
(Fig. 7b). The other lobes complexes, notably C, D and E, are more distal.
From well data, the Paleogene stacking pattern is characterized by a These three lobe complexes are spread out in a low, gently sloping area.
Highstand System Tract overlaid by a discrete Lowstand System Tract Small depocenters more abundant in the downstream part, seem to
and a Transgressive System Tract (TST) well marked by shales underlain indicate a vertical aggradation of the submarine channels (Fig. 7b). The
a Maximum Flooding Surface (MFS) (Fig. 4). While the Neogene stack­ downstream changes in the lobes C and D are gradual rather than abrupt
ing pattern exhibits a Highstand System Tract bounded to the base by a between the Rio Muni and Kribi-Campo basins (Fig. 7b). Lobe E is
Maximum Flooding Surface and overlain by a Lowstand System Tract observed in the central part of the complex. The feeder channels located
(LST) underlined by sand slope channels sealed at the top by a Flooding at the apex of this complex indicates a sedimentary source located far
Surface (FS) then a Transgressive System Tract (TST) overlies a away in the northern part of the Kribi-Campo sub-basin (Fig. 7b). This
Maximum Flooding Surface (MFS). All of them are overlain by at least seismic facies unit is affected by a normal syn-sedimentary and post-
four highstand progradational parasequences (Fig. 4). The Neogene ar­ sedimentary fault system. Post-sedimentary listric faults also affect the
chitecture has more than ten depositional sequences which are well overlying and underlying units in the upstream part of the Paleogene
defined on well data than seismic data. The sequence boundary is Unit package 1 (SUP1) (Figs. 5B and 6B).
associated with a lowstand sea level. During this time, the subsidence is
well marked, its rate begins to exceed the rate of eustatic fall (Haq et al., 4.3.2. Paleogene unit package 2 (SUP2)
1987, 1988; Van Wagoner et al., 1988). The basin is filled by a lowstand The Paleogene Unit Package 2 (SUP2) is defined at its base by a
wedge portion of Lowstand Systems Tract deposited as an overlapping stratigraphic surface marked by onlap and downlap terminations of
wedge seaward of the shelf break. slope clinoforms (Figs. 5 and 6). This unit is underlined by aggradational
to progradational pattern suggesting that the rate of sediment supply
4.3. Seismic sequence stratigraphic framework and distribution of exceeds that of the relative sea-level rise. It is interpreted as a Highstand
depositional systems Systems Tract (HST) and is bounded at the base by the Maximum
Flooding Surface (MFS).
Three Paleogene Unit Packages (SUP1 to SUP3) and three deepwater On the isochron-isopach map of the Paleogene unit package 2, a
Leveed-Channel Complexes associated to Lobes (LCCL1 to LCCL3) were single lobe, named lobe complex F, is distinguished by its morphology,
mapped respectively (Figs. 5 and 6). tapering upstream and spreading downstream (Fig. 7c and d). This lobe
is located in a topographic low zone that is off-centre of the main
4.3.1. Paleogene unit package 1 (SUP1) accumulation zone of the preceding lobes. The lobes C, D and E have
Three seismic units are recognized from stacking geometry of SUP1 been replaced by a weakly structured depocenter (Fig. 7d) and its apex
(Figs. 5 and 6). The lowermost unit with a prograding wedge configu­ points directly towards the Campo High. It is much richer in small
ration contains some reflections downlapping the basal unconformity depocenters. The feeder channels located upstream of the system are
below the topographic break (fault scarp). The deposition of this seismic slightly sinuous (Fig. 7d). On some seismic lines, syn-sedimentary faults
unit below the fault scarp characterizes a basinward shift and an updip affect the shingled reflectors by tilting them (Figs. 5 and 6). On other
exposure that is probably the result of relative sea-level fall. This unit seismic lines, especially those of Kribi-Campo, the N-S post-sedimentary
can be interpreted as a Falling Stage Systems Tract bounded at the base faults delimit anticlinal/synclinal systems of low undulations.
by a basal surface of forced regression associated to a subaerial uncon­
formity toward the updip part. 4.3.3. Paleogene unit package 3 (SUP3)
The overlying unit is highly affected by normal faults. It contains Two seismic units can be very well distinguished. The lowermost unit
many continuous reflectors that expand downstream with mounded is underlined by shingled clinoforms associated with erosive channels in
configurations and upstream by onlapping the pre-existing topography. the upstream part of the deposition system (Fig. 5B). It is separated from
In the upstream part of this unit, the basinward downlap reflections the previous unit by a sequence boundary marked by onlap and downlap
indicate continued progradation while the landward onlap indicate terminations of the overlying reflectors and toplap terminations of the
increased accommodation. The unit is interpreted as Lowstand Systems underlying clinoforms in the upstream part (Figs. 5B and 6B). In the
Tract. The base of LST corresponds to a correlative conformity with downstream part, this surface is marked only by downlap terminations.

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J.B.I. Kissaaka et al. Results in Earth Sciences 2 (2024) 100023

Fig. 5. Interpretation of 480 inline seismic section. a) Greyscale original section with colorscale derived from spectral decomposition and b) tectono-stratigraphic
model realized from manual and Paleoscan automatic interpretation, illustrating in detail all surfaces and units associated to Cenozoic filling of Kribi-Campo sub-
basin. Note the presence of shingled turbidites and oblique-sigmoidal clinoforms associated to SUP2 and SUP3, towards the eastern part. The depositional lobes are
well observed within the SUP1 and SUP3. Note the polygonal faults system and the listric faults affecting the Neogene units toward the eastern part of the Kribi-
Campo sub-basin. See Fig. 1 for the location.

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J.B.I. Kissaaka et al. Results in Earth Sciences 2 (2024) 100023

Fig. 6. Interpretation of 483 inline seismic section. a) Greyscale original section with colorscale derived from spectral decomposition and b) tectono-stratigraphic
model realized from manual and Paleoscan automatic interpretation, illustrating in detail all surfaces and units associated to Cenozoic filling of Kribi-Campo sub-
basin. Note the polygonal faults system and the listric faults affecting the Paleogene to Neogene units toward the eastern part of the Kribi-Campo sub-basin. See Fig. 1
for the location.

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J.B.I. Kissaaka et al. Results in Earth Sciences 2 (2024) 100023

Fig. 7. Isochron-isopach maps of the depositional components of the Paleogene megasequence B in the Kribi-Campo sub-basin. A, C and E are the original map. B, D
and F are the interpreted maps, illustrating the lobes associated to the depositional systems.

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J.B.I. Kissaaka et al. Results in Earth Sciences 2 (2024) 100023

This unit is interpreted as Lowstand System Tract deposited during a reach about ten kilometers with amplitudes not exceeding 50 m. This
lowstand normal regression driven by a decreasing rate of progradation field has flank symmetry and a direction of propagation that is oblique to
and an increasing rate of aggradation. The overlying unit is marked by the axis of the main channels. The undulations tend to decrease in
backstepping and retrogradational pattern that thicken landwards and amplitude and wavelength towards the downstream part. Some channel
its seismic facies is transparent. This retrogradational pattern is attrib­ breaks are observed along some gullies.
uted to transgressive deposits that accumulate during a rapid sea-level
rise. The boundary at the base includes an erosional onlap surface 4.4. Morphometric characteristics of paleogene fan-lobes
above the topographic break and a conformable surface basinwards,
interpreted as a maximum regressive surface. On the isochron-isopach maps of Paleogene unit packages, eleven
On the overlay map of the seismic unit package, two lobe complexes lobes were identified. Generally speaking, the lobes cover areas ranging
have been clearly identified (Fig. 7e and f). One is largely located in the from 400 to 1700 km2, have widths ranging from 15 to 38 km, and
Kribi-Campo sub-basin and consists of lobes J and K. The other is suf­ lengths ranging from 12 to 39 km maximum (Table 1). The cumulative
ficiently well distributed between the two sedimentary basins consisting thickness of most lobes increases abruptly downstream. The distance
of lobes G, H and I (Fig. 7f). Lobes J and K have replaced the preceding between the slope failure and the maximum point of sedimentation of
lobe F while lobes G, H and I are not easily distinguished on the map the lobes ranges from 10 to more than 25 km, indicating a wide range in
than the previous lobes C, D and E. transport efficiency of submarine sediment gravity flows. Larger lobes
show a more gradual transition from leveed fan valleys and reach peak
4.3.4. Leveed-channel complex to lobe 1 (LCCL1) thicknesses much farther into the basin. Thicker lobes tend to be longer
It has seismic facies characterized by a morphology that is very as do wider lobes, with length to width ratios ranging from 0.7 to 2.3.
tapered upstream to the east and mounded downstream to the west of Based on the above, two types of lobes can be distinguished (Fig. 9a and
the study area (Figs. 5 and 6). Its facies is transparent in the upstream b): small composite lobe complexes and large composite lobe complexes.
portion. In the downstream part, some not very continuous reflections,
of low to moderate amplitude, associated with ’U’ shaped channels, are 4.4.1. Small composite lobe complexes
observed (Fig. 5b). On the isochron-isopach map of the unit, the Three lobes fall in this category: the lobes K, I and E (Fig. 9a and b).
morphological traces reminiscent of the channel-levee are mostly These are laterally less extended and belong to three different com­
confined to the High Sedimentation Zone and Low Gradient Slope plexes. The lobe K is attached in its upstream part to the feeders chan­
domain (HSZLGS) (Fig. 8a and b). These channels can be distinguished nels. These lobes are located at distances of 2–19 km from the edge of
from one another by their shape, which is either straight or sinuous the slope, extend laterally for a maximum of 15–18 km, and then have
(Fig. 8b). The widths of these channels increase by 3–5 km from north to distribution areas not exceeding 900 km2. The widths of the lobes k and
south. They extend over several tens of kilometers with values up to e vary considerably from upstream to downstream, from 3 to 15 km and
50 km. Two main trends in sediment input emerge from the overlay from about 6–15 km respectively. Lobe I reaches its maximum thickness
maps: NE-SW with a sedimentary source located in the NE, then E-W more quickly as it spreads downstream than the other two lobes what­
with a source located in the East (Fig. 8b and d). In the northern part of ever the reference point chosen, in particular the slope break or the
the map, two straight to very slightly sinuous channels are clearly mouth of the erosional conduit. They correspond to circular deposits
identified (Fig. 8b and d). In the southern part of the map, a long channel elongated towards the slope or near the foot of the slope.
has been observed within the HSZLGS. This channel, in its lower
downstream part, is marked by a depocenter (Fig. 8b). 4.4.2. Large composite lobe complexes
The other eight lobes belong to this category: A, B, C, D, G, H, and J
4.3.5. Leveed-channel complex to lobe 2 (LCCL2) (Fig. 9a and b). These are more extensive and furnish the underside of
It is defined at the base and top by erosive surfaces (Figs. 5 and 6). U- the lobes of the previous group. They probably reach their maximum
shaped channels with parallel to mounded fill mainly characterize the thickness beyond the slope. Their lateral configuration is much more
facies located downstream of this unit. In the upstream, reflections are important with maximum values between 20 and 38 km. The maximum
continuous, parallel and of low to moderate amplitudes with high fre­ thickness is rather difficult to apprehend for these lobes because they are
quency of the reflections. On its isochron-isopach map, a sinuous located at the very base of the complexes. They are all attached to the
channel more than 5 km wide and 25–30 km long has been clearly feeder channels that take their source beyond the slope break or just at
identified in the HSZLGS domain (Fig. 8c and d). This channel, in its the foot of the slope. The distribution areas of these lobes largely exceed
higher upstream part, is marked by strong concentric sedimentary ac­ 1000 km2. These sedimentary bodies extend well beyond the Kribi-
cumulations. To the south-east of the map, a N-S oriented polygonal Campo sub-basin. The most distal part is found in Equatorial Guinea,
fault system affects the sedimentary deposits of the LSZHGS domain in the Rio Muni Basin.
(Figs. 5, 6, and 8d).
4.5. Morphometric characteristics of neogene channel-levee systems
4.3.6. Leveed-channel complex to lobe 3 (LCCL3)
This unit is also bound at its base and top by erosive surfaces (Figs. 5 The channels observed on the overlay maps are comparable to those
and 6). U- and V-shaped channels are well observed on seismic sections studied by Li et al. (2018) in the Rio-Muni basin. Those authors distin­
at the base of this unit, especially in the downstream part. Amplitudes guished two groups of channels according to the migratory trend, itself
are low to moderate within the unit but the highest amplitudes are associated with a specific architectural style: lateral channel trajectories
known in the channels (Figs. 5 and 6). On seismic line 480, the channels and concomitant lateral stacking patterns, then vertical channel trajec­
are stacked sub-vertically to vertically and have migrated laterally to­ tories and concomitant vertical stacking patterns. The first type has not
wards the eastern end (Fig. 5b). In the upstream part of the unit, facies really been observed as much as the second type, which is fairly wide­
analysis reveals a system of polygonal faults and gully channels spread on the maps. The longitudinal thalweg profiles of these channels
(Figs. 5b, 6b). These channels have a few terraces on their flanks and are can be subdivided into three segments according to the evolutionary
associated with fairly well-developed levees (Fig. 5). High amplitude trend of the channel: upper, middle and lower reaches. Each channel is
reflections are observed at the base of some channels. The levees are characterized by one minor and one major submarine channel bed
characterized by a parallel to subparallel facies with continuous re­ (Fig. 8b and d).
flections (Fig. 5b). Some levees associated with these channels define a On the isochron-isopach maps, the channels observed in the south
true field of sediment waves. The wavelengths of the undulations could migrated laterally depositing sediments by lateral accretion. Their

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J.B.I. Kissaaka et al. Results in Earth Sciences 2 (2024) 100023

Fig. 8. Isochron-isopach maps of the depositional components of the Upper Neogene megasequence C in the Kribi-Campo sub-basin. A, and C are the original map. B
and D are the interpreted maps, illustrating the channel-levees associated to the depositional systems.

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J.B.I. Kissaaka et al. Results in Earth Sciences 2 (2024) 100023

Table 1
A summary of quantitative scale of individual lobes showing the range of various parameters and the difference between inner fan and outer fan lobes.
Facies unit lobes Longitudinal Lateral width (km) Vertical thickness (km) Planar distribution area (km2) Volume (km3)
Length (km)

Lobe facies unit 1 a 20,8 26 0,1 970,84 97,084

b 23,08 24,9 0,1 1185,72 118,572
c 32,66 37,99 0,4 1689,55 675,82
e 27,04 32,19 0,1 1177,76 117,776
e 20,9 15,49 0,1 446,33 44,633
Lobe facies unit 2 f 38,66 19,99 0,3 1396,68 419,004
Lobe facies unit 3 g 33,16 31,33 0,4 1316,44 526,576
h 12,27 17,66 0,2 403,88 80,776
i 37,83 20,99 0,2 1222,77 244,554
j 35,33 15,16 0,25 874,31 218,5775
k 20,8 26 0,1 970,84 97,084

Note: The longitudinal length and lateral width of each lobe were measured on the isochron-isopach interpretation maps (see Fig. 7B, D et F). The vertical thickness of
lobes was also calculated by the same maps (see Fig. 7A, C et E).

Fig. 9. Cross-plots of: a) Maximum lobe thickness versus lobe area. Note that the outer lobes tend to cover a larger area. b) Lobe width versus lobe length. c) Bankfull
depths versus bankfull widths of submarine channels located in the southern part of the Kribi-Campo sub-basin. d) Bankfull depths versus bankfull widths of
submarine channels located in the northern part of Kribi-Campo sub-basin.

lateral migration is weak but slightly more pronounced than that of the 120 km respectively while the maximum values are around 5000 km
channels observed in the northern part of the map. The lateral trajec­ and 575 km (Table 2). Scatterplot of B against H suggests that B and H
tories of these channels are well marked by the black dots on the follow a power law relationship (Fig. 9c and d).
isochron-isopach maps (Fig. 8b and d). The channel path angles range
from 65 to 85◦ for the southern channels and 69–83◦ for the northern 5. Discussions
channels. From an architectural point of view, the southern channels
show fairly good preservation of sediments laterally in the form of bar 5.1. Depositional sequence stratigraphy and lobe complexes occurrence
points in the convex parts of the minor channel bed and beyond that in
the form of levees and turbiditic lobes (Fig. 8b and d). The Lm / Va ratio At both basins margins, the Paleogene unit packages moved toward
is low in both cases, with values ranging from 0.1 to 0.6 for the southern the downstream, leaving erosive structures that show a loss of accom­
channels and 0.1–0.4 for the northern channels. The sinuosity is low modation during the filling of the basin (Figs. 5b and 6b). Such migra­
with average values around 1–1.05. The width B and depth H of the tions may be related to a forced regression then a normal regression of
channels are quite large. The minimum values are around 2200 km and coastline. Both phases are separated by Correlative Conformity (CC) that

12
J.B.I. Kissaaka et al. Results in Earth Sciences 2 (2024) 100023

Table 2 record changes in the volume, composition and rheology of sediment

Tabulation of morphometrics and architecture of channel-levee in the Kribi- gravity flows entering the basins, and hence, changes in depositional
Campo sub-basin. styles during these cycles (Beaubouef and Friedmann, 2000). As dis­
Codes B H B/H Tc Lm/Va SI cussed above, the Tertiary fill of both Basins is composed of ten or more
m m (o) unconformity bounded stratigraphic units (Fig. 10). In the first Paleo­
Southern submarine channels gene unit package, MTCs and FCLC directly overlie the sequence
1 3753,66 243 15,4471605 81,81 0,1438 1106 boundaries (Fig. 10). In turn, these are overlain by MTCs of second
2 3807,52 233 16,3412876 76,19 0,2457 1,05 Paleogene facies unit. Prominent LCCs occur in the uppermost unit of
3 4453,84 169 26,3540828 77,708 0,2178 1,08
Paleogene and Neogene of the two basins. Based on these observations, a
4 4234,62 138 30,6856522 78,245 0208 1,0431
5 3833,5 359 10,678273 80,297 0,1709 1,0646 Tertiary idealized depositional model could include, from base to top, a
6 4842,67 304 15,9298355 69,73 0,3692 1067 MTC, FCLC and an LCC. This stacking pattern is very similar to that
7 4539,82 128 35,4673438 85,91 0,6068 1 shown for the Amazon Fan (Manley and Flood, 1988; Beaubouef and
8 2555,51 218 11,7225229 0,0714 1 Pirmez, 1999), the Mississippi Fan (Weimer, 1990) and Mexican
9 2560,71 355 7,21326761 1
intra-slope fan (Beaubouef and Friedmann, 2000). MTCs and FCLCs are
10 2778,04 383 7,25336815 83,13 0,1203 1
11 2231,88 434 5,14258065 1034 considered early and middle falling stage systems tract, and LCCs are
12 2416,61 430 5,62002326 73,33 0,2993 considered late falling stage systems tract (Posamentier and Vail, 1988).
Northern submarine channels The lobe complexes, as defined here, consist of multiple individual lobes
1 4383,44 406 10,7966502 79,21 0,1904 1,0012
by way of compensational stack in both lateral and longitudinal direc­
2 4645,65 442 10,5105204 79,75 0,1806 1,06
3 4248,32 437 9,72155606 83,038 0122 1063 tion, which correspond to the previous points (Mutti and Sonnino, 1981,
4 4093,357 293 13,9705017 1 Browne and Slatt, 2002; Deptuck et al., 2008). Similar to the previous
5 5049,135 575 8,78110435 68,91 0,3855 1,05 work of Jia-Jia Zang et al. (2016) on the stacking pattern of individual
6 4766,606 518 9,20194208 80,91 0,1598 1 lobes, two types of compensational stacking pattern can be observed
7 3112,538 341 9,12767742 70,67 0,3505 1
within the lobe complexes of this study (Fig. 10): (1) Lateral compen­
8 4881,88 510 9,57231373 80,18 0173 1,13
9 4856,84 559 8,68844365 81,8 0,1439 1009 sational stacking pattern between g and h individual lobes or between
10 5068,033 555 9,13159099 76,93 0232 1002 C-D-E and G-H-I complexes, in the lateral direction; (2) Prograding
11 4854,011 577 8,4124974 77,59 0,2198 1,02 compensational stacking pattern between C, D and E individual lobes for
12 2428,895 382 6,35836387
example, in the longitudinal direction.
13 3296,796 544 6,06028676
14 2755,83 404 6,82136139
The stacking patterns mentioned above, are strongly influenced by a
confined paleotopography and sedimentation, making them some or­
dered compensational stacking pattern according to Gervais et al.
would record the paleo-seafloor at the end of forced regression (Fig. 5b). (2006), Prelat and Hodgson (2013) or Zang et al. (2016). The compen­
The forced regression associated with an active erosion in the middle sational stacking pattern exhibited differential distribution under
part of the system while sedimentation takes place in the lower part. For different sedimentary settings. The FCLC complexes mainly display the
normal regression, the deep-water slope channel complexes are major lateral and progradational types of compensational stack (Fig. 10). The
conduits for resedimentation of shelfal sediments as gravity currents. FCLC setting always had a narrow topography at the end of submarine
The shingled facies associated with them, correspond to the edges of the channels, with a relatively strong lateral-confined degree and generally
slope channel complexes, developed on ramp or shelf-break margins asymmetric seafloor (Beaubouef et al., 1998; Beaubouef et al., 2000;
(Figs. 5b and 6b). In these sedimentary systems, the sequence bound­ Johnson et al., 2001; Prather, 2003; Burgreen and Graham, 2014). In
aries either; 1) progressively truncate one another, or 2) pass laterally this case, the individual lobes prefer to deposit at the topographic lows
into thin, relatively conformable intervals (Prather et al., 1998). These close to the steep and more confined side of the Campo high. The po­
thin intervals can be correlated great distances up the steeply dipping sition of the next individual lobe therefore depends of the topographic
margins before they gradually converge or become too thin to be well lows that exist around the previous lobes. When the energy of supply
resolved. This latter characteristic is generally observed along the channel is relatively weak, the avulsion always happens in the upstream
southern, or downslope basin margins (Fig. 5b). The basal sequence of system with the new lobe depositing at the rear of previous lobes,
boundaries are produced when the rate of eustatic fall exceeds the rate forming the lateral type of compensational stack (Jia jia Zang et al.,
of basin subsidence at the depositional-shoreline break, producing a 2016). When the energy of supply channel is relatively strong, however,
relative fall in sea level at that position (Hardenbol et al., 1981; Vail, the supply channel tends to prograde forward cutting previous lobes,
1987; Van Wagoner et al., 1988). The entire shelf may be exposed, and a and deposits the new lobe at the front of previous lobes, forming the
type 1 sequence boundary will result. The Paleogene stratigraphic prograding type of compensational stack as observed with C, D and E
framework of Kribi-Campo sub-basin is similar to that analyzed by individual lobes (Fig. 10). The margin being steeper than the main area
Zhang et al. (2015) in the Lishui Sag except the depositional systems of deposition, the accommodation space is limited to the topographic
attached to system tracts. lows located between earlier deposits and the steep margin. This type of
The Neogene facies units show several channelized structures asso­ paleogeographical condition oblige the lobe complex to display a larger
ciated with the development of lobe complexes. Their V-shaped or U- thickness, a smaller lateral width but a larger longitudinal length, and a
shaped are superimposed and remain connected by their overflow flanks tongue shape in the plan view (Fig. 10c).
rich in fine sediments (Figs. 5b and 6b). Avulsion phenomena are at the
heart of the operation of these channels, which follow one another by 6. Conclusions
settling down over time in the same drainage system. According to Mutti
(1992), these systems would mark the last end of the evolution of an Based on high resolution sequence stratigraphy and geomorpholog­
aggrading turbiditic system in which the uplifted channels would evolve ical analyses, we have identified several Tertiary leveed-channel and
towards tabular lobes (sheets sand). lobe complexes in the deep interval of two basins: Kribi-Campo and Rio
Muni. The following conclusions highlight the major features of these
5.2. Compensation stacking pattern within lobe complexes systems. The turbiditic systems correspond to three Seismic Unit Pack­
ages (SUP) interpreted as Mass Transport Complexes (MTC) alternating
The facies units between the sequence boundaries show a cyclic with some Feeder Channels-Lobes Complexes (FCLC). Two types of lobe
nature of depositional history of these basins. Their stacking pattern composites were defined based on their location, architecture, and

13
J.B.I. Kissaaka et al. Results in Earth Sciences 2 (2024) 100023

Fig. 10. Depositional model and Sequence stratigraphy synthesis derived from a comparison between this study, the surfaces studied by Wornardt et al. (1999) and
the eustatic and relative sea level curve proposed by Haq et al. (1988).

14
J.B.I. Kissaaka et al. Results in Earth Sciences 2 (2024) 100023

nature of the feeder conduit. The Paleogene submarine lobes are Catuneanu, O., Abreu, V., Bhattacharya, J.P., Blum, M.D., Dalrymple, R.W., Eriksson, P.
G., Fielding, C.R., Fisher, W.L., Galloway, W.E., Gibling, M.R., Giles, K.A.,
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Holbrook, J.M., Jordan, R., Kendall, C.G., St, C., Macurda, B., Martinsen, O.J.,
sand-prone mounded facies of lowstand lobe complexes are deposited Miall, A.D., Neal, J.E., Nummedal, D., Pomar, L., Posamentier, H.W., Pratt, B.R.,
during eustatic falls. Inside each prograding system, the earlier lobes are Sarg, J.F., Shanley, K.W., Steel, R.J., Strasser, A., Tucker, M.E., Winker, C., 2009.
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sedimentation in contourite channels on the northwestern South China Sea margin: a
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Ngo Elogan Ntem: Writing – original draft, Conceptualization. Paul Haq, B.U., Hardenbol, J., Vail, P.R., 1988. Mesozoic and Cenozoic chronostratigraphy
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Declaration of Competing Interest Iboum Kissaaka, J.B., Ntamak-Nida, M.J., Mvondo, F., Fowe Kwetche, P.G., Djomeni
Nitcheu, A.L., Abolo, G.M., 2016. Postrift depositional evolution and sequence
stratigraphy from offshore subsurface data of the Kribi-Campo sub basin (Cameroon,
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial West African margin). Interpretation Vol. 4 (No. 1), T79–T101, 13.
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence Iboum Kissaaka, J.B., Mvondo Owono, F., Fowe Kwetche, P.G., Ngo Elogan Ntem, J.,
Angoua Bioule, S.E., Ntamak-Nida, M.J., 2021. Subsidence et évolution thermique
the work reported in this paper.
des bassins de la marge atlantique camerounaise: premiers résultats à partir des puits
en mer du sous-bassin de Kribi-Campo (Marge passive Ouest Africaine, Golfe de
Data availability Guinée). Can. J. Earth Sci. Vol. 58, 573–592.
Iboum Kissaaka, J.B., Ngum Tchioben, C.F., Fowe Kwetche, P.G., Ngo Elogan Ntem, J.,
Binyet Njebakal, J., Makosso-Tchapi, R.Y., Mvondo Owono, F., Ntamak-Nida, M.J.,
The authors do not have permission to share data. 2023. Tectono-stratigraphic architecture, depositional systems and salt tectonics to
strike-slip faulting in Kribi-Campo Cameroon Atlantic margin with an unsupervised
machine learning approach. Mar. Pet. Geol. Vol. 16 (2), 106667.
Acknowledgments Jia-Jia Zhang, Sheng-He. Wu, Ting-En Fan, Hong-Jun Fan, Li Jiang, Cheng Chen, Qiong-
Yuan Wu, Peng Lin, 2016. Research on the architecture of submarine-fan lobes in the
The authors are grateful to the TOTAL E&P via the University of niger delta basin, offshore West Africa: Journal of Palaeogeography, 2016. 5(3)
185–204.
Rennes 1 for subsurface data and the Schlumberger Company for Petrel
Johnson, S.D., Flint, S., Hinds, D., De Ville Wickens, H., 2001. Anatomy, geometry and
Software grants. Special thanks go to Ellis Paleoscan Manager for 2 free sequence stratigraphy of basin floor to slope turbidite systems, Tanqua Karoo, South
month’s license. The writers would like to thank an anonymous reviewer Africa. Sedimentology 48 (5), 987–1023.
Konsoer, K., Zinger, J., Parker, G., 2013. Bankfull hydraulic geometry of submarine
for English language revision.
channels created by turbidity currents: relations between bankfull channel
characteristics and formative flow discharge. J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf. 118,
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