INCREASE YOUR PERFORMANCE IN PHYSICS PRACTICALS

GENERAL CONCEPT OF Scales of Vernier Calliper

MEASUREMENT IN PHYSICS This instrument composed of two scales,
PRACTICALS namely:-
i) The main scale or fixed scale
Introduction:  Gives readings in centmetres and
Several experiments in Physics Laboratory millimeters
need some measurements of physical quantities ii) Vernier Scale
such as length, diameter, mass, volume, current  This slides along the fixed scale giving
and voltage. readings in hundredth of centimetre.

A: MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH Consider the diagram below:-

There are two methods used to measure length DIAGRAM OF VERNIER
or diameter of objects in physics laboratory. CALLIPER
These are:-
i. Estimation method Inside Locking
ii. By using instrument jaws screw
Main
In physics laboratory we use method of scale
instrument to measure length of the wire or
diameter of wire instead of estimation method
since method of instrument is accurate and it
consumes a little time.

INSTRUMENTS USED TO Depth

MEASURE LENGTH IN PHYSICS probe
Vernier
PRACTICAL

The following are apparatus used to measure Retainer

Object
the length or diameter of different objects:-
a) Vernier Calliper Fixed
b) Micrometer Screw gauge jaws

HOW TO READ VERNIER

a) Vernier Calliper CALLIPER
What is a vernier Calliper?
 A Vernier Calliper is an instrument used The reading takes two steps. These are:-
to measure length to the accuracy of i) The main scale. Normally reads at zero
0.01cm or 0.1mm. mark.
 Vernier Callipers are used to measure ii) Vernier scale. This reads at the position on
small lengths with greater accuracy than the vernier whose mark on this scale is exactly
a metre ruler. lined up or coincides with a mark on the main
scale.
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 PREPAIRED BY PHYSICIAN AND MATHEMATICIAN MR. STEVE MTEWELE
Example 1. Main scale reading = 6.2cm
Consider the figure below. Determine the Vernier scale reading = 0.1cm
diameter of the object that is placed between Total reading = 6.3cm.
the jaws of the vernier scale below
Main scale
The reading indicated is 6.3cm.
cm NOTE: The vernier scale mark that
0 1 2 3
coincides with the mark on the main
scale is 10 these are millimetres. So we
convert them to centimetres.

0 5 10 Vernier scale Example 3.

State the reading indicated by the following
vernier caliper scale
Solution:-
From the figure above, 12cm 13cm
Main scale reading = 0.3cm = 3.0mm
Vernier scale reading = 5 divisions = 0.5mm
Total reading = main scale + vernier scale
= 3.0mm + 0.5mm
= 3.5mm or 3.5mm ÷ 10 =
0.35cm. 5
Since 1cm = 10mm
X = 3.5mm by cross Solution:-
multiplication Main scale reading = 12.2cm
X = (3.5 ÷ 10)cm Vernier scale reading = 0.07cm
= 0.35cm. Total reading = 12.27cm.
Therefore the diameter of the object is = Reading indicated = 12.27cm.
3.5mm or 0.35cm. Example 4.
What is the length of the object in the figure
Example 2. below?
State the reading indicated by the following
vernier caliper scale
cm
0 1 2 3

6 7 8
1 9

Object Vernier Scale

0 10

Solution:- Solution;-
From the figure above, Main scale reading = 1.30cm

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Vernier scale reading = 0.08cm b) THE MICROMETER SCREW

Total reading = 1.38cm GAUGE
Length of an object is 1.38cm. The micrometer screw gauge is defined as an
instrument used to measure length to the
accuracy of 0.001cm or 0.01mm.
Example 5. Micrometer or vernier micrometer usually used
Write down the reading of the vernier caliper to measure the diameters of thin objects like
reading the figure below wires and ball bearing. It can measure the
small length up to about 2.5cm.
12cm 13cm 14cm

Diagram of Micrometer Screw

Gauge
Spindle Sleeve Thimble
1 5 9
Anvil

20
0 15
0.462cm 10
Solution:- 5
Main scale reading = 12.2cm
Vernier scale reading = 0.08cm Ratchet
Total reading = 12.28cm
*vernier reading is 12.28cm. Frame

SCALES OF MICROMETER
Example 6.
Write down the vernier reading in the figure
SCREW GAUGE
below Micrometer screw gauge has the following
scales:-
4cm 5cm a) The main scale
o It is marked along the sleeve
b) Thimble scale
o It is divided into 50 equal
divisions.

HOW TO READ A MICROMETER

SCREW GAUGE
The reading is taken in two parts:-
i) Sleeve scale
Solution:- o Read at the edge of the thimble in
Main scale reading = 3.60cm mm and ½ mm.
Vernier scale reading = 0.03cm ii) Thimble scale
Total reading = 3.63cm o Read off opposite the centre line
*vernier reading is 3.63cm. sleeve scale in 1/100mm.

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 PREPAIRED BY PHYSICIAN AND MATHEMATICIAN MR. STEVE MTEWELE
The sum of the reading gives the thickness of for the illustration of a micrometer screw
the object. gauge?

NOTE:
o Total reading = Vernier reading + 0 5
Thimble reading
95
o Vernier reading = main scale
o Thimble reading = circular scale
o Usually main scale is marked in
millimetres
o The Thimble scale is divided
depending on two conservative Solution:-
thread of the screw, which is Main scale reading = 5.0mm
called pitch of the screw. Thimble scale reading 95 x 0.01mm =
0.95mm
Example 1. Total reading = main scale reading + thimble
What is the reading of the micrometer screw scale reading
gauge? = 5.95mm.

Example 3.
123 50 What is the reading in the figure?
45
40

20
0 5
Solution:- 15
10
Main scale reading = 3.5mm
Thimble scale reading = 0.46mm 5
Total reading = 3.50 + 0.46 = 3.96mm.
The reading of the micrometer screw gauge is
3.96mm.
Solution;-
NOTE: Main scale reading = 5.5mm
The accuracy of micrometer screw Thimble scale reading = 12 x 0.01mm =
gauge is 0.01mm in reading micrometer 0.12mm
screw gauge. The thimble scale must be Total reading = 5.5 + 0.12 = 5.62mm
multiplied by 0.01mm. The reading in the figure is 5.62mm or
0.562cm.

Example 2. Example 4.
Mtewele a form one student encountered the What is the micrometer reading shown in the
following question in the physics end terminal figure Y, in which the horizontal scale is in
exam. What did he write the correct relation millimeter above and half millimeter below?

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Example 6.
5 The scale which is circled is magnified and is
shown below
0 0
40
45 5 10
40

30

Figure : Y
State the measurement indicated.
Solution:- Solution:-
Main scale reading = 3.00mm Main scale reading = 14.00mm
Thimble scale = 47 x 0.01mm = 0.47mm Thimble scale reading = 35 x 0.01mm =
Total reading = 3.00 + 0.47 = 3.47mm 0.35mm
Micrometer reading = 3.47mm or Total reading is 14.00 + 0.35 = 14.35mm.
0.347cm. The measurement indicated is =
14,35mm.
Example 5.
What is the micrometer reading shown in the Advantage of micrometer screw gauge
figure X in which the horizontal scale is in are analysed below:-
millimeter above and half millimeter below? o It is used to measure the length of small
objects
30
o Used to measure the diameter of wire
and ball bearing
15 25 c) MEASUREMENT OF CURRENT AND
20 VOLTAGE
Commonly instruments used to measure
15 current and voltage in current practical are
ammeter and voltmeter respectively
Ammeter
Figure: X Ammeter in the laboratory is used to measure
current.
THEORY: When connecting an ammeter in a
circuit the red terminal (+ve) should be
Solution:- connected in a side of the circuit which leads to
Man scale reading = 17.50mm the positive terminal of the battery.
Thimble scale reading = 24 x 0.01mm = e.g.
0.24mm
Total reading = 17.50mm + 0.24mm =
17.74mm
The micrometer reading = 17.74 or Battery
1.774cm.

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 PREPAIRED BY PHYSICIAN AND MATHEMATICIAN MR. STEVE MTEWELE
The ammeter is connected into a circuit in such Form the above illustration you may be given
a way that all the current flows through it the question of this nature.
(series connected), ammeter is designed in
such a way that its presence has a little effect Question: Give a reason why when using a
on the current. In essence the ammeter act as meter rule to measure length the eye should be
another connecting wire. placed vertically above the mark where the
Voltmeter: reading is being taken?
In current practical voltmeter is used to
measure voltage. Answer
THEORY: A Voltmeter is connected across  To avoid error due to parallax.
the resistor R which is connected in series with
the ammeter A and rheostat Rh. Ways of minimizing errors:-
e.g. o To minimize parallax error the observer
V must always take the perpendicular
reading from the instrument.
A
R o To minimize zero error the instrument
should be adjusted to read zero.
o To avoid instrument error avoid
Rh B S overheating instruments, (proper
handling of instrument is also
Where by: recommended).
V = Voltmeter
R = Resistor
Rh = Rheostat
B = Battery
S = Switch PRACTICAL REPORT
A = Ammeter
Introduction

The following are the techniques for writing or

ERRORS preparing practical report.
An error is a small deviation from a true value. i. Write the aim of the experiment by
Common examples of errors are which may capital letter and then underline it.
arise during experiment, include Example:-
1. Parallax error – this occurs when THE AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT IS
observer take measurement from the TO DETERMINE THE
wrong position. ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY
2. Zero error – occurs when initial “g”
reading of a pointer not at zero mark. ii. State the apparatii used in the
3. Instrument error – occurs because of experiment (just mention in list form).
defects in the instrument used in Example:-
taking the measurement (poor handling o Stop watch
of the instrument or defects can be o Meter rule
from manufacturer). o Pendulum bob
o String e.tc.

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iii. Draw a labeled diagram of the For instance, draw the graph of L(cm) against
experiment T2(s2)
iv. State the procedure used (should be in Solution
past tense). But not necessary THE GRAPH OF L(cm) Vs T2(s2)
v. Tabulate the table of results with their
SI Units i.e SCALE

Length (cm) Time (sec) Period T Vertical 1cm : 2cm

(sec)
Horizontal 1cm : 0.1s

vi. State nature of the graph L(cm)

vii. Draw the graph

INTRODUCTION
Most of the practical in physics involves
drawing graph as the key element in any
physics practical.
Rules for drawing the graph.
o The following are the most important T2(s2)
rules required to follow when drawing
graphs. v) Locate the coordinate (points) to
i) Write heading of your graph on top of predict the nature of the graph, draw
the graph by using Capital letters. the line joining each point on the
ii) Underline your heading. graph (plane).
e.g THE GRAPH OF LENGTH(cm)
Example:
Vs T2(s2)
iii) Select the suitable scale and write it L(cm)
below the heading to the right hand
side.
e.g. SCALE B
Vertical 1cm : 2cm L(cm)
Horizontal 1cm : 0.1s
NOTE: A T2(s2)
To prepare scale always use
two ways either
- Words or T2(s2)
- Ratio not otherwise.
iv) Draw the horizontal and vertical vi) Determine the slope of the graph by
plane according to the instruction given selecting any two points on the graph
All the line intercect at the origin 0. (i.e. A and B).

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 PREPAIRED BY PHYSICIAN AND MATHEMATICIAN MR. STEVE MTEWELE

Slope(M) = L(cm) DIAGRAM

T2(s2)
Note:
Remember to write SI – Units of the
slope (M) if possible
e.g. cm/s2

vii) Determine the X and Y intercepts

if it is required, from the nature of the
graph. Proceed as follows
Note: (a) Place the plane paper on top of the
Most of the practical questions card board and draw two lines at
depend on the graph. an angle = 90° and then place two
plane mirror on the line drawn
PRACTICAL OF LIGHT and make sure that two mirrors are
In optics there are so many experiments at angle = 90°.
done by Scientists such as:- (b) Fix an optical pin at point O and
o Determinations of multiple images look on both mirrors then count
formed by two plane mirrors total number of images (n) that will
incline at an angle. appear in both mirrors.
o Determination of refractive index (c) Repeat procedures (a) and (b) for
of the materials. = 72°, 60°, 45° and 30°.
o Determination of critical angle of (d) prepare table of results for , n and
the materials etc. 360°/ .
(e) i. Draw the graph of n against
360°/ .
A) PLANE MIRROR ii. Calculate the slope (M) of the
QUESTION 01. graph.
In this experiment you are provided with (f) i. What happen to the number of
two plane mirrors, one optical pin, mirror images when = 0°?
holder, plain paper, card board, ii. What happen to the numbers of
protractors. images when the value of the
angle is reduced?
(g) Write the aim of this experiment.
Solution:
Recall: from the relationship between
numbers of images, n and angle between
the two mirror ,

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That’s n = 360° - 1 Its gradient range from 0.5 to 1.4

(a)TABLE OF RESULTS M = n
360°/
n 360°/
90° 3 4
72° 4 5 ∴ = 1
60° 5 6
45° 7 8
30° 1 2 (f) i. When = 0° the number of images is
un accountable (infinity).
Note: ii. As the value of the angle reduced the
number of images increases
From n = 360° - 1
(g) The aim of the experiment is to determine
the number of images formed by
Nature of the graph two plane mirrors at an angle .
The nature of the graph obtained from relation Example 2:
You are provided with two plane mirrors, one
n = 360° - 1
optical pin, mirror holder, card board, plain
paper, office pin and angle protractor
n = 1(360° ) - 1
DIAGRAM

Y = M X + C

Then,
n

n Proceed as follows
(1) Place the plane paper on top of the
A card board and draw two lines at
360° an angle = 90° and then place two
plane mirror on the line drawn
360°/
and make sure that two mirrors are
-1 at angle = 90°.
(2) Fix an optical pin at point O and
From the comparison above the look on both mirrors then count
slope (M) = 1 total number of images (n) that will
appear in both mirrors.
Note: (3) Repeat procedures (1) and (2) for
Always the graph of n Vs 360°/
= 72°, 60°, 45°, 30° and 0°.
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 PREPAIRED BY PHYSICIAN AND MATHEMATICIAN MR. STEVE MTEWELE

(a) tabulate the results including , n Nature of the graph will be

and 1/ . n
(b) i. Draw the graph of n against
B
1/ (deg-1).
ii. Calculate the slope (G) of the n
graph to the nearest tenth.
iii. Determine the Y intercept, P of
the graph. 1 (Deg-1)
iv. The expression relating to the
number of images, n and is 1 (Deg-1)
given by n = G/ + P -1
(c) i. What happen to the number of
images when = 0°? • From comparison above
ii. What happen to the numbers of Slope (G) = 360°
images when the value of the n-intercept = -1
angle is reduced? Note:
(g) Write the aim of this experiment. The graph of n Vs 1/ its slope is
approximately = 360°
Solution: (d) As the value of angle is reduced the
number of images increases
(e) The aim of the experiment is to determine
a) TABLE OF RESULTS the number of images formed by
n 1/ (deg-1) multiple mirrors.
90° 3 0.011 (g) When angle = 0° the number of
72° 4 0.014 images is uncountable (at infinity).
60° 5 0.017
Example 3.
45° 7 0.022 You are provided with two plane mirror, two
30° 11 0.033 optical pins, mirror holders, card-board, plane
0° papers, office pins and angle protractor.
8

DIAGRAM
Recall: From the relation
N = 360° - 1

N = 360° ( 1 ) - 1 P2
Y = M X + C
P1

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(1) Place the plane paper on top of the Nature of the graph
card board and draw two lines at n
an angle = 90° and then place two
P2
plane mirror on the line drawn
and make sure that two mirrors are n
at angle = 90°.
(2) Fix an optical pin at point O and P1
look on both mirrors then count 360°
total number of images (n) that will
appear in both mirrors.
360°/
(3) Repeat procedures (1) and (2) for -2
= 72°, 60°, 45°, 30° and 0°.
(a) tabulate the results including , n From the comparison above,
and 1/ . Slope (M) of the graph = 2
(b) i. Draw the graph of n against n-intercept (when n = 360/ = 0°) = 2
-1 (a) Slope M = n
1/ (deg ). 0
360 /
∴ The slope M of the graph = 2
(b) From the general formula;
Solution: Y= Mx + C
But y = n
TABLE OF RESULTS M = 2
n 360°/ X = 360/
90° 6 4 C = 2
Then,
72° 8 5 n = 2 x (360/ ) - 2
60° 10 6 ∴ n = 720/ - 2
45° 10 8
30° 22 12 Example 4.
Recall: In this experiment you are provided with two
optical pins, two plane mirrors, a sheet of plane
From the relation n = 360°/
papers, drawing board, protractor and mirror
- 1 (for 1 pin) holders;
Proceed as follows:
For two pins the equation becomes
N = 720°/ - 2
Y = MX + C
P1 P2
N = 2(360°/ ) - 2

Y = M X + C

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 PREPAIRED BY PHYSICIAN AND MATHEMATICIAN MR. STEVE MTEWELE
Draw lines at right angles using your ruler and Form the comparison above
a protractor on a plane sheet of paper fixed on Slope (G) = 720
the drawing board. n-intercept = -2
Place one mirror on each of the two lines of the (c) (i) From the graph
sheet or paper. Fix two optical pins at point P1 ∆
Slope (G) =
and P2 and then look on both mirrors and count ∆

the number of images for = 72°, 60°, 45° and Insert points from the graph
30° G ≈ 7200
TABLE OF RESULTS (ii) n-intercept = -2 (is the value of n
90° 72° 60° 45° 30° when 1/ = 0°)
n 6 8 10 14 22 (iii) From
-1
1/ (Deg ) 0.011 0.014 0.017 0.022 0.033 n = G/ + P
(b) Plot graph of n against 1/ n = G(1/ ) + P
(c) From the graph But G = 720, P = -2
i. Determine slope of your graph, G to Then, n = 720/ - 2
nearest tenth. (d) i) When = 0° the number of images
ii. Determine the n-intercept of the graph will be uncountable.
P ii) The aim of this experiment is to
iii. Equation relating value of G, P and n is determine the number of images in the
given by n = G/ + P plane mirror at certain angle.
Rewrite the equation with the value of G
and P you have calculated. Example: 5.
(d) (i) What happen to the number of images • You are provided with two plane
when = 0°? mirrors, an optical pin, a sheet of paper,
(ii) Suggest the aim of this experiment. mirror holders or office pins, a
protractor, a ruler and a drawing table.
Recall: • Proceed as follows:-
(a) Draw two lines at a right angles
From n = –1
(b) Place the two mirrors along the lines
using the mirror holders or office pins as
For two pins the equation becomes shown in the figure below:
n = 720/ - 2
n = 720(1/Ɵ) - 2
Y = M X + C
Nature of the graph
n
B

n
(c) Put an optical pin at a point 0 when
1 = 90°. Look onto both mirrors and count
the number of images n you see.
-2 1 (Deg-1) (d) Repeat the procedures in 2(c) for

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= 72°, =60°, =45° and = 30° (f) Graph of n vS 360° θ

(e) Tabulate your result for value of , n and
360°
Nature of the graph
(f) Plot a graph of number of images, n against n
360°
B
(g) From the graph:
n
(i) Determine the slope
A
(ii) Find the number of images when 360°
360° = 9
θ
360°/
(iii) Find the value of the y-intercept. -1
QUESTIONS 6
(iv) Derive the equation relating the
number of images and 360° θ The aim of this experiment is to investigate
the relationship between the angle made by
(h) From your experiment incident ray with the mirror and the angle
(i) What happened to the number of turned through by the ray of light after
images as the value is reduced. striking the mirror.
(ii) What happened to the number of
images when = 0°? DIAGRAM
(i) State possible source of error and how
you can minimize it.
(j) What is the aim of this experiment?
M M’
SOLUTION
P2 i r P3
(e) TABLE OF RESULT

N 360°
θ P1 P4

90° 3 4 A
72° 4 5 B
60° 5 6
45° 7 8 Proceed as follows:
30° 11 12 • Draw a ray through pins P1and
P2 ℎ ℎ form angle of 20° with the
mirror trace the reflected ray and fix

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 PREPAIRED BY PHYSICIAN AND MATHEMATICIAN MR. STEVE MTEWELE
pins P3 and P4 when viewed from B +i + r + x = i + r + x + y
along it.
+x = x+y
• Remove the mirror and mark with
dotted line the path of the incident ray. When
Measure the angle turned through by
x = –y
ray of light (angle ) and record your
result +( – y) = ( – y) + y
• Repeat for =30°, 40°, 50°, and 60°,
(a) Record your result of , , and r in + ( – y) = 0
tabular form. = y
(b) Plot a graph of against
(c) Deduce the relation between and ∴ y =
(d) What are the relation and r (the angle x =
of reflection)
∴ The relation of and is =x+y
Theory:
but x = and y =
Consider the diagram below
=2
D
(a) TABLE OF RESULTS
y r
A B
20° 40° 70°
x
i r 30° 60° 60°
40° 80° 50°
50° 100° 40°
60° 120° 30°
C
(b) Nature of graph
Let =x+y
( )
From the diagram

+ i + r + x =180 ……………straight line B

Also

i + r + x + y = 180 ……………..straight line A

Equate equation (i) and (ii)
(Deg)

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From = 2 • Place the reflecting surface of the mirror

along AB place pins R and S to appear
= ½ + 0
in straight line with images of P and Q
c.f y = m x + c as shown above.
• Remove the pins R and S join ORS.
From comparison above, slope (M) = ½
Turn the mirror through an angle x = 10°
(c) Relation between and is = 2
so that the reflecting surface lies along
(d) The relation between and r is ∝ 1/r
CD stick pins T and U as appear in line
i.e as the value of increase the value
with the images of P and Q .
of r decrease
• Join the line OUT, record the angle
corresponding to α.
QUESTION– 07
(b) Repeat the experiment with α = 15°, 20°,
• The aim of this experiment is to 25°, 30°, and 35°. Tabulate your results.
determine the relationship between the (c) Draw the graph of against angle α
angle of rotation of the reflected ray (d) Determine the slope of the graph.
from a plane mirror and the angle of the (e) From the graph give the relationship
mirror. between α and

Proceed as follows:

(a) Put the drawing paper on the drawing Answer

board and draw two straight lines AB
(b) TABLE OF RESULTS
and CD to enclose an angle x = 10°.
Draw the line through OA’ making 75° ⍺
with AB. Then insert two pins P and Q 10°
on the same line 15°
20°
25°
30°
D 35°

O α = 10°
A B QUESTION 8

C Q R T Set up the experiment as shown in the diagram

below using plane mirror, soft board, three pins
and white sheet of paper.
P U

A’ S
Consider the diagram below:

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 PREPAIRED BY PHYSICIAN AND MATHEMATICIAN MR. STEVE MTEWELE
M when object touching the face of the mirror.
U V ANSWER
O N I
(a) TABLE OF RESULTS

U(cm) 3 6 9 12
V(cm) 3.0 6.0 9.0 12.0
B

A Theory:
E P For plane mirror: object distance (U) = image
distance (V)

Then,
• Fix white sheet of paper on the soft
board draw a line across the width at U = 1 V + O
about the middle of the white paper
(MP). Draw a line ONI perpendicular to Compare Y = MX + C
MP Nature of the graph:
• Fix optical pin O to make ON = U
=3CM , fix plane mirror along portion of U(cm)
MP with O in front of the mirror with
convenient position of eyes. E look into
the mirror and fix pin A and B to be in ∆
line into image I, of pin O. measure and
record NI=V, repeat procedure for U =
6cm, 9cm and 12cm. ∆
(a) Tabulate your result as;
O V(cm)
U(cm) 3 6 9 12
From the comparison above, slope (M) of the
V(cm)
graph = 1

(b) Plot a graph of U against V. (b) Refer to the graph

(c) Calculate slope N, of the graph to the (c) Points from the graph (V1,U1) and
nearest number (V2,U2)
Δ
(d) State the relationship between U and V (d) M=
Δ
(e) Write equation connecting U and V using (e) The relationship between U and V is
numerical value of M with symbols U and U=V
V. (f) From the graph, slope (M) =1
(f) From the equation give position of image X=V, Y=U, C=O

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Then Y = MX + C NATURE OF THE GRAPH

U = 1(V) + O (i) THE GRAPH OF sin i vs sin r

From Snell’s law
U=V
η =
(g) From the equation; U=V sin i = η sin r + 0
When U = 0cm Compare Y = M X + C
V = 0cm
sin i
When an object touching the face of the mirror
the image distance (V) will be = 0cm

(b) GLASS BLOCK

DATERMINATION OF
∆ sin
REFRACTIVE INDEX OF THE
GLASS BLOCK ∆ sin
CASE: 1 sin r

• Consider the diagram below. • Nature of the graph of sin i VS sin r is

straight line through the origin
P1
∆
P2 i Slope (M) =
∆

M = 1.5
r • Physical meaning of the slope it
represent refractive index of the glass
block.

CASE II: THE GTAPH OF sin r VS sin i

From Snell’s law:

∆
η =
∆
TABLE OF RESULTS

i r Sin i Sin r Sin i/sin r sin r = ( )sin i

sin r = ( ) sin i + 0

compare y = m x + c

TYPED BY Mr. SAM 0784207865 Page 17

 PREPAIRED BY PHYSICIAN AND MATHEMATICIAN MR. STEVE MTEWELE
Nature of the Graph Place the rectangular glass block flat on the
drawing paper fixed on the board. Using a
sin r
sharp pencil trace the outline of the block.

Remove the block and draw a normal

NAB near the left end of the block using
a protector measure angle I =20° from
∆ sin the surface of the block. Erect two pins
∆ sin P3and P1 at positions which appear to be
in straight line with the other two as seen
sin i normal the block. Again remove the
From comparison above place and measure the value of an angle
r.
Slope (M) = (a) Repeat procedures above for value of i =
30° 40° 50° and 60° each time making
η = 1.5 your drawing on fresh apart of the
drawing paper. Record clearly the
M =
. values. Of a sin i and sin r.
= 0.667 (b) Plot a graph of sin i (vertical axis)
against sin r (horizontal axis)
Note: Refractive index of glass block is η = 1.5 (c) Determine the slope η of the graph.
(d) What is the physical meaning of the
QUESTION 09
slope you have calculated in (d) above?
• The aim of the experiment is to (e) From the graph determine refractive
determine the refractive index of glass index of the glass block.
block for light passing from air to glass. (f) State any two sources of error and
precautions taken in this experiment.
Proceed as follows
ANSWER
• Consider the diagram below.
N (b) TABLE OF RESULT
P1
i° r° Sin i° Sin r°
P2 i A 20 13 0.34 0.225
30 19 0.500
40 25 0.643
r 50 30 0.766
C 60 34.7 0.866
B P3

P4

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 INCREASE YOUR PERFORMANCE IN PHYSICS PRACTICALS

(c) NATURE OF THE GRAPH TABLE OF RESULTS

sin i r cos sin r

∆ sin THE NATURE OF GRAPH OF Cos VS sin r

∆ sin From the Snell’s law

Δ
sin r η =
Δ

Sin i = η sin r

(d) Points from the graph ( ) and ( ) But sin i = cos

Δ Since i = 90° -
Slope η =
Δ
η = 1.5 Then, cos = η sin r + 0
(e) From the graph the refractive index of
the glass block will be 1.5 Comparing Y = M X + C
(f) Sources of error Slope (M) = refractive index (η)
(i) Parallax error
- minimize parallax error by looking • The graph of Cos AGAINST Sin r
with high accuracy is the straight line passing through
(ii) Angle measurement the origin.

-To be careful during collection of data. cos

CASE II

• Consider diagram below

∆
P1
P2 i ∆ sin

sin r
r

∆
P3 Slope (M) =
∆
P4 M = 1.52 ( refractive index)

TYPED BY Mr. SAM 0784207865 Page 19

 PREPAIRED BY PHYSICIAN AND MATHEMATICIAN MR. STEVE MTEWELE
Or of the glass block for light passing
from air to glass. Proceed as follows:
M = 3/2 (refractive index)
P1 N
THE GRAPH OF sin r VS cos
P2 A
sin r

r
C
B P3
∆ sin
P4
∆ cos
(a) Place the rectangular glass flat on the
Cos
drawing paper fixed on the board. Using
a sharp pencil trace outline of the block,
remove the block and draw a normal
Δ
Slope (M) = NAB near the left end of the block using
Δ
a protector measure angle = 20° from
Δ
From η= the surface of the block. Erect two pins
Δ
P1 and P2 on this line at suitable distance
Sin r = η sin r apart. Replace the block erect two more
cos = η sin r pins P3 and P4 at positions with appear to
be in straight line with the other two pins
Sin r = 1/η Cos + 0 as seen through the block. Again remove
Y = M X + C the block and measure the value of an
angle r.
Comparing (b) Repeat procedure above for value of =
From comparison above 30°,40° 50° and 60° each time making
your drawing on fresh apart of the
1
Slope (M) = /n drawing paper. Record clearly the value
1 of , i Cos and Sin r
M = /1.52
(c) Plot a graph of Cos (vertical axis
2
M = /3 against Sin r (horizontal axis)
(d) Determine the slope n of the graph
∴ M = 0.667
(e) What is the physical meaning of the
QUESTION 10 slope you have calculated in (d) above?
(f) From your graph determine critical
• The aim of this experiment is to angle of the glass block given 1/n= SinC°
determine the CRITICAL ANGLE
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(g) State any two sources of errors and QUESTION – 11

precautions taken in this experiment.
The aim of this experiment is to determine
ANSWER critical angle C of the given glass block.
Proceed as follows; palace a white sheet of the
(b) TABLE OF RESULT drawing board on top most (figure 2). Mark it
° r cos sin r outline ABCD on the paper with a pencil.
20 Remove the block and draw a line that cuts AB
30 perpendicularly at E and G.
40
P1 N
50
60 P2

A B
(c) draw graph of Cos Vs Sin r° E

(d) points from the graph ( ) and ( ) r

Δ
From slope η =
Δ
C G F P3 D
(e) The physical meaning of the slope is the
P4
refractive index of the rectangular glass
(a) Measure angle = 30° with a protector.
(f) From, 1/η = Sin C This angle of incidence. Put the glass
block in its original position and stick
Sin C = 1/η
the first pin P1 and p2 along the line of
C= sin (1/ ) the angle = 30°. The third and fourth
pins p3 and p4 should respectively be
C = sin (0.667) stick on the opposite side of the block
C = 42°49’ such that they paper in a straight line
with pins p1 and p2 that when viewed
(g)Source of errors in this experiment are:- side CD of the glass block.
(i) Parallax error • Remove the glass block and trace the
straight line connecting PnP4. Join line
(ii) Zero error EF by using ruler.
(iii) Setting pins • Measure the angle of refraction r and
then calculate the value of Cos and
PRECAUTION Sin r using a fresh page, repeat the
same procedures in (a)above for
• To be serious and more carefully
value of = 40°, 50°,60°,70° and 80°
during experiment.
TYPED BY Mr. SAM 0784207865 Page 21
 PREPAIRED BY PHYSICIAN AND MATHEMATICIAN MR. STEVE MTEWELE
(a) Tabulate the value of , r°, Sin r° and TABLE OF RESULTS
Cos
r x tan r
(b) Plot a graph of Sin r° against Cos
(c) Calculate the slope (S) of the graph
(d) Calculate the value of C when S = Sin c
(e) State two sources of errors and
precautions to be taken during the
experiment. THEORY

NB: Attach your drawings on the answer script From the diagram above, tan r° =

TABLE OF RESULT
tan r =
° r cos sin r
30 35 0.87 0.57 X = W tan r + 0
40 31 0.77 0.52 Comparing Y = M X + C
50 25 0.64 0.42
60 19 0.50 0.33 Nature of graph of x Vs tan r
70 13 0.34 0.23
80 7 0.17 0.12 Xcm

DETERMINATION OF WIDTH OF THE

∆
GLASS BLOCK
∆ tan
CASE: 1

Consider the diagram below;

Tan r
P1

P2

E From comparison above

r
Slope (M) of the graph = W (width) of the
graph block.
x P3

P4

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 INCREASE YOUR PERFORMANCE IN PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CASE II EF = =
° ( )
• Consider the diagram below.
=
° ( )
P1
A P2 i B dcos r° = W sin(i - r ) + 0
E Compare from Y = M X + C
i –r H
r d ;. Slope (M) is equal to the width of glass
D G P3 C block (W)

P4 d TABLE OF RESULT I

i r i –r d cos r dcos r Sin(i -r)

From the diagram above

Taken Δ EGF and EHF

E E

r i-r

W Nature of graph of dcos r Vs sin (i -r)

i.e dcos r

G F F d H

From Δ EGF ∆

Cos r =
∆sin ( − )
EF = ………………………….(i) Sin (i – r )
°

Also from Δ EHF

∆
Sin (i – r) = Slope (M) =
∆ ( )

Hence the graph of dcos r against sin (i - r) is

EF = sin ( − ) ……………….(ii)
the straight line passing the origin and its slope
is the width of the glass block.
Equate equation (i) and equation (ii)

TYPED BY Mr. SAM 0784207865 Page 23

 PREPAIRED BY PHYSICIAN AND MATHEMATICIAN MR. STEVE MTEWELE
NATURE OF THE GRAPH OF sin (i - r) (a) Place the rectangular glass bock on the
AGANST dcos r drawing paper fixed on the board using a
sharp pencil trace the outline of the
From = block. Remove the block and draw a
° ( )
normal NAB. Near the left and of the
dcos = W sin (i - r) block using a protector measure angle 0
( ) =20° from the surface of the block. Erect
=
two pins P1 and P2 on this line at
Sin (i - r) = (1 ) dcosr + 0 suitable distance apart, replace the block
erect two more pins P3 and P4 at
position which appear to be in straight
Compare from Y = M X + C lines with the other two as seen through
i.e sin (i – r) the block. Again remove the block and
draw complete path of the rays distance
BC and AC.
∆ sin( − ) (b) Repeat procedure above for value of =
30°, 40°, 50° and 60° each time making
your drawing on fresh apart of the
∆ drawing paper. Record clearly the values
of ,BC and AC. Find also cos and
dcos r calculate K =
From the comparison above,
(c) plot graph of cos (vertical axis)against
Slope (M) =( 1 ) K.
Δ ( ) (d) determine the refractive index n, given
Slope(M) =
Δ that η =
QUESTION -12 (e) State any two sources of errors and
precautions taken in this experiment.
The aim of this experiment is to determine the
refractive index of glass block for light passing TABLE OF RESULT
from air to glass; proceed as follows:
BC (cm) AC cm) ( )
P1
P2 20°
30°
A
40°
r 50°
60°
B C P3
P4

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QUESTION - 13 (d) Repeat the procedure (a) to (c) above for

angles of incidence 40°, 50°, 60°, and
You are provided with rectangular glass block
70° .
drawing board, 4 optical pins and while paper,
(e) Measure and record the dimensions of
place the glass block with one of its largest
the glass block. Tabulate your result as
source top most on the top glass block on the
shown below:
paper with a pencil. Remove the glass block
and draw a normal extending to the opposite Block ………width…….thickness……..
side as shown below:
i(deg) r(deg) Tan r Xcm
Consider the diagram below;

P1

P2 (f) i. Plot graph of x against tan r

i ii. Find the gradient of the graph
iii. Comment on the value of the
E
r gradient.

QUESTION 14
x P3
You are provided with a rectangular glass
P4
block board, four optical pins and a white sheet
(a) Draw a line making an angle of of paper.
incidence i = 30°, stick pins P1 and P2 a Consider the diagram below.
N
distance apart on the line drawn.
P1
(b) Replace the glass block on the outline A P2 i B
and stick two pins P3 and P 4 at position O
i –r
which will make all pins to be in straight r
d1
line as seen when observed through the D Z Q P3 d2 C
glass block from the opposite side. P4 d 3
M R
(c) Remove the glass block and draw the
S
completed path of the ray through the
(a) Place a rectangular glass block on the
block. Measure the angle of refraction r
drawing paper fixed. Using a sharp pencil
and distance x.
TYPED BY Mr. SAM 0784207865 Page 25
 PREPAIRED BY PHYSICIAN AND MATHEMATICIAN MR. STEVE MTEWELE
trace the outline of the block ABCD. Tabulate your result as shown below:
Remove the block draw a normal NOM at Sin
i° r°

Sin(i-r)

d1(cm)

d2(cm)

d3(cm)
a point O on AB near A. ( − )

Cos r

d(cm)
(i-r)
cos
• Draw a line making an angle of
incidence I of 60° and erect two pins P1 60
and P on this line at suitable distance 50
2

apart. Replace the glass block and erect 40

two more pins P3 and P4 at positions 30
which appear to be in straight line with i) Plot a graph of d (vertical axis)

the other two pins as seen through block against

from side DC. ( )

(b) Remove the block and draw the complete

path of the ray measure the angle of ii) Determine the slope M of the graph
refraction r. iii) Measure the width of the glass block
give your answer in cm.
i) Produce the direction of the incidence
iv) How do the results in (ii) and (iii)
ray from O to Z shown by the dotted line.
above compare?
ii) Measure the perpendicular distance v) What do you think is the aim of this
between OZ and the emergent ray QS at experiment?
three different positions Q, R and S call
NB: Hand in your diagram together with the
them d1, d2 and d3 respectively.
other answer sheets.
Find the mean d of the three measurements
QUESTION 15
where:
• The aim of the experiment is to
d =
determine the refractive index η of a
(c) Repeat the procedures in (a) and (b) for given glass blocks.
angles of incidence 50°,40° and 30° in each • Place the rectangular block on the white
case make your drawing on a fresh part of the paper on a drawing board. Using a
drawing paper. pencil trace the outline of the block.

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 INCREASE YOUR PERFORMANCE IN PHYSICS PRACTICALS

Remove the glass block and draw a (c) Find the slope G of the graph.
normal NON’ near the left end of the (d) Calculate the value of refractive index η,
block. given that G = 1 η
N
(e) State two sources of errors.
T1
T2 (c) DETERMINATION OF REFRACTIVE
R R INDEX OF LIQUID
O
r
• Most liquid used in the experiment is
R` N` T3 R` M water with refractive index η = 4 3
T4
• Using a protractor and a pencil measure • Apparatus required;
0 = 20°; draw a line making the angle i) Liquid
ii) Beaker
20° with the surface RR of the block. iii) Optical pin
Erect two pins T1 and T2 on this line and iv) Sliding cork
v) Report stand
at a suitable distance one another.
Return the block and erect the pins T3 • Consider example below:
and T4 at position such that they lie a
straight line with pins T1 and T2 as seen
QUESTION 16
through the block.
• The aim of this experiment is to
Now remove the block and draw a complete
determine the refractive index of a given
path of the ray.
liquid:-
• Measure the length MN` and ON`. • Take the given tall beaker (with pins
Repeat the procedure for values of = lying on its bottom) and fill it with the
40° and 60° respectively. In each case given liquid labeled L until it’s full.
drawing paper. • Move the pins up and down on the

(a) Record the values of 0, MN, ON`,

′ sliding cork until image of the first pin is
′
seen through an eye as illustrates in the
and cos in tabular form.
′
diagram below.
(b) Plot a graph of against cos .
′

TYPED BY Mr. SAM 0784207865 Page 27

 PREPAIRED BY PHYSICIAN AND MATHEMATICIAN MR. STEVE MTEWELE
DIAGRAM THEORY
Refractive index =
Searching pin
Retort Then,
Stand η =
A
Nature of graph of R Vs A
Sliding
R From η =
Cork
X R = η a + 0

Compare Y = m x + C
R(cm)
Optical pin

∆
GROUND

(a) Take the given tall cylinder with a pin lying ∆

on its bottom and fill it with the given
liquid labeled A to the depth, R = 40cm, Acm
From comparison above
then move the sliding cork up and down
Slope, m = η
(adjusting) until the image of the pin is seen For water η = 4
3
through the eyes as illustrated to the
HOW TO OBTAIN DATA
diagram above and measure the depth A.
From,
(c) Repeat the same procedure (a) above for ( )
η =
R=35,30,25 and 20cm, then prepare the ( )
4
table of results of R and A. 3 =
(d) Draw the graph of R (cm) against A(cm). A=R-X
(e) I) find the slope of the graph But
ii) what is the physical meaning of the Example
4 = 40
graph. 3
(f) What is the physical meaning of the
:. A = 30
graph.
X = 10
(g) By using value of slope you have
TABLE OF RESULT
calculated in (d) above suggest the name
R(cm) 40 35 30 25 20
of liquid labeled A.
A(cm) 30 26.25 22.5 18.87 15

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(e) R represent – real depth (b) Determine the slope (M) of the Graph
A represent – Apparent depth (c) Calculate the refractive index “η” of the
(f) The name of liquid A is water given liquid from the formula.
Y =
QUESTION 17
(d) Suggest the name of liquid L
• The aim of this experiment is to measure
the refractive index of a given liquid:-
• Take the given tall beaker (with the pins
ANSWER
lying on its bottom) and fill it with the
TABLE OF RESULTS
given liquid labeled L until it’s full.
X(cm) 60 50 40 30 20
Move the pins up and down on, the
Y(cm) 15 12.5 10 7.5 5
sliding cork until image of the first pin is
Note:
seen through an eye as illustrated in the ∆
diagram below. Slope (M) =
∆
:. M = 1 4
DIAGRAM
From Y = X
Searching pin
1
Retort 4 =
Stand
A 4(η-1) = η
Sliding 4η – 4 = η
X 4η – η = 4
Cork
Y
=

:. η =
Therefore refractive index η =
Optical pin
(d) The name of liquid is water
Nature of graph
Y(cm)
GROUND

• Measure the depth of the liquid X and

the height of the pin on the sliding cork ∆
(see the diagram).
• Repeat the procedure for about five
∆
different depths of the liquid.
• Tabulate the value of X and Y
Xcm
(a) Plot the graph of Y(cm) against X (cm)

TYPED BY Mr. SAM 0784207865 Page 29

 PREPAIRED BY PHYSICIAN AND MATHEMATICIAN MR. STEVE MTEWELE
From, QUESTION 18
Y = X + C • The aim of this experiment is to
determine the e.m.f E and internal
resistance r of a cell.
Y = M x + C
∆
Slope (M) =
∆
M = K

2. ELECTRICITY PRACTICAL (S) A

R
• According to scope it is required to
(a) Connect the circuit as shown in figure
discuss only about:
above. Put R = 1Ω and quickly read
(i) Ohm’s law
the value of I on the ammeter.
(ii) Metre bridge
(b) Repeat the procedure in (a) above, for
value of R = 2 Ω,3Ω, 4Ω and 5Ω
I) OHM’S LAW
respectively.
It state that “the voltage across a conductor is
(c) Tabulate your result and complete the
directly proportional to the current passing
following table.
through it when external condition are kept
Resistance Current I 1 (A– 1)
constant”
R (Ω) (A)
Mathematically
1
V ∝ I
2
On removing ∝ sign
3
V = KI
4
But K = Resistance (R)
5
V = RI
(d) Plot graph of R(Ω) against 1 (A– 1)
V = IR
For complete circuit (e) The graph uses the equation R = –r

i. Suggest how E and r may be

E
evaluated from your graph
ii. Evaluate E for one cell
iii. Evaluate r for one cell
R
(f) State one source of error and suggest
A
one way of minimizing it.

E = I (R + r)

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ANSWER TABLE OF RESULTS

Theory Resistance Current (A-1)
From the I both sides (Ω) (IA)
E = I (R + r) 1
Divide by I both sides 2
= R+r 3
4
Make R as a subject 5
R = E (1 ) - r
HOW TO ANSWER QUESTIONS
Y =M X - C
(d) Plot the graph of R (Ω) Vs 1 1 (A-1)
Nature of graph
(e) i) E and r may be evaluated from the
RΩ graph by finding the slope and R –
intercept of the graph, then the slope
represent and R – intercept represent
∆ (ii) E for one cell
From the graph
E = 3.0v
∆ For one cell =
.
= 1.5v
(iii) Also r for two cells was found to be
(1 ) A-1 1.0 Ω
.
Then for one cell r = = 0.5 Ω
-r
(f) Sources of error
(i) Error due to connection of wires
From comparison above (ii) Instrumental error
Slope (M) = E and R – intercept = - r (iii) Parallax error
(iv) Potential crop error
HOW TO OBTAIN DATA Precautions
From E = I (R + r) (i) To avoid parallax error
Note: E = (1.5 x 2) = 3.ov (2 – cells) (ii) Repairing of instruments
R = (0.5 x 2) = 1Ω (2-cells) (iii) To avoid many connections of wire.
Then;
3.0 = 1 (R + 1) QUESTION 19
I =
. • The aim of this experiment is to
determine the e.m.f find the internal
resistance of a given dry cell.

TYPED BY Mr. SAM 0784207865 Page 31

 PREPAIRED BY PHYSICIAN AND MATHEMATICIAN MR. STEVE MTEWELE
(a) Set up the electric circuit as shown 1 = 1
below E
K 1 = + 1

v 1 = +

=1 + rE
Where K = key, E – dry cell e.m.f,
V = voltmeter, R – resistor. r = -1(1 ) + (1⁄ )
E
(b) Starting with a resistor R = 10Ω and the
key closed, record R and the reading V 1 E 1
= r − 1
of the volmetre.
(c) Repeat the procedure in (b) above for
values of R equals to 5Ω, 4Ω, 3Ω, 2Ω.
(d) Plot the graph of Against Y = M x + C
Nature of graph 1 Vs 1
(e) from the graph determine
i. the slope 1 Ω-1
ii. intercept
(f) write the relation that connects

and ∆1
(g) Use (f) above to find the e.m.f and
∆
internal resistance of the dry cell.
(h) State any sources of error and
precautions taken in this experiment. (1 ) V-1
ANSWER
THEORY -1
From Ohm’s law
V = IR……………….(i) From the comparison above
But for complete circuit Slope (M) =
E = I (R +r) Y – intercept, : . ( = 0) = −1
I = …………….(ii)
Substitute equation (ii) in equation (i) HOW TO OBTAIN DATA
From,
V = R ………………..(iii) V = IR
Reciprocate equation (iii)
But I =

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Note: (f) determine the value of E and r, given

E = 1.5v for one cell that
r = 0.5Ω for one cell E = I(R + r)
R = variable =R+r
.
V = .
R
=R+r

= R +( )
TABLE OF RESULT
1
R (Ω) V(V) (Ω- 1
Required equation
1
1
) -
(V 1) 1

10 1.43 0.10 0.70 1 1

Nature of graph of Vs R
1
5 1.36 0.20 0.74
4 1.33 0.25 0.75 1 (A-1)
1
1
3 1.29 0.33 0.78
B
2 1.20 0.50 0.83

QUESTION 20 ∆1
The aim this experiment is to determine is to
A ∆
determine the e.m.f E and internal resistance r
of a dry cell.
R
(a) Connect the apparatus as shown below:
-1

r
From the comparison above
S
R Slope (M) of the graph =
A Y – intercept (R = 0) =
(b) Put R = 1Ω and quickly read the value HOW TO OBTAIN DATA
of the current I on the ammeter A. From
(c) Repeat the procedure in (b) above for R E = I (R + r)
= 2Ω, 2Ω, 3Ω, 4Ω and 5 Ω.
I =
(d) Tabulate your result include the value of
1 (A -1) But E = 1.5v, r = 0.5Ω
.
I=
(e) From your graph plot the graph of 1

(A -1) against R (Ω)

TYPED BY Mr. SAM 0784207865 Page 33

 PREPAIRED BY PHYSICIAN AND MATHEMATICIAN MR. STEVE MTEWELE
QUESTION 21 Nature of graph 1 Vs Lw
The aim of this experiment is to verify Ohm’s 1 B
law.
V ∆1

R A ∆
A

S
Lw
Rh Slope (M) =
(a) Set up the apparatus as shown on figure Y = intercept =
above, close switch S. Adjust the
NOTE:
Rheostat Rh sliding slowly from one
i) resistivity of Constantine wire =
end, read and record the value V of the
49x10-7 Ωm
voltmeter and current I of the ammeter.
ii) resistivity of Nichrome wire = 10 x
(b) Repeat the experiment by changing the
10-7 Ωm
Rheostat slider to obtain about five pair
iii) diameter of Nichrome = (0.35 – 0.37)
of readings.
iv) Constantine wire = (0.28 – 0.34) mm
NB: Adjust the Rheostat until when the
pointer is exactly on the division of the
QUESTION 22
metre scale.
The aim of this experiment is to determine the
resistivity of an electrical conductor p
TABLE OF RESULT
V(v) B S Rh
I(A) L
p
(c) Plot a graph of v (vertical axis) against I
(horizontal axis). A
(d) i. Find the slope of the graph.
V
ii. What are the relations between V and
I? • With p having a length L = 50cm,
connect up the circuit as shown above.
Close the keys and adjust the Rheostat
Rh so that the current I and the potential
difference V between its ends.
• Repeat the procedures with current I =
0.30A, 0.40A, 0.50A and 0.60A
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(a) Record your results in table below But A =

Current (I)
P.d (V) G =

(b) Plot a graph of V against I and calculate Note:

slope G. Source of error
(c) Deduce the resistivity of the conductor (i) Calibration error (instrumental Error)
given that = (ii) Potential drop
Where (iii) Decrease the voltage of the battery
- Resistivity (iv) Loose connection.
d- diameter of (measure by using
micrometer screw gauge provided) QUESTION - 23
ANSWER You are required to determine the unknown
THEORY PART resistance labeled X using metre bridge circuit.
From Ohm’s law Connect your circuit as shown below, Where R
V = 1rp……….(i) is a resistance box, G is a Galvanometer, J is A
But from Jockey and others are common circuit
components.
=
X R
Rp = ………… (ii)
Substitute equation (ii) in equation (i)
V = 1
V = I + 0 G
L
Y = M X + C A B
Nature of the graph of V Vs I
V(v) K

PROCEDURE
 With R =1Ω, obtain a balance point on a
∆ metre bridge wire AB using a Jockey J.
Note: the length L (in cm) repeat the
∆ experiment with R equals to 2Ω, 4Ω, 7Ω
I(A) and 10Ω. Tabulate your result for R, L
and
From the comparison
(a) i) Plot a graph of R (vertical axis)
Slope (G) = against (horizontal axis)

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 PREPAIRED BY PHYSICIAN AND MATHEMATICIAN MR. STEVE MTEWELE
ii) Determine the slope S of your graph. Nature of the graph of R Vs is
iii) Using your graph, find the value of R
RΩ
for which = 0.02
(b) Read the record the R – intercept on the
vertical axis. ∆
(c) Given that,
R=
Use your equation and your graph to determine ∆
on your result in (a) (iii) and (c) above. (25
marks) (1 ) cm-1
THEORY
From the diagram given use principle of metre
bridge we have.
= Slope, S =
Cross multiplication SI unit of slope = Ω cm
LR = X(100 – L) Note: Value of unknown resistor can be shown
X(100 – L) = LR by resistance box given – is constant
100X = XL + RL mostly is 1Ω, 2Ω, 3Ω or 4Ω
= (X + ) iii) Find the resistance R
R+X = ANSWER
THEORY
R == –X V∝ 1
Then, V = KI (K=resistance )
R = (100X) 1 −
V = IR
V = RI
Y = M X + C Nature of graph of V vs I
From comparison above V(v)
Slope of the graph, S = 100X
Y-intercept = x

∆
I(A)

∆
Slope (M) =
∆

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 INCREASE YOUR PERFORMANCE IN PHYSICS PRACTICALS

M = R(Ω) (d) Measure and record the diameter at four

different places on the wire. Hence find
QUESTION 24 the mean value of diameter 1 d.
 Determine the resistivity of the wire (e) Given that, G = and y =
labeled W and the internal resistance of
the battery provided.
Where E is the e.m.f of the batter and R =
Proceed as follows:
2Ω, find the
B
i. Resistivity of the wire
A
ii. Internal resistance or of the battery

2Ω
ANSWER
Plug key
THEORY PART
For E of complete circuit
W
E = IR + 1RW + Ir
LW
E = I(R + RW + r)
=R+r
 Connect the circuit as seen in figure
above with the plug key open adjust the = Rw + (R+ r)
length of wire W to a value of 20cm.
But, =
note the ammeter reading.
NB: The plug key should remain open = + (R +r)
throughout the Experiment. = LW +
(a) Repeat the procedures above for
LW=40cm, 60cm, 80cm and 100cm,
Y = M X + C
each time recording the ammeter reading
.
(b) Tabulate your result as shown:
Length LW Current 1 (A-1)
of wire (cm) I(A)

(c) i. Plot a graph of 1 (vertical) against

Lw
ii. Determine the slope G
iii. Determine the intercept Y on the
vertical axis.

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 PREPAIRED BY PHYSICIAN AND MATHEMATICIAN MR. STEVE MTEWELE
QUESTION 25 (e) Suggest the suitable title for this
The figure below show a meter bridge with experiment.
two resistances X and R connected for ANSWER
comparison purpose. X is unknown resistance THEORY
while R is a known resistance. From the diagram of metre Bridge
K =
dR = X (100 –d)
X R dr = 100X –Xd
dr + Xd = 100X
d(R+X) = 100x
R+X=
G ( )
R = -X -
A C B ( )
R = - - X
J
100cm
Y = M X + C
 The dry cell drives the current through From comparison above,
X, R and the bridge wire AB. K is the Slope, S = X
switch, G and J are respectively a y-Intercept = X
galvanometer and Jokey A balance point Note:
C is found for different values of The nature of graph of R against is a
resistance R. value of length d=AC are straight line with negative R – intercept. i.e.
to be recorded corresponding values of RΩ
R as shown in the table below.
R(Ω) 1 2 5 7 8
D(cm) ∆
100
∆
(a) complete the table by filling the value of
( 100 ) cm-1
d and 100
-X
(b) plot a graph of R against 100
∆
(c) find the slope S of the graph Slope, S =
∆
(c) Determine the intercept R0 on R-axis S=X
(d) Deduce value of X And R – intercept = X

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TABLE OF RESULT (a) Retort stand

R(Ω) D(cm) 100

( )
Retort
1
stand
2
3
4
5
6
7

3 MACHANICS (b) Thread of length, L

 According to your scope mechanics Thread
practicals involve different groups, A B
which are:
i) Simple pendulum (c) Pendulum bob, of mass M
ii) Hooke’s law
iii) Equilibrium
iv) Determination of density a substance
(I) Sample pendulum
 Simple pendulum is an experiment
designed in order to determine Bob
acceleration due to gravity, g which is
found to be 9.8 (d) Stop watch
 Hence main aim (objectives) of the
simple pendulum is determination of
acceleration due to gravity g at different
places.
 In order to conduct experiment which
involves simple pendulum, following
instruments are required.
Used to record time

(e) Metre ruler: used to measure length of

the thread.

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 PREPAIRED BY PHYSICIAN AND MATHEMATICIAN MR. STEVE MTEWELE
(f) Table or simple pendulum (arrangement QUESTION 26
of simple pendulum) it can be illustrated The aim of this experiment is to determine the
as shown in diagram below. acceleration due to gravity, g at your centre
proceed as follows:
(a) The pendulum bob as shown below in
the diagram.
Retort
stand
L
(b)
Retort
(c)
stand
Bob L
Bench

Bob
GROUND Bench

 The periodic time of simple pendulum bob

id given by. GROUND

T (d) Starting with L = 100cm displace a bob

through a small angle along the direction
Where by of the length and release it so that is
T- periodic perform small amplitude.
L – length of thread Oscillation. Determine time taken for 20.
G – acceleration due to gravity Oscillation and hence periodic time T.
-constant (3.14) (e) Repeat procedure (b) above for value of
Note: L = 80cm, 60cm, 40cm, 20cm and
- Since periodic time T is given by 10cm. tabulate the value of L (cm) t(20
oscillations), T(s) and T2(S2)
T = 2π , hence T depends
(f) Plot graph of T2 against length L(cm)
(g) Determine the slope of the graph, M
Only on length, L and acceleration due to (h) By using graph in (e) above and the
gravity and its independent on the mass of the
bail. equation T = , find the value of
acceleration due to gravity, g.
(i) Mention two sources of error.

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ANSWER TABLE OF RESULTS

THEORY L(cm) T(20 T(s) T2(S2)
From the relation oscill)
100
T=
80
Square both sides 60
T2 = 40
20
T2 = L + 0…required equation 10

Compare . y = M X + C Note:
 Nature of graph of T2 Vs L (cm)  When you are answering these kinds of
T2 (S2) practical (any practical) follow the required
procedure, and show the main relation
which will help you to find the value
∆ required.
i.e. g = 9.8 / ≈ 10 /
∆
QUESTION -27
L(cm) The aim of this experiment is to determine the
acceleration due to gravity, g at your centre.
- From comparison above Proceed as follows:
∆ (a) Arrange the apparatus as shown in figure
Slope, M = =
∆ below:
- Hence, value of acceleration is obtained (b) the diagram.
from comparison of slope of the graph
M and the component of the slope in the
required equation.
i.e. slope (M) = (c)
Retort
(d)
stand
M = L
4
g =

Bob
Since M and 2 are known hence “g” can
be obtained.
Table
Consider the table of results following down:
GROUND

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 PREPAIRED BY PHYSICIAN AND MATHEMATICIAN MR. STEVE MTEWELE
(e) Starting with L = 10cm, displace a bob From comparison above
through a small angle along the direction Slope, M =
of the length and release it so that it g = 4M
perform small amplitude t, for 20 Since, M is calculated from the graph hence
oscillations and hence periodic time T. the value of g can be obtained by using the
(f) Repeat procedure (b) above for value of relation above.
L= 40cm, 60cm, 80cm and 100cm.
hence tabulate the value of L(cm). T
SOURCE OF ERROR
(sec), T(sec) and T2(S2). (i)Angle relation error
(g) Plot graph of L(cm) against T2 (S2) (ii) Timing of stop watch error
(h) Determine the slope of the graph.
(i) By using slope calculated and the
TABLE OF RESULT (S)
relation T =2 , determine the value L(cm) T(20 T(s) T2(S2)
oscillations)
of acceleration due to gravity “g”
(j) State two source of error.
ANSWER
Theory:

 From T = 2

Square both sides Note:

T2 = 4 /  To present data use two decimal places in
Make L as a subject case of time, and decimal place in case of
length measurement in cm.
=
 Remember to show the relation (equation)
= required to the graph and evaluate the value
of acceleration due to gravity by
L = T2 + 0 comparing.

Y = M X + C QUESTION – 28
Nature of the graph of L Vs T2  In this experiment you are required to
L(cm) ( ) and the relationship between the length
of simple pendulum and period.
∆ (a) Suspend a simple pendulum of length L
( ) = 100cm, displace a pendulum through a
∆ small angle so that it swings parallel to
the angle of the beach or table,
T2(S2)
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determine time for 20 oscillations. Log10T = Log10 K + log 10

Continue reducing the length of the Log10T = Log10K + a Log10
pendulum by 10cm each time and obtain Log10T = a Log10 + log 10K
a total of six readings.
(b) Recover your readings in a table as Comparing with y = M X + C
shown below: Then:
Length of Log10 L Time for Period Log10 T Log10T = y – axis
pendulum 20 (T)
L(cm) oscillation Log10T = X - axis s
Slope, M = a
Intercept, C = log10K
Nature of graph of Log10T against log 10L
Log10T

∆
Assuming that T ∝
T = K , we have
T= K and taking logarithm to base 10 ∆
on both we get
Log10L
10 T = 10 L + 10 K
i) Plot a graph of 10 T against 10 L
hence determine the value of α and Log10K
each correct to one decimal place
ii) From the answer the answer in (i) write
∆
the value of and K each inform Slope, M =
∆
Approximation of the value of a and k,
where are integer (whole numbers)
From,
iii) From the assumption and your answer in
(ii) deduce the form of equation T = 2
governing the motion of the simple
pendulum. √
T = 2
ANSWER √
1
Theory 2
T = ( )2
√
From the given relationship
T∝
Compare from k
Removing “∝” 2 1
T =K k= and =
√ 2
Introducing log10 on both sides k = 0.2 since =3.14 and
Log 10T = Log10 g = 980cm/s2

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 PREPAIRED BY PHYSICIAN AND MATHEMATICIAN MR. STEVE MTEWELE
1 oscillation; repeat this process for values of
∴ = and k = 0.2
2
= 20, 40 , 60 and 80cm.
Hence
1 a. Tabulate the value of , t, T and
i) Slope of the graph is, a =
2 T2
ii) Intercept, C = log k b. Find the slope S, of your graph
C = log100.2
and evaluate the
C = -0.7 .
∴ log10K = - 0.7 iii) Read and record the value of T2 when
= 0. T02
QUESTIONS 29 (c) Evaluate Q where Q=
 Tie a thread to a given pendulum bob make
a knot distance from the bob. This distance (d) How is b relate to ?
should be of the order of 10cm. set up a (e) Find the value of acceleration due to
simple pendulum as shown in the diagram gravity, “g”
below, measure and record the distance, b (f) Write three sources of error and its
between knot N and the pendulum bob B. precautions.
The distance between N and point of ANSWER
suspension Y is denoted by “ ” as indicated Theory:
below: - From general equation of periodic time
of pendulum bob, B

T=2

Retort But from the diagram L = (a + b)

stand
T=2 +

Square both sides

b
4
Bench Bob T2 = (a+b)
4
T2 = +4
 Adjust-
To be 10cm. pull a pendulum aside and
then release it so that it swings in to c.f Y = M X + C
and fro movements with small amplitude Hence,
4
of vibrations. Slope (S) =
 Record time t, for 30 oscillations and hence 4
determine the period time T for one S =

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 INCREASE YOUR PERFORMANCE IN PHYSICS PRACTICALS

4
S =
Y
4
Also, T02 intercept =
4
T02 =
4
But = S (slope) N
b
T02 = Sb
b = Bob
2 2
Nature of graph of T (S ) against (cm) Table
T2(S2)
(a) Tie a thread to a given pendulum bob
and suspend to a point of suspension Y
∆T2(S2) as shown above.
 Displace a pendulum through a small angle
and then release it so that it perform small
∆ (cm) oscillations.
T0 2
 Record time t by using stop watch for 30
(cm) oscillations and then determine the periodic
time, T of an oscillation.
 Repeat the step (a) above for value of x
∆T2 ( ) =20cm, 30cm, 40cm, 60cm and 80cm each
Slope, S =
∆ (cm) time record t, T.
(b) i) Plot a graph of T2(S2) Vs X (cm).
TABLE OF RESULTS ii) from your graph of equation
( ) t(oscillation) T (S) T2(S2) 4
T2 = (X + b) find g.
ANSWER
Theory

From T = 2

From,
But L = x + b
T2 = 0.04L
T =2 +
QUESTION -30
The aim of this experiment is to determine Square both sides
acceleration due to gravity “g”, proceed as 4
T2 = (x + b)
follows:

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 PREPAIRED BY PHYSICIAN AND MATHEMATICIAN MR. STEVE MTEWELE
4
T2 = X + b slope, S = 4 = 0.04
4 2b
Intercept =
Compare y = M X + C
4
- Slope (S) = QUESTION – 31
- Intercept, C = The aim of this experiment is to determine
acceleration due to gravity “g” proceed as
Therefore the value of b can be calculated by
follows.
comparing intercept C from.
C = Y
4
But =S

=
N
∴ b=
b
Nature of graph of T2 (S2) against X (cm)
T2(S2) Bob
Table
Ground
∆T2(S2)
(a) Tie a thread to a given pendulum bob and
suspend to a point of suspension Y as
∆ (cm) shown above. Make a knot N at a short
C distance from B. this distance should be of
(cm) the order of 10cm which denoted as “b”
adjust X to be 20cm which is the distance
from knot N to point of suspension Y.
TABLE OF RESULTS (b) Displace a pendulum bob through a small
x(cm) T(sec) T(sec) T2(S2) angle and then release it so that it perform
small oscillations.
(c) Record time “t” for 30 oscillation and then
determine the periodic time T of an
oscillations. Repeat the procedure for
values of X = 0,40,50,60 and 70cm each
time record t and T.
Note:
(d) Plot graph of x (cm) against T2(S2)
Since X are in cm, then the value of
(e) Determine slope of the graph, M.
g = 980 2 and π = 3.14, then slope,
(f) From your graph and equation

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 INCREASE YOUR PERFORMANCE IN PHYSICS PRACTICALS

X = -b Nature of graph of X (cm) Vs T2 (S2)

i) Find the acceleration due to gravity straight line with negative R – intercept. i.e.
“g” X(cm)
ii) Constant distance “b”

ANSWER ∆
Theory
- From periodic time of simple pendulum, ∆T2
T.
T2(S2)
T=2 C

But L = x + b

T =2 QUESTION 32
The aim of these experiment is to determine
Square both sides constant distance, N and acceleration due to
4 2 ( )
T2 = gravity by using simple pendulum proceed as
follows:-
Make X as a subject
(a) Set up experiment as shown in the figure
X = [g/(4π2 )] T2 - b
below:
Comp. y = M X +C
Y
From comparison above,
Slope, M = g/(4π2 )
∴ acceleration due to gravity can be
calculated by finding first gravity of
X
the graph, M
N
Since, M = g/(4π2 )
g = 4Mπ2 ⁄
Bob
Also,
Table
Y - intercept C = -b
Ground
Therefore constant distance “b” can be found
(b) Make a knot X from the point of
on the graph by finding Y – intercept.
suspension to the knot X distance be
10cm which is denoted as N.
(c) Adjust distance M which is from the
point of knot X to the bob be 30m
displace the bob through a small angle
TYPED BY Mr. SAM 0784207865 Page 47
 PREPAIRED BY PHYSICIAN AND MATHEMATICIAN MR. STEVE MTEWELE
and then release it so that it oscillates to Therefore acceleration due to gravity “g” can
the formation , record time “t” for 30 be obtained by finding slope,
complete oscillations and determine 4 2
M =
periodic time T.
4 2 2
(d) Repeat the procedure in (b) and (c) ∴ g =
above for a distance M be = 50,70,90,
Also,
100cm.
- Constant distance, N can be obtained by
(e) Tabulate the values of t(s), T(s) and
reading y – intercept from the graph,
T2(S2)
4 2
(f) plot the graph T2 Vs M C=
(g) Determine the equation which show the =N
2 2 4 2
relationship between T (S ) and M (cm)
Required equation was
(h) From your graph and the equation
2 4 2 +4
2
derived in (g) above determine T =
acceleration due to gravity in 2.
Nature of graph
ANSWER T2 (S2)
Theory
From the diagram, ∆T2

T=2
But L = N +M ∆M
C
T= 2 +
M (cm)

Square both sides

4 2( )
T2 = QUESTION -33
The aim of this experiment is to determine the
gT2 = 4 2
(N + M)
2 2 2
acceleration due to gravity “g” proceed as
= + follows:-
= 4
2 4 2 Set up the apparatus as shown in the figure
T2 M
+
below:

Compare Y= M x + C
- From comparison above
4 2
Slope (M) =
4 2
y – intercept, C =

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Square both sides.

4π2
T2 = (H-d)
g
H
L
4 2 4 2
T2 = -

4 2 4 2
Table d T2 = − d + H

Compare y = M X + C
GROUND
a. Suspend a pendulum from a fixed point 4 2
using a retort stand such that it is a distance Slope of the graph, M =
d = 10cm from the floor.
b. Displace the pendulum through a small Intercept C = 4 2
angle θ = 10o to one side and record the
time for 10 oscillations and hence find the
NATURE OF THE GRAPH
periodic time, T for one oscillation.
c. Vary “d” in intervals of “d” and repeat the T2(S2)
procedure in (b) above.
d. Tabulate your readings for values of d, t, T C
and T2.
e. Plot the graph of T2 against d.
∆ T2
f. i. Determine the slope of the graph.
ii. Determine the intercept along the ∆d
horizontal axis.
iii. What does the intercept along the d- d(cm)
axis in (ii) above represent?
iv. if T2 = + calculate the - intercept along the horizontal (T2 = 0)
acceleration due to gravity. From,
ANSWER
4 2 4 2
Theory: T2 = − d + H
For time period of simple pendulum,
4 2 4 2
T = 2π 0 = − d + H

But L = H-d
4 2 4 2
d = H
T = 2π

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 PREPAIRED BY PHYSICIAN AND MATHEMATICIAN MR. STEVE MTEWELE
d = H metre rule as shown.
(b) i) Starting with L = 80cm displace the bob
- intercept along d-axis represent the through a small angle along the direction
height, H of the table. of the length of the rule and then release
it so that it performs small amplitudes of
- Acceleration due to gravity can be
20 oscillations and hence periodic time
calculated by comparing the value of for one oscillation.
slope.
ii) Without altering “d” repeat b (i) above
for the following values of L = 70, 60,
M = − 50, 40, 30 and 20cm.
(c) Plot a graph of T2 (S2) against the length L
= − determine the acceleration due to gravity
and the value of k given that:
.
= − cm/s2 T2 = L + K

QUESTION 34 (d) What is the significance of the constant K

in the experiment?
The aim of this experiment is to determine
acceleration due to gravity “ ” and the constant (e) State any two sources of error and
K of the ruler provided. precautions involved.
d
QUESTION 35
In this experiment you are required to
determine “ ”. Proceed as follows:
(a) Set up an experiment as shown in the
L
diagram below

P Q

(i) Using a clamp fix metre rule on one leg of

2
the bench as shown. The flat part of the
ruler should be vertical and the projection
R
L from the fixed end should be 80cm.
(ii) By means of a string given, suspend the
Bob
pendulum bob from the hole through the
S

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 INCREASE YOUR PERFORMANCE IN PHYSICS PRACTICALS

PQR is the thread about 80cm long with its Assemble the piece of apparatus as shown in
centre at R it is attached to wire loop P and Q figure above, with zero mark scale of the rule
on a metre ruler, the loops are tight but can be at the lower most ends.
slide along the metre rule when this is
- Record the reading of the position of
designed.
pointer on the scale of metre rule when
-
The metre rule is clamped in such a way the pan is empty as S0.
that its scale faces the observer. Suspend - Put 20g to the pan and record pointer
the simple pendulum S of length about reading S.
20cm. Slide loops P and Q until the - Find extension e = S – S0 cm.
angle PQR(2 ) measured by protector
is 70°. Repeat the procedure for mass of 40g, 60g,
-
Displace the simple pendulum slightly 80g and 100g. Put object X on the pan and
for each value of 2 hence determine record its pointer reading.
the period T of Oscillations but 2 =70° (a) Summarize your result in table as follows:
, 90° , 110°, 130°, 150°. Mass on pan(g) 20 40 60 80 100 X
2,
(a) Tabulate your result of 2 ,Cos , t, T and T
Pointer reading(cm)
(b) Plot a graph of T2 Vs Cos
(c) Assume T2 = a Cos + b where a and b are Extension(S-S0) cm
constant and use graph to determine a and b
evaluate a/b.
(b) Plot graph of mass against extension.
(c) Find slope, P of your graph.
QUESTION 36 (d) Find mass X.
This is experiment you are required to (e) Find Q, given that Q =P × e×, where e× is
extension of X.
determine the mass of unknown object “ ”.
(f) Comment on Q and X.
Clamp Metre rule Solution

This experiment is governed by Hooke’s

law discovered by scientist Robert Hooke.

Spiral spring
- Hooke law states that “within elastic

limit, force applied is direct proportional

Pan
to the extension”.
Optical pin
Force applied ∝ extension
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 PREPAIRED BY PHYSICIAN AND MATHEMATICIAN MR. STEVE MTEWELE
F ∝ e ∆
(b) Slope (p) =
∆
Or ∆
Slope (p) =
Mass ∝ extension ∆

M ∝ e P=_________g/cm

F = Ke Or M=Ke (c) To determine mass X first of all recall

extension at a time when the mass of the
pan was X.

K= Or K= e. g.
M(g)
( )
K=

K= N/M y

Where by
K is called force constant or Coefficient of 0 N Extension (cm)
stiffness.
Mass y( ) is the mass of object X
- SI Unit of K is Newton per metre (N/M)
or gram per centimeter ( g/cm). (d) Q = P × ex
Nature of graph of M (g) Vs extension (cm) . Where by
From the Hook’s Law. P = Slope of the graph.
M∞e ex = extension of mass x.
M = K e + 0 ….…….(i)
Compared from y = M x + c …………(ii) Q= x cm
Q = ________
By comparing the equations (i) and (ii), the
graph of mass against extension is straight (e) Q is the mass of an object X
line passing through the origin.
M(g) QUESTION 37
The aim of this experiment is to determine
the mass of the unknown weight labeled x
and the force constant for the spring K.
∆
- Set up an apparatus as shown on the
figure below.

∆
0 Extension (cm)

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L(g)
0cm

Retort Pointer Retort

Stand 50 stand ∆

0 Extension (cm)
∆
Weight Pan (b) (i) Gradient (G) =
∆
∆
G =
100cm ∆

G = _____g/cm.
Set up the apparatus provided as shown in the (ii) Slope of the graph represent force
figure above. Add 50g mass on the weight pan constant or efficient of stiffness.
so that any “kinks” in the spring are removed. (c) From
Leave this weight for the whole experiment but
ignored it in all readings . record the scale M ∝ e
reading S0 . add 50g on to the weight pan and M = ke
record the new scale reading S. calculate the
But k = slope (G) of the graph.
extension (e=s-s0) caused by weight .Repeat
with different weights (W) to obtain at least M = Ge
five readings. Replace the weight (W) by the Mass of weight X = Gex
weights X provided and find the corresponding
extension. M = Gex
Where by
- Record this extension as Sx ____cm
(a) Plot a graph of load against extension. G – slope (gradient) of the graph
(b) (i) Find gradient G of your graph
(ii) What is the physical meaning of the ex- extension of the mass (weight) X
gradient? QUESTION 38
(c) From the graph, what is the mass of the
weight labeled X? To determine the unknown mass M0 and the
(a) Load ∝ extension. acceleration due to gravity by suing and
L∝e oscillating mass attached to a spiral spring.
Forced as follows.
L = k e + 0

Y = Mx + c

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 PREPAIRED BY PHYSICIAN AND MATHEMATICIAN MR. STEVE MTEWELE
(c) Record your measurements in table
0cm
shown below.
Load Time t for Period T2
M 30 T (sec2)
(g) oscillation (sec)
Retort Pointer 50
Stand 50 100
200
250
Weight Pan 300

100cm
(d) Plot a graph of M against T2
(e) Find the slope and the intercept on the
M– axis.
STEP I. (f) Use the equation and your graph to
calculate the value of the acceleration
Note that metre rule has its zero mark at the
due to gravity “g” and the unknown
top.
mass Mo is given by
Record the pointer reading X0 M= −
Put the scale a mass of 50g and record
Solution
late the extension E = X - X0
corresponding to the added mass. (d) From the equation that govern this
Find the volume of constant K by experiment.

K= M= −

M=[ ] −
K =
Compare : y = M x + c
STEP II Graph of M against T2 is straight line passing
(a) Remove the scale pan and attach the through negative M- intercept.
unknown mass M0 with the 50g at the M
end of the spring. Slightly pull down the
masses such that its oscillates up and
down. Measure and record the time of
30 oscillations.
(b) Repeat the procedure in (a) above the ∆
attaching mass of 100g, 150g, 200g,
250g and 300g respectively each time ∆
with the unknown mass attached and T2 (S2)
measuring the time taken 30 oscillation.
M0
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∆ ∆ interval to drop. Record the reading of

(e) Slope = =
∆ ∆ the water collected.
∆ (c) Repeat the procedure in ( b) for standard
Slope = and intercept on the M-axis
∆ masses of 100g,150g,200g and 250g.
= M0 (d) Tabulate your results showing the
Quantities as follows.
M= − Mass (g) Volume Mass, vol(g/cm3)
(cm3)
50
M=[ ] −
100
Compare : y = M x + c 150
200
Slope (M) = 250

=4 ( )
(e) Plot a graph of mass against volume.
( ) (f) State the nature of the graph.
=
(g) From the graph.
QUESTION 39 (i)Calculate the slope.
(ii)What does the slope of the graph
You are provided with a measuring cylinder, show?
eureka can, nylon thread, standard masses and (iii) What is the relation between mass
water proceed as follows. and volume.
(iv) Establish formula governing the
(a) Poor water into eureka can until it is just
experiment.
begging to over flow.
(h) Identity with reasons the best to the least
Eureka Can Nilon thread
satisfactory method of finding the
Spout
constant value of mass divided by
Standard volume.
Mass (i) State the two possible errors in this
Measuring
Cylinder
experiment.
Bench (j) How can you minimize errors in (i)
above.
Displaced Water
Solution
(e) m
(b) Hold a suitable measuring cylinder
under the spout and immerse a standard B
mass of 50g into eureka can as shown in ∆
figure above. Water will pass through a
spout and will be collected by the A ∆
measuring cylinder. Wait for it to drop
v
until it starts to cease and take long

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 PREPAIRED BY PHYSICIAN AND MATHEMATICIAN MR. STEVE MTEWELE
(f) Nature of the graph is linear that passes QUESTION 40
through the origin.
You are provided with five places of slotted
∆ masses of 50g, 100g, 150g, 200g and 250g,
(g) (i) slope (M) = ( g/cm3)
∆ two measuring cylinders of 10ml and 50ml,
∆ eureka can, one beaker, one piece of cotton
= (g/cm3)
∆ thread 30cm long sources proceed as
(ii) Slope of the graph shows density of follows:-

the standard mass. a) Place the beaker under the spout of the
eureka can, pour water into the eureka can
∆
(iii) Slope (M) = until it over flows through the spout.
∆
b) Allow the over flowing water to flow
∆ =Mx∆ into the beaker until the last drop.
c) Gently lower the slotted mass of 50g
∆m = Mv into the eureka can until it is totally
m= slope x V immersed in water without touching the
walls of the can .
(iv) From the general equation of linear graph. Nilon thread

Eureka Can
Y = Mx + C Spout

But y = mass(m)
Standard Measuring
X = volume (v) Mass Cylinder

C=0
Displaced Water
m= M x v + o
m= xV
d) Record the volume (v) of water
= m/v
displaced by slotted mass.
(f.) (i) parallax error that occurs when e) Repeat the experiment with 100g, 150g,
the observer measures wrong 200 and 250g. Tabulate your result as
volume of water displaced. follows.
(ii) Instrumental error that occur due
to poor handling of the instrument. Mass of slotted 50 100 150 200 250
mass(g)
(g) (i) To minimize parallax error, the Volume of
observer must always take the water
perpendicular reading from the displaced
instruments. (cm3)
(ii) To minimize instrumental error,
proper handling of instruments is
recommended. f) (i) complete the table

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(ii) Plot a graph of “m” (vertical axis) :. Slope of the graph gives density of
against “v” (horizontal axis). the slotted mass in (g/cm3)
(iii) Determine the slope of your graph.
(iv) What is the means of the slope. (v) POSSIBLE SOURCES OF ERROR
(v) Write down the possible source of a. Parallax error that occurs when the
error. observer reads long volume of the
slotted mass in g/cm3
b. Instrumental error that occur due to poor
handling of instrument.
Solution
THEORY
( )
QUESTION 41
From density =
( ) You are provided with five places of slotted
= masses of 50g, 100g, 150g, 200g and 250g,
M = v + 0 two measuring cylinders of 10ml and 50ml,
eureka can, one beaker, one piece of cotton
Y = m x +C thread 30cm long sources proceed as
Nature of graph of mass m (g) against follows:-
volume V (cm3)
(a) Place the beaker under the spout of the
Solution eureka can, pour water into the eureka
(e) m( ) can until it over flows through the spout.
(b) Allow the over flowing water to flow
B into the beaker until the last drop.
∆ (c) Gently lower the slotted mass of 50g into
the eureka can until it is totally immersed
A ∆
in water without touching the walls of
0 V(cm3) the can.
∆ Nilon thread
- Slope (M) of the graph = Eureka Can
∆
- From comparison above
Spout
Standard
Slope (M) = density ( ) Mass
Measuring
(iv) The physical meaning of the slope is the Cylinder
Bench
slope represent density of a substance.
NOTE: Volume of water displaced is equal to
Displaced Water
the volume of solid (slotted mass). It
means.
∆( )
Slope m=
∆( )
(d) Record the volume (v) of water
3
Slope (M)= density of slotted mass (g/cm ). displaced by slotted mass.
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 PREPAIRED BY PHYSICIAN AND MATHEMATICIAN MR. STEVE MTEWELE
(e) Repeat the experiment with 100g, the string when the pendulum rest at
150g, 200 and 250g. Tabulate your vertical position.
results as follows. c) (i) Measure and record the value of d.
(ii) Gently displace the pendulum so that
it performs small oscillations in a
Mass of slotted 50 100 150 200 250
vertical plane perpendicular to the
mass(g)
stopper.
Volume of
(iii) Make and record the measurements
water
to determine the period T for 20
displaced
oscillations.
(cm3)
(iv) Repeat steps (i) to (iii) above for
five further values of d in the range d
(f) (i) complete the table = ( ). Justify the number of
(ii) Plot a graph of “m” (vertical axis)
against “v” (horizontal axis). significant figure you have given .
(iii) Determine the slope of your graph.
(iv) Find the value of ρ given that, d) It is assumed that T and d are related
M = 1 by the formula

(v) What is the significance of ρ

(vi) Suggest the material used to make T = +2
the standard masses.
QUESTION 42 Where g is the acceleration due to
free fall.
The aim of this experiment is to determine (i) Plot the graph of T (y-axis) against
(investigate) oscillations of a pendulum. The
pendulum is illustrated in the figure below. As (x - axis).
the pendulum oscillates a stopper shortens the (ii) Determine the gradient of the graph.
effective length L by an amount d. (iii) Calculate the value of g.

QUESTION 43
Wooden block
 The aim of this experiment is to
Stopper
determine the refractive index of a given
L
liquid.
 Take the given tall beaker (with pins
lying on its bottom) and fill it with the
given liquid labeled L until it is full.
a) Set up a pendulum of length  Move pins up and down on the sliding
approximately 80cm using the cork until the image of the first pin is
equipment provided. seen trough an eye as illustrated in the
b) Maint the wooden rod horizontally so diagram below.
that it acts as a stopper, should just touch

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DIAGRAM QUESTION 44

Searching pin The aim of this experiment is to determine the

e.m.f of the given dry cell.
Retort
Stand a) Careful set up the circuit as illustrated
A below where R = 500Ω, E is a dry
Sliding cell and K is a key. Make sure that all
R connectors are tight enough.
Cork
X E K

Optical pin
R
V

b) With the key K closed note and record

GROUND the reading I of the ammeter record
the corresponding value of R.
a) Take the given tall cylinder with a c) Repeat the procedure in (b) above for
pin lying on its bottom and fill values of R equal to 550Ω, 600Ω,
with the given liquid labeled A 700Ω, 750Ω, 800Ω, 850Ω and 900Ω.
to the depth R = 40cm, then Record all your results in a liable similar
move the sliding cork up and to that shown below:
down (adjusting) until the image
R(Ω 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900
of the pin is seen through the eyes I(A)
as illustrated to the diagram above 1

and measure the depth A. d) Plot the graph of R against 1 and

b) Repeat the same procedure in (a)
above for R = 35, 30, 25 and determine its slope.
20cm, then prepare the table of e) Determine from your graph the e.m.f of
results of R and A. the cell.
c) Draw the graph of R(cm) vs f) Determine the value of R for which
X(cm). is equal to zero and state what
d) (i) Find the slope G of the graph.
(ii) Find given that G = value represents.
(iii) what is the significance of η g) State any two sources of error and
e) State two errors measured in this precautions taken in this experiment.
experiment. QUESTION 45
The aim of this experiment is to determine the
internal resistance of the given dry cell.
Proceed as follows:

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 PREPAIRED BY PHYSICIAN AND MATHEMATICIAN MR. STEVE MTEWELE
a) Connect in series a given dry cell, a maximum of 4000Ω. Tabulate your
resistor, an ammeter and switch. values of R and 1 .
b) Measure and record the resulting current
I when various resistor ranging from 1Ω (e) Plot the graph of R vs .
to 7Ω, R is connected in turn (make at
least 6 measurements). (f) Use your graph in (e) above to
c) Tabulate your results including column determine
for 1 . (i) The e.m.f of the cell.
(ii) The resistance Rv of the voltmeter.
d) Plot the graph 1 vertical axis against

R horizontal axis. QUESTION 47

e) From the appropriate relationship and
graph determine the internal resistance r The aim of this experiment is to determine the
of the cell. resistance of the voltmeter and internal e.m.f of
f) State any source of error and precautions the battery.
taken in this experiment.
A battery of negligible internal resistance, a
voltmeter, several connecting wires, a switch, a
resistance box capable of providing up to
QUESTION 46 1200Ω; proceed as follows:-
The aim of this experiment is to determine the a) Connect the battery, a switch, a
resistance of the voltmeter and internal e.m.f of
voltmeter and a resistance box
the cell.
adjusted to 200Ω so that the same
- You have been provided with the current flows through all the
following:- a dry cell of negligible components when the switch is closed.
internal resistance, a voltmeter, several b) Draw a diagram of the circuit you have
connecting wires, a switch, a resistance
box capable of providing up to 4000Ω; connected.
proceed as follows:- c) Close the switch and record the reading
(a) Connect the dry cell, a switch, a V.
voltmeter and a resistance box adjusted d) Increase the value of the resistance box
to 400Ω so that the same current flows up to 1000Ω and repeat part (a) above.
through all the components when the Repeat for higher values of resistance
switch is closed.
increasing it in steps of 600Ω to
(b) Draw a diagram of the circuit you have
connected. maximum of 4000Ω. Tabulate your
(c) Close the switch and record the reading values of R and 1 .
v.
(d) Increase the value of the resistance box e) Plot the graph of R vs .
up to 1000Ω and repeat part (a) above.
Repeat for higher values of resistance f) Use your graph in (e) above to determine
increasing it in steps of 600Ω to

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(i) The e.m.f of the cell. comparison purposes. X is an unknown

(ii) The resistance Rv of the voltmeter. resistance while R is a known resistance.
K
g) State any source of error and precautions
R
taken in this experiment.
X R
QUESTION 48
You are provided with the apparatus, proceed
as follows:-
(a) Set up the circuit as shown below G
L
1Ω A C J B

G 100cm
A X B d
The dry cells drives the current through X, R
S E and the bridge wire AB. K is a switch: G and J
are respectively galvanometer and Jockey. A
balance point C is found for different values of
resistance R. value of length d = AC are to be
(b) Obtain the balance point when the length recorded for corresponding values of R as
of the wire W/ L = 15cm, record the shown below:-
distance X between A and B.
(c) Repeat the procedure for L = 20cm, R(Ω) 1 2 5 7 8
25cm, 30cm, 40cm and 50cm respectively. d(cm)
(d) Tabulate the value for L, X, and . 100⁄

(e) (i) Plot the graph of against . (a) Complete the table by filling the values of
d and 100⁄ .
(ii) Determine the slope S on your graph. (b) Plot he graph of R against 100⁄ .
(c) Find the slope S of the graph.
(iii) From the graph obtain the value of X (d) Determine the intercept R0 on the R – axis
(e) Deduce the value of X
for L = 80cm. (f) Suggest the suitable title for this
experiment.

QUESTION 50
The aim of this experiment is to determine the
mass of the given dry cell, size “AA”.
QUESTION 49 - You are provided with dry cell, a knife
The figure below shows the metre bridge with edge, two weights 50g and 20g and a
two resistances X and R connected for metre rule by balancing on the knife
edge.

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 PREPAIRED BY PHYSICIAN AND MATHEMATICIAN MR. STEVE MTEWELE
(a) Locate and note the centre of Total clockwise moments = total anticlockwise moments.
gravity C of the metre rule by OR
balancing on the knife edge. Sum of clockwise moments = Sum of anticlockwise moments
(b) Suspend the 50g mass on one side
of the metre rule, and 20g together From the diagram
with the dry cell on the other side a x 50 = b x ( X + 20)
of the metre rule, adjust their 50a = b(20 + X)
position until the metre rule
balances horizontally, as shown in a = b
the figure below:
c
a = b + 0
a b
y = m x + c
50 X But now slope (m) = G
20
G =

(c) By fixing a = 5cm from C find

Nature of the graph
its corresponding length b from
a(cm) B
C.
(d) Repeat and tabulate your results
∆
using a = 10cm, 15cm, 20cm and
25cm.
A
(e) Draw the graph of “a” against “b”
∆
and calculate its slope G.
b(cm)
(f) Calculate X from equation
G= ∆
(e) Slope (G) =
∆

Solution
(f) The value of slope obtained in part (e)
(d) Table of Results
above help you to obtain the value of the
a(cm) b(cm)
unknown mass X of a given dry cell, size
5
“AA”.
10
15
20 G =
25 50G = 20 + X
Basic principle used is principle of moment X = 50G - 20
which states that, “For a system to be in a Where by:
rotational balance, the total clockwise G - The slope obtained in (e) above.
moments must be equal to the anticlockwise
moments”

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QUESTION 51 Nature of the graph

The aim of the experiment is to find unknown a (cm)
mass X. Set an apparatus as shown below: B

a b
∆

x 50
50 A
∆

M1 – is the unknown mass X tied together with b(cm)

50g weight.
M2 – is 50g mass. ∆
(ii) The slope (S) =
(a) Find the balancing point on the metre rule ∆

by balancing it on a knife edge, mark it.

- From comparison above
(b) Suspend M1 at 25cm and M2 at the
point where the metre rule horizontal
position Slope (S) =
(c) Record the length “a” and “b” as
shown in the figure above. S =
(d) Repeat number 2 and 3 with M1 at 30cm,
35cm, 40cm and 45cm. (iii) To find mass of unknown mass X,
(e) Tabulate your results as shown below:
M1 25cm 30cm 35cm 40cm 45cm From,
a
b =
(f) (i) Plot a graph of “a” against “b”
(ii) Find the slope “S” of the graph. S(X + 50) = 50
(iii) Find the mass of the unknown mass X
from X + 50 = 50/S
X = 50/S - 50
a =
Where M1 = X + 50 Note:
The distance “a’ is measured from M1 to the
Solution pivot while “b” is measured from pivot to M2.
(f) (i) Clockwise = Anticlockwise
Moments moments - Mass of dry cell size “AA” is found to
50b = a(X + 50) be 17.34g.

a = b + 0

y = m x + c
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 PREPAIRED BY PHYSICIAN AND MATHEMATICIAN MR. STEVE MTEWELE
QUESTION 52 - Let the centre of the mass of the metre
rule be at 50cm mark. The distance from
- The aim of this experiment is to the centre of mass of the rule to the knife
determine the relative density of a given edge to be (50 - Y)
solid. Proceed as follows:
- Balance the metre rule, graduated face 50- Y =
upwards in the knife edge with the solid
suspended at the distance Xcm and From the figure above X = 100 - Y
Ycm on the knife edge from each end of if it is substituted in
the rule, Y being the distance from zero
50 - Y = we get the
end.
y x = 100 - y following results
50 - Y = ((100 - Y) - Y)/2
d Knife edge 50 - Y = (100 - 2Y)/2
50 - Y = 50 - Y
Solid Wooden Thus our rule is in balance.
block 50 - Y =
- Repeat for 4 other values of d less
than 50cm. repeat the observation when Mr = Mass of the metre rule
the solid is immersed in water. Ms = Mass of the solid in air
- Plot a graph of (X - Y) on the vertical m = Mass of the solid in water(H2O)
axis and (Y - d) on the horizontal axis - Hence by principle of moments
for each set of observations. The two i) Mr( ) = Ms(Y - d)
graphs being on the same scale. Mr(X - Y) = 2Ms(Y - d)
- Find the gradient of each graph and X - Y = (Y - d) + 0
hence calculate
a) mass of solid
b) its relative density. y = m x + c
Note:
In this experiment you are required to Nature of graph of (X - Y)cm vs (Y - d)cm
weigh and record the mass of the metre (x – y)cm solid in air
rule.

Solution ∆( − )

y x = 100 - y ∆( − )
(y – d)cm
d d-y
- From the comparison above
Ms Mr (i) Ga =
Solid

Wooden block Ms = Formula for finding

Mass of solid in air.

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 INCREASE YOUR PERFORMANCE IN PHYSICS PRACTICALS

(ii) Mr( ) = m(Y - d) Relative density, R.d =

Mr(X - Y) = (Y - d) + 0 Note:
Ga – slope of the graph when solid is
suspended in air.
Gb - slope of the graph when the solid is
y = m x + c totally immersed in water.

Nature of the graph

QUESTION 53
(x – y)cm solid in air You are provided with a metre rule, aknife
edge, two strings of length 100cm each and
two weights W1 and W2 of masses 50g and
∆( − ) 100g respectively. Proceed as follows:
a) Balance a metre rule on a knife edge, put
∆( − ) a mark and write G at the balancing
(y – d)cm point using a piece of chalk or pensil,.
Measure and record the length L, width
∆( ) w and thickness t of a metre rule using
Slope (Gb) =
∆( ) vernier caliper.
Gb = 2m/ Mr b) Place the metre rule on a knife edge so
that the knife edge is at 60cm of your
metre rule (see figure 1(a)). Suspend
Formula for finding weight W2 of 100g on the right hand
m= mass of solid in water side of the knife edge. Adjust W2 until
the metre rule balance horizontally.
(iii) Relative density = Read and record lengths “b” and “c” as
seen in figure 1(a).
G c b
Ms
r.d = 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

= ÷ - Knife edge W2 100

Figure 1(a)
= x ( ) i) Suspend weight W1 of 50g on the left
hand side of the knife edge at the position
47cm and adjust the metre rule until the
= metre rule balances horizontally, a figure
1(a). read and record the lengths "a“ and

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 PREPAIRED BY PHYSICIAN AND MATHEMATICIAN MR. STEVE MTEWELE
“b” Solution
G c b b) b = 9.5cm and = 10cm
c) Table of results
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 a(cm) b(cm)
13 16
16 17.5
50 W1 W2 100 19 19
22 20.5
Knife edge 25 22
Figure 1(b) How to obtain data:
• From principle of moments
c) Repeat the procedures in (b) (i) by Wc + W1a = W2b
adjusting the position of W1 to the But W = 95g
interval of 3cm to obtain other four(4) c = 10cm
readings. Wc + W1a = W2b
d) Tabulate your results as shown in Table If you divide by W2 throughout
1. You get
e) Plot a graph of “b” against “a”
f) What is the nature of the graph?
g) Calculate the slope S of the graph.ᶩ Wc W1a W2b
h) (i)read the b-intercept, given that + =
W2 W2 W2
W
b = Sa + xc
W2 Wc W1a W2b
+ =
W W2 W2 W2
(ii) What does c represent in your
W2 950g 50ga 95gb
graph? + =
100 100

(iii) Calculate the value of W using the

relation W2 = Wc / 9.5cm. What b = + 9.5
does W represent?
h) (i) Find the value of the ratio p = d) To plot the graph of “b” against “a”

Nature of the graph

Note: From,
Wc W1a W2b
The mass m of the metre rule can be + =
obtained by calculations. W2 W2 W2
(ii) What is the physical meaning of the
value p? W1 W
b= a + c
i) State a possible source of error in this W2 W2
experiment.
j) How can you minimize errors in 1(i)
k) State the aim of this experiment.
y = m x + c

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b(cm)
A plane mirror
∆

N
∆ ( ) M1 M2
9.5 P3 P1

a(cm) P4 P2
O
From the comparison Figure: 2
W1 50g
The slope, S = = b) Insert a pin O as an object at 4.0cm in
W2 100g
S = 0.5 front of the mirror. Place pin P1 and P2 so as
to appear in straight line with the image of
∆ object O as seen in the plain mirror.
f) Slope, S =
∆
S = 0.5 c) Remove pin P1 and P2 , using other pins,
place ins P3 and P4 so as to appear in
g) (i) b-intercept = 9.5cm straight line with the image of object O in
W the other side (se figure 2).
(ii) c represents b- intercept
W2 d) Remove mirror and pins. Draw lines
(iii) Weight of W joining P3 and P4 on the other side of object
From, O, extend both lines to meet at I on the
Wc
W2 = other side of the line M1M2.
9.5cm e) Join OI, a line cutting the reflecting
9.5cmW2
surface at N.
W = f) Repeat this procedure for the distance
C
9.5cm x 100g being 6, 8, 10 and 12cm.
W = g) On all diagram drawn.
10cm
W = 95g (i) Measure the distance ON and NI.
(ii) Comment on the distances obtained in
2(g) (i).
2. you are provided with a plane mirror, a (iii) What is the nature of the image? Give
ruler, protractor, drawing board, optical reasons for your answer.
pins, office pins and plain papers. Proceed (iv) State four characteristics of the image
as follows: you obtained.
a) On the plain paper provided, draw a line (v) What is the aim of this experiment?
13cm from the top of the paper and call it (vi) Mention and state the law governing
M1M2. Pin your paper on the board the experiment.
provided and place the reflecting surface (vii) Explain a source of error in this
of the mirror along the line M1M2 as experiment.
seen in Figure 2.
TYPED BY Mr. SAM 0784207865 Page 67
 PREPAIRED BY PHYSICIAN AND MATHEMATICIAN MR. STEVE MTEWELE
(viii) How can you minimize error in
(vii) above?

Note: The papers you used for drawing should

be collected together with the answer booklets.

Solution:
f) Table of results
ON(cm) 3 6 8 10 12
NI(cm) 3.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0

g) (ii) The distance ON = NI

(iii) The nature of the image is behind the
mirror the same size and distance from the
mirror surface.
(iv) Four characteristics of the image
formed are:
- It is virtual (not real)
- The image is upright
- The image is the same size as the object.
- The image has left-right reversal.
v) The aim of this experiment is to
investigate the relationship between
image distance and object distance by
using plane mirror.
vi) The law governing this experiment
states that, the incident ray, normal ray
and the reflected ray all lies on the same
plane.
vii) Source of error in this experiment is
parallax error.
viii) The error in (vii) above can be
minimized by ensuring persistency in
taking the readings(eyes should be
vertically straight downward to the
reading).

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