Engineering Geological Properties of the Volcanic Rocks and

Soils of the Canary Islands

Luis I. González de Vallejo, Teresa Hijazo, Mercedes Ferrer

Abstract. This paper analyses the engineering geological properties of the rocks and soils of the Canary Islands based on data
from field studies, laboratory tests and extensive databases for volcanic materials. Geological properties and processes most
relevant to geo-engineering are described. Geomechanical characterization of rock masses and soil deposits including rock mass
classification, index and strength properties are presented. Some of the most relevant results show materials of low to very low
density and low to very low values of strength and expansiveness. These materials, with an exceptional high anisotropy and
irregular spatial distribution, are intensely affected by jointing of thermal origin and large discontinuities due to dykes; cavities
and tubes can be also present. Landsliding and slope instability, collapse phenomena and other processes causing geotechnical
problems are described. Discussion on the geomechanical properties and conditions that may help to identify and differentiate the
geotechnical behaviour of the volcanic materials is included.
Key words: volcanic rocks, volcanic soils, Canary Islands, Tenerife, geomechanical properties.

1. Introduction
Geological materials in islands of volcanic origin
show geomechanical properties and geotechnical behav-
iour completely different of materials with non-volcanic
origin. This paper is focused on the geomechanical charac-
terization of the volcanic rock masses and soil deposits of
the Canary Islands and on the main geotechnical problems
associated with these materials. Active geological pro-
cesses such as landslides, collapse phenomena and expan-
siveness are also described. This study is based on field
geomechanical surveys, laboratory tests and geotechnical
data obtained from different sources including Regional
Governmental agencies (Rodríguez-Losada et al., 2007a)
and geotechnical companies. From this information more
than 400 data have been compiled (González de Vallejo et
al., 2006) which have been used for the purpose of this
study. Geological and geotechnical maps (http://mapa. Figure 1 - Location of the Canary Islands (Spain).
grafcan.com/Mapa) have been also used as basic informa-
tion for field studies. ing units: Basaltic, trachybasaltic and phonolitic lava
flows; pyroclastic rocks, pyroclastic deposits and soil de-
2. Geological Formations posits of volcanic origin. A detailed geological and petro-
The Canary Islands is a volcanic archipelago com- logical description of these units is given by Rodríguez-
posed of seven islands (Fig. 1). Their volcanic activity, Losada (2004).
which spans from over 20 M.a. ago to the present, and their The basaltic, trachybasaltic and phonolitic lava
active geological processes, such as their great paleo- flows and also dykes, form the most abundant rock group
landslides, have attracted the attention of scientists world- in the Canary Islands. The typical structure of these rocks is
wide. The geology of Canary Islands has been extensively a succession of basalt and scoria layers, with rough surfaces
studied since the XIX Century. An update and comprehen- composed of broken lava blocks known as clinker. Among
sive geological description can be found in Ancochea et al. the basaltic materials, several types of basalts according to
(2004) and Carracedo et al. (2002). their texture, crystallinity and grain size, are distinguished.
The main geological formations of the Canaries rele- Basalts can also be characterized in terms of their vesicles,
vant to engineering geology can be grouped in the follow- and are referred to as vesicular basalts when there is a high

Luis I. González de Vallejo, Professor of Geological Engineering, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Spain. e-mail: [email protected].
Teresa Hijazo, MSc. Engineering Geologist, Prospección y Geotecnia, Madrid, Spain.
Mercedes Ferrer, Associate Professor of Rock Mechanics, Instituto Geológico y Minero de España, Spain.
Submitted on May 24, 2007; Final Acceptance on January 18, 2008; Discussion open until August 29, 2008.

Soils and Rocks, São Paulo, 31(1): 3-13, January-April, 2008. 3

 González de Vallejo et al.

proportion of vesicles and as amygdaloidal basalts if the The agglomerates are compact rocks, which may
vesicles are infilled with minerals. Secondary clay minerals display a high degree of consolidation, comprised of large
can occur as replacement of olivine, pyroxenes and intersti- uneven-sized heterogeneous clastic materials, often
tial glass materials in altered basalts forming smectites, pyroclastic, within a finer matrix.
chlorites, corrensites, etc. which can jeopardize the rock The agglomerates breccias are discerned owing to
quality and its geomechanical behaviour. their angular fragments, being generally large with a matrix
Scoriaceous materials appear at the flow top or bot- that can be sandy or clayey. These may form as the result of
tom, being often the result of lava flows of the “aa” type. pyroclastic falls or may have an epiclastic mechanical-type
Their thickness is variable, usually tens of centimetres, al- origin related to landslides, avalanches and mudflows (de-
though it can exceed 1m. The appearance of the scoria is bris avalanches, lahars, etc.). When their origin is epic-
very irregular, being highly porous with many voids and lastic, the matrix is sandy or clayey since it is generated by
cavities. Figure 2 shows a succession of basalt and scoria the grinding of dragged materials. In this case, the frag-
layers with a seam of red ochre paleosoil. ments or clasts are generally angular and large and this ag-
Discontinuities are the most outstanding features of glomerate material is designated volcanic breccia (Fig. 3).
the lava flows. Basalt layers are affected by vertical colum- The pyroclastic deposits are comprised of fragments
nar joints, which are generally fairly open. Horizontal or of glassy rock, generally loose or weakly compacted. They
spherical discontinuities may also appear. Apart from dis- can be grouped as pyroclastic falls, with clean surfaces with
continuities, it can be found cavities, mostly no larger than no adhered particles, well-preserved crystal edges, with
half a meter in diameter. Occasional caves may appear, and fragments without fractures and highly vesiculated glass
less commonly lava tubes. with vesicles varying in shape (Fig. 4); pyroclastic surges,
The pyroclastic rocks are divided in tuffs, ignim-
brites, agglomerates and agglomerate breccias accord-
ing to the compaction, welding, grain size and morphology
of the rock fragments.
The tuffs generally appear in a massive state, with
scarce discontinuities, appearing as a very homogenous de-
posit. Most tuff deposits are deposit of pyroclastic flow and
pumiceous nature, with light-coloured or yellowish pumice
clasts, although they may also be of basaltic composition.
Their thickness varies from over one meter to dozens of
meters depending on the zone. The size of grains or parti-
cles normally are between 2 and 64 mm, corresponding to
lapilli.
The ignimbrites are comprised of welded pyroclastic
deposits whose fragments are flattened and stretched to
form so-called fiammes. These are generally hard, massive Figure 3 - Volcanic breccia composed of large fragments embed-
rocks although flow structures may also be observed, show- ded in a fine-grained matrix.
ing foliation, and cooling discontinuities.

Figure 4 - Electron microscope image of pyroclastic fall from

Figure 2 - Scoriaceous layer at the base of a lava flow on a southern Tenerife showing a crystal with non-fractured edges.
well-developed reddish soil, northern Tenerife. Approximate particle size 0.4 mm (Alonso, 1989).

4 Soils and Rocks, 31(1): 3-13, January-April, 2008.

 Engineering Geological Properties of the Volcanic Rocks and Soils of the Canary Islands

with poorly vesiculated glass, highly modified by pyroclast geomechanical indices RMR and Q. Table 1 shows the mean
abrasion (glass and crystals), equal-sized fragments with RMR and Q values obtained by analysing outcrops of fresh
smooth concave-convex fracture surfaces and surfaces with rocks or very scarcely weathered rocks with an extent of
cooling fissures; and pyroclastic flows with highly modi- fracturing representative of the most common situations, ex-
fied crystal edges, abundance of adhered ash, especially in- cluding outcrops with extensive fractures or altered rocks.
filling vesicles and highly vesicular glass with a tendency From laboratory tests, the basalt lava flows show the
towards elongated vesicles. following properties: dry densities range from 15 and
The soil deposits of the Canary Islands are mainly of 31 kN/m3, being the most common values 23 to 28 kN/m3;
3
coluvial origin, present in many areas particularly along the vesicular basalts can have densities of 15 to 23 kN/m ,
3
northern slopes of the western islands. Alluvial deposits are while massive basalts usually exceed 28 kN/m (Fig. 6);
founded in gorges. River-lacustrine soils are also present in uniaxial compressive strength values depends on mineral
some valleys such as La Laguna Valley. Residual soils are composition and volatile elements, giving rise to a wide
the product of in situ weathering of pyroclastic materials, range of strength values between 25 and 160 MPa, although
predominating silts and clays. the most common range is 40 to 80 Mpa; vesicular basalts
can have strength under 40 MPa, while massive basalts may
3. Geomechanical Properties of Volcanic exceed 80 MPa (Fig. 7).
Rocks The main geotechnical problems related with the ba-
Basalt, trachybasalt and phonolite lava flows gen- saltic lava flow are as follows:
erally show high strength values, corresponding to geo- • Great spatial heterogeneity both in thickness and
technical characteristics of hard or very hard rocks. Dykes lateral and frontal extension.
with this composition can be also included in this geo-
technical unit. The lithological heterogeneity determined
by the alternating layers of basalts and scorias, the presence
of discontinuities and cavities, the highly variable thick-
nesses of the lava layers and their irregular persistence are
characteristical features of these materials that give rise to
highly anisotropic and heterogeneous rock masses (Fig. 5).
The following types of rocks comprised of basalt lava
flows have been distinguished (Table 1):
• Basalts with columnar jointing
• Basalts with spherical jointing
• Scoriaceous layers intercalated among the basalts
• Dykes
Rock masses formed by successions of basaltic lavas
and associated scorias were classified according to their
Figure 6 - Dry density values of the volcanic materials from the
Canary Islands.

Figure 5 - Cliffs showing basaltic lava flows successions and

pyroclastic layers, dyke intrusions and different types of disconti-
nuities, Anaga, Tenerife. Photograph window approximately Figure 7 - Uniaxial compressive strength values according to the
150 m wide. lithologies of the volcanic materials of the Canary Islands.

Soils and Rocks, 31(1): 3-13, January-April, 2008. 5

 González de Vallejo et al.

• Alternating layers of very hard material (basalts) • Mechanical planes of discontinuities between
with very porous and discontinuous levels (scorias). dykes and wallrock that involve potential instabil-
• Soft materials underlying lava flows: lapillis, ashes ity surfaces of great continuity.
and paleosoils. • Slope instability mainly in cliff zones.
• Vertical, open joints which can induce stability and • Differential settlements in foundations when over-
water filtration problems, especially in tunnels and lying different lithological formations.
slopes. • Alkaline reactions in concrete due to the glassy
• Cavities and volcanic tubes can lead to the collapse composition of volcanic materials with the possi-
of basaltic scoriaceous cover lava materials. ble formation of fissures and structural damage.
• Overhangs may occur due to differential scoria- • Very hard and abrasive materials for excavations
ceous-basaltic layer erosion. purposes.
• Low strength surfaces between lava flows and Tuffs show the following representative properties:
pyroclastic layers favoring instabilities. dry densities display a large range of values from below

Table 1 - Geomechanical characterization of basaltic and scoriaceous rock masses obtained from field surveys.

Characteristics Columnar basalts Spherical basalts Scoriaceous layers

Lithology Basalts, trachybasalts Basalt Basaltic with glassy tex-
ture
Thickness (m) 2-5 5-10 Several cm to 2 m
Structure Vertical jointing Spherical jointing Non structured, abundant
voids and welded
Texture Aphanitic Aphanitic -
Colour Black, dark grey Dark grey -
Intact rock

Weathering Fresh- decoloured Decoloured -

(ISRM, 1981)
Strength (σc) (MPa) 150-180 (Fig. 5 does Intermediate: 38 -
(Manual Test Hammer) not show these values)
Orientation Vertical Horizontal Subvertical -
Dip 85º-90º 0º-5º (can reach 30º) 85º -
Spacing (mm) 200-600 200-600 60-200 to -
(60-200) 200-600
Discontinuities

Continuity (m) 1-3 1 3-10 -

Opening (mm) 0.25-2.5 0.2-0.5 to 0.5-2.5 - -
Roughness Smooth, undulated Rough Smooth -
Infill Uncommon but sandy - - -
if present
Observations - Associated with mas- - -
sive basalts in thick
layers

N. of sets of discontinu- 2 and 3 1 -

ities
Joints/m3 (Jv) 4-8 < 1 (4-5) -
Block size (m3) < 0.5 Decimetric Centimetric
Rock mass

Block shape Columnar, cubic & Irregular Irregular fragments

irregular
Weathering degree II III II-VI
Water In general, there is no In general, there -
water is no water
Observations - - Blocks welded but with
granular appearance.
Large cavities may form
Geomechanical

RMR 70-75 60-65 Basalts and scorias 60-80

classifications

Class II Class II Class II

Q 15 - 22 30 - 180 Basalts and scorias 10-40
Good Good to ex- Intermediate to good
tremely good

6 Soils and Rocks, 31(1): 3-13, January-April, 2008.

 Engineering Geological Properties of the Volcanic Rocks and Soils of the Canary Islands

3 3 3
10 kN/m to more than 25 kN/m , the range 8 to 18 kN/m lowest values corresponded to those of felsic, or acidic,
being typical for poorly-compacted tuffs and higher than composition. The characteristic range is 0.5 to 25 MPa.
3
20 kN/m for well-compacted tuffs; tuff composition af- Strength above 15 MPa were recorded for basaltic agglom-
fects their density, with higher densities shown by the ba- erates; sometimes these were as high as 70 MPa (Fig. 7).
saltic tuffs and lower ones by acidic tuffs. The strength of Tuffs, agglomerates, ignimbrites and pyroclastic
the tuffs varies with the degree of compaction, grain size flows can show the following geotechnical problems:
and composition, among other factors; uniaxial compres- • Collapse of low-density tuffs or agglomerates.
sive strength ranged from 1 to 50 MPa for intact rock • Weathering and devitrification processes produc-
(Fig. 7); for saturated tuffs typical values are under 10 MPa. ing expansive smectitic minerals (montmorilloni-
Angles of internal friction range from 30° to 50° for unwea- tes and nontronites).
thered tuffs, although for a high degree of weathering these • Open vertical fractures in ignimbrites may cause
angles can be 12° to 30° (Fig. 8). instability and water infiltration problems.
The use of geomechanical classifications based on • Abrasive actions on machinery of the fine materi-
discontinuity parameters that mainly affect the RMR and Q als in these formations.
values is not recommended for massive tuffs due to their
• Long-term plastic deformation.
continuous and homogenous nature. Independently of this
opinion, the results obtained were: RMR index ranged from The geomechanical properties of pyroclastic depos-
80-90, Class I; Q index ranged over 250 up until a value of its depend on grain size, shape, porosity and petrologic
1000, classifying this rock as good to exceptionally good. composition, as well as the degree of packing between par-
Ignimbrites have a uniaxial compressive strength ticles, the compaction state of the deposit and the strength
ranging from 2 to 5 MPa for weathered ignimbrites and of the particles. Dry densities of pyroclast falls range from 5
from 15 to 70 MPa for fresh ignimbrites (Fig. 7). Friction and 18 kN/m3 (Fig.6). Density depends on the nature of the
angles vary from 27° to 38°. RMR ratings assign these clasts and the extent of vesiculation, with basic pyroclasts
rocks to Class II, indicating good rock quality. Geotech- being denser than felsic ones. The angle of internal friction
nical properties of welded ignimbrites have been also des- ranges from 25° to 45° (Fig. 8). Uniaxial compressive
cribed by Rodríguez-Losada et al. (2007b). strength varies from very low to 5 MPa (Fig. 7). Strength
and deformability of low density pyroclasts has been de-
Volcanic agglomerates form a quite heterogeneous
scribed by Serrano et al. (2007a) and properties of lapilli for
group. Dry densities depend on the nature of their clast
raw material uses has been also described by Lomoschitz et
components and the degree of compaction and porosity of
al. (2003).
the deposit. Agglomerates with a predominance of pumice
clasts show low densities, even lower than 10 kN/m3. In The main geotechnical related problems of pyroclas-
contrast, if the clasts are basaltic, densities are similar to tics deposits are as follows:
those of basalt lavas. The most frequent dry density range • Very low density materials
for agglomerates is 12 to 18 kN/m3, although there is a great • High deformation of lapilli and ashes in response
3
scatter of values up to 28 kN/m (Fig. 6). Uniaxial compres- to static or dynamic loads due to particle compac-
sive strength is directly related to density and, therefore, to tion and fracturing
composition. Highest strength values were observed for ag- • Collapsible ashes
glomerates containing clasts of basic composition, and • Low durability

4. Engineering Geological Properties of Soil

Deposits
The properties of soils of volcanic origin in the Ca-
nary Islands are very dependent on the depositional envi-
ronment and particle sizes. In coluvial materials the large
grain sizes are predominant. Large boulders are very fre-
quent in the alluvial deposits of the numerous gorges pres-
ent in the islands. Alluvial and coluvial are very heteroge-
neous deposits with a wide range of particle sizes, but most
of them are coarse materials. Fine soils are predominant in
river-lacustrine deposits filling valleys or topographic de-
pressions, with a range of granulometry from clays to sandy
sizes.
Residual soils are the product of in situ weathering of
Figure 8 - Internal friction angles for different volcanic materials pyroclastics materials with abundant silts to sandy soils and
of the Canary Islands. less frequently silty clays.

Soils and Rocks, 31(1): 3-13, January-April, 2008. 7

 González de Vallejo et al.

The lacustrine clays of La Laguna (Tenerife) have nic soils (González de Vallejo, 1981). Among these
been studied by González de Vallejo et al. (1981). In some differences next should be mentioned:
zones these clays have shown some degree of expansivity • In general, volcanic soils present high liquid limits
due to their montmorillonitic composition. However, their and a much lower plasticity index than that of a
expansiveness is moderate due to the open structure of their non-volcanic clay-soil of similar liquid limit. The
microfabric, especially if this fabric is aggregated, which results of plasticity tests depend on the treatment
prevents volume changes. The swelling index for clay soils applied to the sample; thus, usually the liquid limit
is 0.02 to 0.2 MPa, classifying these soils as non critical to increases with water content, dispersion and mix-
critical. Clay soils of lacustrine origin show activity corre- ing time, while it decreases with drying.
sponding to inactive or normal clays. Atterberg limits range • Granulometric fractions of less than two microns
from 25% to 115% for the liquid limit and 15% to 95% for show large variation, from under 10% to over 80%,
the plastic limit (Fig. 9). Specific weight of particles range according to the treatment to which the sample was
from 22 to 30 kN/m3 and dry density from 11 and 14 kN/m3, subjected before testing, and the way in which the
3
although densities below 10 kN/m may be found in other granulometric analysis is conducted. Thus, the
volcanic regions of the world. fraction under two microns increases depending on
The angle of friction varied from 23° to 40°, with the the energy of the dispersion agent used.
lower values corresponding to non-drained soils in non- • Irreversible changes occur in properties as the
consolidated conditions, whose pore pressure is very high. moisture conditions are modified, particularly dur-
Friction angles above 35º were obtained for soils with a ing the process of drying. This is among the most
large proportion of sand-sized fractions and/or the presence sensitive factors and the one that mostly affects the
of cementing agents. In clayey soils, residual friction an- properties.
gles were under 25°. In silty soils consolidated but not • Expansiveness is high to moderate for clays of
drained, the internal friction angle was generally low, less montmorillonitic composition and high for halloy-
than 20°. Cohesion ranged from 0-0.2 MPa, the most com- sitic and allophanic clays, with abnormally low ex-
mon interval being 0-0.1 MPa. High cohesion values can be pansiveness observed in some montmorillonitic
attributed to cementation processes between particles. clays due to the effects of the microfabric.
The compaction conditions of volcanic clayey soils • Shear strength is high despite the elevated liquid
improve when particles are more orientated such that the limits and very fine particle sizes. Similarly, un-
soil acquires an anisotropic structure. It has been demon- usual high internal friction angles are observed in
strated that compaction by kneading (Harvard miniature relation to the index properties of the soils. The
compaction test) is more efficient than by impact (standard presence of cementing agents confers much higher
Proctor test), (Lenz, 2004). The maximum density obtained shear strength than that expected for their composi-
here were between 12 and 15 kN/m3 and optimum moisture tion.
values spanned a wide range, from 18 to 43%. • Compressibility index is lower than that corre-
The properties of soils of volcanic origin and non- sponding to the soils’ plasticity and granulometric
volcanic soils show a series of significant differences. properties.
Some of these differences determine that the usual correla- The above mentioned differences between properties
tions between properties and geotechnical behaviour used can be observed not only in the Canary Islands but in other
for non-volcanic soils are not directly applicable to volca- volcanic regions, where it can be find slopes that are much
steeper than would be expected according to the composi-
tion and granulometry of the soils. In addition, volcanic
soils are highly sensitive to moisture conditions, which
markedly affect their strength properties. Under intense
rainfall, there is a rapid increase in pore pressures and a
marked drop in strength, which may gives rise to slope in-
stability problems. The presence of highly absorbent min-
erals and an open microfabric with weak particle junctions
determines a highly unstable behaviour both in static and
dynamic conditions (Konagai et al., 2004).
5. Discontinuities, Cavities and Tubes
Volcanic materials show an extensive sort of features
comprising joints, cavities and tubes. Joins of thermal ori-
Figure 9 - Representation of volcanic soils on Casagrande’s plas- gin (cooling and retraction/contraction joints, with vertical,
ticity chart (modified from Gonzalez de Vallejo, 1981). columnar, polygonal, radial, subhorizontal and spherical

8 Soils and Rocks, 31(1): 3-13, January-April, 2008.

 Engineering Geological Properties of the Volcanic Rocks and Soils of the Canary Islands

jointing), of tectonic origin (faults, fractures and joints), parallel to the dyke; in some cases, relative displacements
discontinuities generated by intrusive structures (dykes, may be observed, behaving as normal faults.
sills, plugs, etc.), discontinuities of gravitational origin Lava tubes and caves are the result of lava flow pro-
(tension cracks, collapse fractures, slip surfaces, etc.), and cesses. When flows are very fluid, lavas continue to circu-
discontinuities corresponding to contact surfaces between late beneath the already cooled outside crust to form
lava formations of depositional or erosive origin. The most so-called lava tubes. Since basalt rocks are very poor heat
common discontinuities found in the study areas are those conductors, the surface of the flow solidifies and the molten
of thermal origin, although all the discontinuities men- lava continues flowing in its interior. This process ends
tioned above may also be observed. Columnar joints are with the material cooling down and subsequent formation
characteristic of basalt flows and often appear in massive of retraction fractures, which sometimes leads to the col-
lava materials, being generally polygonal or spherical in lapse of the tube roofs (Figs. 13 and 14).
shape (Figs. 10 and 11). Spherical joints are the outcome of
water infiltration towards inner zones of the flows. If the 6. Instability Processes
flow is very thick, retraction may also occur in horizontal 6.1. Collapse phenomena due to cavities
planes creating bands that usually form at a distance of a
third from the base (Fig. 12). Collapse phenomena can occur as a consequence of
Discontinuities of tectonic origin are rarely observed the loss of strength of the materials that form the roof of
in outcrops yet they can be easily recognized in caves and lava tubes or cavities. These collapsing processes depend
tunnels. Discontinuities produced by intrusion mechanisms on the thickness of the lavas overlying the cavity and on
(dykes) can be important for slope instability processes. In their mechanical properties, as well as the size and depth of
some cases, they constitute potential shear surfaces and hy- the cavities, although these are generally superficial. Fig-
drological barriers. Zones of mechanical contact between ures 13 and 14 depict an example of collapsing lava tube
the wallrock rock and dyke exhibit series of open fractures roofs on the island of Lanzarote. Sometimes, these struc-

Figure 10 - Columnar jointing, Los Organos, La Gomera.

Figure 12 - Retraction band at a distance of a third from the base
of the lava flow, northern Tenerife.

Figure 11 - Basaltic lava showing radial jointing, northern Tene-

rife. Photo window approxmate 4 x 3 m. Figure 13 - Collapsed lava tube, Lanzarote.

Soils and Rocks, 31(1): 3-13, January-April, 2008. 9

 González de Vallejo et al.

Figure 14 - Cracking and collapsing of the roof of a lava tube, Figure 15 - Landslide on the cliffs of Famara, Lanzarote. Cliff
Lanzarote. height is 300 m.

tures appear as kilometres of sinuous troughs following the turn periods, their hazards are extremely low. The discov-
path of the flow that formed them. ery and interpretation of the deposits of these gigantic land-
The presence of cavities in lava-type volcanic materi- slides on marine bottoms has confirmed previous
als is relatively frequent in the Canary Islands. Their origin controversial hypotheses based on morphological features
could be the result of lava flows adapting to topographic ir- (Krastel et al., 2001; Masson et al., 2002; Acosta et al.,
regularities, to spaces left by the fluids inside flows, to gas- 2005). Deposits of the generally designated debris ava-
ses associated with the flow or to differential cooling 2
lanches can cover areas of 200 to 2600 km of the sea bot-
3
processes. The sizes of these cavities range from a few dm tom, with calculated volumes between 25 and 650 km and
3
3
to several m , forming caves. Their presence can give rise to more than a hundred kilometers spanned from the island
geotechnical instability problems related to loads on foun- flank. On the Canaries, over 20 large landslides of this type
dations (Serrano et al., 2007b). have been described, 15 of which affected the western is-
6.2. Landslides and rockfalls lands (Ferrer et al., 2007).

Instabilities associated with gravitational processes 7. Discussion and Conclusions

are relatively common in the Canary Islands and are usually
induced by intense rainfall or linked to volcanic activity or The main types of rock masses relevant to engineer-
even human actions. Some outstanding examples due to ing geology in the Canary Islands are comprised of volca-
their magnitude and volume are found on the island of Gran nic materials formed by basaltic, phonolitic and trachytic
Canaria, in the Tenteniguada basin (Quintana and Lomo- lava flows, along with materials of pyroclastic origin. The
schitz, 2001) and in the Tirajana depression (Lomoschitz, weatherings of pyroclastics products have developed sur-
1995). The latter are slow translational movements acti- face formations of residual and transported soils. A sum-
vated on repeated occasions, probably during rainy periods. mary of the properties of intact rocks, rock masses and soils
In Lanzarote, ancient instabilities may be observed on the are shown in Tables 2 and 3.
coastal cliffs of Famara, in the north of the island (Fig. 15). The effusive origin of these materials, their basic
Of all the instability processes of the Canaries, the most mineralogical composition, and the specific conditions of
common are those of rockfalls. Rockfall is provoked by in- temperature, pressure, gasses, along with the environment
tense rainfall and storms in coastal zones, and associated to and depositional setting, are the main geological influenc-
high slopes in zones with escarpments and cliffs. Rockfall ing factors on geotechnical properties. The vitreous compo-
is particularly intense in high slope areas where lava and sition of pyroclastic products and their rapid decompres-
pyroclast layers alternate and in coluvial masses of low sion and cooling on expulsion causes rapid weathering,
strength containing rocky blocks. sometimes accompanied by hydrothermal alterations, with
decisive effects on the geotechnical properties. The low
6.3. Paleolandslides density of many pyroclastic deposits, shape and size of their
Massive large landslides have had a great influence particles, degree of compaction and junctions between par-
on the evolution of volcanic islands and especially the Ca- ticles, can give rise to collapse phenomena.
nary Islands. Thus, numerous large landslides have been The weathering of the rock minerals can generate soil
described, mainly in the archipelago’s western islands. deposits, which can sometimes show an expansive behav-
Their impact in terms of risk is undeniable, although being iour. Hygroscopic, mineralogic and microfabric properties,
linked to complex geological factors of extremely long re- as well as moisture changes in volcanic soils, render differ-

10 Soils and Rocks, 31(1): 3-13, January-April, 2008.

 Table 2 - Summary of geotechnical properties of the volcanic materials of Canary Islands.

Geotechnical properties G γd σc C φ E LL PL EI Other

3
Material (kN/m ) (kN/m3) (MPa) (MPa) (º) (GPa) (%) (%) (MPa)
Basalts - 15-31 25-160 - 40-55 15-30 - - - -
(23-28) (40-80)

Soils and Rocks, 31(1): 3-13, January-April, 2008.

Tuffs - 8-18 (poorly 1-50 0-1.45 12-30 0.1-22 - - - -
compacted) < 10 (saturated) (weathered
18-25 (compacted) tuffs)
Ignimbrites 13 to > 20 13 - > 20 2-5 (weak) 0.1-2 27-38 30-50 - - - -
15-70 (hard) (welded)
Agglomerates - 12-28 0.5-25 ≤ 0.4 25-42 0.1-3 - - - -
Pyroclastic 22-25 5-18 0-5 ≤ 0.1 25-45 0.01-0.1 - - - n(%): 45-65
fall deposits (32-38)
Volcanic soils Residual 22-30 12-13 - ≤ 0.1 23-40 0.510-3-1110-3 52-102 15-95 0.02-0.2 e: 1.6-2.88
soils W(%): 12-180
τu: 56-130 kPa
γmáx: 5-17.3 kN/m3
Cc: 0.13-0.24
Transported 27-29 11-14 - - - - 35-90 25-45 0.02-0.15
soils
Indicated are maximum and minimum values. Most common values appear in brackets.
G: specific weight, γd: dry density, σc: uniaxial compressive strength, C: cohesion, φ: internal friction angle, E: elasticity modulus, LL: liquid limit, PL: plastic limit, EI: expansive index,
n: porosity, e: pore index, W: moisture content, τu: shear strength, γmáx: maximum Proctor density, Cc: compressibility coefficient.
Engineering Geological Properties of the Volcanic Rocks and Soils of the Canary Islands

11
 González de Vallejo et al.

(*)1: loose, 2: compact, 3: consolidated, 4: welded, 5: cemented (1), XXX: most common state, XX: Sometimes, X: scarcely, O: never, (1) Since cementation is a post-depositional process,
ent geotechnical behaviour patterns to those expected for

Gravitational sliding
Massive, continuous
Heterogeneous, dis-
continuous deposits

Joints and fractures

may develop as in
Other geological

Water transport
non-volcanic soils of similar granulometric characteristics.

deposits
features The low density of volcanic soils, their very open micro-

flows
structure with weak junctions between particles and their
mineralogic composition lead to unfavorable geotechnical
behaviour patterns in terms of their strength, deformability,
compactability and stability in response to static and dy-
namic loads.

XX
XX
XX
X

O
O

O
5

Anisotropy and heterogeneity of the volcanic rock

masses along with their irregular spatial organization deter-

XXX
mine abrupt changes in thickness and continuity. These
XX
O

O
O
O
4

circumstances markedly condition site investigations and

consequently the geomechanical characterization of the
State*

XXX

XXX
XX

XX rocks, which translates to further difficulties and uncertain-

O

X
X
3

ties when trying to establish representative ground profiles.

Dyke intrusion processes frequently observed on islands
XXX

XXX
XX

constitute very characteristic discontinuity structures that

or
O

X
X
2

affect the strength of the rock masses and their hydro-

geological conditions. Conditions of rapid cooling of lavas,
XXX

XX
O
O

O
O
1

flows and their build-up, render typologies of discontinu-

ities specific to these materials as well as cavities and tubes.
Site investigation techniques in volcanic islands usu-
Pyroclastic flow

Pyroclastic flow
Pyroclastic fall

Pyroclastic fall

ally require larger number of boreholes and specific geo-

Avalanches
Lahars
Airfall
Origin

physical methods appropriated for volcanic materials.

Some of the limitations on geophysical methods include the
identification of low density materials, such as pyroclastics
deposits underlying basaltic lava flows by using seismic re-
fraction methods. The detection of cavities by geo-radar
Massive and lacking

techniques is limited to 10 m depth; electric tomography is

Arranged as flow
layers. Eutaxitic
Homogenous &
Bedded layers.
Cinder cones

also limited to 50 m depth and gravimetric methods are not

continuous
Structure
Table 3 - Summary of engineering geological characteristics of pyroclastic materials.

structure
texture

appropriate to identify small size cavities. Searching for

cavities using geophysical methods should be comple-
mented by rotary or percussion drilling and down-hole tele-
vision cameras techniques. As a consequence of the partic-
its presence depends on the geochemical conditions of the environment.

ular geotechnical and geological characteristics of the

angular, heterometric
Unclassified thick,

volcanic materials a specific geotechnical group of materi-

Blocks, bombs &

fragments in fine
scorias > 64 mm
Lapilli 2-64 mm
Granulometry-

Lapilli & ash

Lapilli & ash

Ash < 2 mm
morphology

als should be established.

matrix

In spite of these unfavourable engineering geological

conditions, most of the volcanic rocks show generally ac-
ceptable geomechanical behaviour for many conventional
excavations and foundations, due to the high strength prop-
erties, roughness of their contact surfaces, irregular shape
Pyroclastic generally

component: pumice

Large angular frag-

of a pumitic nature

of their particles and excellent drainage conditions. Human

Pyroclastic major

ments in breccias
Acid (pumice) or

Pyroclastic or
Composition

actions such as deforestation, desertification, uncontrolled

polygenic.
basic

excavations, blocking the natural drainage network and in-

adequate site investigations, as well as environmental fac-
tors like intense rainfall or coastal erosion, can induce
severe geotechnical problems, highlighting the importance
of acquiring sound geomechanical knowledge and appro-
priated site investigation procedures.
agglomeratic brec-
Agglomerates &

Acknowledgments
Ignimbrites
Pyroclastic

The authors thank to Julia Seisdedos from Instituto

Material

deposits

Tuffs

Geológico y Minero de España (IGME) and Luis E. Her-

cias

nández-Gutiérrez from the Geotechnical Laboratory of the

12 Soils and Rocks, 31(1): 3-13, January-April, 2008.

 Engineering Geological Properties of the Volcanic Rocks and Soils of the Canary Islands

Regional Government of the Canary Islands. The authors January 13, 2001, El Salvador earthquake. Geological
acknowledge the support of IGME to this study carried out Society of America, Special Paper 375, pp. 39-53.
within the framework of the research project IGME- Krastel, S.; Schminke, H.U.; Jacobs, C.L.; Rihm, R.; Le
CYCIT (CGL 2004-00899). Bas, T.P. & Alibés, B. (2001) Submarine landslides
around the Canary Islands. J. Geoph. Res., v. 106,
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