CHARACTERISTI VIRUSES

CS
Basic, general • Very small: 20 to 450 nm; shapes can vary – round, pointy, helical
structure • Pieces of DNA or RNA are wrapped in a symmetrical protein sheath called a
capsid. The capsid is made up of sub-units called capsomeres. The protein coat
protects the nucleic acid from nuclease enzymes in the host cell.
• Some viruses have 1 or 2 specific enzymes that are important for replication in
the host cell.
• Some viruses that infect animal cells have an envelope made from lipoproteins
(that originate from the cell membrane of the host).
• Bacteriophages are viruses that specifically infect bacterial cells – their structure
differs slightly from the traditional virus. Bacteriophages tend to inject their DNA
http://scienceaid.co.uk/biology/mi into the bacterial cell, leaving its capsid on the outside of the bacterial cell.
cro/viral.html • Any kind of organism (except mosses?) can be infected by a virus.

Prokaryote or • Neither.
Eukaryote • Viruses only contain fragments of DNA or RNA which may be linear, circular,
single stranded or double stranded – this is the template for the production of
new viral nucleic acids and proteins.

Uni- or Acellular. Viral particles not called viral cells, but virions.
multicellular
Cell walls None.

Nutrition None. They have no metabolism and therefore do not need energy.

Symbiotic Polydna viruses - The full genome of this virus is integrated into the genome of the
relationships specific wasp and the virus only replicates in the ovaries of the female wasp. The
virus is injected along with the wasp egg into the body cavity of a host caterpillar
and infects cells of the caterpillar. Without the virus infection blood cells will
encapsulate and kill the wasp egg, but the immune suppression caused by the
virus allows for hatching and complete development of the immature wasp in the
caterpillar.

Reproduction • This can only take place inside a host cell.

• Viruses connect to a receptor on the host cell’s surface and by either fusing with
the cell membrane or endocytosis the virus enters the host’s cell.
• The envelope is lost, the protein capsid is broken down and the RNA or DNA is
released in the cytoplasm.
• The host’s DNA is used to produce the components of new virions (enzymes so
that the viral genome can be replicated as well as proteins for the new capsids).
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a/InPractice/HIV/Ch
• New viral particles assemble themselves to form virions and then leave the cell.
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Positive effect or • Viruses can be used in vaccinations (live but weakened viruses for MMR or flu,
role in or inactivated viruses against hepatitis or polio)
• It can be used in gene therapy to bring genetic material into cells to compensate
environment /
for an abnormal/mutated gene or to make a beneficial protein.
symbiotic
• Viruses can target and kill selected cell populations like rapidly dividing cancer
relationships or cells, e.g. liver and cervical cancer.
economic uses • Bacteriophages can be used as pesticides in agriculture targeting e.g. the
bacteria that cause tomato spot.
• It can be used for the production of proteins for industrial and research purposes.

Negative effect or Influenza, AIDS, herpes, polio, common cold, chicken pox, measles, mumps, and
diseases rubella.

Developed by E. Hoffman and P. Hanekom (IMSTUS)

CHARACTERIS
TICS BACTERIA
Basic, general • They come in various shapes: rods (bacilli), spherical (cocci), spiral (spirilla) or comma shaped
structure (vibrio), can have one or more flagella for movement.
• Bacteria are present in air, water, plants, animals, even in hot springs and at a very low pH
(Achaea)
• All bacteria have a cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, a single chromosome and ribosomes.
• Some have a capsule on the outside of the cell wall (for protection and to stick together),
flagella (hair like appendages for movement in liquids) and endospores (that make them
resistant to harsh conditions).
• Bacteria carry out respiration although they do not have mitochondria.

Pro- or • Prokaryotes - they lack a true nucleus (genetic material included in a nucleus with a membrane)
Eukaryote • All bacteria contain a single circular chromosome.

Uni- or • Always unicellular.

multicellular • Coccus and Bacillus bacteria species often form colonies, e.g. diplococcic species (2 together),
streptococci (cells in a chain) and staphylococci (mass of cells).

Cell walls • The cell wall gives the cell its particular shape.
• Prokaryote cell walls are unique – it contains a complex polymer known as peptidoglycan.
• Two types of bacteria, Gram positive and Gram negative. Differences in cell wall structures
make one type keep the gram stain and the other not. Gram + or - is important especially for
diagnosing diseases.
• The chemical composition of the cell wall plays an important role in the vulnerability to
antibiotics.

Nutrition • Most bacteria are heterotrophs, feeding on dead organic matter.

• Some bacteria are photoautotrophs, e.g. the Cyanobacteria that contains chlorophyll (close to
the cell membrane, not in chloroplasts)
• Some are chemoautotrophs that can e.g. convert ammonia and ammonium into nitrites and
nitrates which plants can use.
• Others are parasites that live in association with other living organisms.

Symbiotic • Escherichia coli are normal inhabitants of the intestines of all animals, including humans. They
relationships are straight, rod-shaped, Gram-negative bacteria which normally serve a useful function in the
body by suppressing the growth of harmful bacterial species and by synthesising vitamin K and
B.
• Ruminants like cows and buck rely on bacteria in their stomachs to break cellulose down.
(Cellulose gives rigidity to the cells; the bonds between cellulose molecules are very strong).
http://schaechter.asmblog.org/sch
aechter/2007/08/e-coli-in-
• In the Legume family are plants like peanuts, soybean, clover and rooibos that have symbiotic
good-.html nitrogen fixing bacteria, called Rhizobium, within nodules in their root systems. These bacteria
chemically convert the nitrogen from the air and make it available for the plant.

Reproduction • Mostly takes place asexually through a process called binary fission (“in two, splitting”)
• A type of sexual reproduction can occur. (The nuclei never completely fuse but genetic
information is passed from one bacterium to another, resulting in genetic recombination).
• Some species are able to form spores (endospores) in unfavourable conditions (heat, freezing,
extreme pH, chemicals, and dehydration) which enable them to become dormant/resting. When
favourable conditions return the spores germinate to form a new cell again.

Positive effect • Decomposition of organic matter in the soil, maintaining soil fertility.
or role in • Clearing the environment by breaking down organic compounds e.g. dead plant material and
animal carcasses.
environment /
• Fermentation of milk to form yogurt and cheese where bacteria ferment/ break down sugars to
or economic form lactic acid which sours the milk and hinders the growth of pathogenic bacteria.
uses • Genetic engineering can put a human gene (e.g. the gene responsible for producing insulin)
inside bacteria which then reproduce fast under suitable conditions so that a lot of insulin is
produced in a short time.
• Production of antibiotics e.g. streptomycin and tetracycline

Developed by E. Hoffman and P. Hanekom (IMSTUS)

 • Production of certain plastics, ethanol and other chemicals
• During sewage treatment bacteria break down the material into acids, carbon dioxide and
methane.

Negative effect • Bacteria cause diseases such as cholera, tuberculosis, tetanus, bacterial pneumonia, bacterial
or diseases meningitis, even tooth decay. In plants bacteria can cause blight, rust, leaf spot, ect.

CHARACTERIST
ICS PROTISTA
Basic, general • This kingdom has a diverse group of organisms that are all eukaryotes,
structure which cannot be classified as fungi, plants or animals.
• They vary hugely in size – some are microscopic, others as large as trees
(brown plant-like kelp).
• Many are free-living with flagella for movement (Euglena); some have cilia
or move with pseudopodia. Others have none of these. Still others are
sessile and attach themselves to e.g. rocks under the water.
Prokaryote or Eukaryotes – all protists have a proper membrane bound nucleus.
Eukaryote
Uni- or Very diverse. Protists include single-celled organisms like Chlamydomonas,
multicellular colonial forms e.g. Volvox (made up of 500 – 60 000 individuals) of multi-
cellular organisms such as Spirogyra and sea weeds.
Cell walls On the outside of the cell membrane different protists can have different
material to form cell walls – pectin, silica or cellulose.
Nutrition Some like the green, brown and red algae are autotrophs which
photosynthesise; others like the protozoa are heterotrophs (Amoeba and the
slime moulds that look like fungi), or parasites that cause diseases
(Plasmodium, Trypanosoma).
Symbiotic • Protozoa living in the intestines of termites digest the wood eaten by the
relationships termites
• The common freshwater ciliate Paramecium bursaria is an example of
endosymbiosis by protists. Green alge/endosymbionts fix carbon through
photosynthesis while the host provides nitrogen compounds. (Endosymbiosis
takes place in many aquatic multicellular organisms that live in symbioses
Paramecium with photosynthetic algae - well-known examples are corals and sponges).
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_10.html

Reproduction • Algae divide asexually, rarely sexually.

• Protozoa divide asexually via binary fission, sometimes sexually by
conjugation (exchange of nuclei) or by the production and fusion of
gametes.
• Many protists can survive harsh conditions by forming cysts (dormant forms
of a cell with resistant outer coverings in which very little metabolism occur).
Positive effect or • In aquatic ecosystems algae release oxygen and produce food during
role in photosynthesis.
environment / or • Extracts from seaweeds are used for agar, plant growth hormones, mineral
economic uses salt tablets, iodine, in cosmetics, paints, medicine and salad dressings.
• Diatomes with their silica cell walls form sediment - this fine clay is used for

Developed by E. Hoffman and P. Hanekom (IMSTUS)

 paper, paint and as filters in some swimming pools.

Negative effect or • Malaria is caused by a protist-parasite belonging to the Plasmodium group

diseases (the Anopheles mosquito is the second host),
• Trypanosoma causes sleeping sickness. The protists are not killed by the
immune system because it has a glycoprotein (VSG) coating.
http://proseworks.blogspot.com/201
2/10/science-and-official-style-
unusual-match.html

Developed by E. Hoffman and P. Hanekom (IMSTUS)

CHARACTERIS
TICS FUNGI
Basic, general • All fungi develop from spores and no fungi display flagella, cilia, or chloroplasts.
structure • Many fungi are made of thread-like filaments called hyphae. Rhizoids are root-like parts of
hyphae that anchor the fungus to the substrate; the stolons are the hyphae that grow over
the substrate, whereas the sporangiophores stand up straight and carry the sporangia.
• The whole tangled, intertwining mass of hyphae are called the mycelium. Mycelium
increases the surface area of the fungi to absorb more nutrients.
• Fungal mycelium is mostly hidden from human view because it is usually hidden deep
within its food source (such as rotting matter in the soil, leaf litter, rotting wood, or dead
animals).
• The mycelium remains undetected until it develops one or more fruiting bodies, containing
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nces/lifescience/generalbiology/microbiol
the reproductive spores. The fruiting bodies are carried at the surface of the food source
ogy/Fungi/Classification/Classification.ht
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(not hidden within the substrate) and allows for spores to be shed and carried away by
wind, water or animals.

Prokaryote or • Eykaryote – DNA is enclosed in a double membrane to form a nucleus

Eukaryote • Some multi-nucleated, non septated species are said to be coenocytic (Greek “koinos”
meaning shared , and “kytos” a vessel)
Uni- or • Some are unicellular (e.g. yeast) but most are multi-cellular.
multicellular

Cell walls • Most species have cell walls from chitin, a minority has cell walls from cellulose.
• Each hyphae is one continuous cell, but they may have septae/ cross-walls that divide the
cytoplasm, or the cross-walls may be perforated, or the cross-walls may be absent
(Rhizopus, Mucor).

Nutrition • Most fungi are saprophytic heterotrophs that live on dead organic matter. Some are
parasitic.
• Saprophytic fungi use digestive enzymes to break down their food outside their bodies,
they then absorb the digested food.
• Some fungi live in a mutualistic relationship with other organisms, e.g lichens
• Predaceous fungi specialise to capture microscopically small animals - they can secrete a
sticky substance on the hyphae, or form a loop that swells and strangle e.g. round worms.

Symbiotic • In lichens a fungus and a green algae or cyanobacterium co-exists. The algae produce
relationships organic food via photosynthesise, whereas the fungus supplies the inorganic nutrients.
• Mycorrhizae are mutually beneficial associations between plant roots, e.g fynbos plants in
nutrient poor soils, and fungi. Fungus hyphae help in water and mineral uptake for the plant
and in doing so increase plant growth, while the plant roots secrete a substance that the
fungus need.
• Some fungi form mutualistic relationships with ants - ants actively spread, nurture and
defend the fungus; the fungus provides nutrients for the ants in return.

Reproduction • Fungi produce spores in both asexual and sexual life cycles.
• Mushrooms let out spores from their gills that are carried by the wind to meet other spores
and become a new fungus.
• Yeast are unicellular and divide into new fungal cells (mitosis)

Positive effect • Saprophyte fungi are essential decomposers that use non-living organic material. This is
or role in important in recycling carbon, nitrogen and essential mineral nutrients
environment / or • Breaking down of rocks into soil.
economic uses • Used as food for humans and animals (e.g mushrooms, truffels)
• Used in bread, beer, cheese (Camembert, Roquefort )and wine making
• Yeasts – baking and brewing beer
• Antibiotics – penicillin & cephalosporin
• Production of organic acids – citric acid in Coke
• Steroids and medicines – birth control pills

Developed by E. Hoffman and P. Hanekom (IMSTUS)

Negative effect • Diseases like ringworm, athlete’s foot, thrush in humans
or diseases • Parasitic fungi cause 80% of plant diseases, e.g. powdery mildew on fruit, ergot parasite in
rye, rusts in plants

Developed by E. Hoffman and P. Hanekom (IMSTUS)