EME4302 - Mechatronics Engineering Design

Introduction to Sensors

Lecture - 1
 Introduction to sensors & transducers

 Sensor classification

 Sensor Selection

 Performance characteristics
 In industrial automation extraction of
information/data plays a major role in
monitoring and controlling the pant
 This is accomplished by the
instrumentation/measuring/data acquisition
system of the plant
  A typical measuring/data acquisition device

Measurand (Typically an Transmittable

analog signal from plant) signal
Sensor Transducer

Measuring Device

 Measurand
o The quantity/parameter being measured
  A typical measuring/data acquisition system

Signal To
From plant conditioning controller/
Sensor Transducer
& display
modification

Measuring System
  A typical measuring/data acquisition system for
controlling

Input
Outputs
signal
Signal Control
Hardware Actuator Plant
conditioning

Signal
Transducer Sensor
conditioning

Measuring System
 Sensor
o A device that sense the measurand
o Acquires information from the real world
 Transducer
o A device that converts a primary form of energy into
a corresponding signal with a different form of
energy
o In other words, in a measuring device, a transducer
converts information supplied by a sensor into a
standardized signal which can be processed
o Primary forms of energy
• Mechanical
• Thermal
• Electro‐magnetic
• Chemical
• Optical

o Sensors and actuators are examples for transducers

 Some important notes on sensors and
transducers
o Almost any physical property of a material that
changes in response to some excitation can be used
as a sensor
o Physical properties used by some commonly
available sensors
• Resistive • Piezoelectric • Magnetosrtictive
• Inductive • Thermal • Elastic
• Capacitive • Photoresistive
 Some important notes on sensors and
transducers (Cont..)
o Most sensors will come with a transducer coupled
to it

Strain Gauge

Deflection Strain Voltage Electrical Signal

Generation Generation
 Importance of sensing in industrial automation
o Manufacturing process control
o Process monitoring and supervision
o Product quality control
  Classification of sensors can be done on
several basis

SENSORS

SIGNAL POWER MODE OF SUBJECT OF

CHARACTERISTICS SUPPLY OPERATION MEASUREMENT

o Analogue o Active o Null type

o Digital o Passive o Deflection type
 Analogue
o Analogue mainly refers to continuous unbroken
series of events

o Therefore, they are used for measurement of

continuous process variables such as,
• Speed • Strain
• Temperature
• Pressure
• Flow
 Analogue
o These sensors typically producers a continues
output signal (Voltage) that is generally
proportional to the measurand
o The output signal is usually slow changing and small
in value, thus some kind of amplification may be
necessary
o The typical voltage range after amplification is 0 ‐5V
 Analogue
o The output will usually pass through a A/D
converter before entering the controller/display
o Examples:
• Potentiometer
• Thermo‐couple
• LVDT
• Pressure sensors
 Analogue
 Digital
o Digital mainly refers to a sequence of discrete
events
o These sensors produces a discrete output signal or
voltage that is a digital representation of the
quantity being measured
 Digital
o It produces a binary output signal in the form of a
logic "1" or a logic "0", ("ON" or "OFF") which
means that a digital signal only produces discrete
(non‐continuous) values which may be outputted as
a single "bit", (serial transmission) or by combining
the bits to produce a single "byte" output (parallel
transmission).
o Since the output from these sensors are digital,
these will not require any conversion modules
before entering the controller/display
 Digital
o Examples
• Limit switch
• Optical encoder
• Ultrasonic ranger
• Photosensitive semiconductor (Photo sensors)
– CCD
– CMOS
 Active
o The output (most of it) is produced by an external
power source

o Examples
• Ultra‐sonic sensors
• Radar
 Passive
o In passive sensors the output is generated only from
the input parameter (input energy) they are sensing
o That is, no additional power source is not required
to generate an output signal
o However, the generated output signal can be very
small or weak, hence it may be necessary to amplify
the output signals by using active devices such as
OP amps
 Passive
o Examples
• Strain gauges
• LVDT’s
• Thermo‐couples
• Piezoelectric sensors
 Deflection type
o These sensors are used in a physical setup where
the output is proportional to the measurand

o More convenient than null type. (Ease of reading

and operation)

o In terms of accuracy, it will be less than that of a

null type sensor
o Example would be the pressure gauge
 Null type
o In null type sensors, any deflection due to the
measurand is balanced by the opposing calibrated
force so that any imbalances are detected
o These are more accurate than the deflection types
sensing equipment
 In this classification, the types will depend on
the parameter or subject being measured
o For example
• Acoustic
• Biological
• Electrical
• Mechanical
• Thermal
• Optical
 Selection of a sensor for a particular application
depends on:
o Performance characteristics
o Durability and ruggedness
o Maintenance
o Cost
 Performance characteristics/parameters of a
sensor can be broadly categorized under two
main headings
o Static characteristics
• Parameters that are constant in time or vary
slowly with time
o Dynamic characteristics
• Parameters that vary with time
 Static characteristics
o Accuracy
o Precision
o Repeatability
o Range/Span
o Dead band/dead space
o Hysteresis
o Tolerance
o Threshold
 Static characteristics (Cont..)
o Sensitivity
o Resolution
o Linearity
o Impedance/loading effects
 Dynamic characteristics
o Useful frequency range
o Bandwidth
o Dynamic range
 Accuracy
o The closeness of the measured value to the
true value
o Depends on the inherent instrument
limitations

Low accuracy High accuracy

 Precision
o The ability of an instrument to reproduce a
certain set of readings within a given accuracy
and a minimum dispersion
o That is, if a large number of readings are taken
of the same quantity by a high precision
instrument, then the spread of readings will be
very small
o Precision depends on the reliability of the
instrument
 Precision

High precision Low precision

 Repeatability
o The closeness of output readings when the same
input is applied repetitively over a short period of
time, with the same measurement conditions, same
instrument and observer, same location and same
conditions of use, maintained throughout
o In other words, it is the ability to reproduce the
output signal exactly when the same measurand is
applied repeatedly under the same environmental
conditions
o The degree of repeatability is an alternate way of
expressing precision
 Range
o The range/span of an instrument is defined as
the minimum and the maximum values it is
designed to measure

 Dead space/dead band

o This is the range of different input values over

which there is no change in the output values
 Threshold
o If an input to a instrument is gradually
increased from zero, the input will have to
reach a certain minimum level before the
change in the instrument output reading is of a
large enough magnitude to be detectable. This
minimum level of input is defined as the
threshold
 Linearity
o This is simply the property of the instrument
where the output is a linear function of the
input
o However, 100% linearity is rarely achieved and
the deviations from the ideal are termed
‘linearity tolerances’
o Linearity is expressed as the percentage of
departure from the linear value ( i.e. maximum
deviation of the output curve from the best fit
straight line during a calibration cycle)
 Linearity

o The closeness of the static calibration curve (curve of

output amplitude vs input amplitude under static
conditions within the dynamic range) to a straight
line measures the degree of linearity
 Linearity
o The non‐linearity is normally caused by non‐
linear elements such as mechanical hysteresis,
viscous flow, creep and electronic amplifiers
 Zero drift
o Defined as the drift from the null reading of the
instrument when the measurand is maintained
at steady for a long period of time. Similarly,
full‐scale drift is defined with respect to full
scale reading

o Caused by instrument instability, ambient changes,

changes in power supply, non‐linearaties etc,
 Hysteresis effects
o If the input measured
quantity to the
instrument is steadily
increased from a
negative value, the
output variation is
shown as curve A. Then
if the input is steadily
decreased, the output
curve is as depicted as
in curve B
 Hysteresis effects
o The previous figure depicts the output
characteristics of a instrument which exhibits a
typical hysteresis
o Two quantities, maximum input hysteresis and
maximum output hysteresis can be defined
according to the diagram. These are normally
expressed as a percentage of the full scale input or
output reading respectively
 Sensitivity
o Sensitivity is measured by the magnitude (peak,
rms value, etc.) of the output signal corresponding
to a unit input of the measurand
o In other words, it is the ability of the instrument to
respond to the changes in the measurand
o It can also be expressed as the ratio of change of
output to the change of the input
 Sensitivity
o Example
• If a movement of 0.001mm causes an output
voltage change of 0.02V in a particular electrical
sensor, what would be its sensitivity?

• Sensitivity =
 Sensitivity
o In the case of vectorial or tensorial signals
(displacement, velocity etc.,) the direction of the
sensitivity should be specified
o Cross‐sensitivity is the sensitivity along directions
that are orthogonal to the direction of sensitivity
and often expressed as a percentage of direct
sensitivity

o Usually sensitivity to parameter changes and noise

should be minimum (low)
 Resolution
o Resolution is the smallest increment in the
measured value that is possible to detect
accurately
o It is also known as the degree of fineness with
which measurements can be made
o It can be expressed as a percentage of the
maximum range of the instrument or as the inverse
of the dynamic ratio
 Resolution
o A sensor has a digital output of 12bits. What is it’s
digital resolution?
• The smallest possible increment will be the
change in the LSB (Least significant bit)

• Therefore, the resolution = 1

 Useful frequency range
o This corresponds to a flat gain curve and a zero
phase curve in the frequency response
characteristics of an instrument.
o The maximum frequency in this band is typically
less than half ( around one‐fifth) of the dominant
resonant frequency of the instrument
 Useful frequency range
Gain

UFR

fmax fr Frq. (Hz)

Phase angle
 Bandwidth
o Bandwidth of an instrument determines the
maximum speed or the frequency at which is
capable of operating
o The Bandwidth is normally determined by the
dominant natural frequency or the dominant
resonance frequency of the sensor
o High bandwidth implies faster speed of response
o bandwidth is directly related to the useful
frequency range
 Dynamic range
o Dynamic rage of an instrument is determined by
the allowed lower and upper limits of its inputs or
outputs so as to maintain a required level of
measurement accuracy of an instrument
o Usually expressed as a ratio, in decibels
o In many situations, the lower limit of the dynamic
range is equal to the resolution of the device
 Dynamic range
o A sensor has a digital output of 12bits. What is it’s
dynamic range?
• Let the smallest possible increment to be δy

• Let the smallest possible value to be ymin and the

largest possible value to be ymax

Note that a 12‐bit word can have a combination of

212 values
 Dynamic range
• Therefore, the largest value ymax = ymin + (212 ‐1 ) δy

• There will be 212 values within ymin and ymax,

inclusive of the two end values
Therefore, the dynamic range = ymax ‐ ymin
δy

Dynamic range = (212 ‐1 ) δy = 212 – 1 = 4905

δy
 Dynamic range

Therefore, the dynamic range = 20 log10 (4095)

Dynamic range of the sensor = 72dB

 It is noteworthy to remember that instrument
manufacturers do not provide all the
performance parameters that we discussed
 The typical rating parameters provided
o Sensitivity o Accuracy
o Dynamic range o Bandwidth
o Resolution o Input/output impedances
o Linearity
o Useful frequency range
 Introduction to instrumentation/data
acquisition systems
 Definitions for sensors and transducers

 Classification of sensors

 Selection criteria of sensors

 Performance characteristics of sensors

 Introduction to common sensors used in
industrial automation
o Sensors for position and motion measurements
o Sensors for temperature measurements
o Sensors for force, torque and pressure
measurements
o Sensors for flow measurements