Design and Implementation of an

Electric Vehicle and Control

Submitted by:
2020-FYP-03
Nimra Javed 2020-EE-101
Zoha Khan 2020-EE-104
Samavia Iman 2020-EE-108
Muhammad Askari Zaidi 2020-EE-131

Supervised by: Dr. Syed Abdul Rehman Kashif

Co-Supervised by: Sir Anique Aslam

Department of Electrical Engineering

University of Engineering and Technology Lahore
Contents

List of Figures ii

Abbreviations iii

Abstract iv

1 Introduction 1

2 Problem Statement 2

3 Literature Review 3

4 Project Overview and Objectives 6

5 Project Development Methodology/Architecture 9

5.0.1 Control Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5.0.2 Control Signals Adjustment Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.0.3 Gate Driver Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.0.4 Braking Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.0.5 Auxiliary Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.0.6 Truthtable Explanation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.0.7 Features of the Inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5.0.8 Hardware Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
5.0.9 PCB Design of Inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

6 Project Milestones and Deliverables 15

7 Block Diagram 16

8 Flow Chart 18

9 Work Division 19

10 Costing 20

References 21

i
List of Figures

5.1 The flow chart of control algorithm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

5.2 The flow chart of CSAA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.3 V/f ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.4 Truth table of interlocking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5.5 Inverter PCB front. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
5.6 Inverter PCB back. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

6.1 Gantt Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

7.1 Block Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

8.1 Flow Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

9.1 Work Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

10.1 Costing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

ii
Abbreviations

DTC Direct Torque Ccontrol

EVs Electric Vehicle
HEVs Hybrid Electric Vehicle
BLDC BrushlessDirect Current
SVPWM SpaceVector Pulse Width Modulation
IM Induction Motor
PHEV Plug-inHybrid ElectricVehicle
PMS Permanent Magnet Synchronous
SPWM Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation

iii
 Abstract
The transportation sector’s heavy reliance on fossil fuels has led to environmental degra-
dation, price volatility, finite reserves, and greenhouse gas emissions. This project seeks
to address these pressing issues by designing and implementing an electric vehicle drive
system utilizing a three-phase induction motor. The project’s core objectives are to
achieve precise control of the IM’s speed and torque, incorporate regenerative braking
for enhanced energy efficiency, and harness solar power for auxiliary loads. The proposed
solution employs Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation to optimize motor control, em-
phasizing sustainability and cost-effectiveness. This project’s value proposition lies in
its commitment to delivering a versatile, efficient, and environmentally friendly electric
drive system for various applications, bridging the gap between traditional fossil fuel-
based transportation and green technology solutions. Through this research, we aim to
contribute to the advancement of state-of-the-art EV technologies and promote a more
sustainable future in transportation.
Chapter 1

Introduction

The transportation sector relies heavily on fossil fuels, and these have many negative
impacts such as global warming, volatile fuel prices, restrictions, and emissions. There
are also many policies aimed at reducing emissions and reducing the use of fossil fuels
in transportation. Using electricity in transportation can help solve these problems by
reducing fossil fuel consumption. Electric vehicles have many more advantages such as
greater fuel efficiency, passenger comfort, safety, and faster travel times due to the use
of electric vehicles. Plug-in electric vehicles can also help support the grid and make
it more reliable [1]-[2]. Electric transportation includes EVs, HEVs, and rechargeable
PHEVs [4]. PHEVs and HEVs are like conventional cars but contain a battery in addi-
tion to an internal electric motor [5]. In contrast, electric cars use only batteries and are
therefore environmentally friendly and emissions-free. Different types of motors such as
DC motors and PMS motors are used to power these vehicles. PMS motors may suffer
from demagnetization issues, while DC motors have the disadvantage of being large,
unreliable, inefficient, and costly to maintain. BLDC motors and IM are also suitable
for electric vehicles [6]-[8]. While BLDC motors tend to be expensive and mechanically
weak, IMs are easier to build, cheaper, require less maintenance, are more reliable, and
can work harder, making them better suited for the job. However, controlling the speed
of IM is more difficult than DC motor and usually adjusts the voltage frequency. Various
techniques such as SVPWM and SPWM can be used to implement different drivers. For
example, some SVPWM is used to reduce torque ripples in the IM driver. This article
focuses on the use of three-phase IMs to drive EVs.The speed of the IM is controlled by a
three-phase variable voltage inverter using SPWM technology. Additionally, a regenera-
tive generator is used to improve the overall performance of the generator. The following
sections of this article detail the thrust, methodology, results, and conclusions.

1
Chapter 2

Problem Statement

The problem addressed in this research project is the need for efficient and environ-
mentally friendly electric drive systems in the transportation sector. Fossil fuels, which
are the dominant energy source in transportation, contribute to global warming, exhibit
price volatility, have finite reserves, and produce harmful greenhouse gas emissions. Ad-
ditionally, stringent regulations aimed at reducing emissions and the growing demand
for reduced fossil fuel consumption in transportation further highlight the urgency of
this problem. To mitigate these issues, the electrification of the transportation sector
is proposed as a solution. Electric vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles, and plug-in hybrid
electric vehicles are introduced to replace traditional internal combustion engine vehicles.
Among the various electric drive technologies, the focus is on employing induction mo-
tors due to their simplicity, cost-effectiveness, reliability, and suitability for industrial
applications. However, IMs require precise speed control, which is achieved through
a three-phase variable frequency variable voltage inverter using sinusoidal pulse width
modulation. The project also incorporates a regenerative braking mechanism to enhance
overall efficiency and employs a solar panel to power auxiliary loads. The research aims
to develop an efficient and eco-friendly electric drive system for transportation while ad-
dressing the complexities of IM speed control and ensuring reliability through innovative
solutions.

2
Chapter 3

Literature Review

Introduction to Electric Vehicles

Electric vehicles (EVs) represent a promising technology to mitigate many environmen-

tal challenges associated with the transportation sector, such as global warming, air
pollution, and noise pollution. EVs are powered by electric motors rather than internal
combustion engines and use energy stored in batteries (or other storage media) rather
than from gasoline or diesel. This makes EVs capable of being fueled by electricity
generated from renewable energy sources, which can help achieve decarbonization goals
and sustainability [1],[2],[3],[4]. However, due to their higher upfront cost, lower driving
range, longer refueling time, and limited charging infrastructure, EVs face several bar-
riers to widespread adoption. Battery energy density and cost reductions, advances in
charging technologies, and government incentives for manufacturers and consumers to
reduce the price gap with internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) are necessary for
wider EV adoption [2],[3],[1].

EVs can have a direct positive impact on the environment and human health. First, as
the transportation sector is a major contributor to GHG emissions, shifting to electricity-
based mobility reduces overall emissions, particularly when the electricity is generated
from renewable energy sources. Electric Vehicle Literature Review Second, EVs have no
tailpipe emissions, so they can reduce local air pollution in congested urban areas [5],[3].

Third, they are quieter than ICEVs, which can contribute to reducing noise pollution[6].
Fourth, depending on the availability of charging infrastructure, they can also have an
indirect positive impact by providing vehicle-to-grid services, e.g., with the possibility to
feed the grid with electricity stored in the EV battery or help stabilize the grid through
demand response or frequency regulation.

Historical Overview of Electric Vehicles

Historically, the concern for air pollution and climate change has driven the development
of electric vehicles. They have the potential to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions,

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decrease pollution levels, and contribute to grid flexibility and reliability through vehicle-
to-grid (V2G) technologies. Various studies have already shown the environmental and
social benefits of EVs, including energy independence, integration of renewable energy
sources, recuperating the economy, improving air quality, and reducing noise pollution.
Consequently, research on EVs has received significant attention from academia, policy-
makers, and industry.

However, several barriers limit the widespread adoption of EVs. These include the high
purchase price, long recharging time, limited driving range, lack of charging infrastruc-
ture, battery life, and charging mode [7]. Research conducted in the U.S., for example,
has reported that EV price, driving range, and limited charging opportunities are the
main obstacles to the widespread adoption of EVs [8],[9]. Some scholars have found that
the lack of awareness and misconceptions about EVs and their limited driving range
are some of the main factors influencing their adoption [7],[8]. Air pollution and traffic
congestion are also important considerations, although these factors are less influential
on EV adoption [7],[9]. Several studies have shown that electric vehicles, when charged
with renewable energy, can potentially help reduce air pollution and greenhouse gas
emissions from the transport sector [7],[6].

Present State of Electric Vehicles

Electric vehicles have gained significant attention recently, particularly with the increase
in environmental pollution, climate change, and GHG emissions. Although many studies
have explored the environmental benefits of electric vehicles, only a few of them have
examined the associated risks and uncertainties. The rapid adoption of EVs will have a
variety of economic, environmental, and social implications, both positive and negative.
Positive implications include reduced pollution and GHG emissions, which contribute
to improved air quality and a reduction in human health risks [10],[7]. For example,
electric vehicles, if charged with renewable energy sources (RESs), have the potential
to decrease GHG emissions and improve air quality, since they are powered by cleaner
energy sources [3]. EVs are more environmentally friendly and have the potential to
substantially reduce the emissions of carbon dioxide (CO 2) and other harmful pollutants
such as sulfur oxide, nitrogen oxide, and particulate matter (PM 2.5 and PM 10).

Challenges in the Integration of Electric Vehicles

The widespread adoption of electric vehicles is not without its challenges. These chal-
lenges include high prices, long charging times, limited driving ranges, limited charging
infrastructures, uncertainty regarding the benefits, and more EVs, for example, are re-
stricted by their limited battery storage capacities and their uncertain driving ranges
[6],[12],[7]. Uncertainty about driving range is one of the main reasons why potential
consumers are reluctant to purchase electric vehicles. Limited range anxiety, combined
with inadequate charging infrastructure, is a major obstacle to the adoption of electric
vehicles. An extensive charging infrastructure is needed to provide charging stations,
making EVs available to consumers in various locations. Furthermore, limited battery
 5

storage capacity necessitates frequent charging, which leads to longer vehicle downtime.
As a result, many potential consumers of electric vehicles are concerned that their daily
driving habits will be constrained by the limited range and longer charging times of
electric vehicles. According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), these concerns
are among the main reasons why consumers are hesitant to purchase electric vehicles.
Therefore, research should be conducted to study the potential of electric vehicles in the
context of country and global conditions [13]. In recent years, electric vehicles (EVs)
have gained significant attention worldwide due to their potential to combat climate
change, air pollution, and oil consumption, and to improve the sustainability of the
transportation sector.

Solutions and Innovations for Electric Vehicle Issues

To address the challenges associated with electric vehicles, several solutions and inno-
vations can be implemented. One of the key solutions is to invest in the expansion and
improvement of charging infrastructure. This includes increasing the number of charging
stations in urban areas, as well as along major highways and transportation corridors.
By expanding the charging network, range anxiety can be reduced, and drivers can have
confidence in the availability of charging points when needed. The weight and size of
batteries pose challenges for electric vehicles in terms of efficiency and performance. To
overcome this, engineers are exploring alternative materials and designs to make batter-
ies lighter and more compact without compromising their energy storage capacity. This
includes the use of solid-state batteries, which have the potential to offer higher energy
density and improved safety compared to traditional lithium-ion batteries. In terms of
convenience, automakers and technology companies are developing smart charging so-
lutions and mobile apps to provide EV owners with real-time information on charging
station availability, charging speeds, and even optimized routes based on battery range.
These innovations aim to enhance the overall user experience and alleviate concerns
about range anxiety. Lastly, the integration of renewable energy sources with electric
vehicles is being explored to further enhance their sustainability. This involves utilizing
solar panels or wind turbines to generate clean energy specifically for charging EVs,
reducing reliance on the traditional power grid and minimizing carbon emissions. In
conclusion, the ongoing research and development efforts in the field of electric vehicles
are focused on addressing the limitations and challenges associated with this emerging
technology. Through advancements in battery technology, charging infrastructure, cost
reduction, and integration with renewable energy sources, electric vehicles are poised to
become an even more viable and attractive mode of transportation in the future.
Chapter 4

Project Overview and Objectives

The aim of this project is to develop an electric vehicle propulsion system based on a
three-phase induction motor, IM, as a traction source. The first objective is, in ad-
dressing problems related to fuels such as environmental concerns, price fluctuations,
depleted reserves, and greenhouse gas emissions, the development of a very effective
and resilient electric vehicle system for transport. A few components, including the con-
trol algorithm, electrical electronics, regenerative braking mechanism, and solar-powered
auxiliary loads are integrated into this proposed method. The project is intended to de-
liver a reliable, environmentally sound electric vehicle propulsion system with excellent
efficiency, minimal impact on the environment, and improved operation a performance.

Value Proposition

• Sustainability and Environmental Impact

The value proposition of this project is based on the commitment to sustainability.
By using an electricity drive system with regeneration braking and solar-powered
auxiliaries, it reduces the environmental impact significantly, minimizes greenhouse
gas emissions as well, and makes a positive contribution to clean and greener
transport.

• Efficiency and Energy Optimization

The Efficiency of operation is prioritized by the electronic drive system, resulting
in reduced energy waste and cost savings. It uses highly efficient algorithms to
precisely control the IM’s speed and torque, maximizing its energy efficiency.

• Reliability and Cost-Efficiency

To ensure dependability, the project is based on three phases of an Integrated
Maintenance Plan recognized for ease of installation, lower cost, and high relia-
bility. It’s more cost-efficient, reduces maintenance, and is of higher durability
compared to other motor types which makes it suitable for applications in the
automotive industry.

6
 7

• Innovation in Control
The project employs novel control algorithms, such as sinusoidal pulse width modu-
lation (SPWM), to modulate voltage and frequency in accordance with the voltage-
to-frequency (V/f) principle. The overall efficiency and effectiveness of the system
will be enhanced by this method.

Project Objectives

• Design and Implement an Efficient EV Drive System

The multipart goal is to develop and implement efficient EV propulsion systems
with a view to exploiting new technologies and control methods. The main goal is
to be able to build propulsion systems that are as efficient and reliable as possible.
The integration of three-phase motors, known for their robustness and efficiency
in electric vehicle applications, is the primary way to achieve this. In general,
the overriding objective is to enhance driving experiences, reduce energy use, and
deliver more performance while reducing wear and tear on core components. A
multifaceted aim is to design, implement, and exploit cutting-edge technologies
and control methods to achieve efficient electric vehicle propulsion systems. The
development of electric propulsion systems that achieve the highest possible effi-
ciency and reliability is a major objective. To achieve this, three-phase motors that
have been known for their durability and efficiency in electric vehicle applications
must be integrated. The overall objective is to improve driver experience, reduce
energy consumption, and deliver higher performance while reducing wear and tear
on key components.

• Environmental Impact Reduction

The aim of environmental impact reduction is to greatly reduce transport’s adverse
impact on the environment. To that end, the objective is primarily directed toward
a fundamental transition towards EV vehicles which do not emit any greenhouse
gas emissions while in operation. By adopting EVs, the project promotes eco-
friendly Transport Practices and mitigates major environmental concerns. The
adoption of electric vehicles will contribute to the fight against climate change, by
reducing CO2 and pollutant emissions. Reducing pollution in the atmosphere is of
critical importance and contributes to improving air quality and public health. At
the same time, this Programmer is setting out a more sustainable mobility future
that will give priority to cleaner and greener transport modes in conjunction with
worldwide efforts towards reducing carbon footprints and mitigating environmental
deterioration.

• Operational Efficiency Enhancement

The improvement focuses attention on the need to simplify electric drive system
performance. Reducing energy waste and ensuring that every unit is used to its
 8

full potential are the primary objectives. In this context, the deployment of cost-
effective solutions to enhance energy efficiency both in terms of improving effec-
tiveness and increasing the economic viability of electric vehicle propulsion systems
is part of that work. The initiative will aim to decrease the overall consumer oper-
ating costs by maximizing energy efficiency. This will lead to a reduction of energy
consumption, reduced costs for recharging and refueling as well as possibly more
attractive transport options for individuals and fleets. Efficient electric propul-
sion is also beneficial to the environment, as well as the economic viability of EV
adoption.

• Alignment with Sustainability Goals

Alignment with Sustainability Goals entails ensuring that the project’s objectives
and achievements are consistent with larger environmental and social goals. It’s
about cutting reliance on fossil fuels, which is a major source of greenhouse gas
emissions and climate change. It is crucial to improve energy efficiency since it
reduces resource consumption and the environmental impact. In line with the shift
from fossil fuels to greener energy sources, support is being given to clean energy
sources like electric propulsion. This collaboration is aimed at reducing the carbon
footprint and promoting cleaner air. In addition, the initiative envisages building
a more environmentally sound and socially beneficial freight transport sector to
reach its global objective of a greener and sustainable future. The product of the
project will be an entirely operational electric drive system for vehicles, comprising
control algorithms, power electronics, regeneration braking, and Solar auxiliary
loads. Integration of these parts into the vehicle’s chassis shall be part of the
expected packaging. By introducing a comprehensive approach to electric vehicle
propulsion that takes sustainability, efficiency, and reliability into account, this
solution intends to be more differentiated from other solutions. In addition, the
project’s innovative control algorithms make it a progressive and environmentally
friendly solution in the Transport sector.
Chapter 5

Project Development
Methodology/Architecture

The design and implementation of an EV driving system shall be the subject of this
study. The system controls the speed of an IM using a technique known as Sinusoidal
Pulse Width Modulation. The SPWM records a sinusoidal waveform, and all samples
reflect PWM’s percentage duty cycle. The basic elements are summarized in this sum-
mary.

Figure 5.1: The flow chart of control algorithm.

5.0.1 Control Algorithm

• As an array that is in the controller’s memory, the control algorithm maintains a
percentage duty cycle.

• As an array that is in the controller’s memory, the control algorithm maintains a

percentage duty cycle.

9
 10

• You can turn on the timer’s Overflow interruptions and initialize them in the
required PWM modes.

• Input speed of a user shall be read through an External interrupt.

• An analog-to-digital converter (ADC) reads the input signal and converts it to a

digital value.

• Using a Control Signals Adjustment Algorithm (CSAA), the output pins create
six dead band corrected PWM signals based on the ADC result.

5.0.2 Control Signals Adjustment Algorithm

• To read a PWM speed signal with the ADC, the CSAA alters its frequency and
voltage.

• Regarding the pickup constraints, they compare the desired frequency with the
previous frequency and adjust it according to its difference.

• At the same time, it changes the voltage level using the V/f (Voltage-to-frequency)
concept.

• In case the frequency required is below the rated frequency, this level of voltage
shall be regulated accordingly to avoid saturation.

• If the required frequency is above the rated frequency, the voltage will continue to
remain unchanged, and the duty cycle shall not change.

5.0.3 Gate Driver Circuit

• Before heading toward the three-phase Inverter, signals from the controller travel
through a gate driver circuit.

• In the inverter, a gate driver circuit ensures that low and high side switches are
switched properly.

• It also includes the use of optocouplers to isolate the controller from the high-
voltage circuit.

5.0.4 Braking Mechanism

• To increase the efficiency of an electric motor, a regenerative braking mechanism
should be used.

• The IM functions as a generator, charging the battery bank instead of wasting

kinetic energy.

• Also, a hydraulic brake should be fitted to ensure safety in the event of an emer-
gency.
 11

Figure 5.2: The flow chart of CSAA.

5.0.5 Auxiliary Load

Power for auxiliary loads such as lights, signals, horns, fans, and other electronic equip-
ment is provided by a solar panel.

Figure 5.3: V/f ratio

5.0.6 Truthtable Explanation

• If both IN-LOW and IN-HIGH are 0, OUT-LOW is 1 (indicating a condition where
the process should proceed with OUT-LOW high).
 12

• If IN-HIGH is 1 (regardless of the state of IN-LOW), OUT-LOW is 1 (indicating

that the process should proceed with OUT-LOW high).

• If IN-LOW is 1 (regardless of the state of IN-HIGH), OUT-HIGH is 1 (indicating

that the process should proceed with OUT-HIGH high).

• If both IN-LOW and IN-HIGH are 1, OUT-HIGH is 1 (indicating a condition

where the process should proceed with OUT-HIGH high).

• This is a simplified example, and the actual conditions and outcomes would depend
on the specific requirements of the interlocking system you are designing. Inter-
locking systems are commonly used in control systems to ensure proper sequences
and safety.

Figure 5.4: Truth table of interlocking.

5.0.7 Features of the Inverter

Inverters, particularly in the context of electrical systems, offer several benefits that
contribute to their popularity and usefulness. Here are some of the key benefits of
inverters:

• Power Conversion
Inverters convert direct current (DC) into alternating current (AC). This is par-
ticularly useful in renewable energy systems (like solar panels and wind turbines),
where DC is generated but AC is needed for most household and industrial appli-
cations.

• Backup Power Supply

Inverters are an essential component in UPS systems, providing a seamless tran-
sition from grid power to battery power during outages. This is critical for main-
taining power to sensitive electronic equipment, such as computers and servers.
 13

• Renewable Energy Integration

Inverters play a crucial role in solar power systems by converting the DC electricity
generated by solar panels into AC power suitable for use in homes and businesses.

• Variable Speed Motors

Inverters are used in motor drives to control the speed of AC motors. This is more
energy-efficient than traditional methods, especially in applications where variable
speed is required.

• Energy Efficiency
Inverters can be designed to improve power factor, which is beneficial for increasing
the efficiency of electrical systems and reducing energy consumption.

• Quiet Operation
Inverters used in electronic devices and appliances often operate quietly, especially
when compared to traditional methods of power conversion.

5.0.8 Hardware Details

The hardware design of an inverter includes all the key parts needed to convert DC to
AC power quickly and effectively. This includes a DC power source like a battery, inputs
and outputs, a control unit like a microcontroller/DSP, power switch gate drivers like
MOSFET’s/IGBTs, bus capacitors and output filters for a smooth AC waveform. You
can also add an optional DC-DC converter or transformer for isolation and communica-
tion interfaces. Safety and performance are also taken care of with protections, sensors,
a UI, cooling systems and enclosures. Overcurrent protection is also taken care of by a
fuse and circuit breakers. All in all, this hardware setup makes it easy to convert power
efficiently for things like solar systems and electric vehicles.

A gate driver is used in power electronics to make it easier to switch semiconductors.

It’s designed to make sure the circuits are isolated, the signal is adjusted, the level
is changed,the fault protection is taken care of, and there are extra features like the
bootstrap circuit for the high-side driver. Other components make sure the circuit is
protected, the drive strength is controlled, the voltage is kept low, and the temperature
is adjusted. Plus, the EMI filtering reduces the amount of electromagnetic interference,
making sure the gate driver design is perfect for all kinds of applications.
 14

5.0.9 PCB Design of Inverter

Figure 5.5: Inverter PCB front.

Figure 5.6: Inverter PCB back.

Chapter 6

Project Milestones and

Deliverables

Figure 6.1: Gantt Chart

15
Chapter 7

Block Diagram

1. Control Unit
The control unit is the principal component of an electrical drive system. It will
generate all the signal parameters necessary to change IM’s speed and torque,
based on user reaction. Figure 2 shows the circuit board, which sends these control
signals through the gate driver for the three-phase inverter.

2. Drive System
The driving system is primarily responsible for the vehicle’s operation in either
forward or backward direction, as with traditional cars. The three-phase inverter
converts the power from a DC battery bank into three phases of variable frequency,
and variable voltage AC by means of pulse width modulation technology and is
used to drive three-phase IM.

3. Energy Source
Two separate sources of energy are used to power the electric driving system. A
DC battery bank is the first source of energy that supplies three-phase IM. On the
contrary, auxiliary loads are provided with electricity from a solar panel.

4. Braking Mechanism
To stop the vehicle, the braking system shall be used. When a brake is applied in
a traditional automobile, the kinetic energy of the wheels is converted into heat
through friction, and the car comes to a stop. The regenerative braking technology
successfully uses kinetic energy rather than wasting it. A mechanical braking
system is used in the event of an emergency, alongside regenerative braking.

16
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Figure 7.1: Block Diagram

Chapter 8

Flow Chart

The flowchart given below provides a clear overview of our project’s initiation, the
summarized distribution of responsibilities among our esteemed team members, and our
well-planned approach to successfully concluding the project through effective teamwork.

Figure 8.1: Flow Chart

18
Chapter 9

Work Division

Figure 9.1: Work Division

19
Chapter 10

Costing

Figure 10.1: Costing

20
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