followed for nearly 200 years.

It appears that Baba Guru Nanak did not wish to establish a new religion, but after his death his
followers consolidated their own practices and distinguished themselves from both Hindus and Muslims. The fifth preceptor,
Guru Arjan , compiled Baba Guru Nanak’s hymns along with those of his four successors and other religious poets like Baba
Farid, Ravidas (also known as Raidas) and Kabir in the Adi Granth Sahib . These hymns, called “gurbani”, are composed in various
languages. In the late seventeenth century the tenth preceptor, Guru Gobind Singh, included the compositions of the ninth guru,
Guru Tegh Bahadur, and this scripture was called the Guru Granth Sahib. Guru Gobind Singh also laid the foundation of the
Khalsa Panth (army of the pure) and defined its five symbols: uncut hair, a dagger, a pair of shorts, a comb and a steel bangle.
Under him the community got consolidated as a socio-religious and military force.

8.3 Mirabai, the devotee princess:

Mirabai (c. fifteenth-sixteenth
centuries) is perhaps the best-known
woman poet within the bhakti
tradition. Biographies have been
reconstructed primarily from the
bhajans attributed to her, which were
transmitted orally for centuries.
According to these, she was a Rajput
princess from Merta in Marwar who
was married against her wishes to a
prince of the Sisodia clan of Mewar,
Rajasthan. She defied her husband and did not submit to the traditional role of wife and mother, instead recognising Krishna,
the avatar of Vishnu, as her lover. Her in-laws tried to poison her, but she escaped from the palace to live as a wandering saint
composing songs that are characterized by intense expressions of emotion.
According to some traditions, her preceptor was Raidas, a leather worker. This would indicate her defiance of the norms of caste
society. After rejecting the comforts of
her husband’s palace, she is supposed DO YOU KNOW?
to have donned the white robes of a 1300-1400: Lai dies in Kashmir, Shahbaz Qalandar is brought to Sindh;
widow or the saffron robe of the Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi; Ramanand in Uttar Pradesh;
renouncer. Although Mirabai did not Chokhamela in Maharashtra; Sharfuddin Yahya Maneri in Bihar
attract a sect or group of followers, she 1400-1500: Kabir, Raidas, Surdas in Uttar Pradesh; Baba Guru Nanak in Punjab;
has been recognised as a source of Vallabhacharya in Gujarat; Mir Syed Muhammad Gesudaraz in
inspiration for centuries. Her songs Gulbarga, Sankardev in Assam; Tukaram in Maharashtra.
continue to be sung by women and 1500-1600: Sri Chaitanya in Bengal; Mirabai in Rajasthan; Sheikh Abdul Quddus
men, especially those who are poor Gangohi, Malik Muhammad Jayasi, Tulsidas in Uttar Pradesh.
and considered “low caste” in Gujarat 1600-1700: Sheikh Ahmed Sirhindi in Haryana; Mian Mir in Punjab.
and Rajasthan.

8. Reconstructing Histories of Religious Traditions:

We have seen that historians draw on a variety of sources to reconstruct histories of religious traditions – these include
sculpture, architecture, stories about religious preceptors, compositions attributed to women and men engaged in the quest of
understanding the nature of the Divine. As we have seen in Chapters 1 and 4, sculpture and architecture can only be understood
if we have a grasp of the context – the ideas, beliefs and practices of those who produced and used these images and buildings.
What about textual traditions regarding religious beliefs? If you return to the sources in this chapter, you will notice that they
include a wide variety, written in several different languages and styles. They range from the apparently simple, direct language
of the vachanas of Basavanna to the ornate Persian of the farman of the Mughal emperors. Understanding each type of text
requires different skills: apart from a familiarity with several languages, the historian has to be aware of the subtle variations in
style that characterize each genre.
 SUMMARY
The Bhakti movement, Islam and the Sufi movement played an important role in the history of medieval India in the 8th-
18th centuries. Alwar and Nayanaras are considered to be the founders of the Bhakti movement in South India. While the
Alvars were devotees of Lord Vishnu, the Nayanaras followed the Shaivite religion.
According to Muslim tradition, the Qur'an is a compilation of messages sent to the Prophet Muhammad by his messenger
Archangel Gabriel in Mecca and Medina between 610-632.
Sufism emerged as a powerful movement in India during the Middle Ages. Sufis are called because of their purity of heart
(safa). They are in the front row before God. There are a few more

Different religious beliefs and practices:

Many types of gods and goddesses are found in sculptures and scriptures. The epic texts were designed and adapted in simple
Sanskrit language to be generally accessible to women and Shudras far removed from Vedic education. Many beliefs and
practices have evolved by constantly mixing mythological traditions with local traditions. Jagannath worship in Odisha is
recognized by local tribal experts as a local deity made of wood and a form of Vishnu.

Early traditions of devotion:

Historians have divided the devotional traditions into two broad categories: Nirguna (without attributes) and Saguna (with
attributes).
In the sixth century, devotional movements were led by Alvars (devotees of Vishnu) and Nayanaras (devotees of Shiva). He
wandered around singing Tamil devotional songs. During their travels, Alwar and Nayanaras discovered some temples and
later large temples were built in these places.

“Veer Shaiva” tradition in Karnataka:

A new movement emerged in Karnataka in the 12th century under the leadership of a Brahmin named Basavana. His
followers were called “Veera Shaivas” (Shiva heroes) or Lingayats (those who wore the linga). Lingayats continue to be an
important community in the region to this day. Lingayats challenged the theory of caste, pollution, reincarnation, etc. and
encouraged marriage and widow remarriage after puberty.

The Rise of Islamic Traditions:

In the 13th century, the Turks and Afghans invaded India and established the Delhi Sultanate. Theoretically, Muslim rulers
should be guided by ulama and follow Shariah rules. Non-Muslims had to pay a tax called jijya and get the right to be protected
by Muslim rulers. Many Mughal rulers, including Akbar and Aurangzeb, donated land and granted tax breaks to Hindu, Jain,
Parsi, Christian and Jewish religious institutions.

Development of Sufism:
During the early centuries of Islam, a group of Sufis with religious ideas leaned towards monasticism and spirituality against
the growing materialism of the Caliphate. Sufis were critics of the dogmatic definitions and educational methods of
interpreting the Qur'an and sought its interpretation based on their personal experience. By the 11th century, Sufism had
developed into a highly developed movement. Suites began to form communities around hospices or Khanqah (Persian)
known as sheikhs, piers or murshids. He nominated the disciples (murids) and appointed the successor (caliph).

Chishti on the subcontinent:

Chishti are an important group of Sufis who migrated to India. Khanqah was central to social life. In the fourteenth century,
the Sheikh Nizamuddin Dharamshala on the banks of the Yamuna River in Ghiyaspur was very famous. Sheikh lives here and
meets visitors in the morning and evening. There were an open kitchen (langar) and people from all walks of life used to
come here from morning till midnight. Tourists visiting here include Amir Hassan Sizzi, Amir Khusrau and Ziauddin Barani.

New Ways of Devotion in North India:

Kabir was a 14th-15th century poet-monk. Kabir's poems have been compiled in three different traditions. Kabir Bijak was
preserved by Kabir Pant in Uttar Pradesh. Kabir's bibliography is related to Dadupanthi from Rajasthan. Many of his verses
are included in the Adi Granth Sahib. Kabir described the ultimate truth as Allah, Khuda, Hazrat and Peer-o-Murshid. He also
used words from the Vedic traditions such as Alakh, Nirankari, Brahmana, Atama etc. Kabir accepted all kinds of philosophies
i.e., theological traditions, yoga traditions and Islamic ideas. Kabir’s ideas were probably made clear through conversations
and discussions. Important information about that period, but many aspects of social life go unnoticed.
 Questions For Practice
1. What common term is used to refer 9. Which of the following is a part of 20. Vittala is the presiding deity of the
to immigrant communities? Chishti Worship?
(a) Shakas (b) Juanci Vithal Temple. Vithal was called the
(a) Dance (b) Music
(c) Turkish (d) Mleccha incarnation of God?
(c) Qawwali (d) All of these (a) Brahma (b) Vishnu
2. What is the meaning of the word
10. Khwaja Moinuddin was teacher of? (c) Shiva (d) Ganesh
'Silsila'?
(a) A Series (a) Sant Kabir (b) Khwaja 21. Which of the following is the capital
(b) Disciple Usman Harun
of Akbar?
(c) Devotion (c) Sant Farid (d) Ramananda
(a) Lahore
(d) None 11. Who were Nayanaras saints _______? (b) Multan
3. Which of the following methods in (a) Group of Saints (b)Kings (c) Delhi
Chishti’s Khanka represents an (c) Courtier (d) None (d) Fatehpur Sikri
attempt to assimilate local
traditions? 12. Nayanaras Saints Worship ________? 22. Who compiled the book of Adi?
(i) Bend in front of the shake (a) Vishnu (b) Lakshmi (a) Guru Teg Bahadur ji
(ii) Providing water to visitors (c) Indra (d) Shiva (b) Guru Arjan Dev ji
(iii) Shaving the heads of initiates 13. Who introduced jizya to pay a (c) Guru Nanak dev ji
(iv) Yoga exercises (d) Guru Gobind Singh ji
religious tax first time India?
(a) 'i' and 'ii'
(b) 'I' only (a) Balban (b) Akbar 23. Choose the correct option:
(c) 'iii' and 'iv' (c) Mohammad bin Qasim (d) Islamic law is called _?
(d) All of the above None of these (a) Sharia (b) Rule
4. Who composed the love story 14. Which of the following is a part of (c) Ulema (d) None of these
'Padmavat'? Chishti Worship? 24. Select the appropriate option:
(a) Amir Khusrau (a) Dance (b) Music Alwar and Nayanaras are devotees
(b) Baba Farid (c) Qawwali (d) All of these (a) Kerala
(c) Malik Muhammad Jayasi
15. Swami Ramananda was teacher of? (b) Karnataka
(d) Ratan Singh
(a) Sant Kabir (b) Sant Ravi Das (c) Tamil Nadu
5. Which of the following statements (d) Andhra Pradesh
about Sant Kabir is incorrect? (c) Sant Farid (d) None
(a) Kabir used words derived from 16. Which of these capitals was the 25. Vithal is the main deity of the
theological traditions. capital of Akbar? temple. Vithal was called the
(b) Kabir describes the ultimate (a) Lahore incarnation of God
reality as Allah, Khuda, Hazrat (a) Brahma (b) Vishnu
(b) Multan
and Peer. (c) Shiva (d) Ganesh
(c) Many of his compositions are in (c) Delhi
the Adi Granth Sahib. (d) Fatehpur Sikri 26. What is Sharia?
(d) Poems attributed to Kabir 17. Who composed the book 'Guru (a) Muslim Sufi Saint
mention the name of his mentor Granth'? (b) Fasting during the month of
Ramananda. (a) Guru Teg Bahadur ji Ramadan
6. The devotees of Vishnu are called _? (b) Guru Ram Das ji (c) Laws governing the Muslim
(a) Alvar (b) Veershaiva (c) Guru Nanak Dev ji community
(c) Nayanaras (d) Zimmi (d) All of the above (d) Giving alms
7. Alvar Saints Worship _____? 27. What does Ulema mean?
18. Islamic law is called _______?
(a) Shiva (b) Lakshmi (a) Devotee of Shiva
(c) Indra (d) Vishnu (a) Sharia (b) Rule
(c) Ulema (d) None of these (b) Devotee of Vishnu
8. Non-Muslims are required to pay a (c) Muslim Religious Person
religious tax of _______? 19. Alwar and Nayanaras was belonged (d) Scholars of Islamic Studies
(a) Zakat in which century?
(b) Venus (a) 4th Century 28. What are the devotees of Vishnu
(c) Jizya (b) 1st Century called?
(d) None of these (c) 5th to 10th Century (a) Alvar (b) Nayanaras
(d) None (c) Lingayat (d) Chishti
29. Which of the following is incorrect 32. Who compiled the book of Adi? (c) Muslim Sufi Saint
regarding Karaikal Ammaiyar? (a) Guru Teg Bahadur ji (d) Scholars of Islamic Studies
(a) She is a devotee of Shiva. (b) Guru Arjan Dev ji
38. Who were the devotees of Vishnu
(b) He took the path of intense (c) Guru Nanak Dev ji called?
penance. (d) Guru Gobind Singh ji (a) Alvars (b) Nayanaras
(c) His writings are preserved in 33. Head in Islamic law is called as? (c) Lingayat (d) Chishti
the Alwar traditions. (a) Imam (b) Sharia
(d) His writings challenged 39. Which of the following is incorrect
(c) Maulvi (d) None of these
patriarchal norms. regarding Karaikal Ammaiyar?
34. Alwar and Nayanaras belonged to (a) She is a devotee of Shiva.
30. Regarding Kabir, consider the which state? (b) He took the path of intense
following statements: (a) Kerala penance.
1. Kabir verses are compiled in (b) Karnataka (c) His writings are preserved in
three different traditions. (c) Tamil Nadu the Alwar traditions.
2. Kabir's poems are available (d) Andhra Pradesh (d) His writings challenged
only in Urdu. 35. Vithal is the main deity of the patriarchal norms.
3. Kabir used many traditions to temple. Vithal was called the 40. Regarding Kabir, consider the
explain the ultimate reality. incarnation of God following statements:
4. Kabir called the ultimate truth (a) Brahma (b) Vishnu 1. Kabir verses are compiled in
Allah. (c) Shiva (d) Ganesh three different traditions.
Which of the following statements is 2. Kabir's poems are available
incorrect? 36. What is Sharia?
(a) Muslim Sufi Saint only in Urdu.
(a) 1, 2, 3 (b) 2, 4 3. Kabir used many traditions to
(b) Fasting during the month of
(c) 1, 4 (d) 3, 4 explain the ultimate reality.
Ramadan
31. Which of the following is the capital (c) Laws governing the Muslim 4. Kabir called the ultimate truth
of Akbar? community Allah.
(a) Lahore Which of the following statements is
(d) Giving alms
(b) Multan incorrect?
37. Who is the Khwaja Moinuddin? (a) 1, 2, 3 (b) 2, 4
(c) Delhi
(a) Devotee of Shiva (c) 1, 4 (d) 3, 4
(d) Fatehpur Sikri (b) Devotee of Vishnu

Solutions
1. (d) 5. (d) 9. (d) 13. (c) 17. (d) 21. (d) 25. (b) 29. (c) 33. (a) 37. (d)

2. (a) 6. (a) 10. (b) 14. (d) 18. (a) 22. (b) 26. (c) 30. (b) 34. (c) 38. (a)

3. (d) 7. (d) 11. (a) 15. (b) 19. (c) 23. (a) 27. (d) 31. (d) 35. (b) 39. (c)

4. (c) 8. (c) 12. (d) 16. (d) 20. (b) 24. (c) 28. (a) 32. (b) 36. (c) 40. (b)