LGG

↳ 3 levels of organization
1. Semantic – meanings, realized as forms and those as expressions
2. Lexicogrammatical – forms, choice of words and structures expressed by grammar and
vocabulary
3. Phonological and orthographic – expressions

Structure

↳ Unifying relation, parts cohere between them by being part of structure

⇨ Show texture – elements have internal unity that helps express a part in a text

Text

↳ Basic unit of meaning (semantic) in LGG, realized by sentences

↳ NOT a structural one
Unit of situational semantic organization – meaning-in-context, created around meaning relations of
cohesion

↳ Depending on this = particular register of text

ANY structure that hangs together creates one

⇨ Grammatical units (sentences, clauses, groups, etc) are cohesive because they are structured
Doesn't depend on order of sentence

Clauses & text - related by realization, translating one symbolic system into another

Texture
Property of ‘being a text’

↳ Functions as a unity with its context

IT’S A MATTER OF DEGREE – we can’t make a text with NO texture

It's a result of – register + cohesion

a. Register – because it’s a class of CoS + defines content of text: its meaning that includes
social, expressive and communicative components
b. Cohesion – meaning relations of texts and differentiates it from non-text. It doesn’t care
about its meaning, but HOW text is constructed as semantic unit

Expressed by structure

Archived by Cohesive relations between parts in text

↳ Presence of Referring item

Involves – cohesive semantic relations themselves & with content, use of semantic resources of
LGG & interpersonal (socio-expressive-conative) components

↳ Mood, modality, intensifiers

Cohesion (Register)
Part of LGG system, lies in relations set between sentences (NOT structural relation)

↳ By linking something before-after in a text (SEMANTIC RELATION)

Relation – text forming, relational concept and a PROCESS (embodies relations in text, defines it)

↳ Between items
Un/Restricted - unrestricted by sentence boundary; restricted when it takes part in sentence
structure

Expressed by – organization of LGG, grammar & vocabulary (semantic)

↳ Type of cohesion is done by intonation system

Elements are Cohesive in relation because they’re Cohesive by NATURE = point to something

↳ Logical dependence & opposition in system (anaphora-cataphora)

+ common form – Presupposed item is explicit and in previous sentence

e.g - Did the gardener water my hydrangeas?

- He said so

e.g - did I hurt your feelings? I didn’t mean to

Ellipsis presupposes 1st sentence; ‘but’ as adversative expresses tone

When – interpretation of one element in discourse depends on another (1 is a source of other)

↳ 1 presupposes the other = interpreted by recourse (CH) & creates a text

e.g - Time flies. You can’t; they fly too quickly

ellipsis reference lexical repetition

e.g - Wash and core six cooking apples. Put the apples into a fireproof dish

As semantic relation

Cohesion - makes reference to items whose meanings are interpreted by: 1 element being
dependant on another for it

e.g - He said so

We understand meaning (decode it semantically) but UNINTERPRETABLE because we don’t know

who ‘he’ is or what he ‘said’
⇨ We refer to previous context
Types

1. Anaphoric – refers back to preceding/earlier sentence/passage, cohesion to two sentences

and we interpret them as one text. U N M A R K E D

↳ Items - Ring + Rred = Presupposition that must be satisfied

↳ Same reference = Coreferential
e.g - The first years of Henry’s reign, as recorded by the admiring Hall, were given over to sport and
gaiety, though there was little of the licentiousness...He brought to Greenwich tremendously vital
court life.

e.g - Travelling with huge retinues of staff and servants, medieval monarchs demanded a series of
houses to take care of their needs...entertained over ten thousand every day at his palaces and even
more over Chrismas

No single home could possibly cope with the organization and material needed on such a scale.

Such – presupposes the entire parragraph

2. Cataphoric – Presupposed element follows. M A R K E D (explicit – 1st element presupposing)

Can be signaled by colon ; ⇨ signal of cataphora

e.g - This is how to get the best results. You let the berries dry in th sun, till the moisture has gone
out of them. Then you gather them up and chop the very fine

Cataphora – ‘This’ points forward to ‘the berries’

3. Exophora – Not in text at all, just in the situation (CoS) or environment

e.g - Did the gardener water those plants?

↳ We see what plants from us being present in environment

IF THERE’S NO REFERENCE ⇨ WE CONSTRUCT IT FROM CoS OURSELVES (imagination)
Ties
Occurrence of pair of items that relate cohesively

Between sentences are ONLY source of texture & different expressions define types of texts

Types

I. Reference (grammatical)
II. Substitution (grammatical)
III. Ellipsis (grammatical)
IV. Conjunction (between both, mainly grammatical but has lexical components)
V. Lexical cohesion (lexical)
Reference & Substitution form cohesive chains – series of items referring to another back and forth
until we meet the reference item

I. Reference

When one item points to another in order to its interpretation

II. Substitution

Specific item gets substituted for an element of same grammatical class

III. Ellipsis

One item gets omitted in order to avoid unnecessary repetition

IV. Conjunction

Involves longer passages than just a sentence

↳ Cohesion in abstract relation between propositions

↳ Highly dependent on their content and how they relate
↳ Can also be through role in discourse, how they relate POV of sp-wr
Items like – but, later on, in that case

e.g - ‘First he took...Next, he passed...and weighted it down’

Conjunctions between propositions

e.g - First, he has no experience of this kind of work. Next, he showed no sign of being willing to
learn

Conjunction between roles. ‘Next’ is time sequence of events

e.g - How much is still alive in England; how much has not yet come into life! A Feudal Aristocracy is
still alive, in the prime of life; superintending the cultivation of land, the adjustment of the quarrels
of the land; judging, soldiering, adjusting; everywhere...

How silent, on the other hand, lie all Cotton-trades...

Conjunction - Longer than just 1 sentence; ‘on the other hand’ presupposes the entire parragraph

V. Lexical cohesion

Goes over sentences until it picks up an element not seen yet in text

↳ same lexical item happens twice, and 2nd takes interpretation from 1st
1st NEVER points forward to 2nd
e.g - I screamed, and my scream went wafting...I couldn’t’ve made more noise if I had been! But I’d
surprised myself – really, the sound that went floating out on the air I didn’t know I had it in me, and
they said it would make my fortune...there was no harm done and I didn’t lose anything...

- But anyhow, the only thing I lost was my voice. I couldn’t speak

Lost – resumes lost, by using CJ ‘anyhow’; Voice – refers to scream, noise and sound

e.g - I was introduced to them; it was John Leathwall and his wife

↳ Lexical CH – repetition of same lexical item twice or two that are closely related
↳ Might/not have same referent but 2nd will be interpreted as referring to 1st
Discourse structure

↳ Type of structure that’s higher unit than sentence

Speech VS writing
Speech – Concerned with LGG, patterns of meaning of grammar and vocabulary

Writing – Concerned with relations between LGG & features of sp-hr content, as well as social and
ideological context

CoS

↳ Text’s extra-linguistic factors that influence it

Created by Malinowski, later by Firth and Hymes

Hymes

Introduces 8 components
Form and content of text setting participants Ends (intent-effect)
key medium genre Interactional norms

Halliday, McIntosh & Strevens

Propose 3 – Field, mode & Tenor

↳ They show how CoS determines different kinds of meaning we express

Values of these – create a R E G I S T E R

I. Field

Total event where text is functioning, purpose activity & subject-matter

II. Mode

Function of text in event, channel of LGG (sp-wr) & participants involved

 III. Tenor

Role interaction, social relations (temporal/permanent) between participants

MNEMOTECNIC – FMT = Facts, Manner, Target

I. Field (Facts = subject information)

II. Mode (Manner = way information is conveyed)
III. Tenor (Target = who is the person message is directed)

Register

↳ Set of meanings, order of semantic patterns, words and structures used to realization of meaning
When it’s consistent = Text hangs together as a unit

A text is a passage of discourse coherent with CoS & in register (itself)

Obeys situation properties – patterns of communicative event (Field), LGG place and how it acts in
event (Mode) & role-relationships of those part (Tenor)

Text has 2 types of relating to CoS, depending how important the role of LGG is

1. Primary – LGG is the only thing available, such in formal or informal discussion. LGG is self-
sufficient and situation is a result of LGG (politics, business)
2. Secondary – Non-linguistic forms dominate, LGG is auxiliary & situation is key to interpret
what is being said/written (eg poker)

Delicacy of Focus

↳ 2 CoS will be alike in some parts and unlike in others

Involves – differences we are trying to make, properties we want to explain

Either – makes a text or it doesn’t

CoCult

Created by Malinowski

About – events of a person such as socio-cultural background

Functional-semantic components

I. Ideational

Component of linguistic system concerned with expression ‘content’

Function – LGG is ABOUT something

Related to – FIELD

Sp POV – O B S E R V E R

2 parts – experiential and logical

a. Experiential – experience (CoCult)

b. Logical – abstract logical relations from experience
 II. Interpersonal

Component of linguistic system concerned with social, expressive and conative functions of LGG

Function – express POV of speaker (attitudes and judgments), role relationships in situations and
motives why he said something

Sp role – I N T R U D E R

Related to – Tenor

III. Textual

Part of linguistic system component concerned with text-forming

Contains – resources LGG has to create a text

↳ Relevant/coherent themselves and with CoS

Related to – Mode & Cohesion (information structure)

↳ Part of this component in linguistic system. Elements are structurally

unrelated but linked together

How? - We use clauses = select a T H E M E (how sp organizes message) ⇨ through clause structure

⇨ Textual component adds patterns of meaning outside hierarchical organization of system

e.g - through NEW-GIVEN information structure = non-recoverable VS recoverable

Tone group

Sentence

highest structural unit in grammar

↳ Elements relate with each through order they occur (determined by structure)
Between non-text sentences ⇨ NO relation nor restrictions on order of sequence

↳ We could change it without affecting meaning

↳ Functions as PASSAGE = NOT meaning as whole
BUT in a text, sentences ARE related to each by COHESION sequence CAN’T change without
changing meaning (depends on context and its cohesive relations with other sentences)

↳ It has meaning as a TEXT

Notes – LGG (language), CoS (Context of
situation), CoCult (context of culture), Sp
(speaker), Wr (writer), POV (point of
view)