Electric Charge
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The term electricity encompasses a wide range of concepts that are very much related to the
complex modern technology which plays a significant role in our everyday lives. Gadgets
such as cellphones and computers and modern appliances such as television, washing
machines, and refrigerators operate using electricity. All these devices basically operate on
the principle of transformation of electrical energy into other forms of energy. In order to
have a deeper understanding of the electrical nature of matter, it is very important for us to
study first the basic structure of the atom and the underlying forces acting on them. The
study of electricity at rest is called electrostatics.
Atomic Structure
Matter is basically made up of atoms. Atoms are the smallest particle of an element that has
all their chemical properties. The elements listed in the periodic table of elements represent
the different types of atoms.
An atom is mainly made up of three subatomic particles. The nucleus, which is the central
part of the atom, is made up of positive charge protons and neutral charge neutrons. The
mass of the atom is mainly concentrated on the positive charge nucleus. Surrounding the
nucleus are the negative charge electrons. These subatomic particles are bound by various
forces.
proton
electron
neutron
Figure 1. Helium Model of an Atom
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Most atoms are said to be neutral, which means that the number of positive charges is equal
to the number of negative charges. Therefore, a neutral atom has the same number of
protons and the number of electrons. However, when an imbalance of the number of positive
and negative charges occurs, the atom becomes an ion. An ion is a charged atom that has lost
or gained electron/s. While protons are tightly bound inside the nucleus, the electrons can
be removed or transferred from one atom to another. Specifically, the electrons in the
outermost energy level called valence electrons are the ones that can be removed easily.
This process of losing or gaining electrons is called ionization. When one or more electrons
are removed, the atom becomes a positive ion or cation. On the other hand, when one or
more electrons are gained by the atom, it becomes a negative ion or anion.
Figure 2. Valence Electron
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Conductors and Insulators
Not all materials have the same electrical properties. Materials that easily allow the
passage of electrons are said to be conductors. These materials have valence
electrons that are not tied up to the nucleus. They are free to roam in the material.
Metals are good conductors of electricity as well as good conductors of heat because
of this property. On the contrary, there are materials in which their electrons are not
easily free to roam in the material. Such materials are called insulators. Wood, rubber,
and plastic are insulators of electricity as well as heat because of this property.
Generally, a good conductor is a poor insulator, and a poor conductor is a good
insulator.
Figure 3. Wires in power lines are metallic conductors that deliver electricity from the power plants to the
users. The brown disc-shaped ceramic plates serve as insulators in the power line.
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disc-structure
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Electrical Force
Force, measured in Newton (N), is simply defined as the push or pull exerted on an
object. Forces can either be contact or noncontact. 21st-century physicists
acknowledged the existence of the four fundamental forces in nature: 1) gravitational
force, 2) electrical or electromagnetic force, 3) weak force, and 4) strong force. The
gravitational force, also called as gravity is the weakest among the fundamental forces
and is very much appreciated at the cosmological scale. Weak and strong forces are
nuclear forces that act on the protons and neutrons, which are collectively called as
nucleons. The weak force is responsible for the beta decay, while the strong short-
range force serves as the nuclear binding force of nucleons that prevents them from
flying apart. Electrical force, also called as electromagnetic force, acts on charged
particles such as protons and electrons.
What would happen if there were no electrical forces acting on the matter? Would
matter still be formed?
It is very clear that forces are part of nature. Without these forces governing the atoms,
specifically the electric charges making up the atom, the matter would not exist. Thus,
our existence as humans would not be possible.
A charge is a fundamental property of matter in which there are two types – positive
and negative. These two are responsible for different scientific phenomena, such as
electricity, chemical bonding, and chemical reactions. All charges are governed by a
certain principle which is referred to as the law of charges. This law states that like
or similar charges repel while unlike or opposite charges attract, as shown in
Figure 3.
Figure 3. Law of Charges
Like charges repel, unlike charges attract.
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A charge is a fundamental property of matter in which there are two types – positive
and negative.
Coulomb’s Law
The electrical force has a similarity to the gravitational force in
which both obey the inverse square law. The magnitude of the
electrical force decreases inversely as the square of the distance
between two charged bodies (F ∝ 1/r2). On the other hand, the
magnitude of the electrical force varies directly as the product of
the magnitude of their charges (F ∝ q1.q2). These relationships
were discovered by the 18th-century physicist Charles Augustine
de Coulomb. Hence, the name Coulomb’s law.
Coulomb’s law can be represented mathematically using the
Charles Augustine de Coulomb
equation: (1736-1806)
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𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘1𝑞𝑞2 /wiki/File:Charles_de_coulomb.j
𝐹𝐹 = pg
𝑟𝑟2 Retrieved: April 13, 2019
In this equation, F represents the electrical force that is measured in Newton (N). It is
important to note that the electrical force is always linear to the two charged bodies or
charged particles. For two bodies that have the same sign, the force on either charge is away
from each other (repulsion). However, for two bodies that have opposite signs, the force on
one charge is towards the other charge (attraction). Consistent with Newton's Third Law of
Motion, the force exerted by one charged body (q1) on the other body (q2) is equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction (F1 = -F2). The force of attraction between the protons
and electrons is responsible for the formation of an atom as well as its different chemical
properties.
The symbol k is the proportionality constant which has a rounded-off value of 9.0 x 109 N.
m2/ C2. The magnitude of the electric charge (q) is measured in Coulomb (C), in honor of
Charles Augustine de Coulomb. A coulomb of charge represents a large quantity of particles
where 1 C = 6.25 x 1018 electrons. A typical 100-W light bulb has this number of electrons
flowing through its filament in one second.
Another way to express the proportionality constant k is in terms of another constant
quantity called the permittivity of free space. The two are related in the equation,
1
𝑘𝑘 =
4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋0
Therefore, Coulomb’s law equation can also be expressed as:
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘1𝑞𝑞2 1 𝑞𝑞1 𝑞𝑞2
𝐹𝐹 = =
𝑟𝑟 2 4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 0 𝑟𝑟2
where
1
𝜖𝜖0 = = 8.85 x 10-12 C2/N.m2
4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
The symbol 𝜖𝜖0 is read as epsilon naught.
EXAMPLE 1
A positive charge and a negative charge are attracted to each other by a force of 100 N. What
will be the force of attraction if the distance between them is a) doubled? b) halved?
Given: F = 100 N
Unknown: r when a) doubled and b) halved
Solution
a) To determine the force of attraction, we use Coulomb’s law equation
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑞𝑞
𝐹𝐹 = 1 2 . Since the magnitude of the charge for each is constant and only the distance
𝑟𝑟2
of separation varies, this is an application of the inverse square law. From the problem
stated, the distance of separation r is doubled. Thus, r will be replaced by 2r in the
original equation.
F = k q1 q2 = k q1 q2 = 1 kq1 q2
(2r)2 4r2 4 r2
In order for both sides of the equation to hold true, a coefficient of ¼ on the right side
[ ¼ (𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘1𝑞𝑞2
2
) ] means that there should also be a coefficient of ¼ on the left side of the equation
𝑟𝑟
(1/4 F).
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘1𝑞𝑞2
𝐹𝐹 =
𝟒𝟒 𝟒𝟒 𝑟𝑟2
Since the original force is 100 N, and the resulting force is ¼ F when the distance of
separation is doubled, the electrical force will be ¼ (100 N). Therefore, the resulting force of
attraction will be decreased to 25 N.
b) Using Coulomb's law equation, the distance of separation r is halved. Thus, r will be
replaced by ½ r in the original equation.
F = k q1 q2 = k q1 q2 = 1 k q1 q2
(1/2 r)2 ¼ r2 1/4 r2
Simplifying the coefficient by dividing the fraction, we get 1/(1/4) = (1) (4/1) = 4.
In order for both sides of the equation to hold true, a coefficient of 4 on the right side of the
equation [ 4(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘1𝑞𝑞2
𝑟𝑟2
) ] means that there should also be a coefficient of 4 on the left side of the
equation (4 F).
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘1𝑞𝑞2
𝟒𝟒𝐹𝐹 = 𝟒𝟒
𝑟𝑟2
Based on the computation, the resulting force is four times the original force when the
distance of separation is halved.
4F = 4(100 N) = 400 N
Therefore, the resulting electrical force will be increased to 400 N.
EXAMPLE 2
Two like-charged objects exert a 50 N force on each other when they are separated by 0.25
m. Assuming that the distance of separation remains constant, by how much will the force
change if the magnitude of the charge for each object is tripled?
Given: r = 0.25 m
initial or original force Fo = 50 N
Unknown: final force F
Solution:
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘1𝑞𝑞2
Using Coulomb's law equation 𝐹𝐹 = , we replace q1 with 3q1 and q2 with 3q2 since the
𝑟𝑟2
magnitude of the charge for each object is tripled.
Fo = k q1 q2 = k 3q1 3 q2 = 6 k q1 q2
r2 r2 r2
In order for both sides of the equation to hold true, a coefficient of 6 on the right side [ 6
(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘1𝑞𝑞2
𝑟𝑟2
) ] means that there should also be a coefficient of 6 on the left side of the equation (6
F).
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘1𝑞𝑞2
𝟔𝟔 𝐹𝐹𝑜𝑜 = 𝟔𝟔
𝑟𝑟2
Based on the computation, the resulting force is 6 times the original force.
F = 6Fo = 6(50 N) = 300 N
Therefore, the resulting electrical force will be increased to 300 N.
F = 300 N
EXAMPLE 3
Determine the magnitude and direction of the force that a single proton (q = +1.6 x 10-19 C )
and a single electron (q = -1.6 x 10-19 C) exert on one another, assuming that they are
separated by a distance of 0.53 x 10-10 m?
Given: charge of proton q1 = +1.6 x 10-19 C
charge of electron q2 = -1.6 x 10-19 C
r = 0.53 x 10-10 m
k = 9.0 x 109 N.m2 / C2
Unknown: magnitude and direction of the force F
Solution:
Using Coulomb’s law equation, we directly substitute the given values to the
quantities in the formula.
k𝑞𝑞1𝑞𝑞2
F= r2
F = 9.0 x 109 N.m2 / C2 (+1.6 x 10-19 C) (-1.6 x 10-19 C)
(0.53 x 10-10 m)2
F = - 8.2 x 10-8 N, toward each other
It is important to note that the algebraic sign in the final answer simply indicates the type of
force, if it is attraction or repulsion. A negative sign means that the force is attractive and the
direction is toward each other, while a positive sign means that the force is repulsion and the
direction is away from each other. Based on Newton's Third Law of Motion, the amount of
force exerted by the proton on the electron is equal to the amount of force exerted by the
electron on the proton. However, the direction of the force exerted by each particle is in the
opposite direction, as evident by the negative sign.
Guide Questions:
Answer the following to check what you have learned from the discussions so far. Check your
answers from the provided answer key at the end of this module. There is no need to submit
your answers to OEd.
1. A +5.00 µC object and a -5.00 µC object are 10 cm apart. How much electrical force exists
between them? What would happen to the electrical force between the objects if the
separation distance is halved?
Conservation of Charge
The charging process takes place when electrons are transferred from one object to
another. Since electrons are not tightly bound to the positive charge nucleus, they can
be easily transferred from one object to another. In chemistry, it is the electrons that
actually participate in chemical processes such as bonding and reactions.
The fundamental rule is that whenever something is charged, no electrons are created
or destroyed. They are simply transferred from one object to another. The number of
positive and negative charges should be treated algebraically. This means that in the
charging process, there is no net change in the amount of charge. The total number of
electrons lost by the first object is the same as the total number of electrons gained by
the second object. This is called the law of conservation of charge.
Figure 4. Rubbing the hair with a balloon causes some of the electrons to be transferred from the hair to the balloon.
The balloon becomes negatively charged because of the gain in electrons, while the hair becomes positively
charged because of the loss of electrons. The algebraic sum of the charges is still the same before and after
the charging process.
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Charging by Contact
Suppose that an ebonite rod is rubbed on a metal sphere. This will cause some of the
electrons to be transferred from the rod to the metal sphere. Once the electrons are on
the metal sphere, they will readily flow. However, the electrons will repel each other
and eventually spread out on the surface. The insulated stand prevents the flow of
electrons to the ground. In this case, the metal sphere becomes negatively charged
because of the excess electrons gained from the rod. This process of giving an object a
net electric charge by placing it in contact with another object is called charging by
contact.
Figure 5 a) Electrons are transferred from the rod to the metal sphere.
b) The metal sphere becomes a negatively charged object.
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Charging by Induction
Suppose that the negatively charged rod is brought near the metal sphere without
actually touching it. The free electrons, specifically the valence electrons, will migrate
to the right side of the metal sphere due to the mutual repulsion between them and
the negatively charged rod. However, the positively charged atoms (the atoms left by
the free electrons) will migrate to the left side. This is due to the attraction between
them and the negatively charged rod. This process of giving one object of a net charge
without actually touching each other is called charging by induction. If a wire
directed to the ground is connected to the metal sphere, this will cause the electrons
to flow towards the ground. This process is called electrical grounding. This leaves
the positively charged atoms to mutually repel each other and be distributed on the
surface of the sphere.
Figure 6 a) The free electrons migrate to the right side of the metal sphere due to the repulsion between them and
the negatively charged rod. The positively charged atoms migrate to the left side of the sphere due to the attraction
between and the negatively charged rod. b) The free electrons move toward the ground when a grounding wire is
connected to the sphere. c) The positively charged atoms repel each other, causing them to be distributed on the
surface of the metal sphere.
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Charge Polarization
Charging by induction can also occur to insulators in which there are no free electrons
that can migrate within the material. For such case, the atoms and molecules can
rearrange themselves so that one side becomes more positive while the other side
becomes more negative. This process is called charge polarization.
Figure 7. The atoms and molecules of the wall become polarized when a negatively charged balloon is placed
near or in contact with the charged balloon. The attractive force between the positive and negative
charges causes the balloon to stick to the wall.
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Water is in liquid state at standard temperature and pressure. Under this normal
state, the water molecules are electrically polarized. This means that the distribution
of charge is not even. One side is more negative and the other side more positive
(Figure 8). This makes the water molecule an example of an electric dipole. Moreover,
the charge differences cause water molecules to be attracted to each other, which
means that the areas positive are attracted to the areas negative. This attraction is
also called hydrogen bonding.
Figure 8. The water molecule is electrically polarized.
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The Electroscope
An electroscope can be used to determine whether an object is charged or uncharged.
Inside the insulated container or case, there are two thin gold leaves suspended from
an electrical conductor, which is usually made up of a metal knob.
Figure 8
A neutral and a charged electroscope.
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If a negatively charged object is placed near the conductor (metal knob) or in contact
with it, the free electrons will be repelled. They flow towards the thin gold leaves. The
two leaves will separate from each other due to the repulsion between them.
Figure 9. The contact or placing of a negatively charged object causes the electrons to be
repelled and accumulate on the gold leaves. The leaves separate from each other due to the
mutual repulsion of electrons.
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Triboelectric Series
In order for us to determine the amount of static electricity generated in certain
situations, we need to consider certain factors such as the composition of materials,
environmental conditions, surface area, and the condition of the contact surfaces. The
chart below shows the static buildup of certain materials based on their composition.
It is important to note that the higher the position of the material in the chart, the more
positive it becomes during the charging process. This means that they have the
tendency to lose electrons. The opposite happens for materials that are located below
the chart. They become more negative by gaining more free electrons.
Figure 7. The Triboelectric Chart
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Suppose that vinyl is rubbed with wool. The friction between the two materials results
in a charging process. Based on the chart, the vinyl gains electrons and becomes
negatively charged, while the wool loses electrons and becomes positively charged.
Similarly, if a rubber balloon is rubbed on the human body, the balloon tends to
become more negative by acquiring more electrons from the human body.
Consequently, the human body tends to become more positive by losing electrons.
