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E. STABILITY & CONTROL

An aircraft that cannot be steered to fly in the desirable direction has no benefit to us.
In addition, when we steer, or execute control of, the aircraft, we will be, in a sense,
disturbing the aircraft from its equilibrium flight and the executed control input will
‘excite’ the aircraft. For a properly designed aircraft, we desire for the input to cause
oscillatory type of dynamic motion and also eventually for the dynamic motions to die
out within a tolerable time frame. An aircraft that exhibits the above described
behaviour is a stable aircraft. On the contrary, an unstable aircraft will have aggravated
oscillatory dynamic behaviour which will eventually lead to crash. As stability has
safety implications, it is important to aircraft, especially so to commercial transport
aircraft where hundreds of lives are at stake.

Inherent stability means that the aircraft has the self-correction capability without pilot
intervention. As aircraft ‘sees’ control inputs as excitation to the aircraft, we can easily
understand that an inherently stable aircraft will be harder to execute control change as
the aircraft would not be able to differentiate between if the intended input is a
purposeful one or from pure environmental excitation. In this Chapter, you will learn
how stability is categorized and the design features that allow aircraft to be stable
inherently.

12. Understand stability.

12.1 Defines stability.

The reaction of a body (aircraft) when its equilibrium is disturbed is referred to
as stability. It is the inherent ability of the object to develop a system of forces
and moments that tend to return it to its original or equilibrium position, i.e.,
straight and level flight for aircraft. A stable aircraft is thus one that will tend to
return to its original attitude and airspeed after it is disturbed with little or no
pilot effort.

An aircraft without sufficient stability will not only be difficult but also possibly
even dangerous to fly. On the other hand if the aircraft is so stable that it cannot
be easily controlled, it will also be dangerous.

There are two types of stability - static and dynamic stability. Stability may be
further divided into positive, neutral and negative static and dynamic stability.

Static stability
It is the initial tendency an object (aircraft) displays after its equilibrium is
disturbed. The object may attempt to return to its equilibrium position, remain
in the new position or continue to drift away.

Positive static stability

It is the initial tendency an aircraft to return to the original state of equilibrium
after being disturbed.

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Figure 12.1.1 Positive static stability

Neutral static stability
This is the initial tendency an aircraft to remain in the new state after its
equilibrium has been disturbed.

Figure 12.1.2 Neutral static stability

Negative static stability
Negative static stability is the initial tendency of the aircraft to go on drifting
further and further away from the original state of equilibrium after being
disturbed.

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Figure 12.1.3 Negative static stability

It is apparent positive stability is quite essential. But stability of an aircraft in

flight is slightly more complex than just explained. It must be noted an aircraft
in flight is free to move in any direction. It must thus be controllable in pitch,
roll, and direction. When designing an aircraft, engineers have to compromise
between stability, manoeuvrability, and controllability. The problem is further
compounded by the aircraft having six degrees of freedom; three each of linear
and rotational motion acting along and around the three principal coordinate
axes respectively.

12.2 Define Static and Dynamic Stability

Static stability, as defined earlier, is the initial tendency of an aircraft to return
to the equilibrium position when disturbed. The motion may or may not return
it to the original position. Dynamic stability refers to aircraft response over
time. An aircraft is dynamically stable if it returns to its original flight path after
a period of time. Time taken to return (equilibrium) is undefined and not
important. The aircraft in Figure 12.2.1 below is exhibiting static stability. It is
however dynamically unstable (has negative dynamic stability) as each
successive oscillation is taking it further away from the original flight path.

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Figure 12.2.1 Divergent oscillations - positive static

but negative dynamic stability
Oscillations of aircraft in figure 12.2.2 are of constant amplitude, i.e., do not
damp out with time. This aircraft has positive static stability but neutral
dynamic stability.

Figure 12.2.2 Constant amplitude - positive static but

neutral dynamic stability
Oscillations damp out over time and aircraft returns to the original flight path
when there is positive dynamic stability.

Figure 12.2.3 Convergent oscillations – both positive

static and dynamic stability
Aircraft is said to possess deadbeat stability when there is no tendency to
overshoot after the initial disturbance. This is generally undesirable as such
aircraft are nearly impossible to manoeuvre.

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Figure 12.2.4 Deadbeat stability (no overshoot)

Note:
 A condition where successive amplitudes are larger than the previous one
is more desirable than one where the aircraft makes no attempt to correct
itself without pilot interference.
 Aircraft stability does not differentiate between a disturbance caused by
say a gust and that induced by the pilot. A stable aircraft will tend to right
itself.
 Stability and controllability are opposing considerations.
 Transport (and passenger) aircraft designs generally give greater
consideration to stability whereas military aircraft designs emphasize on
controllability (easy to manoeuvre) at the expense of stability.
 Deadbeat may seem nice in terms of immediate correction. However the
corrective action may require the aircraft to have violent and rapid
movement. This is undesirable, especially for commercial transport
aircraft, when passengers are in the aircraft. Sudden violent motion may
lead to injury to passengers.

When is it better to have an aircraft with neutral or negative

stability?
Neutral or Negative stability may sometimes be desirable in aircraft
that are designed for aerobatics or for air combat. Aerobatic and
fighter aircraft are built to do spins and other special manoeuvres, and
if they were very stable, it would make it hard to do these
acrobatics. So the designers build them so that they will do the
acrobatics more easily, and therefore, they may build an aircraft which
has neutral or negative stability.

12.3 States the characteristics of:

 Stick-fixed
 Stick-free
 Power-on and
 Power-off stability
The degree of stability depends on what are known as “stick-fixed” and “stick-
free” conditions. In pitching, stick-fixed implies elevators are held in their
neutral position. Stick-free imply the pilot having released the control column
and allowing the elevators to take up their own positions.

Power-on and power-off conditions refer to whether the engine is developing

thrust or not. Modern aircraft engines develop considerable thrust, some more

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than the airframe weight. Engine settings also considerably influence aircraft
stability.

12.4 Defines:
 Longitudinal,
 Lateral and
 directional stability

Figure 12.4.1 Aircraft coordinates axes and movements

In studying the motion of the aircraft, it is very important to differentiate
between ‘motion of’ and ‘motion about’ an axis. X-axis is defined as axis
pointing from CG to the aircraft nose, Y-axis is pointing from CG to the
right wing and Z-axis is pointing from CG to vertical of the X-Y plane to
complete the orthogonal axes system.
Longitudinal stability refers to stability of aircraft in pitching or stability
around the lateral axis. Longitudinal axis is the X-axis of the aircraft and points
from the CG to the aircraft nose. Longitudinal motion is the motion of the X-
axis rotating about the CG up and down. We call this the pitching motion.
However, it is a result of the motion, i.e. rotation, about the Y-axis.

Lateral stability refers to the aircraft’s resistance to roll or stability about the
longitudinal axis. It is secured by having side surfaces such that when a slight
roll starts forces acting on them (i.e. side surfaces) tend to restore the aircraft to
an even keel. The reason is called lateral is because as the aircraft rolls about
the X-axis, the lift vector will be tilted which will in turn create a side
component causing the aircraft to move side-ways, thus the phrase ‘lateral
motion’.

Directional stability refers to the aircraft’s resistance to yaw, i.e., about the
vertical axis. It is the rotation about the Z-axis and will cause the X-Y plane, or
nose pointing, left and right.

Lateral and directional stability always affect one another and thus cannot be
considered alone. For greater ease of understanding of concepts we shall

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initially consider them as separate and unrelated. Their effect on one another
will be addressed in the conclusion.

12.5 Lists the factors affecting longitudinal stability.

Figure 12.5.1 Centre of gravity margin

 The position of centre of gravity is very important. Its location may neither
be too far forward (nose heavy) or too far aft (tail heavy). Range or limit of
movement is referred to as the c.g. margin.

Figure 12.5.2 Effect of centre of gravity on stability

A tail-heavy aircraft will be more unstable and susceptible to stall at low

speed i.e., during landing approach. A nose-heavy aircraft will be more
difficult to take-off from the ground and to gain altitude as it will tend to
drop its nose when the throttle is reduced. It also requires higher speed in
order to land safely.

 The tail plane, its location from centre of gravity, area, aspect ratio, section
characteristics and incidence angle have great bearing but tend towards
stability. The tail plane is usually set at an angle lower than that for the main
plane. The angle between the chords of the main and tail planes is called
longitudinal dihedral.

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Figure 12.5.2 Effect of speed on downwash

 The pitching moments of the main plane (wing) is another consideration.

It is influenced by the location of the centre of pressure and usually tends
towards instability.
 Pitching moments of the fuselage or body is another consideration. That
too tends towards instability.

Consider the aircraft in the figure below. A sudden up gust causes the aircraft
to pitch up, i.e., leading to an increase in the angle of attack. Nose up pitch
(about lateral axis) takes place resulting in an upward relative airflow striking
the under surfaces of the aircraft. Forces are thus generated. As there is more
undersurface area/moment arm behind the centre of gravity opposing moments
are set up. These counter the increased angle to depress the nose and lower the
angle of attack.

Figure 12.5.3 Effect of pitching moment of fuselage

To obtain longitudinal stability, aircraft are designed to be nose heavy when

correctly loaded. The center of gravity is ahead of the center of pressure. This
design feature is incorporated so that, in the event of engine failure, the aircraft
will automatically assume the normal glide. It is the nose heavy characteristic

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of the aircraft that calls for a tail plane whose primary function is to resist this
tendency to go in to a dive.

How does it work?

Recall the four forces? Ideally we would want them to be balanced. But it is
practically impossible to balance the four forces. Balance is only obtained by
providing a negative or downward force on the tail plane.

Longitudinal dihedral
The tail plane is set at an angle of incidence that produces a negative lift and
thereby, provides the counter balancing nose-up pitching moment to maintain
balance. In level, trimmed flight, the nose-down pitching moment from the wing
with the CG in front and the negative lift of the tail plane exactly balance each
other. The difference in the incidence angles between main and tail planes is
known as longitudinal dihedral. Dihedral means ‘flaring’ of the wings and is
normally used to describe the flaring of the left and right sides of the wing from
front view. We took the concept and apply it to pitch to indicate the flaring of
the wing and tail cross sections. The wing will have an incidence angle same as
the Rigger’s angle while the tail will be settled at a negative angle to provide
the negative lift to generate the counter-balancing pitching moment.

Figure 12.5.4 Longitudinal dihedral

Let us assume the main plane and the tail plane having angles of attack of +3º
and -1º respectively. In the event of an up gust we obtain a new relative airflow
as seen below.

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Figure 12.5.5 Effect of up gust on main and tail-planes angles

of attack - increase on both planes
A moderate up gust of say, 5 m/s impacting on an aircraft flying at a true
airspeed of say, 200 m/s has little or no effect on its resultant velocity. But the
effect on the angle however is quite significant, i.e.
Tan '  5   '   1.43
200
What is the new tail plane angle of attack?
T   1  1.43   0.43
A positive angle of attack is now acts on the tail plane resulting in an upward
lift creating a nose down or stabilizing pitching moment. Effect of a down gust
is the opposite. It will lower the main plane angle of attack causing the aircraft
to lose lift. The tail plane angle of attack on the other hand becomes even more
negative. An even greater down load on the tail plane will cause the aircraft to
nose up and correct it.

Thrust line and longitudinal stability

Line of action of thrust relative to centre

of gravity has significant impact on
longitudinal stability.
Thrust line above centre of gravity is
stabilizing while one that is below tends
toward instability. Line of action of
thrust through the centre of gravity has
neutral stability or rather no effect on
longitudinal stability.

Figure 12.5.6 Line of action of thrust

on longitudinal stability

Sweepback (§12.6) along with washout (incidence angle decreasing towards

wing tip) also contribute towards longitudinal stability, though to a lesser extent
than the tail surfaces. Considerable sweepback is necessary for it to have the
same effect as the tail surfaces as may be seen on “tail-less” aircraft.

12.6 States the parameters for lateral stability.

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Several methods are employed for improving lateral stability. They include
dihedral, high wing (low centre of gravity), sweepback and fin (side surfaces)
area.
Dihedral
The most common method of obtaining lateral stability is dihedral angle on the
main planes. Dihedral angle is that between each plane and the horizontal.

Figure 12.6.1 Dihedral angle

When the aircraft is in straight and level flight lift on both wing are inclined
inward. The horizontal components of each cancel one another. A disturbance
causing a roll will result in lift being inclined. Lift is now less than weight and
a component of weight causes the aircraft to sideslip. This results in a velocity
component due to sideslip striking the down going wing (tip) at an angle. The
wing tip becomes leading edge for the relative airflow due to sideslip.

Figure 12.6.1 Effect of dihedral angle during a sideslip

The up going wing is both partially shielded and at lower angle of attack to
relative airflow due to sideslip. The down going wing will therefore produce
more lift (due to the sideslip velocity) and correct the aircraft.

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Figure 12.6.2 Forces and moments following sideslip

Note: Tip of down going wing becomes leading edge for the relative velocity
due to sideslip. Also note:
 Dihedral is often a standard feature on most low wing aircraft
though some dihedral may be incorporated on mid and high wing
aircraft as well.
 Some dihedral effect is felt on low wing aircraft even when the
dihedral angle zero.
 The down going wing may stall should rolling commence when
the aircraft is being flown at a relatively high angle of attack.

Figure 12.6.3 “Pendulum” stability

High wing and low centre of gravity
If wings are placed high and centre of gravity is correspondingly low, lateral
stability can be enhanced. When the aircraft sideslips, lift on the lowered wing
is higher than that of the raised wing as the latter is shielded from the relative
airflow due sideslip by the fuselage. The resulting aerodynamic force is now
more to the down going wing. The net result is a correcting rolling moments
that right the aircraft.

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Figure 12.6.4 High wing – note rolling moment

The correcting moments may be excessive on some aircraft designs making the
aircraft very difficult to control. Excessive lateral stability can exist when an
aircraft has all good lateral stability contributions due to its configuration. For
example, we know that high wing and low CG are good for lateral stability. If
in addition, we also have wing sweep back design which is also good for lateral
stability, when we add all the good contributions, the overall lateral stability
could become excessive. Excessive stability means strong generation of
corrective rolling moment. Although this is good statically, it may cause aircraft
to become dynamically unstable. Therefore, if somehow we need the
configuration of a high wing, low CG with wing sweep, one way to ‘mitigate’
the excessive lateral stability is to counter it by taking out some lateral stability
effect, i.e. a negative dihedral or also known as anhedral.

Figure 12.6.5 Anhedral used with high wing aircraft

Sweepback
Sweepback is the angling back of the wings from the centre, primarily to
increase directional stability and delay formation of shock waves at transonic
speeds. Sweepback also promotes lateral stability.

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Figure 12.6.6 Sweepback

When a disturbance causes an aircraft with sweepback to slip or drop a wing,
the lowered wing presents its leading edge at an angle that is perpendicular to
the relative airflow. It thus acquires a larger effective span and aspect ratio –
less induced drag, hence more lift. The converse is true for the up going wing;
smaller effective span and aspect ratio. As a result, the lowered wing acquires
more lift, rises and the airplane is restored to its original flight attitude.

Figure 12.6.7 Effect of sideslip on sweepback

Fin area
A factor that may have considerable influence on lateral stability is position and
size of various side surfaces, namely fuselage, vertical stabilizer (fin and rudder)
and wheels. All the side surfaces present right angles to the direction of sideslip
and thus have pressure upon them. Greater side surface areas above the centre
of gravity tend to stabilise the aircraft.

Wing/fuselage interference
The wing and fuselage interference is another consideration, though not listed
as a parameter, has important influence on lateral stability. Some shielding
effect of the fuselage is present on all aircraft. In a sideslip the root of the outer
wing will be in the “shadow” of the fuselage tending to increase the dihedral
effect. Considerable shielding effect is present on all high wing aircraft.

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Figure 12.6.8 Keel or side surface area for lateral stability

12.7 States the parameter for directional stability.

As established earlier, directional stability refers to its resistance to yaw, i.e.
motion around the vertical axis. An aircraft is said to have directional stability
if it tends to return to its original course after it has been temporarily deflected
from it.
The two parameters that greatly influence directional stability are:
 size and location of vertical stabilizer or fin (side surface areas)
 sweepback

Fin
Fin area required is dependent on the sum of all restoring moments associated
with fuselage and undercarriage side surfaces forwards (negative moments) and
aft (positive moments) of the centre of gravity. The restoring moment provided
by the fin is the product of fin area and moment arm. Moment arm leverage
varies according to the centre of gravity position.

Figure 12.7.1 Side surface area for directional stability

How does it work?

An aircraft has the inherent tendency to always fly head-on into the relative
airflow, a tendency similar to that of a weather cock (hence the term “weather-
cock” stability). Recall how the tail plane corrects the aircraft in the event of an

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up or down gust? The concept here is very similar but attributable to the fin (or
vertical stabilizer) and to some extent also the side surface areas of the
fuselage.The fin is essentially at 0º angle of attack in a straight and level flight.
A side gust changes the direction of relative airflow from being parallel to fin
to a net positive angle resulting in a horizontal force that causes stabilizing
yawing moments to put the aircraft nose back into its original flight path. In
order for the tail surfaces to function properly, the side surface areas aft of the
centre of gravity must be greater than that forward of it. (The aircraft would tend
to rotate about its vertical axis if it were otherwise.)

Figure 12.7.2 Fuselage and fin area for directional stability

Sweepback
As can be seen from the adjacent diagram, the wing with a “higher” aspect ratio
has a larger frontal area. We also recall that induced drag is small compared to
profile drag when aircraft is at high speed (or cruise conditions). Any increase
in frontal area will lead to an increase in the total drag.

Figure 12.7.3 Sweepback and directional stability

The resulting imbalance in drag on the two wings tends to correct the yaw and
return aircraft to its original path.

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12.8 Explains the effect of lateral stability on directional stability and vice-versa
Sideslip is essential to lateral stability. But it also causes an air pressure on the
side surfaces provided for directional stability. The effect of the air pressure is
to turn the aircraft into the relative wind, i.e. towards the direction of sideslip.
The aircraft, therefore, will turn off its original flight path and in the direction
of the lowered wing.

Directional stability is also known as ‘weathercock’ stability which, similar to

a weather vane, will allow the aircraft to point to the direction of the oncoming
wind. An aircraft which is directionally stable will always tries to steer the
aircraft to the direction of the velocity vector. Therefore, when velocity is
disturbed and deviates from its intended direction, the aircraft will try to steer
to align with the new direction. Directional stability, although is a good stable
mode, is obviously not that desirable because if directional stability is strong the
aircraft will end up pointing to a different direction.

The side surfaces so essential for directional stability are thus detrimental to
lateral stability. The greater the directional stability the greater will be the
tendency to turn the aircraft off its course and directional stability of sideslip.
Effectively, a slight roll will result in a sideslip followed by a yawing motion.
A roll causes a yaw and a yaw causes a roll.

Typically, an aircraft that’s laterally very stable and less so directionally is more
desirable than one that’s directionally very stable and less so laterally. A stable
Dutch Roll mode, although the motion is uncomfortable, is in fact, with its
ability to maintain flight direction, highly desirable. However, as the motion is
very uncomfortable, the aviation authorities clearly spelled out the performance
requirement for this mode for the aircraft designers to meet. If the inherent
Dutch Roll stability could not meet the specified design requirements, a Dutch
Roll yaw damper automatic feedback control system that ‘kicks in’ the rudder
input with the correct magnitude and timing can be implemented to achieve the
desired performance.

Lateral dynamic effects

 rolling moments due to sideslip (lateral stability),
 yawing moments due to sideslip (static directional stability),
 yawing moments due to rolling velocity (adverse yaw),
 rolling moments due to yawing velocity,
 aerodynamic force due to sideslip,
 rolling moments due to rolling velocity or damping in roll,
 yawing moments due to yawing velocity or damping in yaw,
 moment of inertia (resistance to rotation) of aircraft about roll and yaw
axes

Interaction of Lateral and Directional Stability

An aircraft with more lateral stability (from dihedral) than directional
stability (keel and vertical fin) will exhibit Dutch roll tendencies.

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 Dutch roll is the back and forth motion when the dihedral returns the
wing to level but overshoots and enters a side slip in the other
direction. This effect is the result of too much lateral stability
compared to directional stability.
 This is undesirable. Reducing lateral and increasing directional
stability reduces Dutch roll but however creates spiral instability.
 Spiral instability develops when an aircraft has excess "directional"
(keel and vertical fin) stability over "roll" (lateral) stability.
 It results in over banking and nose down tendency. An aircraft with
more "directional" than "lateral" stability exhibits spiral instability.
This is more objectionable than Dutch roll tendencies.

12.8 Defines:
 Phugoid (long period oscillation)
 Pitching (short period pitching oscillation)
 Dutch roll
 Spin mode

Phugoid (Greek – meaning to fly away) is a long period (between 30 seconds

and over two minutes) oscillatory motion involving changes in aircraft speed
and altitude. For an initial disturbance in terms of either speed or height, there
will effectively be a resultant interchange of aircraft potential and kinetic
energy. The motion is very lightly damped by the drag force, which changes
with the aircraft speed. The motion tends to be of a very low frequency, typically
taking about a minute to complete a cycle. This long period of oscillation usually
presents few problems to either the pilot or control system designer. If left
unchecked, however, peak-to-peak height changes of around 300m are possible
- potentially dangerous during landing.

Figure 12.8.1 Phugoid

Pitching is the resulting motion, which consists of a heavily damped short
period (between six and 30 seconds) oscillation in pitch, accompanied by very
little change in height or speed. If the motion was solely caused by the restoring
moment due to increased tail angle of attack, then the oscillation would continue

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with the same amplitude. Most aircraft are designed to exhibit dynamic stability
somewhere between the first two cases above. In most instances a slight
overshoot takes place, though heavily damped and typically lasting no more
than about two oscillations.

Figure 12.8.2 Damped oscillation

Dutch Roll (mentioned earlier) is a coupled lateral/directional oscillation that
is usually dynamically stable. The resulting motion however is objectionable
because of its oscillatory nature. Damping (of oscillatory motion) may either be
weak or strong depending on the design features of the particular aircraft. The
response to a disturbance from equilibrium is a combined rolling/yawing
oscillation in which the rolling motion is phased to precede yawing motion.

Figure 12.8.3 Dutch roll

Spin mode consists of mixture of roll, sideslip and yaw. It is a result of roll
correction (lateral stability) smaller than the yaw correction (directional
stability) and flying near stall angle. When a stall occurs on an aircraft that is
not flying perfectly symmetrically (straight and level), one wing tip will stall
before the other. This results in a rolling moment due to a reduction of lift on
the stalled wing tip. Rolling moment is accompanied by a yawing moment
because of the increased drag on the stalled wing tip. The combined effect of
the roll and yaw causes the aircraft to enter into a spiral path or spin. Effect of
roll is more important than yaw during a steep spiral spin. The presence of the
roll causes the angle of attack of the stalled wing to further increase and the
unstalled wing to decrease, thus strengthening the asymmetry of the flow.

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Figure 12.8.4 Spin

13. Understand control of an aeroplane.

13.1 Lists the controls for:

 longitudinal
 lateral and
 directional control of an aeroplane
As stated earlier, an aircraft has six degrees of freedom along and around the
three principal aircraft coordinated axes. From general objective, §12 above, we
note an aircraft to need be both statically and dynamically stable. We also recall,
any attempt by the pilot to change course (also stated) is “viewed” by the aircraft
as a disturbance. Controllability and stability of an aircraft are thus very
contradicting requirements. Military aircraft are generally very manoeuvrable
(close to instability) while transport and passenger airliners tend to be very
stable and thus harder to control.

Controllability refers to the ability of the aircraft to respond to control surface

displacement and achieve the desired condition of flight.

Adequate controllability must be available to perform takeoff and landing, and

accomplish the various manoeuvres in flight.

An important contradiction exists between stability and controllability.

A high degree of stability tends to reduce the controllability of the aircraft and
vice versa.

It is important to achieve a proper balance between stability and controllability

in an aircraft as:

• The upper limits of controllability set the lower limits of stability.

• The lower limits of controllability set the upper limits of stability.

Control along and around the aircraft principal axes are well defined in the
following diagram.

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Flight controls

Figure 13.1.1 Primary flight control

The three primary controls of an aircraft along the three principal axes are:

Longitudinal (pitch) control is provided by the elevators, i.e. flaps hinged

behind the horizontal stabilizer (tail plane).
Lateral (roll) control is provided by the ailerons, i.e. flaps hinged at the rear of
the wing, near to each wing tip.
Directional (yaw) control is provided by the rudder, i.e. a vertical flap hinged
behind the vertical stabilizer (fin).

Note. Some books include the engine control(s) as part of primary controls.

13.2 Explains the working principles of flight controls

The working principles of all three primary control systems are similar. The
elevator and aileron control may be found on the control column (or stick). A
movement of the control column causes the control surface (aileron/elevator) to
be deflected thereby changing the camber of fixed surface. A downward
deflection result in increased camber hence more lift on the “parent” surface.

Elevator
The elevator is used to control the pitch. Applying up-elevator will generate lift
on the underside of the tail plane surface causing the tail plane to move
downwards. The effect will be for the angle of attack (wing) to be increased and
hence generate more lift and cause the aircraft to climb. At low speeds the
elevator is quite ineffective.

Figure 13.2.1 Pitch control – elevator action

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Discussion:
Since horizontal tail where the trailing edge device is the elevator is angled at a
negative incidence to generate the negative lift at the tail in order to generate
the nose-up pitching moment to counter-balance the nose-down moment mainly
from the wing, when aircraft is flying straight and level the AOA at the tail is
negative. An up elevator deflection decreases the camber of the tail which
effectively decreases the angle of attack at the tail, meaning the AOA at the tail
will be even more negative. This creates an even larger negative lift. The nose-
up moment from it will then more than overcome the nose-down wing moment
causing the aircraft to nose-up. Similarly, the down elevator causes camber to
crease and AOA increases such that the initial negative AOA is compromised
is not as negative. This in turn causes reduction in nose-up counter-balancing
moment such that the nose-down wing moment takes over and aircraft will
rotate nose down.
The above explanation applies to all control surfaces such that down deflection
causes camber and AOA increase as well lift increase while up deflection causes
camber and AOA decrease and lift decrease. The lift from the control surface
multiplied by the distance from the CG which creates the counter-balancing
moment. The direction of aircraft rotation is then determined by if the counter-
balancing moment is more or less than the moment for balance.

Ailerons
These are situated on the trailing edge of the wing and are used to make the
aircraft roll. When flying straight and level, moving the control stick to the right
will raise the aileron on the right wing and lower the aileron on the left wing.
Lowering the aileron on the left wing increases its camber and hence producing
more lift on the left wing. As the aileron on the right wing is raised it will
experience a reduction in lift. The unequal lift on the left and right wing result
in a turning causing the aircraft to roll towards the right.

Figure 13.2.2 Roll control – aileron action

Rudder

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Figure 13.2.3 Yaw (directional) control – rudder action

It is the moving part of the vertical stabilizer that provides yaw control. The rudder is
controlled by foot pedals. Pushing the right pedal forward deflects the rudder to
the right. The resulting camber creates force that moves the fin to the left and
hence the nose to the right.

13.3 Lists the control characteristics of flight controls

The power and effectiveness of the controls are determined by:
 size and shape of the control surface,
 deflection angle,
 equivalent airspeed (squared),
 moment arm (distance from c.g.).

It must be noted that size and shape of a control surface and its distance from
the centre of gravity are fixed. The pilot however has control over deflection
angle and airspeed of aircraft. Generally large angles of deflection are required
at low airspeeds to generate adequate control (aerodynamic) forces to produce
the desired effect.

13.4 List the control Characteristics of dual action flight controls

Elevons provide both roll and pitch control of aircraft, thereby acting as a
combination of the aileron and elevator. Elevons are trailing-edge control
surfaces that act as ailerons when operated differentially and as elevators when
operated collectively (both moving in the same direction).

Figure 13.4.1 Elevons - roll and pitch control

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Flaperons are control surfaces having the characteristics of both flaps and
ailerons. Roll (or bank) is effected like when used like conventional ailerons.
They function much the same as normal flaps when both are lowered together.

Figure 13.4.2 Flaperon - lift augmentation and roll control

The pilot however has separate controls for ailerons and flaps at his disposal. A
“mixer” combines the separate pilot input into this single set of control surfaces
called flaperons. Use of flaperons help reduce the overall weight of aircraft. The
complexity is transferred from having a double set of control surfaces (flaps &
ailerons) to the mixer.

The Ruddervator controls yaw and pitch, thereby acting as a combination of

rudder and elevator. This type of flight controls are typically found on V-tail
aircraft. Ruddervators produce a rolling moment towards the left in opposition
to the desired direction of turn, an action called adverse roll-yaw coupling.

Figure 13.4.3 Ruddervator - yaw and pitch control

13.5 Explains the need for balanced controls

The aerodynamic forces generated by the control surface will oppose the motion
selected, i.e. will attempt to return it to the original position. Resulting effect is
called hinge moment(s) as it acts about the hinge line of the control surface.
Hinge moments may be considerable at high speeds putting severe strain on the
pilot (manual controls) or the powered system. Some form of balance is usually
incorporated to reduce pilot effort or load on the operating system.

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13.6 Differentiates between mass and aerodynamic balance

Balance of control surface and hence reduction (or elimination) of hinge
moments may be effected by one of two means or both, namely mass and
aerodynamic balancing.

Mass balance
There is another problem with control surfaces. When a control is deflected a
low pressure area forms on the cambered side. This tends to pull the control
back into alignment with the fixed surface. However, the control surface has
mass and therefore momentum. If the center of gravity of the control surface is
behind the hinge, the control tends to overshoot the point of alignment. The
result is a tendency for the control to vibrate or flutter. Flutter might occur with
unbalanced control surfaces at any speed. It is however very prevalent at high
speed with ailerons and has the potential to lead to structural failure. To solve
the flutter problem the control must be mechanically balanced, so that its center
of gravity is in line with the hinge. It is balanced by inserting additional weights
forward of the hinge line usually within the hinge insets or the control horn.
This is known as mass balance.

An alternate method of mass balance is external mass balance. This method is

found on older aircraft designs.

Figure 13.6.2 Mass balance (external)

Aerodynamic balance
Aerodynamic balance of the control surface is obtained by placing the hinge
line at (or closer to) its centre of pressure.

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Figure 13.6.3 Aerodynamic balance

13.7 Lists the various methods used with aerodynamic balance

Several methods are used to provide aerodynamic balance, namely:
 inset hinge,
 horn balance,
 internal balance and
 various types of tabs.
Inset hinge
The hinge line may be located along the centre of pressure of the control surface
or just forward of it thereby reducing the hinge moments considerably. It is to
be noted that it is desirable to retain some hinge moment to provide a “feel-
back” to the pilot.

Figure 13.7.1 Inset hinge balance

Horn balance
Horn balance reduces the hinge moments. Extent of reduction depends on area
forward of the hinge line.

Figure 13.7.2 Horn balance

Internal balance
The leading edge of the control surface is shielded by the control surface and
the hinge axis is close to the line of centre of pressure. A pressure difference
(between upper and lower surfaces) is created when the control is deflected. The

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differences in pressure between the upper and lower sections of internal balance
develop hinge moments that assist the pilot.

Figure 13.7.3 Internal balance

Tab balance
A balance tab is essentially a small moveable surface fitted to the trailing edge
of the main control surface and geared to move in the opposite direction of the
control deflection. Aerodynamic forces on it set up desirable hinge moments
that assist the pilot move the control surface.

Figure 13.7.4 Tab balance

13.8 Explains the need for trim and balance
Trim refers to balancing an aircraft in flight around its center of gravity. Balance
is important to aircraft stability and safety in flight. Trim tabs are small surfaces
that mechanically or electronically manipulate the primary controls to help
stabilize the plane. Trim tabs free the pilot from constantly adjusting the
controls.

Figure 13.8.1 Trim tabs

13.9 Explains the difficulties of control of an aeroplane at low speeds

For aircraft flying at low speed, in order to generate sufficient lift to sustain the
weight, it must fly at high AOA (to use the high lift coefficient). Aircraft control
may be affected by a number of factors. Those involving low aircraft speed and
high angles of attack are of primary importance, due mainly to any of three
major factors:
 reduced aerodynamic forces due to low dynamic pressures,

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 increased likelihood of provoking stall conditions and

 loss of control effectiveness if immersed in a separated airflow.
The weakness of aerodynamic forces is a major limitation on the minimum
speed of aircraft. Frequently, very large control surfaces have to be used and
these tend to degrade the aircraft's cruise performance.

At low speeds, the wing is close to its stall angle. A downwards deflection of
the control surface increases the local camber and thus AOA. However, as the
aircraft is already flying at high AOA due to low speed, the added AOA increase
can actually cause the aileron section with down-deflection aileron to stall
resulting in less lift in this side of the wing. The higher lift from the up deflected
aileron side is not stall and would have more lift. The aircraft will then roll in
the direction contrary to intended purpose of the aileron action. The end result
is called control reversal.

13.10 Lists the methods adopted to improve control at low speeds

Figure 13.10.1 Frise aileron

The greatest problems are encountered with the ailerons. A geared aileron,
where the down going surface deflects less than the up going one, can help to
get around this problem. Alternatively, slots may also be used in conjunction
with ailerons. (Slots provide boundary layer control & delay stalling.) Spoilers
(if fitted) can also be used for low-speed roll control.

Figure 13.10.2 Slot cum aileron and spoiler control

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Figure 13.10.3 Spoiler deployed in conjunction with up going aileron

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http://history.nasa.gov/SP-367/contents.htm

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TUTORIAL 5
STABILITY & CONTROL

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

A1. The tendency of aircraft to develop forces that tend to restore it to its original
state when disturbed from a condition of steady flight is known ___________.
a. manoeuvrability
b. controllability
c. stability
d. compatibility

A2. An aircraft that returns to its original state of straight and level flight after a
lapse of some time, following a momentary disturbance (gust) is said to have:
a. static stability
b. neutral stability
c. dynamic stability
d. dead-beat stability

A3. The interaction between high lateral and low directional stability result in a:
a. dutch roll
b. flat spin
c. spiral spin
d. roll

A4. An aircraft that has a tendency to gradually increase a pitching moment that has
been set into motion has ___________________.
a. poor lateral stability
b. good lateral stability
c. poor longitudinal stability
d. poor directional stability

A5. Which of the following are termed the primary controls of an aircraft?
a. rudder, flaps and ailerons
b. servo-tabs, elevators and rudder
c. ailerons, elevators and rudder
d. rudder, elevons and flaps

A6. The control stick or column being pushed forward will result in elevators going
______________
a. up, causing aircraft to nose up
b. up, causing aircraft to nose down
c. down, causing aircraft to nose up
d. down, causing aircraft to nose down

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A7. Balance tabs _______________:

a. prevent control surface fluttering
b. assist pilot in moving flight control surfaces
c. contribute to the static balance of control surface
d. make in flight trim

A8. Trailing-edge devices that augment lift at low speeds as well as provide roll
control are known as:
a. ruddervator
b. elevon
c. flapperon
d. spoileron

A9. The desired stall tendency so as to maintain control of aircraft for any wing
plan form is for the stall to first commence:
a. at the wing root
b. at the wing tips
c. along its leading edge
d. along its trailing edge

A10. The ______________ are essentially pure differential control systems.

a. elevators
b. ruddervators
c. flaperons
d. ailerons

SHORT QUESTIONS

1. Define static stability. Explain and illustrate with diagrams positive-, neutral-
and negative static stability.
2. Define dynamic stability. Explain and illustrate with diagrams positive-,
neutral- and negative dynamic stability for both oscillatory and non-oscillatory
modes (assume static stability).
3. With the aid of suitable sketches if necessary, explain why an aircraft that has
dynamic stability also has static stability.
4. Why is “dead beat” stability not suitable?
5. What are “stick-free” and “stick-fixed” conditions?
6. List the factors affecting longitudinal stability and explain any one factor in
detail.
7. How does longitudinal dihedral contribute towards longitudinal stability?
8. What are the factors that contribute to lateral stability?
9. Explain how sweepback and dihedral affect lateral stability.
10. What type(s) of stability does the fin have an effect on?

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11. Sketch and label the principal axes of an aircraft. Also show and label on your
sketch the linear and rotational motions along/about these axes.
12. What are the primary controls of an aircraft?
13. How is roll control affected? Discuss the inherent dangers of executing a banked
turn at low speeds.
14. What is the objective of balancing controls?
15. Explain the difficulty of obtaining satisfactory lateral control at high angles of
attack.
16. How may spoilers be used to improve lateral control at high angles of attack?
17. Briefly explain the difference between aerodynamic and mass balance.
18. When is it necessary to carry out mass balancing?
19. What is the difference between “balance” and “trim?”
20. Why is it more desirable for a stall to commence at the wing root rather than the
wing tips?

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