CONTENTS

CONTENTS

MATERIAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

Material Science and Engineering - Volume 1

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MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

CONTENTS

VOLUME I

Materials Science and Engineering 1

Rees D. Rawlings, Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, London, UK

1. Introduction
2. Structure of Materials
3. Defects in Crystals
3.1. Sub-atomic Defects
3.2. Point Defects
3.3. Line Defects: Dislocations
3.4. Planar Defects
3.5. Large (macro) Defects
4. Processing of Materials
4.1. Continuous Casting
4.2. Silicon for Electronic Devices
4.3. Laser Direct Casting
5. Efficient Production and use of Materials
5.1. Good Design
5.2. Recycling
5.3. Reuse
5.4. Non-destructive Testing
6. Materials in Combination
6.1. Composites
6.2. Coatings
6.3. Functionally Graded Materials
7. Some Active Areas of Materials Development
7.1. Biomaterial
7.2. Smart Materials
8. Concluding Remarks

Optimization of Materials Properties 52

Harvey M. Flower, Imperial College, London, UK

1. Introduction
2. Optimization through Solidification Processing
3. Optimization through Mechanical Processing
3.1. Exploitation of Transformation Plasticity
4. Optimization through Heat Treatment
4.1. Precipitation Hardening
5. Optimization by local Microstructural Modification
6. Final Comments

Bonding in Solids, Structural and Chemical Properties 69

Robin W. Grimes, Imperial College, London, UK

1. Introduction
2. Atomic Orbitals: their Origin and their Shapes
2.1. The Four Quantum Numbers
2.2. The Schrödinger Equation
2.2.1. Solutions to the Schrödinger Equation: The Wave Function
2.2.2. Hydrogen as a Central Force Problem
2.2.3. The Angular Component

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2.2.4. Parity
2.2.5. The Radial Component
2.2.6. Energy Level Values
2.3. Atoms with more than One Electron
3. Forming Bonds between like Atoms: Bonding and Anti-bonding Molecular Orbitals, Sigma and Pi-
bonds
3.1. The Born-Oppenheimer Approximation
3.2. The Molecular Orbital Approximation
3.3. Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals
3.3.1. s Bonding Orbitals
3.3.2. s Anti-bonding Orbitals
3.4. The Binding Curve for H2+
3.5. Predicting the Stability of Other Simple Molecules
3.6. The Fluorine Diatomic Molecule: Another Homonuclear Molecule
3.6.1. π Bonds in F2
4. Forming Bonds between Unlike Atoms: Polar Covalent and Ionic Bonds, Two Extremes of the Same
Process
4.1. HF, a Polar Covalent Molecule
4.2. NaF, an Ionic Molecule
5. A Simple Model for an Ionic Solid: A Balance between Coulombic Attraction and Short-range
Repulsion
5.1. Effective Potentials for Ionic Molecules
5.1.1. The Coulomb Term
5.1.2. Short-range Contributions
5.2. Extending the Model to Bulk NaF
5.2.1. The Madelung Constant
5.2.2. The Lattice Energy and the Born−Harber Cycle
5.3. Calculating the Bulk Modulus
6. From Hybridization to Conjugation to Band Structures: Why Diamond and Graphite have such
Different Properties
6.1. Carbon
6.1.1. The Diamond Structure
6.1.2. Graphite
6.2. Hybridization and Molecular Orbitals
6.2.1. The BeCl2 Molecule
6.2.2. Methane: CH4 and sp3 Hybridization
6.2.3. Bonding in Diamond
6.2.4. Ethene: C2H4 and sp2 Hybridization
6.2.5. Conjugation and Butadiene
6.2.6. Extending the Model to Graphite
7. More about Bands: Metals, Insulators and Semiconductors
7.1. Forming Bands in Metals
7.2. Energy Level Distribution from a Free Electron Model
7.2.1. Schrödinger Equation for a Free Electron
7.2.2. Boundary Condition
7.2.3. Electron Gas Pressure
7.2.4. Effect of a Periodic Lattice Potential on the Free Electron Density of States
7.2.5. Effect of Temperature on Electron Distribution
7.3. Forming Bands in Insulators
7.4. Forming Bands in Semiconductors
7.4.1. Intrinsic Conductivity
7.4.2. Impurity Dominated or Extrinsic Conductivity
7.5. Summary
8. Molecular Solids, van der Waals Solids and Hydrogen Bonding
8.1. Forming Solids from Molecules
8.2. Molecular Interactions
8.2.1. Interactions between Dipoles
8.2.2. Dipoledipole Interactions: Orientation Interaction

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8.2.3. Dipole-induced Dipole Interactions: Induction Interaction

8.2.4. Induced Dipole: Dispersion Interaction
8.2.5. Comparison of Interaction Terms
8.2.6. Hydrogen Bonding
8.2.7. Repulsive Forces
9. Conclusion: How to use the Knowledge
9.1. General Comments
9.2. The Influence of Defects
9.3. Concluding Comments

Structure and Properties of Polymers 135

Pavel Kratochvil, Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic,
Prague, Czech Republicc

1. Macromolecules and Polymers

2. Synthesis of Polymers
3. Structure of Macromolecules
4. Structure of Polymers
5. Design of Polymers with Specific Properties
6. Mechanical Properties of Polymers
7. Rheology and Viscoelasticity of Polymers
8. Electric and Optical Properties of Polymers
9. Additives
10. Polymer Processing
11. Polymers and the Environment
12. Methods of Polymer Characterization
13. Specialty Polymers
14. Conclusion

Mechanical Properties of Polymers 157

Anil K. Bhowmick, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, India

1. Introduction to Mechanical Properties: General Considerations

2. Deformation Behavior of Polymers
3. Statistical Molecular Theories
3.1. Single Polymer Chain
3.2. Polymer Network
4. Large Deformation Theory
5. Finite Element Idealization
6. Experimental Stress-Strain Plots
6.1. Stress-Strain Curves of Polymers
6.2. Stress-Strain Behavior of Elastomers
6.3. Stress-Strain Curves of Various Plastics
6.4. Stress-Strain Behavior of Block Copolymer
6.5. Stress-Elongation versus Stress-Retraction Curves
6.6. Stress-Strain Plots Under Various Deformations
7. Dynamic Mechanical Properties
7.1. General Considerations
7.2. Zones of Viscoelastic Behavior
7.3. Stored Energy and Dissipated Energy
7.4. Equation of Motion
7.5. Temperature and Frequency Effects
7.6. Interpretation of Dynamic Mechanical Spectra of Polymers
7.6.1. Glassy Polymers
7.6.2. Crystalline Polymers
7.6.3. Elastomers

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8. Ultimate Stress and Ultimate Strain of Polymers

Mechanical Properties of Crystalline Materials 221

Zhongguang Wang, Institute of Metal Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenyang, China

1. Introduction
2. Stress-strain Curves
3. Elastic Deformation
4. Anelastic Deformation
5. Viscous Deformation
6. Geometry and Crystallography of Plastic Deformation
6.1. Resolved Shear Stress and Schmid Law
6.2. The Stress-strain Curve of Ductile Single Crystals
6.3. Geometry of Slip
6.4. Twinning
7. Plastic Deformation of Polycrystals
8. Work-hardening, Recovery and Recrystallization
9. Fracture of Metals
9.1. Ductile Fracture
9.2. Brittle Fracture
9.3. Fracture Toughness
10. Fatigue of Metals
10.1. Fatigue Life Behavior
10.2. Cyclic Deformation
10.3. Crack Initiation
10.4. Crack Propagation
11. Creep and Creep-rupture
11.1. Primary Creep
11.2. Secondary Creep
11.3. Tertiary Creep and Creep Rupture
12. Mechanical Properties of Ceramic Materials
12.1. Mechanisms of the Deformation of Ceramic Materials
12.2. The Strength of Ceramic Materials
12.3. Toughening of Ceramic Materials

Phase Equilibria and Microstructure 256

Philip Nash, Professor, Mechanical, Materials and Aerospace Engineering Department, Illinois Institute
of Technology, Chicago, IL, USA

1. Phase Equilibria
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Gibbs Phase Rule
1.2.1. Phase
1.2.2. Components
1.2.3. System
1.2.4. Equilibrium Relationships
1.2.5. Gibbs Phase Rule
2. Phase Diagrams
2.1. Binary Phase Diagrams
2.2. Ternary and Higher Order Phase Diagrams
2.3. Metastable Phase Equilibrium Diagrams
2.4. Thermodynamic Calculation of Phase Diagrams
3. Microstructure
3.1. Analysis of Microstructure
3.2. Non-equilibrium Microstructures
3.3. Effect of Processing on Microstructure

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3.4. Second-phase Strengthening

3.5. Grain Boundaries

Index 273

About EOLSS 281

VOLUME II

Structural and Functional Materials 1

Helen V. Atkinson, University of Sheffield, UK

1. Structural Materials
1.1. Properties
1.2. Elastic Modulus
1.3. Yield Strength, Ultimate Tensile Strength, Ductility, Hardness
1.4. Plasticity: Dislocations
1.5. Work-hardening, Recovery and Recrystallization
1.6. Fracture Toughness
1.7. Fatigue
1.8. Creep
1.9. Corrosion and Oxidation
1.9.1. Oxidation
1.9.2. Wet Corrosion
1.10. Wear
1.11. Summary of Structural Materials
2. Functional Materials
2.1. Optical Materials
2.1.1. Absorption by Isolated Atoms
2.1.2. Band Theory
2.1.3. Lasers
2.1.4. Raman Scattering
2.1.5. Fluorescence and Phosphorescence
2.2. Electrical Properties
2.2.1. Wide Range of Electrical Conductivities
2.2.2. Fundamentals of Conduction
2.2.3. Fermi Surface and Fermi Sphere
2.2.4. Scattering Mechanisms
2.2.5. Semiconductors
2.2.6. Superconductors
2.2.6.1. Applications of Superconductors
2.2.6.2. High Tc Superconductors
2.3. Dielectrics
2.3.1. Piezoelectrics
2.3.2. Ferroelectrics
2.3.3. Optical Fibers
2.3.4. The Photocopying Process
2.3.5. Liquid Crystals
2.4. Magnetic Properties
2.4.1. Ferromagnetism, Paramagnetism, Diamagnetism
2.4.2. Curie Temperature and Domains
2.4.3. Origin of Magnetism at an Atomic Level
2.4.4. Ferrimagnetism
2.4.5. Origin of Domains
2.4.6. Hard and Soft Magnets
2.4.7. Origin of Hysteresis

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2.5. Thermal Properties

2.6. Summary of Functional Materials

Magnetic Materials 49
I.R. Harris, School of Metallurgy and Materials, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
A.J. Williams, School of Metallurgy and Materials, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK

1. Introduction
2. The Origin of Magnetism
3. Magnetic Terminology and Units
4. Types of Magnetic Materials
4.1. Diamagnetism
4.2. Paramagnetism
4.3. Ferromagnetism
4.4. Antiferromagnetism
4.5. Ferrimagnetism
5. Intrinsic Properties of Magnetic Materials
5.1. Saturation Magnetization
5.2. Magnetic Anisotropy
6. Magnetic Domains
7. Magnetic Hysteresis
7.1. Magnetic Parameters
7.2. Coercivity Mechanisms
8. Observation of Magnetic Domains
8.1. The Bitter Method
8.2. Magneto-optic Methods
9. Hard Magnetic Materials
9.1. Alnicos
9.2. Hard Ferrites
9.3. SmCo-based Materials
9.4. NdFeB-based Materials
10. Applications of Hard Magnetic Materials
11. Soft Magnetic Materials
11.1. Iron-silicon Alloys
11.2. Amorphous and Nano-crystalline Alloys
11.3. Nickel-iron Alloys
11.4. Soft Ferrites
12. Applications of Soft Magnetic Materials
12.1. AC Applications
12.2. DC Applications
13. Magnetic Recording
13.1. Magnetic Tapes
13.2. Magnetic Disks
13.3. Writing and Reading Data
14. Other Magnetic Materials
14.1. Magnetostriction
14.2. Magnetoresistance

High Temperature Structural Materials 84

John D. Venables, Consultant on Advanced Materials, USA

1. Introduction
2. Review of Current High Temperature Structural Materials
2.1. Ceramics and Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs)
2.2. Nickel-base Superalloys
2.3. Refractory Metals

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2.4. Intermetallics
3. Applications
3.1. Fuel Cells
3.2. Gas Turbines for Electric Power
3.3. Coal Gasification
3.4. Space Shuttle
4. The Future

Fundamental Aspects of Corrosion of Metallic Materials 99

Philippe Marcus, Laboratoire de Physico-Chimie des Surfaces, CNRS; Université Pierre et Marie Curie,
Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Chimie, Paris, France
Vincent Maurice, Laboratoire de Physico-Chimie des Surfaces, CNRS; Université Pierre et Marie Curie,
Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Chimie, Paris, France

1. Introduction
2. Electrochemical Characteristics of the Corrosion of Metallic Materials
2.1. Anodic Polarization Curves
2.2. Cathodic Reaction
2.3. Thermodynamic Aspects of Corrosion and Passivity
3. Anodic Dissolution in the Active State
3.1. Mechanisms of Anodic Dissolution
3.2. Structural Aspects
4. Passivity of Metallic Materials
4.1. Chemical Composition and Thickness of Passive Films
4.2. Potential Drops at Passivated Surfaces
4.3. Electronic Properties of Passive Films
4.4. Structure of Passive Films
4.5. Growth Mechanisms
5. Passivity Breakdown
5.1. Phenomenology of Pitting
5.2. Stochastic Approach of Pitting
5.3. Mechanisms of Pit Initiation
5.4. Factors Stabilizing Pit Growth
6. Effects of Alloying Elements
6.1. Anodic Dissolution of Alloys
6.2. Chromium Oxide Enrichment in Passivated Fe-base (Stainless Steels) and Ni-base Alloys
6.3. The Effects of Molybdenum
6.4. The Effects of Nitrogen
6.5. Passivity of Aluminum Alloys
6.6. Alloying Elements as Passivity Promoters and Dissolution Moderators
7. Sulfur-induced Corrosion
8. Concluding Remarks

Benefits of Fiber and Particulate Reinforcement 133

Paul A. Smith, School of Engineering, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, GU2 7XH, UK
Julie A. Yeomans, School of Engineering, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, GU2 7XH, UK

1. Introduction
2. Types of Reinforcement
3. Mechanical Behavior of Composites
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Mechanical Behavior of Continuous Fiber Composites
3.3. Mechanical Behavior of Short Fiber and Particulate Composites
3.4. Aspects of Design with Composites
4. Processing of Composites
5. Reinforced Polymers

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5.1. Introduction
5.2. Particulate and Short Fiber Systems
5.3. Long (Continuous) Fiber Systems
5.4. Processing
5.5. Applications
6. Reinforced Metals
6.1. Introduction
6.2. Particulate and Short Fiber Systems
6.3. Long (Continuous) Fiber Systems
6.4. Processing
6.5. Applications
7. Reinforced Ceramics
7.1. Introduction
7.2. Processing of Ceramic Matrix Composites
7.3. Particulate Ceramic Matrix Composites
7.4. Continuous Fiber Ceramic Matrix Composites
8. Concluding Remarks

Materials Processing and Manufacturing Technologies 155

H. McShane, Imperial College, London, UK

1. Introduction
2. Processing via the Liquid State
2.1. Metals
2.1.1. Disposable Mold Casting
2.1.2. Permanent Mold Casting
2.2. Glasses
2.2.1. Drawing
2.2.2. Rolling
2.2.3. Float Process
3. Powder Methods
3.1. Metals
3.1.1. Production of Metal/Alloy Powders
3.1.2. Future Trends
3.2. Ceramics
3.2.1. Powder Production
3.2.2. Sizing
3.2.3. Mixing
3.2.4. Shaping/Forming
3.2.5. Drying
3.2.6. Firing (Sintering)
3.2.7. Finishing
4. Mechanical Working
4.1. Metals
4.1.1. Forging
4.1.2. Rolling
4.1.3. Extrusion
4.1.4. Rod and Wire Drawing
4.1.5. Sheet Metal Forming
4.2. Plastics
5. Polymer Matrix Composites
5.1. Thermoplastic Matrix Composites
5.1.1. Injection Molding
5.1.2. Rotational Molding
5.2. Thermosetting Matrix Composites
5.2.1. Continuous Fiber Composites
5.2.2. Chopped Fiber or Fiber Mat Composites

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6. Processing of Fibers
6.1. Glass Fibers
6.2. Carbon or Graphite Fibers
6.3. Other Synthetic Fibers
7. Recycling and Reuse of Materials
7.1. Polymer Recycling
7.1.1. Sorting
7.1.2. Comminution
7.1.3. Decontamination and Reprocessing
7.2. Glass Recycling
7.3. Metals Recycling
7.3.1. Separation Techniques
7.3.2. Secondary Metal Production
8. Joining of Materials
8.1. Metal/Metal Joining
8.1.1. Mechanical Fasteners
8.1.2. Welding
8.1.3. Soldering and Brazing
8.2. Plastic/Plastic Joining
8.2.1. Welding of Thermoplastics
8.3. Ceramic/Ceramic Joining
8.3.1. Reactive Brazing
8.3.2. Adhesive Bonding
8.4. Ceramic/Metal Joining

Processing from the Liquid State 184

Arne K. Dahle, Senior Lecturer, CRC for Cast Metals Manufacturing (CAST), Department of Mining,
Minerals and Materials Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
David H. StJohn, Professor, CRC for Cast Metals Manufacturing (CAST), Department of Mining,
Minerals and Materials Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia

1. Introduction
2. Liquid State
3. Fundamentals of Processing from the Liquid State
3.1. Heat Flow
3.2. Crystallisation
3.2.1. Nucleation
3.2.2. Growth
3.2.3. Microstructure Modification and Control
3.3. Non-equilibrium and Metastable Phase Formation
3.4. Rheological Properties
3.5. Casting Defects
3.5.1. Porosity
3.5.2. Other Casting Defects
4. Processing Methods
4.1. Continuous Casting
4.2. Net-Shape Forming
4.2.1. Sand and Investment Casting
4.2.2. Die Casting
4.2.3. Centrifugal Casting
4.2.4. Semi-solid Casting and Forging
4.2.5. Single-crystal Growth
4.3. Rapid Solidification Processes

Powder Methods 218

Randall M. German, Pennsylvania State University, USA

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1. Introduction
1.1. Shaping Versus Compaction
1.2. Shaping Technologies
1.3. Compaction Technologies
1.4. Sintering
2. Technical Advantages
3. Example Applications
4. Industry Structure
5. Growth and Economic Trends

Mechanical Working of Materials 242

Roy Crawford, Department of Mechanical Engineering, The Queen's University of Belfast, Northern
Ireland

1. Introduction
2. Types of Plastic - Effects on Manufacturing Methods
3. Manufacturing Methods for Plastic Parts
3.1. Injection Moulding
3.1.1. Process Innovations
3.1.2. Reaction Injection Moulding
3.1.3. Injection Moulding of Metals and Ceramics
3.2. Extrusion
3.2.1. Manufacturing Methods Based on Extrusion
3.3. Thermoforming
3.4. Rotational Moulding
3.5. Compression Moulding
4. Concluding Comments

Manufacturing of Polymer-Matrix Composites 262

B. Tomas Åström, Department of Aeronautics, KTH, Sweden

1. Introduction
2. Applications of Polymer-Matrix Composites
2.1. Automotive Applications
2.2. Marine Applications
2.3. Aerospace Applications
2.4. Construction Applications
2.5. Other Applications
3. Constituent Materials
3.1. Matrices
3.2. Reinforcements
3.3. Preimpregnated Reinforcements
3.4. Core Materials
4. Composite Properties
5. Manufacturing Techniques
5.1. Molds
5.2. Wet Layup
5.3. Prepreg Layup
5.4. Liquid Molding
5.4.1. Resin Transfer Molding
5.4.2. Structural Reaction Injection Molding
5.4.3. Vacuum Infusion
5.5. Compression Molding
5.6. Filament Winding
5.7. Pultrusion
6. Outlook

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Fiber Production 296

J.W.S. Hearle, UK

1. Introduction
1.1. History of Fiber Production and Usage
1.2. Fiber Dimensions, Properties, and Units
2. Plant Fibers
2.1. Cellulose
2.2. Cotton
2.3. Other Plant Fibers
3. Animal Fibers
3.1. Proteins
3.2. Wool
3.3. Other Hair Fibers
3.4. Silk
4. Manufactured Fibers
4.1. General Features of Production
4.2. Finishes and Additives
5. Regenerated Cellulosic Fibers
5.1. Cellulose Chemistry and the Advent of Manufactured Fibers
5.2. Viscose Rayon
5.3. Lyocell Fibers
5.4. Acetate Fibers
6. Melt-spun Synthetic Fibers
6.1. Polyester (PET)
6.2. Polyamides (nylon 6 and 66)
6.3. Polypropylene
6.4. Other Melt-spun Fibers
7. Solution-spun Synthetic Fibers
7.1. Acrylic Fibers
7.2. Other Vinyl and Vinylidene Fibers
7.3. Elastomeric Fibers
8. High-performance Fibers
8.1. Second-generation Synthetic Fibers
8.2. Glass Fibers
8.3. Carbon Fibers
8.4. Aramid (PPTA) Fibers
8.5. Other Liquid-crystal Fibers
8.6. High-modulus Polyethylene (HMPE) Fibers
8.7. Ceramic Fibers
8.8. Thermally and Chemically Resistant Fibers

Recycling or Reuse of Materials 321

Lucas Reijnders, IBED, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands

1. Introduction
2. Why Reuse or Recycle?
3. Current Practice
4. Options for Near Term Improvement
5. The Ultimate Goal: Recycling in a Steady State Economy

Joining of Advanced Materials 335

Gurel Cam, Mustafa Kemal University, Antakya (Hatay), Turkey
Mustafa Kocak, GKSS Research Center, Geestacht, Germany

1. Introduction

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2. Friction Stir Welding of Aluminum Alloys

2.1. Introduction
2.2. Welding Metallurgy of Friction Stir Welding
2.3. Weld Properties
2.4. Remarks on Friction Stir Welding
3. Joining of Magnesium Alloys
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Welding Metallurgy of Mg-Alloys
3.3. Welding of Mg-Alloys
3.4. Remarks on the Welding of Mg-Alloys
4. Supermartensitic Stainless Steels
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Welding Metallurgy of Supermartensitic Stainless Steels
4.3. Joining of Supermartensitic Stainless Steels
4.4. Remarks on the Welding of Supermartensitic Stainless Steels

Index 363

About EOLSS 373

VOLUME III

Detection of Defects and Assessment of Serviceability 1

Harold Harper, Harper Consulting Limited, Harrogate, UK

1. Introduction
2. Defects in Solids
3. Structural Defects
3.1. The Characteristics of Structural Defects
3.2. The Origins of Structural Defects in Solid Materials and Manufactured Products
3.3. The Growth and Development of Structural Defects in Service
4. Nondestructive Testing and Nondestructive Evaluation
5. Nondestructive Testing Methods
5.1. Visual Examination
5.2. Penetrant Testing
5.3. Magnetic Particle Inspection
5.4. Magnetic Flux Leakage
5.5. Potential Drop Testing
5.6. Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM)
5.7. Radiography
5.8. Ultrasonic Testing
5.9. Eddy Current Testing
5.10. Acoustic Emission
5.11. Thermal Methods
5.12. Miscellaneous Methods
6. The Performance and Reliability of Nondestructive Testing
7. The Assessment of Serviceability
7.1. Applications
8. Dealing with Defects

Defects Introduced into Metals During Fabrication and Service 48

Andy J. Wilby, British Energy Ltd, Gloucester, UK
David P. Neale, British Energy Ltd, Gloucester, UK

1. Introduction

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2. Primary Production Defects

2.1. Casting Defects
2.1.1. Pipe and Shrinkage
2.1.2. Inclusions
2.1.3. Segregation
2.1.4. Porosity
2.1.5. Surface Defects
2.1.6. Other Defects
2.2. Forming Defects
2.2.1. Cracks, Laps and Seams
2.2.2. Surface Defects
3. Defects Introduced During Fabrication
3.1. Defects Resulting From Cutting
3.2. Joining Methods
3.2.1. Design Related Defects
3.2.2. Procedure and Process Defects
3.2.3. Metallurgical Factors
3.3. Heat Treatment
3.3.1. Stress relief of machined or welded components
3.3.2. Hardening and quench cracking
3.3.3. Embrittlement
4. Defects Introduced in Service
4.1. Fatigue
4.2. High Temperature Defects
4.2.1. Mechanical property degradation and creep
4.2.2. Environmental interaction
4.2.3. Microstructural Changes
4.3. Wear
4.3.1. Abrasive Wear
4.3.2. Adhesive Wear
4.3.3. Fretting
4.3.4. Erosion
4.3.5. Rolling Contact Wear
4.4. Embrittlement
5. The significance of defects entering service

Non-Destructive Testing and Evaluation of Metals 76

George A. Georgiou, Jacobi Consulting Limited, London, UK

1. Introduction
2. Defects in Metals
2.1. Defects in Parent Material
2.2. Defects in Forgings
2.3. Defects in Castings
2.4. Defects in Welds
2.5. Defects in Coatings
2.6. In-Service Defects
3. Non-Destructive Testing Methods for Detecting Defects in Metals
3.1. Parent Material and NDT
3.2. Forgings and NDT
3.3. Castings and NDT
3.4. Welds and NDT
3.5. Coatings and NDT
3.6. In-Service Defects and NDT
4. Evaluation of Non-Destructive Testing Data
4.1. Interpretation of Data
4.2. Acceptance/Rejection Criteria

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4.3. Dealing with Defects

Composite Defects and Their Detection 103

Robert Alan Smith, Structural Materials Centre, QinetiQ Ltd, Cody Technology Park, Farnborough, UK

1. Introduction
1.1. Scope
1.2. Defects in Composites
1.3. Significance of Defects in Composites
1.4. Detection methods
1.4.1. Detection methods
1.4.2. Low-frequency Vibration Methods
2. Types of Defect in Composites
2.1. Manufacturing Defects
2.2. In-service Defects
3. Ultrasonic Inspection Methods
3.1. Basic Ultrasonics
3.1.1. Ultrasound
3.1.2. Interaction with Materials
3.2. Choice of Frequency
3.3. Defect Detection and Characterization
3.3.1. Detection
3.3.2. Delamination Sizing
3.3.3. Measurement of Bulk Attenuation
3.4. Ultrasonic Imaging Techniques
3.4.1. General Imaging Principles
3.4.2. Ultrasonic A-scan
3.4.3. Ultrasonic B-scan
3.4.4. Ultrasonic C-scan
3.4.5. Ultrasonic Depth Scan
3.4.6. Pseudo-3D Imaging
3.5. Production Inspection Techniques
3.5.1. Immersion Testing
3.5.2. Ultrasonic Jet Probes
3.6. In-service Inspection Techniques
3.6.1. Manual Single-point Inspection
3.6.2. Manual Scanning and Imaging
3.6.3. Automated Scanning and Imaging
3.6.4. Roller Probes
3.6.5. Multi-element Array Probes
3.7. Specialist Ultrasonic Techniques
3.7.1. Velocity Measurement
3.7.2. Full Ultrasonic Waveform Capture
3.7.3. Acoustic Backscattering
3.7.4. Polar Scans
3.7.5. Laser Ultrasound Techniques
3.7.6. Lamb Wave Propagation
4. Low-frequency Vibration Methods
4.1. Global Assessment
4.1.1. Natural Frequency Measurement
4.1.2. Damping Measurements
4.2. Local Assessment
4.2.1. Tap Test
4.2.2. The Mechanical Impedance Method
4.2.3. Membrane Resonance Method
4.2.4. Velocimetric and Other Pitch-catch Methods
4.2.5. Choice of Local Technique

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5. Acoustic Emission and Acousto-Ultrasonics

6. X-Radiography
7. Optical Methods
8. Thermal Methods
8.1. Thermal Imaging
8.2. Pulsed Thermography
8.3. Lock-in Thermography

Corrosion Detection and Diagnosis 144

Einar Bardal, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Norway
J.M. Drugli, SINTEF Materials Technology, Norway

1. Introduction
2. Inspection Organization
3. Inspection, Detection and Monitoring Methods
3.1. Overview
3.2. Visual Inspection
3.3. Radiography
3.4. Ultrasonic Testing
3.5. Eddy Currents
3.6. Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI)
3.7. Liquid Penetrant
3.8. The Electric Field Signature Method (FSM)
3.9. Acoustic Emission
3.10. Leak Detection
3.11. Corrosion Monitoring
3.12. Pigging Devices
4. Treatment and Analysis of Inspection Results
4.1. Description and Evaluation of Observations and Conditions
4.2. Diagnosis Based on Description of Attack and Service Conditions—Definition of Corrosion
Forms
4.3. Characteristic Features and Conditions of Various Corrosion Forms
4.3.1. Uniform (General) Corrosion
4.3.2. Galvanic (Two-metal) Corrosion
4.3.3. Thermogalvanic Corrosion
4.3.4. Crevice and Deposit Corrosion
4.3.5. Pitting Corrosion
4.3.6. Intergranular Corrosion (IC) and Exfoliation Corrosion
4.3.7. Selective Corrosion (SC) (Selective Leaching)
4.3.8. Erosion Corrosion
4.3.9. Cavitation Corrosion
4.3.10. Fretting Corrosion
4.3.11. Stress Corrosion and Hydrogen Assisted Cracking
4.3.12. Corrosion Fatigue
4.3.13. Corrosion under some Special Environmental Conditions
4.4. Further Analysis
5. From Diagnosis to Determination of Solution(s), Recommendations and Preventive Actions

Materials of the Future 165

Philip Ball, Consultant Editor, Nature, London, UK

1. Introduction
2. Synthesis and Processing
3. Biomedical Materials
4. Smart Materials
5. Biomimetics and Self-assembly

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6. Nanoscale Materials and Assembly

7. Future Information Technologies
8. Display Technology
9. Ultrastrong Fibers
10. Materials Made To Measure

Smart Materials 206

Brian Culshaw, Strathclyde University, Glasgow, UK

1. Introduction
2. Responsive Materials in Engineering
3. Instrumented Structures: Add-ons for Smart Materials
4. Conventional Smart Materials
4.1. Piezoelectric Materials
4.2. Electrostrictive Materials
4.3. Magnetostrictive Materials
4.4. Electro-rheological and Magneto-rheological Fluids
4.5. Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs)
5. Micromechanics: MEMS
6. Chemically Triggered Mechanically Responsive Materials
7. Carbon: Nanotubes and Bucky Balls
8. Concluding Comments

Materials for Clean Energy Conversion 235

Harumi Yokokawa, National Institute of Materials and Chemical Research, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan

1. Introduction
2. Comparison between Combustion Processes and Fuel Cells for Energy Conversion
2.1. Combustion Process related to Heat Engines
2.2. Principle of Fuel Cells
2.3. Conversion Efficiency of Fuel Cells
2.4. Use of Natural Gases
2.5. Characteristic Features in Utilization of Fuel Cells
3. Materials Requirements as Electrochemical Energy Converters
3.1. Electrolyte
3.2. Electrodes
3.3. Interconnects
3.4. Comparison between PEFC and SOFC
3.5. Comparison with Turbines
3.6. Fabrication Technology
4. High-temperature Solid Oxide Fuel Cells
4.1. Additional Important Requirements for Solid Oxide Fuel Cells
4.2. How to Meet the Requirements from the Materials-science Point of View
4.3. Valence Stability and Importance of Materials Thermodynamics
4.4. Valence Stability of SOFC Materials
4.5. Materials Behavior during Fabrication Process and under Cell Operation
5. Future Trends
5.1. Fuel Flexibility and Increase of Conversion Efficiency
5.2. New Materials
5.3. Cost Reduction

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Aerospace and Space Materials 258

Manfred Peters, DLR - Institute of Materials Research, DLR, German Aerospace Center, Cologne,
Germany
Christoph Leyens, DLR - Institute of Materials Research, DLR, German Aerospace Center, Cologne,
Germany

1. Introduction
2. Aluminum Alloys
2.1. Engineering Properties
2.2. Cost-effective Processing
3. Titanium Alloys and Aluminides
3.1. Microstructures and Mechanical Properties of Titanium Alloys
3.2. Development of Titanium Aluminides
3.3. Oxidation and Coatings
3.4. Cost-effective Processing
4. Superalloys
4.1. Microstructure and Properties
4.2. Alloys and Developments
4.3. Coatings
5. Ceramics
6. Composites
6.1. Polymer Matrix Composites
6.2. Metal Matrix Composites
6.2.1. Aluminum-based Composites
6.2.2. Titanium-based Composites
6.3. Ceramic Matrix Composites
7. Outlook

Index 283

About EOLSS 291

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