Research article Petroleum Geoscience

Published online July 12, 2016 doi:10.1144/petgeo2015-035 | Vol. 22 | 2016 | pp. 223–239

Deposition, diagenesis and reservoir potential of non-carbonate

sedimentary rocks from the rift section of Campos Basin, Brazil
G. Armelenti, K. Goldberg, J. Kuchle & L. F. De Ros *
Instituto de Geociências, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Bento Gonçalves, 9500, Agronomia,
CEP 91501–970, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: A new petrographical study was performed on the rift section of the Lagoa Feia Group, Lower Cretaceous of the
Campos Basin, eastern Brazilian margin. The primary constituents of the analysed rocks are siliciclastic and volcaniclastic
grains, stevensite ooids and peloids, and bioclasts of bivalves and ostracods. This study focused on the clastic, stevensitic and
hybrid rocks, as previous studies were limited to the bioclastic rudstones and grainstones that constitute the producing reservoirs.
The rift sedimentation was mostly intrabasinal, with extrabasinal contribution concentrated close to half-graben border faults.
The mixture of rounded volcanic fragments with angular quartz, feldspars and plutonic fragments in the sandstones and
conglomerates indicates recycling of early rift epiclastic deposits, combined with first-cycle sediments eroded from uplifted
plutonic basement blocks. Stevensitic ooids and peloids, formed in shallow, alkaline lacustrine environments, were mixed
throughout the rift section with bivalve and ostracod bioclasts, and with the clastic sediments. Gravitational redeposition was
promoted by intense and recurrent tectonism along the rift margins. The main diagenetic processes in clastic sandstones and
conglomerates and hybrid arenites are cementation and grain replacement by smectite, zeolites, calcite and dolomite,
mechanical compaction and dissolution of feldspars, volcanic fragments and bioclasts. Stevensitic arenites experienced early
cementation and replacement of ooids and peloids by quartz, calcite and dolomite, or intense compaction of stevensitic grains in
uncemented areas. Volcaniclastic sandstones and conglomerates with smectite rims, remnant intergranular porosity and grain
dissolution may constitute fair hydrocarbon reservoirs. Stevensitic and hybrid arenites with dissolution of stevensite grains,
bioclasts and calcite cement may also constitute reservoirs, although with potential quality limited by the poor connection of
their pore systems. An understanding of the controls on the depositional and diagenetic evolution of the dominantly intrabasinal,
gravitationally redeposited, rift succession will contribute to new exploration strategies for the Campos Basin.
Received 1 June 2015; revised 6 May 2016; accepted 17 May 2016

The Campos Basin lies at the eastern Brazilian margin, along the African plates were separated by a rift system that propagated from
north coast of Rio de Janeiro State (Fig. 1). It is separated from the south to north. The break-up led to the formation of several rifts with
Espírito Santo Basin, to the north, by the Vitória Arch, and from different timing and filling, often with basaltic floods in the onset,
the Santos Basin, to the south, by the Cabo Frio Arch, and covers an culminating with crustal rupture and expansion of the ocean floor
area of approximately 120,000 km2, with a small onshore area of (Milani & Thomaz Filho 2000).
only 5800 km2. According to the National Petroleum Agency (ANP The rift process reactivated regional, extensional NE–SW
2013), the Campos Basin is the most prolific Brazilian basin, structures from the Proterozoic basement (formed during the
corresponding to 84% of the oil and gas production of Brazil. Brazilian orogenic cycle), composed mainly of gneissic and granitic
Hydrocarbons are sourced from the rift (subsalt) section of Lower rocks from the Ribeira Province (Almeida & Carneiro 1998). These
Cretaceous Lagoa Feia Group (Guardado et al. 2000). The main weakened zones defined areas where reactivation took place during
producing reservoirs within this unit correspond to bioclastic, the opening of the Atlantic Ocean, controlling rift architecture
lacustrine limestones, called ‘coquinas’ (Bertani & Carozzi 1985a, (Heilbron et al. 2008).
b; Dias et al. 1988; Abrahão & Warme 1990; Carvalho et al. 2000). In the initial stages, continental blocks were uplifted and normal-
Owing to the importance of oil production in the ‘coquinas’, faulted, leading to an irregular geometry with alternated horsts and
previous work on primary composition and diagenetic evolution of graben filled with lacustrine and alluvial sediments, as well as
the Lagoa Feia deposits focused on these carbonate rocks (Carvalho basaltic floods. Sedimentation in the lower, Neocomian rift section
et al. 2000; Castro 2006). This work aims to analyse the genesis of (Pre-Alagoas) was dominantly lacustrine. During the Aptian
the non-carbonate sedimentary rocks in the Lagoa Feia Group, (Alagoas local stage), the onset of the flexural stage in the basin
including volcaniclastic sandstones and conglomerates, and hybrid led to the deposition of the post-rift units, culminating with marine
and stevensitic arenites. This petrological study was carried out as ingression and the deposition of evaporites.
part of a larger project developed in partnership with the BG Group, The sedimentary infill of the Campos Basin was subdivided by
which also involved sedimentological, stratigraphic and seismic Rangel et al. (1994) into three tectonostratigraphic sequences,
analyses intended to improve the understanding of the depositional bounded by erosive unconformities: the non-marine, transitional
setting, diagenetic processes and patterns, and potential reservoir and marine sequences. The non-marine, rift sequence (Fig. 2) was
quality of the Campos Basin rift section. formed in the initial stages of rifting. Part of the basin was filled with
the subalkaline, subaerial and subaqueous basaltic floods of the
Cabiúnas Formation, unconformably overlying the Precambrian
Geological setting
basement. This phase is characterized by synthetic and antithetic
The Campos Basin was formed in the Early Cretaceous as a faulting, with the formation of several graben and half-graben with
consequence of Gondwana break-up, when the South American and rotated blocks due to rapid crustal subsidence. Rift architecture was

© 2016 The Author(s). Published by The Geological Society of London for GSL and EAGE. All rights reserved. For permissions: http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/
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224 G. Armelenti et al.

Fig. 1. Location map of the Campos

Basin, showing the producing oil and gas
fields (modified from Guardado et al.
2000). The studied wells are located near
the southern fields.

strongly influenced by pre-existing Late Proterozoic structures (Bertani & Carozzi 1985a, b; Carvalho et al. 2000). These
inherited from the Brazilian Orogeny, which defined weakened correspond to the Coqueiros Formation. The ‘coquinas’ and
zones that experienced preferential extension during the opening fractured basalts (Mizusaki et al. 1988) are the presently producing
process. The main facies associations are alluvial-fan, fan-delta and reservoirs in the rift section of the Campos Basin.
transitional deposits, lacustrine marls, shales, and bivalve and The main hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Campos Basin are the
ostracod carbonates that comprise the Lagoa Feia Group (Schaller Upper Cretaceous–Lower Tertiary marine turbiditic sandstones of the
1973; Dias et al. 1988; Winter et al. 2007). Sedimentation took Carapebus Formation (Guardado et al. 1990; Mello et al. 1994). Other
place in an alkaline, lacustrine environment with a strong tectonic reservoirs correspond to fractured basalts of the Cabiúnas Formation,
control (Dias et al. 1988). The top of this sequence is relatively flat, ‘coquinas’ of the Coqueiros Formation and carbonate precipitates of
indicating that the graben of the rift systems had been almost the Macabu Formation (Lagoa Feia Group: Carminatti et al. 2008),
filled by the end of the alluvial–lacustrine deposition (Abrahão & carbonate rocks of the Quissamã Formation, and turbiditic sandstones
Warme 1990). of the Namorado Formation (Macaé Group).
Differential subsidence during the deposition of the Lagoa Feia
Group resulted in areas with very thick alluvial–lacustrine deposits
Methods
(Abrahão & Warme 1990). Along proximal margins in the rifts,
alluvial-fan deposits composed of conglomerates and sandstones In this study, 42 thin sections, prepared from samples taken from
rich in volcanic fragments dominated (Itabapoana Formation). Fine- cores of 10 wells located near the southern oil fields (Fig. 1), were
grained facies accumulated in lacustrine depocentres, where anoxic analysed and quantified. The samples were impregnated with blue
conditions allowed the deposition of organic-rich mudrocks. These epoxy resin, and the thin sections were stained with a solution of
are the main hydrocarbon source rocks in the Campos Basin Alizarine red and potassium ferricyanide (cf. Dickson 1965) for the
(Mohriak et al. 1990; Mello et al. 1994; Guardado et al. 2000). identification of the carbonate minerals. Quantification was
They comprise the Atafona Formation, along with sandstones and performed by counting 300 points in each thin section along
siltstones with abundant stevensitic clay minerals, deposited in transects perpendicular to the rock structure and fabric. Textural
alkaline environments (Winter et al. 2007) (Fig. 2). Nonetheless, the aspects of grain size, shape and fabric, as well as the composition,
traditional lithostratigraphic units in the rift section of the Campos locations and the paragenetic relationships between primary and
Basin are inappropriate to describe the complexity of deposition in diagenetic constituents and pore types were recorded using the
the different half-graben. A tectonostratigraphic model based on rift Petroledge software (De Ros et al. 2007). A spreadsheet with the
evolution, with the definition of tectonic systems tracts, is currently petrographical quantification is available on request to the authors.
in progress (K. Goldberg, pers. comm. 2016). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analyses in the backscattered
Accumulations of bivalve and ostracod bioclasts (‘coquinas’), electron (BSE) mode were performed for a better definition of the
intercalated with mud deposits, occur along the flanks and crests of paragenetic relationships between primary and diagenetic constitu-
internal highs in the rifts, away from areas with terrigenous input ents on seven selected thin sections using a JEOL JSM-6610LV

Fig. 2. Stratigraphic chart of the rift and

sag intervals of the Campos Basin
(modified from Winter et al. 2007), with
the studied interval marked with the red
rectangle.
 Deposition and diagenesis, Campos Rift, Brazil 225

Fig. 3. Photomicrographs of primary

constituents. (a) Angular feldspar and
quartz grains, cemented and replaced by
calcite. RJS-114: 2735.35 m. Crossed
polarizers (XP). (b) Rounded fragments of
hemicrystalline and holocrystalline
volcanic rocks and garnet grains (G),
cemented by calcite and smectite.
RJS-486A: 2873.65 m. Uncrossed
polarizers (//P). (c) Stevensite ooids
partially replaced and cemented by calcite.
RJS-514: 4165.75 m. (XP). (d) Stevensite
intraclasts cemented and replaced by
calcite and dolomite. RJS-514: 4217.00 m
(XP). (e) Recrystallized bivalve bioclasts
in hybrid arenite. RJS-114: 2735.35 m.
Calcite (XP). (f ) Ostracod bioclasts
(arrows) in hybrid arenite. RJS-114:
2735.35 m (XP).

microscope equipped with a Brucker energy dispersive spectrom- Stevensite is disseminated in most of the analysed samples,
eter (EDS) for the identification of the elemental composition of the occurring predominantly as ooids (Fig. 3c), usually medium-sand
constituents. Determination of clay mineralogy was based on sized and up to 2 cm in diameter, or as peloids with modal size of fine
optical properties and EDS semi-quantitative analysis. X-ray to very fine sand, which are more common in hybrid arenites. Irregular
diffractometry was not possible owing to the limited number of intraclasts made by agglomerates of these grains, or by fragments of
samples from the cores. stevensitic laminations, are much less common (Fig. 3d).
The main carbonate constituents comprise bivalve and ostracod
bioclasts. The bivalve bioclasts are typically disarticulated and
Primary composition and texture
recrystallized, commonly broken (Fig. 3e), and rarely abraded. The
The primary composition of the analysed samples included limited abrasion normally shown by the bivalve bioclasts indicates
siliciclastic, volcaniclastic, stevensitic and carbonate constituents. that the term ‘coquina’ was incorrectly applied in the literature to
Siliciclastic grains (quartz, feldspars, micas and heavy mineral these bioclastic deposits (e.g. Bertani & Carozzi 1985a, b; Abrahão &
grains, and plutonic rock fragments) are, in general, very angular Warme 1990; Carvalho et al. 2000). The ostracod bioclasts are
(Fig. 3a). Quartz grains are mostly monocrystalline, and microcline commonly whole (Fig. 3f ) and rarely recrystallized. Other much
and plagioclase predominate among the feldspars. Micas are mostly less common carbonate grains include ooids (oncoids and oolites),
represented by biotite, and amphiboles predominate among the intraclasts and peloids.
heavy minerals. The most abundant rock fragments are basaltic, Considering the importance of the stevensitic and carbonate
usually with a hemicrystalline texture, and rounded (Fig. 3b). intrabasinal grains, and their pervasive mixture with clastic
Siliciclastic mud is scarce in the analysed cores. constituents throughout the analysed wells, we decided to define
Ooids or peloids of magnesian clay minerals were identified in the types of sedimentary rocks constituting the studied section in a
previous studies of the Lagoa Feia Group as stevensite, talc– CL–S–C diagram (Clastic–Stevensitic–Carbonate). The main
stevensite mixed layers (Rehim et al. 1986) or kerolite (Bertani & lithological types comprise: clastic rocks, which primary constitu-
Carozzi 1985a, b). Stevensite is a smectitic clay mineral with ents correspond to more than two-thirds of siliciclastic and
strongly magnesian composition with the general formula: volcaniclastic grains; carbonate rocks, with more than two-thirds
(Ca0.5Na)0.33(Mg, Fe2+)3Si4O10(OH)2•n(H2O) or, alternatively: of carbonate allochem grains; stevensitic rocks, with more than 95%
Na0.2(Mg2.3Al0.3Fe0.1)Si4O10(OH)2•n(H2O). Talc is a layer silicate of stevensitic grains; carbonate–stevensitic rocks, made up of more
with a Mg3Si4O10(OH)2 formula, while kerolite is a hydrated than two-thirds of carbonate and stevensitic grains, but with less
version of talc that may contain some nickel, with the formula: than 95% of the latter; and hybrid rocks, with a proportion of
Mg3Si4O10(OH)2•nH2O; or: (Mg, Ni)3Si4O10(OH)2•nH2O. between one-third and two-thirds of clastic grains in the sum total of
226 G. Armelenti et al.

the carbonate and stevensitic grains. The results of the petrographi-

cal quantification of the analysed samples are displayed in the
CL–S–C diagram in Figure 4.
The clastic rocks occurring in the studied section correspond to
siliciclastic sandstones, volcaniclastic conglomerates and sand-
stones, and siliciclastic mudstones and shales, with limited
contribution by intrabasinal carbonate or stevensitic grains.
Siliciclastic sandstones are dominantly medium grained (Fig. 5a)
and moderately sorted. Their occurrence is restricted, and
commonly associated with volcaniclastic sandstones and conglom-
erates, or with siliciclastic mudrocks.
Sandstones and conglomerates in which most primary constitu-
ents correspond to volcaniclastic grains show a much wider
distribution, occurring in most of the analysed wells.
Volcaniclastic sandstones are massive, while some sandstones
show irregular stratification. The volcaniclastic sandstones range
from medium to very coarse grained, and from moderately to very
poorly sorted (Fig. 5b). The volcaniclastic conglomerates display a
sandy fraction equivalent to the associated sandstones, and a gravel Fig. 4. Compositional diagram differentiating the sedimentary rock types
analysed.
fraction of rounded basalt and diabase fragments. Quartz grains are
absent from the volcaniclastic conglomerates and coarse sand-
stones, occurring subordinately only in the medium- and fine- show stylolites, carbonate concretions and rare bioturbation, as well
grained sandstones. Quartz and feldspar grains are mostly angular. as ostracod and phosphate bioclasts.
Siliciclastic mudstones and shales are relatively scarce in the studied Stevensitic grains are present in most of the analysed samples,
wells, comprising irregularly laminated, silty–sandy types with apparently as a product of their redeposition in mixtures with clastic
grains of feldspars, quartz, micas and heavy minerals, and parallel to and carbonate constituents that are not compatible with their
irregularly laminated argillaceous types (Fig. 5c), which correspond formation (discussed below). Therefore, it was established that the
to the main source rocks of the rift section. These fine-grained rocks truly stevensitic rocks should correspond essentially (>95%) to

Fig. 5. Photomicrographs of representative

clastic rock types and stevensitic rock
types, all with crossed polarizers (XP).
(a) Medium-grained, poorly sorted
siliciclastic sandstone, rich in feldspars.
RJS-113: 2918.00 m. (b) Coarse-grained
volcaniclastic sandstone composed of
hemicrystalline and holocrystalline
basaltic volcanic fragments, cemented by
calcite. RJS-486A: 2873.65 m.
(c) Mudrock with irregular lamination.
RJS-114: 2719.65 m. (d) Stevensitic
arenite constituted of stevensite ooids
cemented with drusiform silica and
coarsely crystalline quartz. RJS-514:
4163.70 m. (e) Stevensitic conglomerate
with laminated stevensite intraclasts and
reworked ooids. RJS-514: 4218.65 m.
(f ) Stevensite ooids strongly deformed by
mechanical compaction. RJS-514:
4163.70 m.
 Deposition and diagenesis, Campos Rift, Brazil 227

Fig. 6. Photomicrographs of representative

hybrid rock types, and petrographical
features of magmatic and hydrothermal
rock types. (a) Hybrid bioclastic–
siliciclastic sandy conglomerate made of
recrystallized bivalve bioclasts and clastic
sand. RJS-114: 2735.35 m. Uncrossed
polarizers (//P). (b) Bioclastic–
volcaniclastic sandy conglomerate. RJS-
36: 2965.60 m. Crossed polarizers (XP).
(c) Coarse-grained hybrid arenite with
volcanic fragments, stevensitic peloids,
carbonate ooids, and bivalve and ostracod
bioclasts. RJS-36: 2965.60 m (//P).
(d) Basalt with amygdales filled by
celadonite. RJS-36: 3475.60 m (XP).
(e) Large, irregular-shaped vitreous
volcanic fragments, chaotically mixed
with hybrid sediments in a probable
pepperite. RJS-485: 3096.80 m (XP).
(f ) Spherulitic calcite aggregates replacing
hydrothermally altered sediment.
RJS-165: 2544.65 m (XP).

stevensitic particles, interpreted as formed in situ. This category conglomerates are made of similar proportions of bivalve bioclasts
comprises arenites and conglomerates of stevensite ooids, and finer- and siliciclastic–volcaniclastic fragments, also containing
grained arenites of stevensite peloids. Argillaceous stevensitic commonly stevensite ooids and peloids (Fig. 6a, b). Hybrid arenites
laminations are much less common than these types. Among the are comprised of clastic grains, stevensite peloids and ooids, and
studied wells, a significant presence of stevensitic arenites and commonly also by ostracod bioclasts, ooids and other carbonate
conglomerates is restricted to well RJS-514. allochems, in a proportion approximately equivalent to that of the
Ooidal stevensitic arenites are constituted by predominantly siliciclastic and volcanic grains (Fig. 6c).
coarse sand-sized ooids (Fig. 5d). Stevensitic conglomerates
contain ooids, as well as pisoids up to 2 cm in diameter, and
Diagenetic constituents
irregular intraclasts of stevensite laminations or reworked agglom-
erated ooids (Fig. 5e). Stevensite peloids, ostracod and, less often, Diagenetic constituents occurring in the studied rocks include
bivalve bioclasts occur as nuclei of ooids and pisoids. Quartz, calcite, smectite, zeolites, silica, dolomite, pyrite, titanium and iron
feldspar and mica grains are pretty rare in these rocks. oxides, gypsum, barite, albite, K-feldspar, and kaolin. Table 1
Pure stevensite laminites, constituted by syngenetic, wavy presents a summary of the total, intergranular and grain-replacive
stevensite laminations, are almost absent from the analysed volumes of the major diagenetic constituents in the three recognized
section, but intercalations of stevensite laminations with stevensite, lithotypes. Representative photomicrographs and BSE images of the
carbonate–stevensite and hybrid arenites, or with siliciclastic diagenetic features of clastic, stevensitic and hybrid rocks are shown
mudstones (Fig. 5c), occur locally. Commonly, these laminations in the discussion on their diagenetic patterns (see the section on
are deformed, folded or fragmented. ‘Diagenetic patterns’) later in this paper.
Stevensitic arenites show massive, folded, patchy or fractured
structure. Arenites with early cementation, which are loosely packed,
Calcite
frequently occur heterogeneously intercalated with non-cemented
arenites, which were tightly compacted owing to the ductile behaviour Calcite is the most abundant diagenetic constituent in the clastic and
of the stevensite ooids and peloids (Fig. 5d, f). Cementation and the hybrid lithologies, occurring dominantly with a macrocrystal-
replacement of the stevensite grains and laminations by dolomite, line, and subordinately with a microcrystalline, habit.
calcite, quartz and chalcedony is extensive in these rocks. Macrocrystalline calcite fills part of the intergranular pores in
The hybrid rocks, constituting one-third to two-thirds of clastic volcanic sandstones and conglomerates, and partially replaces
grains, include bioclastic–clastic conglomerates and rudstones, and intergranular authigenic smectite and zeolite, volcanic fragments,
clastic–peloidal–ooidal arenites. The hybrid, bioclastic–clastic feldspars, stevensite ooids and peloids, and undetermined grains.
228 G. Armelenti et al.

Table 1. Summary of the total, intergranular and grain-replacive volumes of the major diagenetic constituents in the three recognized lithotypes

Clastic Stevensitic Hybrid

Lithotype:
Amounts: Average Maximum Average Maximum Average Maximum
Depth (m): 3107.3 4104.8 4189.6 4220.8 3544.5 4534.6
Total diagenetic calcite 15.6 60.3 23.0 47.0 37.4 54.6
Intergranular calcite 9.9 60.0 9.5 27.0 15.3 29.7
Framework-replacive calcite 5.6 16.7 13.6 32.7 22.1 44.7
Total diagenetic silica 0.4 5.0 11.0 22.7 0.1 0.7
Intergranular silica 0.4 5.0 3.3 12.7 0.0 0.0
Framework-replacive silica 0.0 0.0 7.7 18.7 0.1 0.7
Total diagenetic dolomite 3.1 46.0 26.6 65.3 2.3 19.3
Intergranular dolomite 2.9 43.7 7.5 19.0 1.0 13.3
Framework-replacive dolomite 0.2 2.3 19.1 46.3 1.2 10.7
Total diagenetic smectite 20.2 55.0 0.0 0.3 11.5 22.3
Intergranular smectite 6.9 19.3 0.0 0.0 4.3 13.0
Framework-replacive smectite 13.3 35.7 0.0 0.3 7.2 15.3
Total diagenetic smectite 3.0 10.0 0.0 0.0 1.7 12.7
Intergranular zeolite 0.4 3.0 0.0 0.0 0.9 10.0
Framework-replacive zeolite 2.6 9.3 0.0 0.0 0.8 3.7
Total macroporosity 2.9 9.7 5.0 9.0 3.5 14.7
Interstitial macroporosity 1.6 5.3 0.9 3.0 1.5 8.0
Framework-modification macroporosity 1.3 4.7 4.2 8.3 2.0 6.7

Microcrystalline calcite replaces intergranular authigenic smectite, covered by the rims. Chaotic microcrystalline or sheaf aggregates
stevensite peloids and ooids. Macrocrystalline calcite also fills partially to completely fill intergranular pores. Volcanic rock
fractures, intraparticle and moldic pores formed by the dissolution fragments are intensely replaced by microcrystalline smectite. The
of bivalve bioclasts. In the siliciclastic mudstones and very-fine- replacement of feldspars by smectite, mostly in plagioclase in
grained muddy sandstones, macrocrystalline and microcrystalline plutonic fragments, and in amphibole, biotite (with expansion) and
calcite replaces the mud matrix, and forms rounded and elongated other grains, is common.
concretions that replace matrix, stevensite, feldspars and other Smectite growth habits and replacement processes observed in
grains. the hybrid arenites are similar to those in the volcaniclastic
In hybrid rocks, grain replacement and cementation by macro- sandstones. Volcanic fragments are also the main constituents
crystalline calcite is rather intense, dominantly filling intergranular replaced by microcrystalline smectite in these rocks, with feldspars,
pores, replacing intergranular smectite and zeolites. The most amphiboles, biotite and other grains less commonly replaced.
commonly replaced grains are stevensite peloids and ooids. Coatings and rims cover continuously to discontinuously the
Intraparticle pores generated by dissolution of bivalve bioclasts primary constituents. Microcrystalline and sheaf aggregates par-
are filled by drusiform to macroscopic calcite. Microcrystalline tially to completely fill the intergranular pores, as well as part of the
calcite fills intergranular pores, and replaces stevensitic grains. pores generated by dissolution of feldspars, bivalve bioclasts and
Macrocrystalline calcite cementation is the main process of volcanic fragments.
reduction in primary interparticle porosity in the stevensitic arenites,
also filling pores from the shrinkage and dissolution of stevensitic Zeolites
grains. Calcite replaces stevensite ooids and peloids, as well as
interparticle microcrystalline quartz. In the volcaniclastic sandstones and conglomerates, zeolites occur
as intergranular cement with prismatic and rarely radiated habit.
Zeolites also replace the volcanic fragments, feldspars and other
Dolomite
grains. Discrete intergranular crystals of analcime and prismatic
Dolomite occurs only in the stevensitic and hybrid arenites, and in zeolites are less common, often being replaced by calcite.
the siliciclastic mudstones. In the stevensitic rocks, small dolomite In the hybrid arenites, zeolites occur with prismatic and lamellar
rhombohedra fill interparticle pores, and replace ooids, peloids and habits, filling intergranular pores and, rarely, intraparticle pores in
intraclasts, as well as feldspars and other grains. Microcrystalline bivalve bioclasts. Zeolites replace volcanic fragments, stevensitic
dolomite occurs locally. grains and feldspars, as well as smectite that lines intergranular
In hybrid rocks, small dolomite rhombohedra occur only in two pores and replaced volcanic grains and feldspars. In muddy
of the 17 analysed samples, filling intergranular pores, and replacing siliciclastic rocks, zeolites occur in only one sample, replacing
stevensitic grains and laminations, as well as bioclasts and other feldspar grains.
grains. In the siliciclastic mudstones, small dolomite rhombohedra
replace the mud matrix and grains. Other diagenetic constituents
In the volcaniclastic sandstones and conglomerates, microcrystal-
Smectite
line pyrite commonly replaces the volcanic fragments, and rarely
Smectite is the main authigenic clay mineral present in the analysed other grains. Siliciclastic mudrocks and fine-grained sandstones
rocks, occurring in the volcaniclastic sandstones and conglomer- commonly show microcrystalline pyrite replacing the mud matrix,
ates, and in hybrid rocks. In the sandstones and conglomerates, stevensite peloids, biotite and other grains. In the hybrid rocks,
smectite occurs chiefly as continuous to discontinuous rims and microcrystalline pyrite replaces volcanic fragments and stevensite
coatings covering the grains. In some samples, thick rims peloids, in addition to bivalve bioclasts, feldspars, biotite and the
completely fill the intergranular pores. The coatings are commonly mud matrix. Coarse, blocky pyrite replaces grains in some samples.
 Deposition and diagenesis, Campos Rift, Brazil 229

In stevensitic rocks, microcrystalline pyrite replaces ooids and The occurrence of hydromagmatic types records the interaction
peloids, and, less commonly, stevensite laminations. between magmatic extrusive and shallow intrusive activity, and the
Diagenetic iron and titanium oxides occur in small amounts in the rift sediments. The interaction between magma and sediments is
analysed rocks, and uniformly in the microcrystalline growth habit. expressed as chaotic mixtures of hybrid sediments and very angular,
Part of the volcanic rock fragments altered to hematite may have originally vitreous volcanic fragments (Fig. 6e), promoted by the
formed in the source areas, rather than during diagenesis. Some explosive vaporization of the phreatic fluids in contact with the hot
volcaniclastic sandstones display thin hematite coatings, which are magma (i.e. pepperites: cf. Barnes & Barnes 1992; Jerram &
covered by pore-lining smectites. Microcrystalline aggregates and Stollhofen 2002).
discrete crystals of titanium oxides replace volcanic fragments Hydrothermal volcanic breccias are common in the analysed
and heavy mineral grains in the volcaniclastic sandstones and section. These rocks correspond to strongly fractured basalts and
conglomerates. Titanium oxides are very scarce in the fine-grained diabases, with fractures filled by calcite, silica, zeolites, celadonite
siliciclastic deposits, where they occur mostly replacing biotite. In and scapolite, and strong alteration of the primary constituents,
the hybrid arenites, microcrystalline hematite replaces volcanic mostly to smectites, calcite, celadonite and zeolites.
fragments and other grains. Titanium oxides are scarce in these Alteration of the sedimentary rocks by hydrothermal fluids
rocks, chiefly replacing volcanic fragments. circulating through fractures was also observed in several wells.
Authigenic silica occurs in significant volumes only in the Some samples contain spherulitic or fascicular calcite aggregates
stevensitic rocks. In the stevensitic arenites, quartz fills interparticle characteristic of abiotic travertines (Chafetz & Guidry 1999), such
pores with drusiform, a microcrystalline and coarse mosaic habit. as those extensively observed in the sag ‘pre-salt’ reservoirs of the
Stevensite ooids and peloids are replaced by a microcrystalline and Santos, Campos and Espírito Santo basins (Wright 2012) (Fig. 6f ).
mosaic habit. Large stevensitic intraclasts are replaced by Nevertheless, the main observed process of hydrothermal alteration
microcrystalline quartz. Shrinkage pores in the intraclasts are of sedimentary materials corresponds to the intense silicification
filled by microcrystalline and mosaic quartz. In the hybrid arenites, observed in some samples in the form of pervasive replacement by
chalcedony locally replaces bivalve and ostracod bioclasts, and is microcrystalline to macrocrystalline quartz.
replaced by calcite or dolomite. Quartz overgrowths and discrete
crystals are scarce both in hybrid arenites and in volcaniclastic
sandstones. Discussion
Potassium feldspar overgrowths cover microcline grains discon-
Aspects of provenance and depositional environments
tinuously, and discrete prismatic crystals partially fill intergranular
and intragranular pores in volcaniclastic sandstones and hybrid In his pioneering work of 1973, Schaller interpreted the depositional
arenites. Less commonly, authigenic K-feldspar replaces grain- setting of the Lagoa Feia Group (then termed Formation) as
replacive zeolites in microcline and stevensitic grains in hybrid alluvial–lacustrine and subdivided the succession into three
arenites. The albitization of detrital feldspars is only limited to some intervals (Schaller 1973). He defined the lower interval as
of the hybrid arenites and volcaniclastic sandstones, affecting beingconstituted of sandstones and conglomerates intercalated
dominantly plagioclase grains. with mudrock lenses, and separated from the crystalline basement
Lamellar kaolinite is scarce in hybrid rocks, replacing and by basaltic rocks. His intermediate interval was formed by
expanding biotite and muscovite. Booklet aggregates fill inter- intercalations of carbonates, shales, anhydrite and halite, and the
granular pores and rarely replace feldspars. In siliciclastic upper interval by shales, calcilutites, siltstones and sandstones
mudstones, lamellar kaolinite replaces and expands muscovite intercalated with anhydrite.
grains. Calcite and dolomite replace kaolinite in both rock types. Bertani & Carozzi (1985a, b) interpreted the depositional
Sulphates are rare in the studied rocks. Fibrous gypsum fills environments of the Lagoa Feia Group as an alternation between
fractures in fine-grained rocks. Macrocrystalline barite occurs filling alkaline and saline lacustrine ( playa lake) environments, with
fractures. These sulphates are commonly replaced by calcite, deposits rich in ostracods formed during arid periods, and
dolomite and pyrite. Present only in hybrid arenites, pseudomatrix freshwater lacustrine ( pluvial lake) sediments rich in bivalves,
was generated by the compaction of mud intraclasts, and stevensite deposited during wetter periods. They defined four main sequences:
peloids and ooids. terrigenous, ostracod, bivalve and volcaniclastic, recognizing 14
microfacies within these sequences. According to them, the
volcanic activity that took place during the early infill of the basin
Magmatic and hydrothermal processes and products
influenced the chemical composition of the lakes, promoting the
Basic magmatic rocks are interbedded with, or intruded in, different formation of kerolite ooids, commonly nucleated on basaltic glass
sedimentary deposits at the base of the rift section of the Lagoa Feia particles.
Group. These rocks include basalts, diabases (dolerites), hydrother- In the work by Dias et al. (1988), the Lagoa Feia Group was
mal breccias and hydromagmatic types. The basalts are dominantly divided into four lacustrine depositional sequences: clastic,
hemicrystalline, with an intersertal texture and amygdaloidal stevensitic, carbonate (‘coquinas’) and clastic–evaporitic. Their
structure. They are commonly very altered, with glass, pyroxenes clastic sequence was composed at the base by volcaniclastic
and plagioclases replaced by smectites or by celadonite, which also sandstones and conglomerates, and by alluvial-fan sandstones with
fill the amygdales (Fig. 6d), together with Fe, Ti and Mn oxides, carbonate bioclasts and stevensite ooids at the top. Their talc-
marcasite, calcite, zeolites, and dolomite. The primary textural and stevensitic sequence corresponds to a marginal lacustrine facies of
compositional aspects of the basaltic rocks interbedded at the base of siltstones and arenites constituted of talc-stevensite ooids and
the Lagoa Feia Group are similar to those of the underlying Cabiúnas peloids. The ‘coquinas’ sequence corresponds to bioclastic deposits
Formation (Winter et al. 2007), which correspond to subalkaline to of bivalves and ostracods. They interpreted most of these deposits as
tholeiitic types, with an affinity to the Paraná Basin flood basalts in situ bioaccumulations, as opposed to the generally accepted
(Mizusaki et al. 1988, 1992). Diabases (dolerites) with a composition definition of coquinas as extensively reworked and abraded
equivalent to the basalts were locally intruded into sedimentary rocks bioclastic deposits (Scholle & Ulmer-Scholle 2003). Their
of the Lagoa Feia Group. Their intrusive character is indicated by the clastic–evaporitic sequence consists essentially of alluvial-fan,
scarcity of glass (including holocrystalline types) and of amygdales, volcaniclastic sandstones and conglomerates at the base, and by
and by the pattern of plagioclase–pyroxene intergrowth. evaporites at the top, deposited after a basin-wide marine incursion.
230 G. Armelenti et al.

Fig. 7. Essential extrabasinal composition of the analysed samples plotted in: (a) the Folk (1968) classification diagram; and (b) the Dickinson (1985)
provenance diagram. See the text for a further discussion.

Abrahão & Warme (1990) reinterpreted the deposition of the deposits of the Cabiúnas Formation, mixed with the erosion of first-
Lagoa Feia Group as occurring in several physicochemically cycle sediments from the faulted edges of uplifted basement blocks.
distinct subenvironments within an active rift basin setting. This is in line with the stratigraphic interpretation of Rangel &
According to them, the beginning of sedimentation corresponds Carminatti (2000), and Winter et al. (2007), of a regional
to the deposition of volcaniclastic sands and gravels in alluvial fans unconformity between the Cabiúnas Formation, which would
along the edges of uplifted basement blocks covered by basaltic correspond to an earliest phase of infill of shallow and wide ‘proto-
rocks of the Cabiúnas Formation. The local presence of bivalve rift’ depressions, and the synrift Lagoa Feia Group.
bioclasts in the conglomerates would indicate subaqueous fan- However, the presence of dolerite intrusions in the rift section, as
deltaic deposition. The rare occurrences of fine-grained siliciclastic well as pepperites containing particles typical of the Lagoa Feia
facies corresponding to mud-plain, lake-margin deposits with mud lacustrine deposits, such as bivalve bioclasts and stevensite ooids,
cracks, nodular anhydrite and molds of halite, and other evaporitic indicates that the magmatic activity persisted locally during the
minerals would indicate periods of more severe aridity during this active rift phase, an interpretation that has been not reported in any
phase. Conversely, dark, organic-rich lacustrine shales and previous work on the basin.
turbiditic sandstones were interpreted to have been deposited Ooids, peloids and laminations of magnesian phyllosilicates
with the deepening and interconnection of the lakes. According to (stevensite, talc-stevensite or kerolite: Bertani & Carozzi 1985a, b;
Abrahão & Warme (1990), banks of bivalve bioclasts were Rehim et al. 1986) occur conspicuously in the rift and the sag
deposited during periods of shallowing of the lakes, along sections of the Lagoa Feia Group. The petrographical analysis of the
the edges of the faulted and tilted structural blocks. Stevensite available cores suggests that stevensitic phyllosilicates constitute
deposits were interpreted as having formed in association with the background of lacustrine deposition, probably corresponding to
volcanic activity a little before and/or contemporaneous to the most of the rift deposits. Conditions for the syngenetic formation of
sedimentation. these layer silicates are considered to involve a high activity of Mg
An unpublished, integrated regional study developed for the BG and Si, and a high pH (above 9). According to Tettenhorst & Moore
Group, which incorporated seismic analysis, detailed core descrip- (1978), and Noack et al. (1989), such conditions are likely to be
tion and systematic petrography, revealed, however, that the promoted by hydrothermal activity associated with magmatism in
conditions of deposition for most of the rift section of the Lagoa lacustrine settings. Likewise, Jones & Weir (1983), Darragi & Tardy
Feia Group deviate substantially from the depositional models (1987) and Cerling (1996) identified the formation of stevensite in
proposed in the previous works, summarized above. African alkaline lakes with a small supply of detrital mud as a
Most of the described volcaniclastic sandstones and conglomer- product of very high pH and Mg activity related to hydrothermal
ates are massive, or with rare, irregular stratification. The primary and/or magmatic activity.
composition of the conglomerates corresponds to volcanic lithar- Pozo & Casas (1999) interpreted the formation of kerolite and
enites in Folk (1968) classification (Fig. 7a), and to an undissected stevensite in a lacustrine deposit from the Tertiary of Spain as a
arc provenance, according to Dickinson (1985) (Fig. 7b). The product of mixing of the lake water with groundwater with a high Si
volcaniclastic sandstones are lithic arkoses and feldspathic activity. This would promote an increase in Mg/H ratio and the
litharenites sensu Folk (1968) (Fig. 7a), with a predominantly formation of a Si and Mg gel, which would later crystallize as
transitional magmatic arc provenance according to Dickinson kerolite or stevensite. Likewise, Rehim et al. (1986) interpreted the
(1985) (Fig. 7b). Although volcanic fragments occur disseminated generation of stevensite and talc-stevensite mixed layers in the
throughout most of the different types of deposits observed, the Lagoa Feia Group as a product of colloidal precipitation of a Mg and
volcaniclastic conglomerates and sandstones are strongly concen- Si gel in alkaline lacustrine environments. Jones (1986) explored
trated in the lows along the half-graben border faults, and their experimentally the control of pH, and Mg and Si activities over the
massive structure suggest deposition by hyperconcentrated, gravi- mineralogy of syngenetic magnesian phyllosilicates. He suggested
tational flows. Bivalves are scarce in these lithotypes, being limited that more dilute lacustrine or palustrine environments would favour
to rare broken bioclasts in the volcaniclastic sandstones. Conversely, the precipitation of sepiolite. High values of pH, salinity and Mg/Si
stevensite ooids and peloids are common in the volcaniclastic ratio would favour the precipitation of stevensite, with kerolite being
conglomerates and sandstones. precipitated in intermediary conditions.
The usual mixture of rounded volcanic fragments with angular Tosca & Masterson (2014) developed a series of experiments to
quartz and feldspar grains and plutonic fragments in these constrain the precipitation conditions of magnesian phyllosilicates
conglomerates and sandstones points to the recycling of epiclastic in relation to pH, Mg/Si ratio and salinity. According to them,
 Deposition and diagenesis, Campos Rift, Brazil 231

Table 2. Summary of the conditions for precipitation of syngenetic Mg gravitational flows, which redeposited different shallow lacustrine
silicate determined experimentally by Tosca & Masterson (2014) and alluvial sediments into deeper lacustrine settings. The hybrid
pH Mg/Si=0.67 Mg/Si=1 Mg/Si=6 arenites, constituted of mixtures of variable proportions of
siliciclastic grains, volcanic fragments, bivalve and ostracod
–1
Low salinity (NaCli=0.0 mol kg ) bioclasts, and stevensitic ooids and peloids (Fig. 4), are the ultimate
8.7 Sep; Am. SiO2 Sep; Am. SiO2 Ker (Stev); Sep; Am. SiO2 product of this resedimentation.
9.0 Sep; Am. SiO2 Sep; Am. SiO2 Ker (Stev) The complex distribution of volcaniclastic, siliciclastic, stevensi-
9.4 Ker (Stev) Ker (Stev) Ker (Stev)
tic and carbonate sediments within the rift section of the Lagoa Feia
High salinity (NaCli=0.46 mol kg–1)
Group is probably related to the dynamic faulting and tilting of the
8.7 Sep; Am. SiO2 Sep; Am. SiO2 Ker (Stev) multiple structural blocks that constituted, in different periods, the
9.0 Sep; Am. SiO2 Ker; Sep; Am. SiO2 Stev (Ker) basement and the sedimentary source areas. The intense tectonism
9.4 Stev (Ker) Stev (Ker) Stev (Ker) occurring during rifting was the most probable mechanism for the
redistribution of sediments from shallow areas located along the
NaCli, initial salinity; Sep, sepiolite-like; Ker, kerolite-like; Stev, stevensite-like; Am. flexural margins of faulted blocks and relay ramps between graben
SiO2, amorphous silica. Parentheses indicate the presence of interstratified components. to adjacent deeper settings, or even from one half-graben to another.

kerolite is precipitated in environments with low salinity, high pH

and a high Mg/Si ratio, sepiolite is precipitated in environments with
Diagenetic patterns
lower pH and a low Mg/Si ratio, while stevensite is precipitated in Clastic rocks
environments with high pH, high salinity and a high Mg/Si ratio
The very immature and unstable primary composition of clastic
(Table 2).
rocks, rich in feldspars, micas and heavy minerals grains and in
We examined the occurrence of stevensite and talc-stevensite or
volcanic fragments, promoted their intense diagenetic alteration.
kerolite in the Lagoa Feia Group (Bertani & Carozzi 1985a, b;
Most of these suffered significant reduction in porosity. However,
Rehim et al. 1986), as well as in several alkaline lacustrine and
some samples show fair remaining intergranular porosity, besides
palustrine environments (Bradley & Fahey 1962; Dyni 1976;
secondary intragranular porosity, which are commonly filled by oil
Tettenhorst & Moore 1978; Eberl et al. 1982; Khoury et al. 1982;
or residual bitumen. The sequence of the main diagenetic processes
Jones & Weir 1983; Jones 1986; Darragi & Tardy 1987; Martin de
occurring in the analysed clastic rocks can be summarized as
Vidales et al. 1991; Buch & Rose 1996; Cerling 1996; Chahi et al.
follows. The main processes or constituents are written in bold:
1997, 1999; Hover et al. 1999; Pozo & Casas 1999; Mayayo et al.
2000; Yuretich & Ervin 2002; Cuevas et al. 2003; Hover & Ashley (1) Dissolution of volcanic fragments, particularly of glass in
2003; Furquim et al. 2008). Our interpretation is that the syngenetic hemicrystalline fragments (Fig. 8a), and of unstable heavy minerals,
precipitation of these minerals is controlled by the energy of the such as pyroxenes; less intensely of feldspars.
depositional environment, as observed for glauconite, berthierine (2) Kaolinite pseudomorphically replacing and expanding
and other syngenetic clay minerals (e.g. Van Houten & Purucker muscovite (occurring almost only in fine-grained and muddy
1984; Odin 1988). As for these clays, the stevensitic ooids are likely facies); rare replacement of feldspars by microcrystalline kaolinite.
to form in environments more agitated by waves or currents, while (3) Heterogeneous, shallow tectonic fracturing.
the laminations are certainly deposited in low-energy environment. (4) Fibrous gypsum filling rock fractures.
The peloids are probably formed in environments of an energy level (5) Replacement of volcanic fragments, biotite and siliciclastic
between that for the formation of the ooids and that for the matrix by microcrystalline pyrite.
laminations. The common deformation of the ooids, visible even in (6) Replacement of volcanic fragments, biotite and heavy
areas with very early cementation by silica or carbonates, indicates minerals by iron and titanium oxides; hematite coatings on grains.
the very soft original aspect of these grains, probably formed by the (7) Smectite as pore-lining coatings, rims (Fig. 8b), and as
colloidal precipitation of a Mg–Si gel (Pozo & Casas 1999). The microcrystalline aggregates filling pores and replacing volcanic rock
stevensitic conglomerates are formed either by intraclasts eroded fragments, unstable heavy minerals, feldspars and biotite.
from laminated deposits or from ooidal–peloidal deposits, or by (8) Prismatic and blocky zeolites encircling and filling
pisoids, probably formed in higher-energy depositional conditions intergranular pores (Fig. 8c); locally replacing smectite, volcanic
equivalent to those of the ooids. These environmental interpretations fragments and feldspars (Fig. 8d).
apply to the stevensitic arenites and conglomerates, which were (9) Discontinuous quartz and K-feldspar overgrowths and
formed by the in situ precipitation of magnesian phyllosilicates. outgrowths. Prismatic K-feldspar replacing feldspar grains and
However, the widespread distribution of stevensitic ooids and filling intergranular pores (Fig. 9a, b).
peloids in most of the lithotypes described in the Lagoa Feia Group, (10) Replacement of the matrix by radial chalcedony in
including the volcaniclastic sandstones and the bioclastic rudstones mudrocks.
and grainstones, indicates the occurrence of a substantial reworking (11) Macrocrystalline and locally poikilotopic calcite filling
of stevensitic deposits and mixing with other sediment types within intergranular pores, and replacing feldspars and heavy mineral
the rift graben. The mixing of stevensitic ooids and peloids and grains, volcanic fragments, smectite, and zeolites (Fig. 9c, d).
bivalve bioclasts in practically every described sample of the (12) Blocky to macrocrystalline dolomite filling intergranular
rudstones that constitute the main Lagoa Feia reservoirs is pores, and replacing siliciclastic mud matrix, feldspars, micas and
particularly indicative of this extensive resedimentation. As heavy mineral grains, and volcanic fragments.
stevensite is characteristically precipitated at a pH higher than 9 (13) Local dissolution of intragranular and intergranular calcite
and bivalves cannot effectively survive at pH higher than 8 (Locke and zeolites, and of fracture-filling gypsum.
2008), the mixing of these incompatible sediments must have (14) Deformation of ductile smectite-altered grains, micas and
occurred after their primary generation in different shallow of rare mud intraclasts.
lacustrine environments. The frequently massive structure of the (15) Macrocrystalline, intergranular and grain-replacive barite.
rudstones, as well that of the volcaniclastic sandstones and (16) Coarse mosaic calcite replacing chalcedony and barite.
conglomerates and of the hybrid arenites, all contain stevensitic (17) Blocky pyrite replacing barite and volcanic fragments.
peloids and ooids, suggesting that this mixing was promoted by (18) Limited feldspars albitization.
232 G. Armelenti et al.

Fig. 8. Photomicrographs of diagenetic

features and BSE images of analysed
clastic rocks. (a) Intragranular porosity in
hemicrystalline volcanic fragments. RJS-
36: 2973.55 m. Uncrossed polarizers (//P).
(b) Smectite as thick rims filling
intergranular pores, and as
microcrystalline aggregates replacing
volcanic fragments. RJS-486A:
2873.65 m. Crossed polarizers (XP). (c)
Zeolite crystals partially filling primary
intergranular pores. Smectite rims cover
the grains. RJS-108: 3567.90 m (BSE).
(d) Grain replaced by coarse prismatic
zeolite. Macrocrystalline calcite replacing
intergranular zeolite.
RJS-36: 2973.55 m (XP).

The diagenetic sequence characteristic of the volcaniclastic rocks (1) Microcrystalline quartz replacing stevensite ooids and
is schematically represented in Figure 10. peloids; drusiform quartz filling interparticle pores (Fig. 11a).
(2) Microcrystalline and dominantly macrocrystalline calcite
Stevensitic rocks filling interparticle pores, replacing ooids, peloids and silica cement
The diagenesis of stevensitic rocks is conditioned by the physical (Fig. 11b).
and chemical instability of the stevensite ooids and peloids. Where (3) Blocky to macrocrystalline dolomite, rarely microcrystalline
not cemented during early diagenesis, these particles were strongly or as rims, filling or lining interparticle pores, or, more commonly,
compacted, resulting in total porosity loss. In areas cemented by replacing stevensitic grains and laminations, and silica cement
eodiagenetic silica or carbonates, the stevensitic grains were also (Fig. 11c).
partially replaced by these minerals, and by zeolites. The only (4) Strong compaction and deformation of ooids and peloids in
porosity present in these rocks is secondary, generated by the areas devoid of early cementation (Fig. 11d).
dissolution of calcite cement, and mostly of the stevensitic grains. (5) Shrinkage and dissolution of ooids and peloids promoting
The sequence of the main diagenetic processes occurring in the the formation of intraparticle microporosity and macroporosity, and
analysed stevensitic rocks can be summarized as follows. The main of moldic porosity (Fig. 11e, f ).
processes or constituents are written in bold: (6) Dissolution of calcite cement.

Fig. 9. Photomicrographs and BSE

images of diagenetic features of analysed
clastic rocks. (a) Discrete zeolite crystals
and K-feldspar outgrowths (Kf) in a
sandstone with smectite rims. RJS-108:
3567.90 m (BSE). (b) Discrete K-feldspar
crystals in moldic pores lined by smectite
rims. RJS-113: 2918.00 m (BSE). (c)
Calcite replacing smectite rims (arrow).
RJS-36: 2965.60 m (BSE). (d)
Macrocrystalline calcite replacing grains
and cementing intergranular pores,
together with prismatic zeolite. RJS-36:
2969.20 m (XP).
 Deposition and diagenesis, Campos Rift, Brazil 233

Fig. 10. Schematic diagenetic sequences

for the analysed volcaniclastic sandstones
and conglomerates (in black), stevensitic
arenites and conglomerates (in light grey),
and hybrid arenites and conglomerates (in
dark grey). Thick bars represent abundant
products or intense processes; thin, dashed
lines represent weaker processes or less
comon products; thin, continuous bars
represent intermediate abundance or
intensity.

The diagenetic sequence characteristic of the stevensitic rocks is (6) Prismatic or microcrystalline zeolites replacing smectite,
represented in Figure 10. volcanic fragments, feldspars, stevensitic ooids and peloids, and
filling intergranular pores (Fig. 12c, d).
(7) Microcrystalline pyrite replacing volcanic fragments.
Hybrid rocks (8) Macrocrystalline or blocky calcite commonly filling
The sequence of the main diagenetic processes occurring in the intergranular pores and replacing smectite (Fig. 13a, b);
analysed hybrid rocks can be summarized as follows. The main heterogeneous replacement of stevensite ooids and peloids by
processes or constituents are written in bold: microcrystalline or macrocrystalline calcite.
(9) Recrystallization of bivalve bioclasts to coarse calcite mosaic
(1) Dissolution of volcanic fragments, particularly of glass in (Fig. 13c).
hemicrystalline fragments, and of unstable heavy minerals, such as (10) Fibrous gypsum and macrocrystalline calcite filling
pyroxenes; less intensely of feldspars and bioclasts. subhorizontal fractures.
(2) Microcrystalline kaolinite replacing feldspars, muscovite (11) Small dolomite rhombohedra rimming grains. Blocky to
and stevensitic grains. macrocrystalline dolomite filling intergranular pores, and replacing
(3) Thin hematite and smectite coatings non-selectively stevensitic grains and feldspars.
covering grains. (12) Microcrystalline quartz and chalcedony replacing
(4) Smectite replacing volcanic rock fragments, unstable heavy stevensitic and carbonate grains. Drusiform quartz filling
minerals, feldspars and biotite, filling intergranular, intragranular intergranular pores. Rare chalcedony rims.
and intraparticle pores (Fig. 12a), and forming rims covering the (13) Mechanical compaction through deformation of stevensitic
coatings. grains (Fig. 13d), and fracturing of bioclasts and feldspars.
(5) K-feldspar overgrowths on microcline grains (Fig. 12b). (14) Chemical compaction through pressure dissolution along
Discrete prismatic K-feldspar and quartz in intergranular pores. intergranular contacts and stylolites.
234 G. Armelenti et al.

Fig. 11. Photomicrographs and BSE

images of diagenetic features of analysed
stevensitic rocks. (a) Drusiform and
coarsely crystalline quartz cementing
stevensite ooids. RJS-514: 4163.70 m.
Crossed polarizers (XP). (b) Partially
deformed stevensite ooids replaced by
macrocrystalline calcite. RJS-514:
4165.75 m (XP). (c) Stevensite ooids
cemented and partially replaced by
blocky, zoned dolomite. RJS-514:
4213.95 m (BSE). (d) Contrast between
an area where stevensite ooids have been
cemented by early silica and are not
compacted (bottom), and an area without
cementation, with intense compaction
(top). RJS-514: 4163.70 m (XP).
(e) Partially dissolved stevensite ooids.
RJS-514: 4213.95 m (BSE). (f ) Stevensite
ooids with shrinkage cracks partially
dissolved and replaced by calcite.
RJS-514: 4013.95 m. Uncrossed
polarizers (//P).

(15) Dissolution of intergranular calcite, and of feldspars, McKinley et al. 2003). The authigenesis of smectites was early, as
stevensitic grains and volcanic fragments, generating intragranular indicated by the continuity of the rims, although occurring after the
and moldic pores. formation of hematite coatings in several samples.
(16) Macrocrystalline barite replacing grains and filling The very early hematite precipitation, as well as the scarcity of
intergranular pores. microcrystalline pyrite, indicates that oxidizing conditions prevailed
(17) Blocky, coarse pyrite replacing grains. throughout significant areas of the bottom of the alkaline lakes
during and just after deposition (Mathisen 1984; Tang et al. 1994;
The diagenetic sequence characteristic of the hybrid rocks is
Stonecipher 2000). Reducing conditions, responsible for the
represented in Figure 10.
preservation of organic matter in fine-grained sediments, prevailed
only in deep depocentres where the rift source rocks accumulated.
Another byproduct of the early alteration of volcanic fragments,
Diagenetic environments
biotite and ferromagnesian heavy minerals was the precipitation of
The diagenesis of the volcaniclastic sandstones and conglomerates, microcrystalline titanium oxides.
as of the hybrid arenites containing volcanic rock fragments, and of The scarce microcrystalline pyrite that replaced volcanic
volcaniclastic sediments of different ages and basins, is conditioned fragments, biotite, other ferromagnesian grains and carbonate
by the dissolution and alteration of these highly unstable bioclasts in the sandstones, conglomerates and arenites was
constituents (e.g. Davies et al. 1979; Mathisen 1984; Hawlader probably a product of reduction of dissolved sulphate by bacteria
1990; Tang et al. 1994; De Ros et al. 1997; Wolela & Gierlowski- (Berner 1984). Conversely, coarse blocky pyrite that non-
Kordesch 2007). These reactions are very important because they selectively replaced grains and diagenetic constituents is probably
release diverse ions and increase the pH of interstitial fluids, derived from thermal sulphate reduction during burial (Machel
promoting the precipitation of characteristic authigenic minerals 2001). A limited amount of SO24 dissolved in the rift lake waters is
(Surdam & Boles 1979; Mathisen 1984). The main early diagenetic inferred from the scarcity of sulphate minerals in the section. Most
product in the Lagoa Feia sediments was the precipitation of of the occurrences consist of fibrous gypsum filling early tectonic or
trioctahedral smectites. This process was favoured by the alkaline horizontal fractures. Small amounts of macrocrystalline barite that
composition of the interstitial fluids, and the availability of Mg, Fe cement and replace grains in volcaniclastic and hybrid rocks were
and Ca from the dissolution and alteration of basic volcanic precipitated during burial, with SO24 probably coming from the
fragments and other unstable grains, such as pyroxenes, biotite and dissolution of eodiagenetic gypsum, and Ba2+ from the dissolution
amphiboles (Davies et al. 1979; Mathisen 1984; Hawlader 1990; and replacement of feldspars (Gluyas et al. 1997).
 Deposition and diagenesis, Campos Rift, Brazil 235

Fig. 12. Photomicrographs and BSE

images of diagenetic features of analysed
hybrid rocks. (a) Hybrid arenite with
discontinuous smectite coatings covering
grains. Celadonite grain (centre).
Cementation and replacement by coarse
calcite. RJS-165: 2424.30 m. Crossed
polarizers (XP). (b) Large, continuous
K-feldspar overgrowths (arrows) on
feldspar grains. RJS-486A: 2881.65 m.
BSE. (c) Relicts of smectite rims (arrows)
replaced by prismatic zeolite cement in
hybrid arenite with calcitized stevensite
peloids/ooids. RJS-36: 2965.60 m (XP).
(d) Blocky analcime (arrows) partially
replaced by poikilotopic calcite. RJS-165:
2425.10 m (XP).

The diagenetic alteration of eodiagenetic smectites provided ions between these ions, by Al3+ and Si4+ activities, pH, salinity, and
for the formation of later authigenic phases, such as zeolites, calcite temperature (Mumpton 1981; Hay & Sheppard 2001). EDS
and K-feldspar (Surdam & Boles 1979; McKinley et al. 2003). analyses revealed that the zeolites of the Lagoa Feia volcaniclastic
Authigenic zeolites are common in the diagenesis of volcaniclastic sandstones and conglomerates are rich in Na, while the zeolites of
sandstones as a product of interactions between alkaline interstitial hybrid arenites are commonly rich in Ca. Paradoxically, small
fluids and volcanic fragments or other unstable detrital constituents, amounts of analcime, a sodic zeolite typical of the early diagenesis
such as plagioclases and pyroxenes (Surdam & Boles 1979; De Ros of volcaniclastic sandstones, were found only in the hybrid arenites.
et al. 1997). High reaction rates are favoured by the increase in Si The precipitation of overgrowths and discrete prismatic crystals
and Al solubility in environments with a pH above 9 (Taylor of K-feldspar occurred after the authigenesis of smectites and early
& Surdam 1981). Na+, K+ and Ca2+ ions for the precipitation of zeolites, as K-feldspar replaces these phases both in volcaniclastic
zeolites may be sourced by a wide variety of materials, including and hybrid rocks. The same can be deduced for the rarely observed
volcanic glass and rock fragments, feldspars, smectites, and other quartz overgrowths and outgrowths. The precipitation of quartz
clay minerals. Zeolites commonly replaced pore-lining and overgrowths is very limited in the volcaniclastic sandstones and
intragranular smectites in the analysed samples. The formation of conglomerates, apparently due to small amounts of detrital quartz in
the different species of authigenic zeolites is controlled by the ratio these rocks, and to the early, thick and continuous smectite rims.

Fig. 13. Photomicrographs and BSE

images of diagenetic features of analysed
hybrid rocks. (a) Macrocrystalline calcite
replacing stevensite ooids. RJS-108:
4521.25 m. Crossed polarizers (XP).
(b) Blocky, slightly zoned calcite
replacing intergranular smectite. RJS-36:
2965.60 m (BSE). (c) Recrystallized
bivalve bioclasts in hybrid arenite.
RJS-485: 2821.40 m (XP). (d) Stevensite
ooids and peloids, strongly deformed by
mechanical compaction. RJS-486A:
2877.50 m (BSE).
236 G. Armelenti et al.

Fig. 14. Photomicrographs of porosity

aspects of potential clastic, stevensitic or
hybrid reservoirs, all in uncrossed
polarizers. (a) Bitumen-filled intergranular
porosity in siliciclastic sandstone with
smectite rims. RJS-108: 3567.90 m.
(b) Moldic and intraparticle pores derived
from the dissolution of stevensitic ooids
and peloids. Calcite bioclasts and cement.
RJS-514: 4162.00 m. (c) Hybrid arenite
with intraparticle and moldic pores from
dissolution of stevensite peloids and
ostracod bioclasts, and partial dissolution
of carbonate cement. PM-4: 2929.70 m.
(d) Moldic pores due to the dissolution of
stevensitic particles and other grains in
hybrid arenite. RJS-165: 2424.30 m.

Early quartz cementation is relevant only in the stevensitic rocks, smectites into mixed-layer clays during progressive burial is
where it fills interparticle pores as drusiform or mosaic aggregates, classically recognized as a source for plagioclase albitization
and replaces stevensitic grains. Voluminous silicification is, (Boles 1982; Morad et al. 1990).
however, observed in rocks affected by the circulation of
hydrothermal fluids.
Implications for the quality of potential reservoirs
The precipitation of macrocrystalline calcite took place in
siliciclastic sandstones, volcaniclastic sandstones and conglomer- The petrographical and petrological aspects observed in the non-
ates, and in hybrid arenites after the authigenesis of smectite, carbonate rocks from the rift section of the Campos Basin allow the
zeolites and quartz, which were extensively replaced by the calcite. deduction of the following implications for their quality as potential
Calcite cementation was more intense in the hybrid arenites, reservoirs:
probably owing to the presence of carbonate ooids, and mostly of The main reservoirs of the rift section correspond to bioclastic
bivalve and ostracod bioclasts, which acted as source and nuclei for rudstones and grainstones (Bertani & Carozzi 1985a, b; Dias et al.
the precipitation. EDS analyses revealed that early calcite cements 1988; Abrahão & Warme 1990; Carvalho et al. 2000; Castro 2006).
are devoid of Fe, and with a low Mg and Mn content. This Fractured basalts constitute volumetrically minor reservoirs in the
composition is in line with the dominance of oxidizing conditions basin. The sedimentary non-carbonate rocks with a better potential
during eodiagenesis, and with the internal source provided by the as hydrocarbon reservoirs correspond to clastic sandstones and
carbonate bioclasts. In the stevensitic rocks, calcite cementation and conglomerates with a remaining intergranular porosity, together
the replacement of ooids and peloids, and of early quartz cement, with a secondary porosity from the dissolution of feldspars and
was intense. Most of the replacement of stevensitic grains occurred volcanic fragments. Volcaniclastic sandstones are commonly
during eodiagenesis, as result of the very alkaline composition of affected by strong and fast diagenetic processes, which substantially
interstitial fluids, but some may have also taken place during burial, reduce their porosity and permeability, but may constitute
and related to the decarboxylation of organic matter in associated hydrocarbon reservoirs where some primary porosity is preserved,
mudrocks (Morad et al. 2000). or where secondary porosity is generated by dissolution of primary
Dolomite precipitation was much more common in the stevensitic or early diagenetic materials (Mathisen 1984; Seemann & Scherer
arenites than in the other lithotypes. This is probably related to a 1984; Hawlader 1990; Mathisen & McPherson 1991; Reed et al.
combination of very high pH and Mg activity, conditions that were 1993; De Ros et al. 1997; Tang et al. 1997; Ryu & Niem 1999).
also responsible for the syngenetic precipitation of the stevensitic Volcaniclastic Lagoa Feia sandstones and conglomerates with
ooids and peloids, with dissolved bicarbonate supplied by organic remaining primary intergranular porosity characteristically display
reactions. Part of dolomite precipitation occurred during burial smectite coatings and rims, and limited compaction and filling of
diagenesis, replacing eodiagenetic smectite, silica and calcite, and intergranular pores by calcite or zeolites. Intergranular secondary
can thus be ascribed to thermal decarboxylation. Stevensite ooids pores generated by partial dissolution of calcite and zeolites, and by
and peloids remained a source of Mg for dolomite, and were smectite shrinkage, may locally contribute to the enhancement of
practically the only sites of dolomite precipitation in the hybrid porosity in these rocks. However, their eodiagenetic cementation by
arenites and in the siliciclastic mudrocks. smectite, zeolites and calcite was commonly intense, preventing
The albitization of plagioclase grains and of plagioclase crystals collapse of the framework due to mechanical compaction, but filling
within volcanic fragments is common in volcaniclastic sandstones most of the primary porosity. The precipitation of smectite coatings
and conglomerates, and in hybrid arenites. This process occurred and rims reduced substantially the permeability of these rocks, but
during mesodiagenesis, probably favoured by the enrichment of locally prevented the total destruction of intergranular porosity by
interstitial fluids in Na+ due to the partial transformation and inhibiting cementation by later phases, such as zeolites and calcite.
replacement of smectites and zeolites. The transformation of Smectite coatings and rims may preserve porosity in volcaniclastic
 Deposition and diagenesis, Campos Rift, Brazil 237

sandstones (Mathisen & McPherson 1991; Tang et al. 1997; • Tectonic activity, as well as magmatic and hydrothermal
McKinley et al. 2003), as also may chlorite rims developed from activity, was active during sedimentation of the rift section.
smectite transformation during burial (Hawlader 1990; Humphreys The magmatic rocks comprise basalts, diabases, hydrother-
et al. 1994; Anjos et al. 2003). mal breccias and hydromagmatic types ( pepperites).
Other effects of authigenic smectites detrimental to exploration • The mixture of rounded volcanic rock fragments with
and production activities include the intense decrease in resistivity, angular quartz, feldspars and plutonic fragments indicates
even in oil-saturated rocks, owing to the large irreducible water the recycling of older epiclastic deposits, formed during the
saturation contained in the microporosity of the smectite aggregates initial rifting stage, combined with first-cycle sediments
(Almon & Schultz 1979; Reed et al. 1993; Swanson 1995; eroded from the edges of faulted and uplifted granitic–
Worthington 2003), and the potential for formation damage by the gneissic basement blocks.
swelling of smectites in contact with incompatible drilling, • The interaction between hydrothermal and lacustrine fluids
stimulation or injection fluids (Almon & Schultz 1979; Reed with basaltic rocks and fragments represented a source of
et al. 1993). Mg and Ca for the precipitation of stevensite and calcite.
Intragranular pores generated by the partial dissolution of • Stevensitic ooids and peloids were formed in shallow
volcanic fragments and feldspar grains are common in these lacustrine environments with a high pH, slightly agitated by
rocks, with a subordinate contribution from moldic and fracture waves or currents. However, the occurrence of stevensite is
pores. Their present average petrographical macroporosity is 5.2%, common in the entire rift section, and not restricted to
reaching up to 9.7%. Unfortunately, part of this porosity is filled specific intervals or areas.
with heavy oil or bitumen (Fig. 14a), probably a product of • The strongly alkaline environment required for the formation
degradation and/or water washing during the uplift responsible for of stevensite would be totally intolerable for the existence of
the post-rift unconformity. This may have not taken place in deeper bivalves. Therefore, the mixture of bivalve bioclasts and
parts of the graben or in areas more distal to the border faults. Rock stevensite grains, which is widespread in the entire rift
fracture porosity is scarce in the analysed samples (up to 2.3%), and section, indicates a systematic gravitational redeposition of
obstructed partially to totally by gypsum, calcite or dolomite, but shallow lacustrine sediments formed in different environ-
may be important in the proximity of major faults. ments and times.
Stevensitic and hybrid arenites also present a potential for • Intense tectonic activity during the sedimentation of the rift
constituting reservoirs, owing to the generation of moldic and section would be the major mechanism for the extensive and
intraparticle porosity, through dissolution of stevensitic grains or recurrent gravitational redeposition of shallow-lacustrine
carbonate bioclasts, or the shrinkage of stevensitic grains. The and alluvial sediments to deeper lacustrine settings.
macroporosity of stevensitic arenites averages 5%, reaching up to • The main diagenetic processes occurring in the clastic
9%. Analysed hybrid arenites contain, on average, 3.2% and can sandstones and conglomerates are the cementation and grain
reach up to 14.7% of petrographical macroporosity. These rocks replacement by smectite, zeolites, calcite and dolomite, with
show moldic and intraparticle pores from the dissolution of relatively limited compaction and dissolution of feldspars
stevensitic grains or bivalve bioclasts, and from shrinkage of and volcanic fragments.
stevensitic grains, and intragranular pores from the dissolution of • The major diagenetic processes in the hybrid arenites were
feldspars and volcanic fragments, as well as fracture pores. the same as in the clastic rocks, plus the dissolution and
However, their pore system is not very effective in relation to calcite replacement of stevensitic grains, and the dissolution
permeability, owing to the limited connection of these dissolution of the bioclasts.
pores (Fig. 14b). Such rocks may constitute reservoirs where the • Stevensitic arenites experienced early cementation and
porosity from the dissolution and shrinkage of stevensitic grains is replacement of ooids and peloids by silica, calcite and
combined with the dissolution porosity of calcite cement (Fig. 14c, d). dolomite. Areas devoid of early cementation were intensely
compacted through mechanical deformation of the ductile
stevensitic grains.
Conclusions
• The main reservoirs producing from the rift section of the
• Sediments of the rift section in the Lagoa Feia Group, Lower Campos Basin are rudstones of bivalve bioclasts. However,
Cretaceous of the Campos Basin, eastern Brazil, were volcaniclastic sandstones and conglomerates with intergranular
deposited on basaltic rocks of the Cabiúnas Formation, porosity partially reduced by smectite rims, together with
extruded over Pre-Cambrian crystalline rocks during the secondary porosity from the dissolution of feldspars and
initial phase of South America and Africa separation. Initial volcanic fragments, show a potential for constituting hydrocar-
deposition took place in diverse half-graben lakes, initially bon reservoirs. In several samples, such porosity is filled with
isolated from each other, which later merged to form larger heavy oil or bitumen, probably the product of biodegradation
lakes. and/or water washing during the uplift responsible for the post-
• The three main classes of primary constituents of the rift unconformity, which may not have occurred in deeper areas
analysed rocks are clastic (siliciclastic and volcaniclastic and away from the graben marginal faults.
grains, siliciclastic mud), carbonate (bioclasts of ostracods, • Stevensitic and hybrid arenites may also constitute reservoirs
bivalves and rarely gastropods, intraclasts, ooids and where secondary moldic and intraparticle porosity was
peloids) and stevensitic (ooids, peloids, intraclasts and generated by the dissolution of bioclasts and stevensitic
syngenetic laminations). grains, and of calcite cement, and by the shrinkage of
• The analysed rocks were classified into a diagram with these stevensitic grains. However, the potential quality of such
three classes as end members, and compositional categories reservoirs is likely to be limited, owing to the poor
defined as clastic, stevensitic and hybrid, which were the connection of such pore systems.
objective of this study, and also as carbonate and carbonate– • This petrological study was part of an integrated petrogra-
stevensitic rocks. phical–seismic–stratigraphic–sedimentological project,
• Most rift sedimentation was intrabasinal, with a significant which has revealed the dominantly intrabasinal, gravitation-
extrabasinal contribution only close to the border faults of ally redeposited nature of the Campos Basin rift section. The
the structural blocks. understanding of the space and time controls on the
238 G. Armelenti et al.

depositional and diagenetic evolution of the rift carbonate & Schluger, P.R. (eds) Aspects of Diagenesis. Society of Economic
and non-carbonate rocks will contribute to the planning of Paleontologists and Mineralogists (SEPM), Special Publications, 26, 281–306.
De Ros, L.F., Morad, S. & Al-Aasm, I.S. 1997, Diagenesis of siliciclastic and
new exploration strategies for the basin. volcaniclastic sediments in the Cretaceous and Miocene sequences of NW
African margin (DSDP Leg 47A, Site 397). Sedimentary Geology, 112,
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Acknowledgements and Funding De Ros, L.F., Goldberg, K., Abel, M., Victorinetti, F., Mastella, L. & Castro, E.
2007. Advanced acquisition and management of petrographic information
The authors thank the BG Group for access to data and samples, for funding this from reservoir rocks using the PETROLEDGE® System. In: AAPG Annual
study, as part of an integrated stratigraphic–sedimentological–petrological project Conference and Exhibition, Long Beach, CA, Extended Abstracts, 6.
on the rift sections of the Campos and Santos basins, and for the licence to publish Dias, J.L., Oliveira, J.Q. & Vieira, J.C. 1988. Sedimentological and Stratigraphic
this article. Comments by reviewers Mike Lentini and Tim Diggs helped us to analysis of the Lagoa Feia Formation, rift phase of Campos Basin, offshore,
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