MTS 102 LECTURE NOTE

FUNCTIONS, LIMITS AND CONTINUOUS FUNCTION

BY
A. D AKWU

Functions of a real variable

(1) Function: Let x and y be real number, if there exist a relation be-
tween x and y such that x is given, then y is determined, we say
that y is a function of x and x is called independent variable and y
is the dependent variable, that is y = f (x).
For example: I f f (x) = x2 + 2, then if x = 0, 1, 5, y = 2, 3, 27
respectively.
(2) Periodic function:
A function which repeats itself at a regular interval of x is called
periodic.
(3) Integral of Definition:
The range of values of x for y is defined is called integral of definition.
2
For example: If y = √9−x 2
, the function is undefined if x = 3 or
x > 3. Then the integral of definition for this function is −3 < x < 3.
The function is define for x = −2, −1, 0, 1, 2.
(4) Monotonic function:
f (x1 ) is monotonic increasing if f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 .
f (x1 ) is monotonic decreasing if f (x − 1) > f (x2 ) whenever x1 > x2 .
(5) Even and Odd function:
A function f (x) is said to be even if f (x) = f (−x).
For example: f (x) = x2 + 1, f (−x) = (−x)2 + 1 = x2 + 1
A function is said to be odd if f (−x) = −f (x).
For example: f (x) = x3 , f (−x) = (−x)3 = −f (x)
(6) Function:
Given two non-empty sets A and B, if there is a rule, which assigns
an element x ∈ A a unique element y ∈ B, such a rule is called a
mapping. A function is a rule for transforming a member of one set
A to a unique member of another set B. A function from a set A to
as set B is a rule which associates with each member of A a unique
member of B. Then f : A → B. A is called the domain of the
function and B the codomain. A subset of the co-domain, which ia
s collection of all the images of the elements of the domain is called
the Range.
Example 1: What is the domain and range of the function f (x) = x2 .

Date: April 19, 2012.

1
2 MTS 102 LECTURE NOTE

Solution: For any real number, its square is uniquely defined. There-
fore the domain of f is the set R. The square of any number is never
negative and the square root of any positive real number exists.
Therefore the range is the set of non-negative real p numbers.
Example 2: Find the range and domain of f (x) = (1 − x2 )
Solution: The domain is the set B = {x ∈ R : 1−x2 ≥ 0}. Therefore
B = {x ∈ R : −1 ≤ x ≤ 1}
The range is the set of real numbers between 0 and 1, that is
C = {x ∈ R : 0 ≤ x ≤ 1}
Graphs of functions
The graph of a function is pictorial representation of the function by use of
co-ordinate system. The graph of a function f is the collection of all pairs of
numbers (x, f (x)) where x is the domain of f . The function f (x) = x+3 has
a straight line graph ( It will be shown in the class). Consider the function
f (x) = x2 , the graph is the collection of points whose co-ordinate satisfy this
equation. The points are (0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9), (−1, 1), (2, 4), (−3, 9), ...(x, x2 ).
The graph√will be shown in the class. The graph of f (x) = 4, f (x) =
x, f (x) = x, f (x) = x3 , f (x) = sin x, f (x) = cos x, f (x) = tan x will be
shown during the lecture.

One-to-one functions
Functions for which different inputs always give different output are called
one-to-one function (Injective). Thus f : A → B is one-to- one , if f (a) =
f (b) implies that a = b or a 6= b implies that f (a) 6= f (b).
Note: If one input gives two different outputs, then the mapping is not a
function.
For example: If f (x) = 2x + 1 and x = {3, 4, 5, 6}
f (a) = f (b) ⇒ a = b, f (3) = 7, f (4) = 9, f (5) = 11, f (6) = 13

Onto function
These are functions whose range is equal to the codomain (surjective) while
the mapping f is bijective if it is both injective and surjective.
Composite Functions
Suppose f : A → B and g :→ C are two functions. Then g ◦ f = A → C
where g ◦ f = g(f (x)) is the composite function.
√
For example: If f : x → x2 +2 and g : y → y + 5. Find f (2), f (g(20)), f (g(4)), g(f (4)).
Solution: f (2) = 6
g(20) = 5 and f (g(20)) = 27
g(4) = 3 and f (g(4)) = 11√
f (4) = 18 and g(f (4)) = 22
The inverse of a function
Let f : A → B.The inverse of f , if it exists is the function y : B → A such
that for all a ∈ A and all b ∈ B, if f (a) = b, then g(b) = a (invertible
 MTS 102 LECTURE NOTE 3

function).
Example: If f : x → x+1 x+2 , g : y → 3y + 2. Determine the function
f , g , f (g(1)), f (g −1 (2)), g −1 (f −1 (2)).
−1 −1 −1 −1
x+1
Solution: f : x → x+2
x+1
Let p = x+2
p(x + 2) = x + 1
px − x = 1 − 2p
x(p − 1) = 1 − 2p
1 − 2p
x=
p−1
Therefore
1 − 2x
f −1 : x →
x−1
For g :−1

g :→ 3y + 2
Let q = 3y + 2
q−2
y=
3
−1 y−2
g :y→
3
−9
g(1) = 5, f −1 (g(1)) =
4
f −1 (g −1 (2)) = −1 since g −1 (2) = 0
−5
g −1 (f −1 (2)) =
3
Limits
Denote by limx→x+ f (x) the right hand limit of f (x), that is the value
0
which the function f (x) approaches as x approaches x0 from the right. Also
limx→x− f (x) denotes the left hand limit of f (x) as x approaches x0 from
0
the left. Then limx→x0 f (x) is the limit of f (x) as x approaches x0 from
both left and the right.
Definition of Limits
limx→x0 f (x) = L exists if the following conditions are satisfied.
(1) f (x) is defined in an open interval containing x0 but not necessarily
at x0 .
(2) limx→x+ f (x) and limx→x− f (x) exists, and
0 0
(3) limx→x+ f (x)=limx→x− f (x) = L
0 0
Some limits theorem
If limx→x0 f (x) and limx→x0 g(x) exist, then
(1) limx→x0 c.f (x) = c. limx→x0 f (x), for any c ∈ R.
(2) limx→x0 [f (x) ± g(x)] = limx→x0 f (x) ± limx→x0 g(x)
(3) limx→x0 [f (x).g(x)] = [limx→x0 f (x)].[limx→x0 g(x)]
4 MTS 102 LECTURE NOTE

(4) limx→x0 [f n n
p(x)] = [lim
p x→x0 f (x)]
(5) limx→x0 f (x) = limx→x0 f (x), if limx→x0 f (x) > 0
lim f (x)
(6) limx→x0 fg(x)
(x)
= limx→x 0
x→x0 g(x)
, If limx→x0 g(x) 6= 0
(7) Limits of polynomial and Rational Function:
If f (x) = p(x) = a0 + a1 x + ... + an xn , x ∈ R is a polynomial, then
limx→x0 p(x) = p(x0 ) for any x0 ∈ R.
(8) If f (x) = p(x) and g(x) = q(x) are polynomials and q(x0 ) 6= 0, then
limx→x0 p(x) p(x0 )
q(x) = q(x0 ) .
(9) Infinite Limits:
limx→x0 x12r = +∞ for any positive integer r.
(10) Limits at Infinity:
limx→+∞ x1r = 0, for any r ∈ R, r > 0 limx→−∞ x1r = 0, for any
r ∈ R, r > 0
(11) If p(x) and q(x) are polynomials, such that deg p(x) < deg q(x),
then limx→+∞ p(x)q(x) = 0.
(12) If p(x) and q(x) are polynomials, such that deg p(x) = deg q(x),
then limx→+∞ p(x)q(x) = L, a finite number.
(13) If p(x) and q(x) are polynomials, such that ded p(x) > deg q(x),
then limx→+∞ p(x)q(x) = ±∞

Example 1: Find the limits if it exists

2 −1
(a) limx→1 xx−1
(b) limx → 0|x|
Solution:
2 −1 x2 −1
(a) If f (x) = xx−1 , then f (1) does not exist. However f (x) = x−1 = x+1
if x 6= 1
2 −1
Hence limx→1 xx−1 = limx→1 (x + 1) = 2
(b) |x| = {x, if x≥0
−x, if x<0
limx→0+ |x| = 0 = limx→0− |x|
⇒ limx→0 |x| = 0
Example 2: Determine the limit
(a) limx→3 (x3 − 2x + 6)
(b) limx→−1 (x2 − 3)10
3
(c0 limx→2 ( x−x−3x+6
2 +15 )
Solution:
(a) limx→3 (x3 − 2x + 6) = 33 − 2(3) + 6 = 27
(b) limx→−1 (x2 − 3)10 = 1024
3
(c) limx→2 ( x−x−3x+6 8
2 +15 ) = 11
Example 3: Obtain the limit
3 +3x+6
(a) limx→+∞ xx5 +2x 2 +9
2
(b) limx→+∞ 2x −2x+3
x2 +4x+4
Solution:
 MTS 102 LECTURE NOTE 5

3
(a) limx→+∞ xx5 +2x
+3x+6
2 +9
Divide through by the highest power of x
1 3
2 ++ 65
x4
= limx→+∞ x1+ 2
x
+ 95
=0
x3 x
2x2 −2x+3
(b) lim x→+∞ x2 +4x+4 =2
2
Example4: Find the limit of the function xx−2
−4
as x → 2 by Le’hospital’s
rule.
Solution:
Differentiate both the numerator and denominator with respect to x. Then
we have 2x. limx→2 2x = 4
Continuous function
A function f (x) is said to be continuous at a point x0 if limx→x0 f (x) =
f (x0 ), that is: A function y = f (x) is continuous at a point x0 if
(1) it is defined in a neighborhood of that point x0
(2) the limit of the function as x tends to x0 exist.
(3) this limit is equal to the value of the function at the point x = x0 .
Example: Check if the following functions are continuous at the given points:
(a) f (x) = x2x−2 at x = 1
1
(b) f (x) = x−1 at x = 1
Solution:
(a) f (x) = x2x−2 at x = 1
1
(1) f (1) = 1−2 = −1 hence f (x) is defined at x = 1
x
(2) limx→1 x2 −2 = −1; the limits exists.
(3) limx→1 x2x−2 = f (1)
Therefore the conditions are satisfied, the function f (x) is continuous at
x = 1.
1
(b) f (x) = x−1 at x = 1
1
(1) f (1) = 1−1 = ∞; f (x) is not defined at x = 1.
(2) limx→1 f (x) does not exist at the point x = 1.
Since one of the conditions have been violated then f (x) is not continuous
at the point x = 1.

Limits and continuity of functions of several variables

The function f (x, y) said to tend to limit L as x → x0 and y → y0 written
as
limx→x0 ,y→y0 f (x) = L
If the limit L is independent of the path followed by the point (x, y) as
x → x0 and y → y0 .
Example: If f (x, y) = x23x+1
+y+1
, find limx→1,y→2 f (x).
3(1)+1
Solution: limx→1,y→2 f (x) = 12 +2+1
= 1.
6 MTS 102 LECTURE NOTE

Also, the function f (x, y) is said to be continuous at the point (x0 , y0 ) if

limx→x0 ,y→y0 f (x) = L exists and f (x0 , y0 ) = L.
Discontinuous functions
If a function f (x) is not continuous at a point x0 then it is said to be dis-
continuous at the point x0 and the point x0 is called a point of discontinuity
of the function.
There are basically two major types of discontinuities.
(1) Removable discontinuity: If limx→x0 f (x) exists and is unequal to
f (x0 ) then x0 is said to be a point of removable discontinuity of
f (x). If that happens, by redefining the function f (x) in a way such
that f (x0 ) = limx→x0 f (x), then f (x) can be made to be continuous
at x = x0 .
2 −2
Example: Show that the function f (x) = xx−2 has a removable
discontinuity at the point x = 2.
Solution: Since f (x) is not defined at x = 2. Apply Le’Hospital
rule to have limx→2 f (x) = 4
Redefine the function as f (x) = (x−2)(x+2)
x−2 =x+2
then f (2) = 4 ⇒ f (2) = limx→2 f (x) = 4
Thus the function is now continuous at x = 2.
(2) Non-Removable Discontinuity: If the right and left hand limits ex-
ists but unequal, that is limx→x+ f (x) 6= limx→x− f (x) or either the
0 0
limx→x+ f (x) or limx→x− f (x) does not exist then such function f (x)
0 0
is said to have non-removable discontinuity at x = x0
Example: The function f (x) = sin x1 is continuous for x 6= 0. The
function has non-removable discontinuity at x = 0. Both right and
left hand limits does not exist.