ANL-6755

Engineering and Equipment

(TID-4500, 22nd Ed.)
AEC R e s e a r c h and
Developnnent Report

ARGONNE NATIONAL LABORATORY

9700 South C a s s Avenue
Argonne, Illinois 60440

TWO-COMPONENT TWO-PHASE FLOW PARAMETERS

FOR LOW CIRCULATION RATES

by

Georges E. S m i s s a e r t

R e a c t o r Engineering Division
and
A s s o c i a t e d Midwest U n i v e r s i t i e s

July 1963

This r e p o r t is one of a s e r i e s that d e s c r i b e s h e a t - t r a n s f e r

and fluid-flow studies p e r f o r m e d at Argonne under a
p r o g r a m sponsored jointly by the Associated Midwest
U n i v e r s i t i e s and the Argonne National L a b o r a t o r y .

The e a r l i e r r e p o r t s in this s e r i e s a r e ANL-6625, ANL-6667,

ANL-6674, ANL-6710, ANL-6734, ANL-6738, and ANL-6754.

Reproduced from a T h e s i s Submitted in P a r t i a l Fulfillment of

the R e q u i r e m e n t s for the Degree of M a s t e r of Science in Nuclear
Engineering in the Graduate School of The Pennsylvania State
University.

Operated by The University of Chicago

under
Contract W-3 1-109-eng-38
with the
U. S. Atomic E n e r g y C o m m i s s i o n
 DISCLAIMER

This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an

agency of the United States Government. Neither the United States
Government nor any agency Thereof, nor any of their employees,
makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal
liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or
usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process
disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately
owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product,
process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or
otherwise does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement,
recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or any
agency thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein
do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States
Government or any agency thereof.
 DISCLAIMER

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 TABLE O F CONTENTS

Page

I. INTRODUCTION 8

A. G e n e r a l Statement of the P r o b l e m . 8
B. P r e v i o u s Studies 9
C. Definition of T e r m s to be U s e d . . 10

1. Flow P a t t e r n s in Two-phase Flow 10

2. P a r a m e t e r s in T w o - p h a s e Flow 13

D. Derivation of F u n d a m e n t a l Equations . 14
E. State of Knowledge on Two-phase Flow P a r a m e t e r s . . . . . 15

1. Influence of Flow Conditions 15

2. Influence of Fluid P r o p e r t i e s 16

F. Specific Statement of the P r o b l e m 16

II. EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS. 18

A. The A i r - W a t e r and N i t r o g e n - F r e o n Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

B. The N i t r o g e n - M e r c u r y Loop. 21
C. Instrumentation 23
1. The G a m m a T r a v e r s i n g Equipment 24
2. M a n o m e t e r s 25
3. Orifice Flow M e t e r s 26
4. P r e s s u r e Gauges 26
5. Dial T h e r m o m e t e r s and T h e r m o c o u p l e s 26

III. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE . 27

A. Reduction of the A i r - W a t e r Data 27

B. Reduction of the N i t r o g e n - F r e o n Data 29
C. Reduction of the N i t r o g e n - M e r c u r y Data 31

IV. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 32

A. P r e s e n t a t i o n and D i s c u s s i o n of Results 32
B. E r r o r Analysis . 44
 TABLE O F CONTENTS

Page

V. D E V E L O P M E N T OF A GENERAL CORRELATION 46
A. Dimensional Analysis 46
B. Derivation of a G e n e r a l C o r r e l a t i o n 47
C. D i s c u s s i o n of the C o r r e l a t i o n 51

VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 54

VII. BIBLIOGRAPHY 56

APPENDIX - Tabulated Data 59

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 66

NOMENCLATURE 67
 LIST O F FIGURES

No. Title Page

1. V e r t i c a l Flow P a t t e r n s 11
2. Schematic R e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the A i r - W a t e r and N i t r o g e n -
F r e o n Loop 19
3. A i r - W a t e r and N i t r o g e n - F r e o n T e s t Section 19
4. Schematic R e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the N i t r o g e n - M e r c u r y Loop. . . . 20
5. N i t r o g e n - M e r c u r y T e s t Section. 20
6. Void-measuring Apparatus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
7. Inclined M a n o m e t e r for Void-fraction D e t e r m i n a t i o n in the
Nitrogen-Mercury Mixture. 26
8. Slip Ratio as a Function of Quality and Superficial Liquid
Velocity for the A i r - W a t e r Mixture . 32
9. Slip Ratio as a Function of Quality and Superficial Liquid
Velocity for the N i t r o g e n - M e r c u r y Mixture, . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
10. Slip Ratio as a Function of Quality and Relative Humidity of
the Gas P h a s e for the N i t r o g e n - F r e o n - 1 1 3 Mixture for
Vo = 0.36 f t / s e c . 34
11. Slip Ratio as a Function of Quality and Relative Humidity of
the Gas P h a s e for the N i t r o g e n - F r e o n - 1 1 3 Mixture for
Vo = 0.87 f t / s e c . 34
12. Slip Ratio as a Function of the V o l u m e t r i c Flow-Rate Ratio
and the Froude Number for the A i r - W a t e r Mixture . 35
13. Slip Ratio as a Function of the V o l u m e t r i c Flow-Rate Ratio
and the Froude N u m b e r for the N i t r o g e n - M e r c u r y Mixture . . 36
14. Slip Ratio as a Function of the Volumetric Flow-Rate Ratio
and the Froude N u m b e r for the N i t r o g e n - F r e o n - 1 1 3 Mixture . 36
15. Relative Velocity as a Function of Quality and Superficial
Liquid Velocity for the A i r - W a t e r Mixture . 37
16. Relative Velocity as a Function of Quality and Superficial
Liquid Velocity for the N i t r o g e n - M e r c u r y Mixture . . . . . . . . 38
17. Relative Velocity as a Function of Quality and Superficial
Liquid Velocity for the N i t r o g e n - F r e o n - 1 1 3 Mixture 38
 LIST O F FIGURES

No. Title Page

18. Relative Velocity as a Function of the V o l u m e t r i c Flow-Rate

Ratio and the F r o u d e Nunriber for the A i r - W a t e r Mixture. . . . 39
19. Relative Velocity as a Function of the V o l u m e t r i c Flow-Rate
Ratio and the F r o u d e N u m b e r for the N i t r o g e n - M e r c u r y
Mixture 40
20. Relative Velocity as a Function of the V o l u m e t r i c Flow-Rate
Ratio and the F r o u d e N u m b e r for the N i t r o g e n - F r e o n -
113 M i x t u r e , 40
21. Void F r a c t i o n as a Function of Quality and Superficial
Liquid Velocity for the A i r - W a t e r Mixture 41
22. Void F r a c t i o n a s a Function of Quality and Superficial
Liquid Velocity for the N i t r o g e n - M e r c u r y Mixture 41
23. Superficial Gas Velocity as a Function of Void F r a c t i o n and
Superficial Liquid Velocity for the A i r - W a t e r Mixture 42
24. Superficial Gas Velocity as a Function of Void F r a c t i o n and
Superficial Liquid Velocity for the N i t r o g e n - M e r c u r y
Mixture 43
25. Superficial Gas Velocity as a Function of G a s - t o - L i q u i d
Hold-up for the A i r - W a t e r Mixture 43
26. Superficial Gas Velocity a s a Function of G a s - t o - L i q u i d
Hold-up for the N i t r o g e n - M e r c u r y Mixture 44
27. D i m e n s i o n l e s s C o r r e l a t i o n for Slip Ratios 48
28. E r r o r Distribution of Slip-Ratio C o r r e l a t i o n 49
29. E r r o r P l o t of P r e d i c t e d v e r s u s M e a s u r e d Slip Ratios 50
30. E r r o r Plot of P r e d i c t e d v e r s u s M e a s u r e d Void F r a c t i o n s . . . 51
 5

LIST O F TABLES

No. Title Page

I. P a r a m e t e r Ranges 17

II. Fluid P r o p e r t i e s at Room T e m p e r a t u r e 17

lb

«
o
 TWO-COMPONENT TWO-PHASE FLOW PARAMETERS
FOR LOW CIRCULATION RATES

by

Georges E. S m i s s a e r t

ABSTRACT

T'wo-phase flow p a r a m e t e r s for upward c o c u r r e n t

v e r t i c a l flow w e r e studied in a i r - w a t e r , n i t r o g e n - F r e o n -
113 and n i t r o g e n - m e r c u r y m i x t u r e s . T e s t s w e r e p e r f o r m e d
in n a t u r a l - c i r c u l a t i o n loops at a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e . The
superficial liquid velocity ranged from 0 to 1 f t / s e c ; quality
ranges w e r e as follows: for a i r - w a t e r , 0.0125 to 0.100; for
n i t r o g e n - F r e o n - 1 1 3 , 0.002 to 0.006; for n i t r o g e n - m e r c u r y ,
0.00005 to 0.0024. The studies of a i r - w a t e r and n i t r o g e n -
F r e o n - 1 1 3 m i x t u r e s w e r e m a d e in a 2.75-in.-ID t e s t s e c -
tion; the n i t r o g e n - m e r c u r y study was made in a 2-in.-ID
pipe.

The two-phase flow p a r a m e t e r s w e r e found to change

significantly with superficial liquid velocity and quality in
this l o w - c i r c u l a t i o n r a n g e . Slip r a t i o s w e r e found to be di-
r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l to the surface tension of the liquid, and
i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l to the dynamic viscosity of the liquid.
Dimensional a n a l y s i s was used to c o r r e l a t e slip r a t i o s and
g a s - t o - l i q u i d holdups as a function of four d i m e n s i o n l e s s
groups which included the liquid circulation r a t e , the gas
c i r c u l a t i o n r a t e , the surface tension of the liquid, the dy-
namic v i s c o s i t y of the liquid, the density of the liquid, the
density of the g a s , the pipe d i a m e t e r , and the a c c e l e r a t i o n
due to g r a v i t y . E m p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n s w e r e developed to e v a l -
uate slip r a t i o s and void fractions as a function of the above-
listed p a r a m e t e r s .

F l o w - p a t t e r n effects w e r e found to be conveniently

d e s c r i b e d by m e a n s of a v a r i a b l e exponent of the Froude
n u m b e r . This exponent was o b s e r v e d to be a linearly d e -
c r e a s i n g function of the l o g a r i t h m of the ratio of the vol-
u m e t r i c flo'w r a t e s .
 I. INTRODUCTION

A G e n e r a l Statement of the P r o b l e m

Two-phase flow phenomena have been studied for s e v e r a l decades

and, although extensive l i t e r a t u r e is available at the p r e s e n t t i m e , it
cannot be said that the fluid flow of a m i x t u r e of gas and liquid is c o m -
pletely understood.

The e a r l i e r investigations w e r e mainly devoted to p r a c t i c a l

p r o b l e m s of petroleuxn and c h e m i c a l engineering, Moore and Wilde(l)
investigated gas slippage o c c u r r i n g in g a s - l i f t s with the purpose of apply-
ing the r e s u l t s to oil w e l l s . P e e b l e s and G a r b e r ( 2 ) rnade an extensive
study on the motion of gas bubbles in liquid in o r d e r to a c q u i r e information
for the study of such c h e m i c a l p r o c e s s e s as rectification, absorption, and
stripping in bubble-cap and p e r f o r a t e d - p l a t e contacting d e v i c e s . The nov/
famous p a p e r s by M a r t i n e l l i , Lockhart, and Nelson(3-5) w e r e the r e s u l t of
two-phase p r e s s u r e - d r o p studies which w e r e c a r r i e d out to a s s i s t c h e m i -
cal e n g i n e e r s in the design of boiler t u b e s , r e f r i g e r a t i o n s y s t e m s , and
condensate-return lines.

Although a significant amount of w o r k had been done p r i o r to the

advent of n u c l e a r power p l a n t s , a g r e a t deal of additional r e s e a r c h was
needed to m e e t the needs of the n u c l e a r industry, p a r t i c u l a r l y for use in
the design of b o i l i n g - w a t e r r e a c t o r s . P r e v i o u s c o r r e l a t i o n s w e r e gen-
e r a l l y confined to specific flow r e g i m e s outside the range of need in this
new industry. In o r d e r to provide the data r e q u i r e d , r e s e a r c h work on
two-phase flow was intensified; the resulting p r o g r a m is still active today,
although n u c l e a r power r e a c t o r s have been built and a r e operating under
conditions often m u c h b e t t e r than the m o s t o p t i m i s t i c of the e a r l y p r e -
dictions. The EBWR is an outstanding example of a plant whose p e r f o r m -
ance was significantly i m p r o v e d on the b a s i s of new studies on two-phase
flow. Originally designed to be o p e r a t e d at 20 Mw, the t h e r m a l power of
EBWR has been m o r e than t r i p l e d because of the b e t t e r understanding of
two-phase flow phenomena.

Despite this p r o g r e s s , t h e r e still exist n u m e r o u s anomalies and

gaps in two-phase flow t h e o r y . It is known from a p r e v i o u s study by
M a r c h a t e r r e and Hoglundt") that slip ratio c o r r e l a t i o n s , which a r e valid
for h i g h - c i r c u l a t i o n flow r e g i o n s , do not apply to l o w - c i r c u l a t i o n r e g i o n s .
Whether or not fluid p r o p e r t i e s have a significant influence on two-phase
flow phenomena is another p r o b l e m which has not yet been solved. The
p r e s e n t w o r k is an e x p e r i m e n t a l study of two-phase flow^ phenomena in
slowly circulating g a s - l i q u i d m i x t u r e s that provides data and c o r r e l a t i o n s
for t h r e e different m i x t u r e s : a i r - w a t e r , n i t r o g e n - F r e o n - 1 1 3 , and n i t r o g e n -
m e r c u r y . A c o m p a r i s o n between the r e s u l t s of studies of these t h r e e m i x -
t u r e s is provided to help a n s w e r the question on the influence of fluid
properties.
B. P r e v i o u s Studies

This section s u m m a r i z e s the nature of the previous w o r k on

two-phase flow which is closely r e l a t e d to this study. A s u m m a r y of
the p r e s e n t state of knowledge based on the findings of these a u t h o r s
is p r e s e n t e d in Section E of this chapter.

Petrick^'•' r e p o r t e d slip velocity r a t i o s in rectangular channels

for superficial liquid velocities ranging from 1 to 10 f t / s e c a s a func-
tion of the m i x t u r e quality. All e x p e r i m e n t s w e r e c a r r i e d out in an
a i r - w a t e r m i x t u r e at a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e . M a r c h a t e r r e and Petrick(8)
r e p o r t e d relative v e l o c i t i e s for two-phase m i x t u r e s in the following
p a r a m e t e r r a n g e : p r e s s u r e , 150 to 2000 Ibf/in.^; m i x t u r e quality, 0 to
0.25; superficial liquid velocity, 0.5 to 8 f t / s e c ; and flow channel equiv-
alent diaiTieterSj 0.4 to 2 in. Working c u r v e s for the prediction of the
velocity ratio in s y s t e m a n a l y s e s w e r e given for absolute p r e s s u r e s of
150, 250, 400 and 600 Ibf/in.^. M a r c h a t e r r e and Hoglund(6j r e c e n t l y
published a p a p e r in which all the available r e s u l t s on velocity r a t i o s in
s t e a m - w a t e r and a i r - w a t e r s y s t e m s w e r e worked into one c o r r e l a t i o n
which had been p r o p o s e d by Kutateladze.(9) The a u t h o r s plotted the
velocity ratio against the ratio of the v o l u m e t r i c flow r a t e s , using the
Froude n u m b e r , which is b a s e d on the superficial liquid velocity, as a
parameter.

Zmola et al.(lO) studied the t r a n s p o r t of g a s e s through a i r - w a t e r ,

a i r - m e t h a n o l , and a i r - g l y c e r i n e m i x t u r e s with pipe d i a m e t e r s of 2,6,12
and 24 in. E x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s w e r e given for circulating and n o n c i r -
culating s y s t e m s , M a r c h a t e r r e et a l , ( l l ) r e p o r t e d s t e a m - v o l u m e -
fraction data from t e s t s p e r f o r m e d in n a t u r a l - and f o r c e d - c i r c u l a t i o n
loops, utilizing two different r e c t a n g u l a r channels, each 60 in. long, and
0.25 in. by 2 in. in one c a s e and 0.5 in. by 2 in. in the other c r o s s section.
The velocity range was from 1 to 6 f t / s e c , and the quality range was from
0 to 0.06. M a r c h a t e r r e ( l ^ ) also studied the effects of p r e s s u r e on the
boiling density in r e c t a n g u l a r channels. Petrick(13) recently r e p o r t e d
data on slip r a t i o s in v e r t i c a l down-flow for p r e s s u r e ranges up to
1500 lbf/in.2.

Moore and Wilde(l) c a r r i e d out a s e r i e s of e x p e r i m e n t s to study

gas slippage in v e r t i c a l tubes using w a t e r , k e r o s e n e , and t h r e e different
oils. They concluded that the surface tension of the liquid has a definite
influence on the slip r a t i o .

A t h e o r e t i c a l model to p r e d i c t slippage of vapor in a s t e a m - w a t e r

m i x t u r e was p r o p o s e d by Levy.'14) it is known as the "momentum m o d e l "
and is based on the a s s u m p t i o n that m o m e n t u m is exchanged between the
gaseous and the liquid p h a s e s whenever the quality, the void fraction, or
the r a t i o of the gas density to the liquid density is changed, provided the
changes do not occur too rapidly. This exchange of m o m e n t u m tends to
m a i n t a i n the equality of the combined frictional and head l o s s e s of the
two p h a s e s . Good a g r e e m e n t of the m o d e l with available e x p e r i m e n t a l
r e s u l t s has been found in many, but not in all, c a s e s . In some of the
t e s t s , the changes m a y have o c c u r r e d fast enough to cause unbalance
between the combined friction and head loss of the two p h a s e s ; this s i t -
uation could explain some of the differences between e x p e r i m e n t a l o b -
s e r v a t i o n s and the p r e d i c t i o n s of this m o d e l .

A number of i n v e s t i g a t o r s confined their r e s e a r c h p a r t l y or en-

t i r e l y to the study of the bubble-flow p a t t e r n . P e t r i c k ( l 3 ) studied the
b u b b l e - s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n and the p h a s e d i s t r i b u t i o n in an a i r - w a t e r loop
at a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e . S i e m e s ( l 5 ) made an extensive study of the
formation of gas bubbles on single holes and p e r f o r a t e d p l a t e s . The
a p e r t u r e r a d i u s and the v o l u m e t r i c flow r a t e of the gas w e r e o b s e r v e d
to have an influence on the bubble d i a m e t e r s . A second p a r t of his w o r k
was devoted to the study of the r i s e of gas bubbles in liquids with p a r t i c -
ular attention to the influence of bubble size and fluid p r o p e r t i e s .

P e e b l e s and G a r b e r ( 2 ) studied the flow c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of gas

bubbles in liquids. P a r t i c u l a r attention was paid to the drag coefficient
and the s t e a d y - s t a t e or t e r m i n a l velocity of the r i s i n g bubbles. Zuber
and Hencmlo) continued the work of the a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d a u t h o r s by
studying the bubble-flow p a t t e r n under noncirculating, c o c u r r e n t , and
counter cur rent conditions. Void fractions a r e r e p o r t e d as a function of
the v o l u m e t r i c flow r a t e s of the two p h a s e s .

Isbin et aJ.'-^^' r e p o r t e d void fractions for annular flow in s t e a m -

w a t e r m i x t u r e s . He investigated v e r t i c a l flow in a 0.872-in. pipe at
a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e for qualities from 0 to 0.04 and inlet velocities
from 1 to 3 f t / s e c . Neal(18) r e c e n t l y r e p o r t e d void fractions in c o c u r r e n t
n i t r o g e n - m e r c u r y flow in a 1-in. pipe. He o b s e r v e d an unstable slug-flow
p a t t e r n which -was due to the nonwetting p r o p e r t y of the m e r c u r y . Addi-
tional data for s t e a m - w a t e r m i x t u r e s have been obtained by other
inve s tigator s. (19 - 2 7)

C. Definition of T e r m s to be Used

1. Flow P a t t e r n s in Two-phase Flow

Single-phase fluid flow has been recognized to occur either

under a l a m i n a r or a turbulent type of flow. In m o s t applications, the
magnitude of the Reynolds n u m b e r is sufficient to identify the type of
flow. These concepts of l a m i n a r and turbulent flow do not d i s a p p e a r in
two-phase flow, but the picture b e c o m e s m o r e complicated by the a p p e a r -
ance of flow p a t t e r n s , which a r e l e s s readily d e s c r i b e d by one or m o r e
m e c h a n i c a l p a r a m e t e r s . Based on visual observation, a number of d e s c r i p -
tive t e r m s have been e s t a b l i s h e d to identify the various flow r e g i m e s .
These a r e d e s c r i b e d below in the o r d e r of increasing gas flow r a t e . Each
flow p a t t e r n in i l l u s t r a t e d in Figure 1.

1t
1
I ' 1 1
/ 1
^ ) 1 1
0
0 lO , 1 V
- • '

t
1 , '« 1 «• 0 ,
o o 1',
1'
' J •*
In ^ ^ V nil ' 1
'

,'
0
|o
Or,
4
8 ! 1

•
0 0 0 °
' 1 *
1 f

1' 0
• 1
hi

Bubble
n1
Slug or Plug
11/
U'"
Churn
1 1
V

Semi-annular Annular
1
Mist
. .;

Fig. 1. V e r t i c a l Flow P a t t e r n s

a. Bubble Flow. The gas phase flows discontinuously in the

form of bubbles in a continuous liquid phase. Bubble sizes vary over a
n a r r o w range ( d i a m e t e r s go from z e r o to a few c e n t i m e t e r s ) and their
distribution can be d e s c r i b e d by P o i s s o n ' s distribution law.(13) The
shapes of the bubbles range from spheroids to s p h e r i c a l caps. The bubbles
a r e liable to coalesce and to collapse at random, and have the tendency to
crowd toward the c e n t e r of the channel.

b. Slug or Plug Flow. An i n c r e a s e in the gas flow r a t e will

r e s u l t in the c o a l e s c e n c e of s e v e r a l bubbles, forming l a r g e gaseous slugs
or plugs. The designation "slug flow" is s o m e t i m e s r e s e r v e d for the case
in which the liquid phase is flowing continuously. "Plug flow," on the other
hand, is used when the gas and the liquid have the tendency to flow
alternately.
12

c. Churn, F r o t h , or Turbulent Flow. The gas is highly d i s -

p e r s e d in the liquid p h a s e , and a strong i n t e r a c t i o n between the two p h a s e s
takes p l a c e .

d. S e m i - a n n u l a r Flow. This flow p a t t e r n is e s s e n t i a l l y a

t r a n s i t i o n between those d e s c r i b e d under c and f. It is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by
the tentative formation of annular flow, which r e p e a t e d l y collapses into
churn flow,

e. Annular Flow. The liquid phase flows along the wall of

the conduit in the form of an annulus. The c o r e of the annulus is occupied
by the g a s , which e n t r a i n s s m a l l d r o p l e t s of liquid,

f. Mist Flow. At even higher gas flow r a t e s , the liquid does

not cover the wall of the channel any longer, but is completely e n t r a i n e d
by the gas in the form of s m a l l d r o p l e t s .

The gas and the liquid have a different velocity in any of the
a b o v e - d e s c r i b e d flow p a t t e r n s , a phenomenon known a s slippage. T h e r e
is, however, an ideal flow p a t t e r n in which no slippage o c c u r s , i.e., the
ratio of the gas velocity to the liquid velocity is unity. This type of flow
is r e f e r r e d to as "homogeneous flow^. " In this c a s e , one c o n s i d e r s the
m i x t u r e to be ideal in that t h e r e is no longer a s e g r e g a t i o n between the
two p h a s e s .

It should be noted that the above definitions of the flow p a t t e r n s

a r e qualitative and, t h e r e f o r e , subjective in n a t u r e . The s a m e flow p a t t e r n s
a r e often differently i n t e r p r e t e d by v a r i o u s o b s e r v e r s . Attempts have been
made to avoid this difficulty by m o r e p r e c i s e definition. Martinelli et al.(3)
made a distinction between the v a r i o u s possible flow m e c h a n i s m s by c o n -
sidering the l a m i n a r and turbulent flow possible for both the gaseous and
the liquid p h a s e s . In this way it was possible to have l a m i n a r flow for the
gas and turbulent flow for the liquid, or vice v e r s a . It w^as also possible
that the flow of both gas and liquid was e i t h e r l a m i n a r or turbulent. Four
flow m e c h a n i s m s could be identified in that way; the superficial Reynolds
number of the p h a s e s was taken as the c h a r a c t e r i z i n g p a r a m e t e r . This
classification of flow m e c h a n i s m s w a s successfully used in the analysis
of two-phase p r e s s u r e - d r o p phenomena; its applicability to other a s p e c t s
of t w o - p h a s e flow is not known, however.

Galegar et al.(^8) a t t e m p t e d to c o r r e l a t e visually o b s e r v e d flow

p a t t e r n s as a function of the m a s s velocities of both p h a s e s . C o r r e l a t i o n s
of this type, however, show significant d i s c r e p a n c i e s . More work is needed
in this a r e a since p r e s e n t c o r r e l a t i o n s a r e still l a r g e l y dependent upon the
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the o b s e r v e r s .
 13

2. P a r a m e t e r s in Two-phase Flow

The two-phase flow p a r a m e t e r s that will be used in this study

a r e a) the m i x t u r e quality, b) the void fraction, c) the slip r a t i o , d) the
relative velocity, e) the superficial liquid velocity, f) the superficial velocity
of the m i x t u r e , and g) the superficial gas velocity.

a. The Mixture Quality. The m i x t u r e quality is defined as the

r a t i o of the m a s s flow r a t e of the gas to the total m a s s flow r a t e of the
mixture:

Quality = X = W„/Wt , (1.1)

g'
where

Wt = Wg + W^ . (1.2)

b. The Void F r a c t i o n . The void fraction at a p a r t i c u l a r

c r o s s section is defined as the ratio of the volume occupied by the gas to
the total volume of a channel section of unit height which b r a c k e t s the
c r o s s section of i n t e r e s t . The void fraction is also given by the ratio
of the c r o s s section through which the gas is flowing to the total c r o s s
section of the channel:

Void fraction = a = Vg/v^ = Ag/Ap . (1-3)

c. The Slip Ratio. The slip ratio at a p a r t i c u l a r c r o s s s e c -

tion is defined as the ratio of the a c t u a l gas velocity to the a c t u a l liquid
velocity at the c r o s s section:

Slip ratio = V g / v ^ . (1.4)

d. The Relative Velocity. The relative velocity at a p a r t i c u -

l a r c r o s s section of the channel is defined as the difference between the
actual gas velocity and the actual liquid velocity at the c r o s s section:

Relative velocity = Vg - V^ . (1-5)

e. The Superficial Liquid Velocity. The superficial liquid

velocity is understood as the liquid velocity calculated on the b a s i s of
the liquid m a s s flow r a t e , the liquid density, and the total c r o s s section
of the conduit:

Superficial liquid velocity = VQ = W_g/A^ .p£ . (1-6)

f. The Superficial Velocity of the Mixture. The superficial

velocity of the m i x t u r e is defined as the m i x t u r e velocity calculated on
the b a s i s of the total m a s s flow r a t e , the liquid density, and t h e total c r o s s
14

section of the channel. This r a t h e r s t r a n g e combination of t e r m s finds its

origin in the fact that Wg is g e n e r a l l y a m u c h s m a l l e r quantity than W ^ .
The superficial velocity of the m i x t u r e i s , in m o s t c a s e s , a p p r o x i m a t e d by
the superficial liquid velocity. This a p p r o x i m a t i o n does not hold for low
circulation r a t e s .

Superficial velocity of the m i x t u r e = Vom = W t / A p P ^ . (1.7)

g. The Superficial Gas Velocity. The superficial gas velocity

at a p a r t i c u l a r c r o s s section is defined as the gas velocity calculated on the
b a s i s of the m a s s flow r a t e of the g a s , the total channel c r o s s section, and
the density of the gas at the c r o s s section:

Superficial gas velocity = Vog = W„/p„A^ . (1.8)

D. Derivation of Fundannental Equations

The gas and liquid velocities a r e , by definition, given by the

relations

Vg = Wg/AgPg (1.9)

and

V^ = W^/A^P^ , (1,10)

where

Ag = a A p (1,11)

and

A^ = (l-a)Ap . (1.12)

The slip ratio i s , t h e r e f o r e , equal to

yg_Wgi^p^
Vf W^ a .pg • ^ • ^

The r a t i o of the m a s s flow r a t e s can also be e x p r e s s e d as

^ g _ Wt Wg (1.14)
W^ - Wg _' 1 -W(Wg/Wt)
g/^t _' 1 X
- X

and the slip r a t i o is then d e t e r m i n e d by

Vg _ X 1 - g H
(1.15)
Y^ 1 - X a Pg
 15

Subtraction of Equation (l.lO) from Equation (1.9), and substitution of

Equations ( l . l l ) and (1.12) give for the relative velocity:

W, w^
(1.16)
\ - ^ i a ApPg (l-a)ApP^

or

w. Wi
Vg - V i = Wt (1.17)
wt a A p P g Wt ( l - a ) A p p ^

Substitution of Equation ( l . l 4 ) and simplification give

w+ 1 -X
V, Vi (1.18)
^Pi, a)\p 1- a

Substitition of Equation (1.7) yields

1 -X
Vc V^ = V om (1.19)
a)ip„ 1- a

E. State of Knowledge on Two-phase Flow P a r a m e t e r s

This section s u m m a r i z e s the state of knowledge based upon the

studies outlined in Section B, and the definitions and r e l a t i o n s h i p s , iden-
tified in Sections C and D. It is known that two-phase flow p a r a m e t e r s
such as slip, relative velocity, and gas velocity, a r e dependent upon the
flow^ conditions and the fluid p r o p e r t i e s . The flow conditions which in-
fluence slippage include the quality, the circulation r a t e , the p r e s s u r e ,
and the g e o m e t r y of the channel. The fluid p r o p e r t i e s which a r e believed
to have an influence a r e the gas density, the liquid density, the surface
tension of the liquid, and the dynamic viscosity of the liquid. The known
effects of these influences a r e d i s c u s s e d below.

1. Influence of Flow Conditions

As a g e n e r a l r u l e , the slip r a t i o and the relative velocity in-

c r e a s e with i n c r e a s i n g quality. However, the rate of change of the slip
as a function of quality is l a r g e r for low qualities than for high qualities.
The influence of quality on the slip r a t i o d e c r e a s e s significantly with in-
c r e a s i n g p r e s s u r e and also d e c r e a s e s with increasing circulation r a t e , but
to a l e s s e r extent.
 Slip r a t i o s d e c r e a s e and r e l a t i v e velocities i n c r e a s e with in-
c r e a s i n g superficial liquid velocity. The magnitude of the velocity effect
a p p e a r s to d e c r e a s e with d e c r e a s i n g quality and i n c r e a s i n g p r e s s u r e .
The r a t e of change of the slip as a function of quality a l s o d e c r e a s e s with
increasing circulation rate.

P r e s s u r e has a dual influence on two-phase flow phenomena.

The i n c r e a s e in gas density, which is a d i r e c t effect of the i n c r e a s e in
p r e s s u r e , will reduce the buoyant force which the liquid is exerting on the
gaseous p h a s e . As a r e s u l t , the slip r a t i o will d e c r e a s e with increasing
p r e s s u r e , A second effect is the d e c r e a s e of the volume of gas which is
p r e s e n t in the t w o - p h a s e m i x t u r e . This effect r e s u l t s in a change of flow
p a t t e r n , which has a substantial influence when a churn or s e m i - a n n u l a r
flow p a t t e r n is effective.

G e o m e t r y includes such i t e m s as the form of the channel

c r o s s section ( r e c t a n g u l a r , c i r c u l a r , e t c ) and the magnitude of the equiv-
alent d i a m e t e r . In g e n e r a l , the g e o m e t r y effect is only significant for
equivalent d i a m e t e r s s m a l l e r than 2 in. The effect of g e o m e t r y is m o r e
significant the s m a l l e r the equivalent d i a m e t e r . Flow p a t t e r n s a r e believed
to be r e s p o n s i b l e for this phenomenon.

2. Influence of the Fluid P r o p e r t i e s

Although p r e v i o u s studies have been successful in establishing

an acceptable theory on the effects of flow conditions, the s a m e cannot be
said about the understanding of the influence of fluid p r o p e r t i e s . Although
these effects have been studied in the p a s t , t h e r e still exist n u m e r o u s con-
t r o v e r s i e s about t h e i r r e l a t i v e i m p o r t a n c e . Fluid p r o p e r t i e s (density not
included) a r e c o n s i d e r e d to have little or no influence on slippage. It should
be noted, however, that the e x p e r i m e n t a l study of the influence of fluid p r o p -
e r t i e s is inherently difficult. T h e r e is virtually no way to change one p r o p -
erty of a fluid and keep the o t h e r s constant at the s a m e t i m e . M o r e o v e r ,
in o r d e r to investigate a sufficiently wide range, one is compelled to e m -
ploy different fluids. As a r e s u l t , the influence of one p r o p e r t y is generally
m a s k e d by that of the other p r o p e r t i e s .

It is an e a s i l y accepted and e x p e r i m e n t a l l y verified fact that

the slip r a t i o s i n c r e a s e with i n c r e a s i n g liquid density. F r o m a previous
study by Moore and Wilde(l) it s e e m s that slippage is to some extent
dependent upon the surface tension of the liquid. The influence of v i s c o s i t y
has r e p e a t e d l y been r e p o r t e d as negligible.(l .6,10)

F. Specific Statement of the P r o b l e m

The c o r r e l a t i o n for slip r a t i o s which was p r o p o s e d by Kutateladze(9)

has been w o r k e d out by M a r c h a t e r r e and Hoglund(6) for a i r - w a t e r and
s t e a m - w a t e r m i x t u r e s . The a u t h o r s plotted the slip r a t i o s as a function of
the ratio of the v o l u m e t r i c flow r a t e s . The Froude number, based on the
superficial liquid velocity, was used as the p a r a m e t e r for the family of
c u r v e s . This c o r r e l a t i o n by M a r c h a t e r r e and Hoglund was found to be
valid when the superficial liquid velocities w e r e higher than 0.8 f t / s e c .
Slip r a t i o s for lower superficial velocities w e r e found to deviate signifi-
cantly from the values p r e d i c t e d by the c o r r e l a t i o n . Since no r e a s o n could
be given for this phenomenon, it was concluded that the low circulation
range d e s e r v e d special attention.

This w^ork is a detailed e x p e r i m e n t a l study and evaluation of two-

phase flow p a r a m e t e r s for superficial liquid velocities ranging from 0 to
1 f t / s e c . All e x p e r i m e n t s w e r e c a r r i e d out at atnaospheric p r e s s u r e , and
the channel d i a m e t e r s w e r e chosen l a r g e enough to avoid geometry effects.
The quality was extended over as wide a range as p e r m i t t e d by the ex-
p e r i m e n t a l setup. In o r d e r to study the influence of the fluid p r o p e r t i e s ,
t h r e e different roixtures w e r e used in the e x p e r i m e n t s : a i r - w a t e r , nitroge
F r e o n - 1 1 3 , and n i t r o g e n - m e r c u r y .

The p a r a m e t e r ranges in which the t e s t s , all at a p r e s s u r e of

one atmosphere, w e r e c a r r i e d out a r e listed in Table I. The fluid p r o p e r -
ties of the t h r e e liquids a r e given in Table II.

Table I

PARAMETER RANGES

Superficial
Channel
Quality Liquid
Mixture Diameter
Range Velocity
(in.)
(ft/sec)

Air-Water 0-0.10 2.75 0-1

Nitrogen- 0-0.02 2.75 0-1
Freon-113
Nitrogen- 0-0.0024 2.00 0-1
Mercury

Table II

FLUID PROPERTIES AT ROOM TEMPERATURE

Viscosity Surface
Specific
Liquid (Ibj^/ft-sec Tension
Gravity
x 10-3) (dynes/cm)

Water 1.0 0.7 73

Freon-113 1.55 0.415 19
Mercury 13.6 1.0 487
 II, EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS

All e x p e r i m e n t s w e r e p e r f o r m e d in n a t u r a l - c i r c u l a t i o n loops. The

a i r - w a t e r and n i t r o g e n - F r e o n m i x t u r e s w e r e t e s t e d in the same loop, which
is s c h e m a t i c a l l y depicted in F i g u r e 2; details of the t e s t section a r e given
in F i g u r e 3, The loop was modified for the study of the n i t r o g e n - m e r c u r y
m i x t u r e . A s c h e m a t i c drawing of this modified loop is given in F i g u r e 4,
and details of the n i t r o g e n - m e r c u r y t e s t section a r e given in F i g u r e 5,

The loops c o n s i s t e d of two v e r t i c a l legs known as the r i s e r and

downcomer, r e s p e c t i v e l y , which w e r e connected at the top to a vented s e p -
a r a t o r tank; a horizontal pipe made the connection at the bottom. The gas
and the liquid w e r e mixed in a s p e c i a l m i x e r sleeve at the bottom of the
r i s e r , which is shown on the right of F i g u r e s 2 and 4, The lower p a r t of
the r i s e r was used as a stabilizing zone to n e u t r a l i z e all e n t r a n c e effects.
The upper p a r t of the r i s e r was used as the actual t e s t section, and was
equipped with the m e a s u r i n g a p p a r a t u s for the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the void
fraction and the absolute p r e s s u r e at the t e s t points. The gas was s e p a r a t e d
from the liquid in a Lucite s e p a r a t o r tank at the top of the loop and was
evacuated through a vent. The liquid was r e c i r c u l a t e d through the down-
coiner, which is shown on the left of F i g u r e s 2 and 4,

The liquid was introduced into the loop through a supply line at the
bottom of the downcomer. The liquid circulation r a t e was m e a s u r e d by
m e a n s of an orifice flow m e t e r installed in the h o r i z o n t a l section which
connects downcomer and r i s e r , A b i m e t a l dial t h e r m o m e t e r was used to
m e a s u r e the t e m p e r a t u r e of the liquid. The liquid c i r c u l a t i o n r a t e was
controlled by m e a n s of a bypass control line in the downcomer. The gas
flow r a t e was m e a s u r e d by m e a n s of an orifice flow m e t e r , and was con-
t r o l l e d by m e a n s of a p r e s s u r e r e g u l a t o r u p s t r e a m of the orifice and a
bypass control line d o w n s t r e a m of the orifice. This bypass line gave a c -
c e s s to the g a s - l i q u i d m i x e r at the bottom of the r i s e r . Detailed d e s c r i p -
tion of specific f e a t u r e s of each loop is given below.

A, The A i r - W a t e r and N i t r o g e n - F r e o n Loop

The a i r - w a t e r e x p e r i m e n t s w e r e made with r e g u l a r tap w a t e r , which

was changed when the loop had to be emptied for changing the orifice plate
in the liquid flow m e t e r . The F r e o n - 1 1 3 which was used in the n i t r o g e n -
F r e o n e x p e r i m e n t s was saved whenever it had to be drained from the loop.
Make-up F r e o n was added at r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s in o r d e r to compensate for
the high evaporation r a t e .

The a i r for the a i r - w a t e r e x p e r i m e n t s was supplied by the l a b o r a t o r y

100-psi c o m p r e s s e d - a i r line. The nitrogen for the n i t r o g e n - F r e o n e x p e r i -
m e n t s was supplied by a b a t t e r y of four gas c y l i n d e r s , A p r e s s u r e regulator
was used to keep a constant gauge p r e s s u r e of 25 Ibf/in,^ u p s t r e a m of the
 Separator
Thermocouple

Separator
Test Section
Gamma
Downcomer
Traverse 29
Pressure Taps

2.5 12

Gamma
Liquid Flow E 9 Traverse
Rate Control 12

125.5

Riser

2.75 I,D.

/ 60.5

Dial
Thermometer
Orifice
n k
. Thermocouple

Mixer I Orifice
_1_ — Gas
Liquid Supply
Supply
and Drain ^
Gas Flow
Rate Control Note: All Dimensions in Inches

Fig. 2. Schematic R e p r e s e n t a t i o n of A i r - W a t e r Fig, 3, A i r - W a t e r and Nitrogen-

and N i t r o g e n - F r e o n Loop F r e o n T e s t Section

vO
 tM
O

Separator

^ ^
Pressure
Gauges

Pressure
Downcomer Test Taps
Section
Pressure
12 Taps

P
Liquid Flow Riser
72

Rate Control

Mercury Trap
30
Gate
Dial Valve A
Thermometer
2 l.D. ^
Drifice
Orifice Mixer I
Liquid Supply ] Supply
and Drain
3S:
Gas Flow Note: All Dimensions in Inches
Rate Control

Fig, 4, Schematic R e p r e s e n t a t i o n of Fig. 5. N i t r o g e n - M e r c u r y T e s t

N i t r o g e n - M e r c u r y Loop Section
orifice of the gas flow m e t e r . The gas flow r a t e was controlled by m e a n s
of two valves in a b y p a s s control line. The gas t e m p e r a t u r e at the orifice
was m e a s u r e d by m e a n s of two b i m e t a l dial t h e r m o m e t e r s up and down-
s t r e a m of the orifice, r e s p e c t i v e l y .

The g a s - l i q u i d m i x e r was c o n s t r u c t e d from a pipe t e e . The gas

e n t e r e d at the bottom and the liquid e n t e r e d at the side. The gas was
p a s s e d through a 1 5 0 - m e s h s c r e e n which was intended to provide a uniform
gas distribution and bubble size at the e n t r a n c e of the t e s t section. The
s c r e e n was rolled in the f o r m of a cone and was covered with a h e a v i e r
conical s c r e e n which s e r v e d as a support for the light s c r e e n .

The r i s e r was a 2,75-in.-ID Lucite pipe, 124,5 in, long, naade from
two equal sections which w e r e glued together in o r d e r to provide a perfect
joint.

The motion of the liquid in the s e p a r a t o r tank caused p r e s s u r e pulses

which might have affected the i n s t r u m e n t readings if they had entered the
t e s t section. To avoid this difficulty, the pipe was extended 9.5 in. into the
s e p a r a t o r tank. The liquid level in the s e p a r a t o r tank was kept one inch
above the top of the pipe. The lower 5 ft of the r i s e r was used a s a s t a b i l i -
zing zone in o r d e r to obtain flow p a t t e r n s which w e r e not affected by entrance
effects. The upper 5 ft was then c o n s i d e r e d as the actual t e s t section in
which four p r e s s u r e taps w e r e mounted (see F i g u r e 3). A fifth tap was a r -
ranged at the wall of the s e p a r a t o r tank at the s a m e level as the edge of
the pipe. Differential m a n o m e t e r s w e r e used to m e a s u r e p r e s s u r e differ-
ences between the taps Nos. 0 and 1, 1 and 3, and 2 and 4. The c e n t e r -
line of the g a m m a t r a v e r s i n g equipment, i.e., the c e n t e r l i n e of the s o u r c e
pellet and the scintillation detector, was 2.5 in. lower than the centerline
of tap No, 2. Thernnocouples w^ere installed at the top and the bottom of the
r i s e r to d e t e r m i n e the a v e r a g e t e m p e r a t u r e of the two-phase m i x t u r e in the
t e s t section.

B. The N i t r o g e n - M e r c u r y Loop

The design of the n i t r o g e n - m e r c u r y loop was influenced l a r g e l y by

the steps that had to be taken to a s s u r e wetting of the t e s t section by the
m e r c u r y . These f e a t u r e s a r e identified in the d e s c r i p t i o n p r e s e n t e d below.

The m e r c u r y was contained in a h e r m e t i c a l l y sealed s t a i n l e s s s t e e l

cylinder which was about one foot high and 10 in, in d i a m e t e r . The liquid
was introduced into the loop by p r e s s u r i z i n g the cylinder to a gauge p r e s -
s u r e of 80 Ibf/in.^ After the loop was filled with m e r c u r y and the valve in
the connecting line between container and loop closed, the p r e s s u r e was r e -
l e a s e d by opening a s m a l l needle valve at the top of the container. This
valve was kept open during operation of the loop; in that way, it was possible
to d r a i n the m e r c u r y at once in the event of a failure of a p a r t of the loop.
 The n i t r o g e n was supplied by a b a t t e r y of four gas cylinders and
p a s s e d through a gas filter, a flow m e t e r , a m e r c u r y t r a p , and a bypass
control line, r e s p e c t i v e l y , before entering the g a s - l i q u i d m i x e r . The m e r -
c u r y t r a p was installed between the bypass control line and the orifice flow
m e t e r in o r d e r to p r e v e n t any m e r c u r y from being deposited in the flow^
m e t e r pipe.

A constant gauge p r e s s u r e of 70 Ibf/in. was kept u p s t r e a m of the

orifice flow m e t e r during o p e r a t i o n of the loop. The g a s - l i q u i d m i x e r was
the s a m e as the one used for the a i r - w a t e r and the n i t r o g e n - F r e o n
experiments.

The r i s e r for the n i t r o g e n - m e r c u r y loop was a 6-ft high, 2-in.ID

n i c k e l - p l a t e d pipe. In the choice of the t e s t section s p e c i a l attention was
paid to the fact that m e r c u r y is a nonwetting liquid to a l m o s t all s u r f a c e s .
Although the e x p e r i m e n t s could have been p e r f o r m e d in a nonwetted t e s t
section, t h e r e existed s e v e r a l r e a s o n s for p r e f e r r i n g a pipe in which the
liquid p r e s e n t e d a high d e g r e e of adhesion to the wall.

E a r l i e r o b s e r v a t i o n s ' 1 ° ) of gas r i s i n g through m e r c u r y in a g l a s s

pipe r e v e a l e d that the gas had a tendency to r i s e along the wall of the pipe.
The liquid-wall i n t e r f a c e was a path of l e a s t r e s i s t a n c e b e c a u s e of the n o n -
wetting p r o p e r t i e s of the m e r c u r y . When t e s t s w e r e p e r f o r m e d with liquids
which did wet the pipe wall, however, it was o b s e r v e d that the gaseous phase
was c o n c e n t r a t e d at the c e n t e r of the conduit. The e x i s t e n c e of a p r e f e r e n -
tial path along the pipe wall has been r e p o r t e d to c a u s e an unstable flow
p a t t e r n which is a c c o m p a n i e d by s e v e r e static p r e s s u r e o s c i l l a t i o n s , ! 1^/
It was intended to c o m p a r e the r e s u l t s of the n i t r o g e n - m e r c u r y study with
those obtained for the other r a i x t u r e s . A c o m p a r i s o n , however, could be
justified only if the flow p a t t e r n s in the n i t r o g e n - m e r c u r y flow w e r e s i m i l a r
to those which o c c u r r e d in the other m i x t u r e s , A m e r c u r y - w e t t e d pipe wall
was t h e r e f o r e n e c e s s a r y .

M e r c u r y - w e t t e d s u r f a c e s a r e commonly obtained by adding wetting

agents to the liquid m e t a l . The addition of 0,1 per cent sodium, or 0,02 p e r
cent magnesiunn together with 0.0001 p e r cent titanium, which s e r v e s to
reduce the c o r r o s i v e p r o p e r t i e s of the m e r c u r y , was successfully applied
in the p a s t whenever high t e m p e r a t u r e s w e r e i n v o l v e d . V " " - ^ / This t e c h -
nique, however, was found to fail at r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e . An a t t e m p t was
made to obtain a m e r c u r y - w e t t e d surface by using a clean liquid and a clean,
smooth surface. T e s t s p e r f o r m e d with possible s u r f a c e m a t e r i a l s showed
that a nickel surface was wetted by m e r c u r y at r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e after it
had been t r e a t e d by dilute h y d r o c h l o r i c acid. It was further observed that
the b e s t r e s u l t s w e r e obtained when the nickel surface had not been given
time to dry after it had been exposed to the acid solution. Rubbing the s u b -
m e r g e d surface by a b r u s h or shaking the sample piece in the liquid was
found to p r o m o t e wetting. It was also o b s e r v e d that the surface r e m a i n e d
wetted by the m e r c u r y as long a s the s u b m e r s i o n was not discontinued for
too long a time, A prolonged e x p o s u r e of the wetted surface to the air r e -
sulted in the formation of oxides which inhibited further wetting. The oxides
w e r e found to be f o r m e d in a period of the o r d e r of one hour.

Based on t h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s , the t e s t section was plated with a

0.002-in. nickel coating. In o r d e r to avoid the formation of oxides it was
n e c e s s a r y to keep the m e r c u r y in the t e s t section during the entire e x p e r i -
m e n t a l p r o g r a m . It was, t h e r e f o r e , n e c e s s a r y to build the t e s t section in
such a way that it could be closed off from any other p a r t of the loop or the
m e a s u r i n g a p p a r a t u s . The bottom of the r i s e r could be blocked off by the
valves in the bypass lines of the gas inlet, and by a gate valve (designated
as "A" in F i g u r e 4) installed at the end of the horizontal connection between
downcomer and r i s e r . In o r d e r to provide flexibility for varying the distance
a c r o s s which the p r e s s u r e differences w e r e to be m e a s u r e d , the t e s t section
was built with a l a r g e r number of p r e s s u r e taps than actually needed. Some
t r i a l runs would then be made to d e t e r m i n e what combination of p r e s s u r e
taps would give s a t i s f a c t o r y p r e c i s i o n . As a r e s u l t , six p r e s s u r e taps w e r e
installed at the t e s t section for connection to differential m a n o m e t e r s . In
addition, t h r e e taps w e r e provided for connection to p r e s s u r e gauges. When
adequately combined, the taps could f o r m t e s t sections which w e r e either 6,
12, or 24 in. long. All taps w e r e provided with needle valves so that changes
could be made after the loop had been filled.

The following p r o c e d u r e was used to obtain a m e r c u r y - w e t t e d t e s t

section. The r i s e r was completely closed off from the r e s t of the loop, and
the s e p a r a t o r was r e m o v e d . A solution of 50 per cent hydrochloric acid was
poured into the r i s e r from the top, and the m e r c u r y was introduced as soon
as the r i s e r was filled with acid solution. The remaining p a r t of the loop
was filled with m e r c u r y after the s e p a r a t o r had been installed, the gate
valve "A" was opened, and nitrogen was blown through the m e r c u r y for about
15 min. This p r o c e d u r e p e r m i t t e d the wetting p r o c e s s to be promoted by
the t u r b u l e n t t w o - p h a s e flow. The a b o v e - d e s c r i b e d p r o c e d u r e led to a t e s t
section which was l a t e r o b s e r v e d to have been wetted by m e r c u r y over m o r e
than ninety per cent of its inner surface. This fact was d e t e r m i n e d by d e -
tailed examination of the surface after the loop had been drained.

C. Instrumentation

The p a r a m e t e r s that w e r e to be m e a s u r e d during operation of the

loops w e r e the following: the void fraction at the t e s t point, the absolute
p r e s s u r e at the t e s t point, the liquid flow r a t e , the gas flow r a t e , and the
t e m p e r a t u r e of the fluids.

The void fractions w e r e obtained p r i m a r i l y from differential p r e s -

s u r e m e a s u r e m e n t s between two points. A number of gamma t r a v e r s e s
w e r e made to check r e s u l t s obtained with the foregoing method. The g a m m a
24

t r a v e r s i n g s y s t e m , h o w e v e r , h a d a n u m b e r of i n h e r e n t i n a c c u r a c i e s w h i c h
made the data l e s s self-consistent than the data f r o m the p r e s s u r e - d i f f e r e n c e
m e a s u r e m e n t s . In a d d i t i o n , the u s e of t h e g a m n a a t r a v e r s i n g s y s t e m w a s
t i m e - c o n s u m i n g for r o u t i n e w o r k . A b s o l u t e p r e s s u r e s w e r e d e t e r m i n e d by
adding differential p r e s s u r e r e a d i n g s . This technique was not used for the
n i t r o g e n - m e r c u r y e x p e r i m e n t s , for w h i c h p r e s s u r e g a u g e s w e r e found to be
m o r e c o n v e n i e n t a n d to g i v e s u f f i c i e n t p r e c i s i o n . L i q u i d a n d g a s flow r a t e s
w e r e m e a s u r e d w i t h o r i f i c e flow m e t e r s . T e m p e r a t u r e s w e r e o b t a i n e d f r o m
thermocouple or b i m e t a l dial t h e r m o m e t e r r e a d i n g s .

1. The G a m m a T r a v e r s i n g Equipment

T h e p r i n c i p l e of the g a m m a t r a v e r s i n g e q u i p m e n t i s b a s e d on
t h e f a c t t h a t t h e a t t e n u a t i o n of g a m m a r a y s in m a t t e r i s p r o p o r t i o n a l to t h e
d e n s i t y of t h e m a t e r i a l on w h i c h t h e g a m m a r a y s i m p i n g e . A c o l l i m a t e d
g a m m a b e a m t r a v e r s e s t h e c h a n n e l in a p l a n e w h i c h is p e r p e n d i c u l a r to t h e
c h a n n e l a x i s . T r a v e r s e s a r e m a d e w h e n t h e c h a n n e l i s e m p t y , full, a n d f i l l e d
w i t h t w o - p h a s e m i x t u r e , r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h e void f r a c t i o n in t h e t w o - p h a s e
m i x t u r e is then r e a d i l y d e t e r m i n e d f r o m a c o m p a r i s o n between the a t t e n u -
a t i o n o b t a i n e d in e a c h of t h e s e t h r e e c o n d i t i o n s . T h i s m e t h o d h a s b e e n d e - •
s c r i b e d a n d d i s c u s s e d s e v e r a l t i m e s b e f o r e ; * ' ' - ^ / a s a r e s u l t , only a s h o r t
r e v i e w of t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s e t u p a n d the o p e r a t i o n i s g i v e n b e l o w . A t y p i c a l
s e t u p of t h i s v o i d - m e a s u r i n g a p p a r a t u s i s g i v e n in F i g u r e 6.

Channel

Linear

K
Thulium Current Brown
Source Recorder
Amplifier

Scintillation
Crystal and
Photomultiplier
Tube

F i g . 6. V o i d - m e a s u r i n g A p p a r a t u s

T h e g a m m a s o u r c e w a s a t h u l i u m - 1 7 0 p e l l e t , e n c l o s e d in a n
a l u m i n u m c o n t a i n e r . T h u l i u m - 1 7 0 h a s a h a l f - l i f e of 129 d a y s , a n d i t s e n e r g y
s p e c t r u m s h o w s p e a k s a t 0,053 M e v a n d a t 0,084 M e v , T h e 0 , 0 5 3 - M e v p e a k
w a s a b s o r b e d by i n s e r t i n g a l e a d p l a t e ( 0 , 0 6 2 5 in, t h i c k ) b e t w e e n the s o u r c e
a n d t h e c h a n n e l i n o r d e r to o b t a i n t h e r e q u i r e d m o n o e n e r g e t i c r a d i a t i o n . At
t h e t i m e of t h e t e s t s , t h e t h u l i u m p e l l e t p r o d u c e d a d o s e r a t e of 2 r / h r a t a
d i s t a n c e of 2 , 5 in, a f t e r i t s l o w - e n e r g y p e a k h a d b e e n a b s o r b e d b y t h e l e a d
plate.
 25

The detector was a N a l ( T l ) scintillation c r y s t a l optically coupled

by a Lucite light pipe to a Dunaont photomultiplier tube. The g a m m a b e a m
was collimated by a r e c t a n g u l a r window (0,03 in. by 0.5 in. in c r o s s section)
which was cut in the face of the 1-in.-thick lead shield that surrounded the
c r y s t a l . Cooling coils in the shield kept the t e m p e r a t u r e constant within
±0,5°F, This cooling was n e c e s s a r y since the functioning of both the s c i n t i l -
lation c r y s t a l and the photomultiplier tube was t e m p e r a t u r e sensitive. The
supply voltage to the photomultiplier tube could be regulated to within 0,1 p e r
cent of the scale reading. The unattenuated g a m m a s produced a signal in the
photomultiplier which was then amplified before being t r a n s m i t t e d to a
Brown r e c o r d e r of 0 to 10-mv r a n g e . Changes in s o u r c e strength w e r e c o r -
r e c t e d by taking full and empty channel t r a v e r s e s twice daily. Amplifier-
drift e r r o r s w e r e r e d u c e d by taking full channel t r a v e r s e s every t h r e e or
four r u n s . The a v e r a g e e r r o r in the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of void fractions by the
g a m m a t r a v e r s i n g equipment was of the o r d e r of seven per cent. The p r e -
cision of this technique, however, d e c r e a s e d significantly with d e c r e a s i n g
values of the void f r a c t i o n s .

2. Manometers

All m a n o m e t e r s w e r e mounted for differential p r e s s u r e m e a s u r e -

m e n t s . Indicating fluids had specific g r a v i t i e s of 1.75, 2.95, and 13.6, r e -
spectively. The s c a l e range of each m a n o m e t e r was 60 in., and the s c a l e s
w e r e graduated in inches and tenths of inches.

The m a n o m e t e r s which w e r e used to d e t e r m i n e void fractions in

the n i t r o g e n - m e r c u r y m i x t u r e d e s e r v e special mention. The continuous
collapse of the two-phase flow s t r u c t u r e in the t e s t section r e s u l t e d in heavy
pulsations in the m a n o m e t e r legs; this was p a r t i c u l a r l y s e r i o u s for static
p r e s s u r e t a p s . Differential m a n o m e t e r s , however, damped the pulsations
to an extent that sufficient p r e c i s i o n and reproducibility of the data could be
obtained. The principle of differential m a n o m e t e r s was applied to this m e r -
c u r y flow s y s t e m by inverting U-tube m a n o m e t e r s so that the connection to
the t e s t section could be made at the bottom of the m a n o m e t e r s . Both legs
w e r e connected by a w a t e r column on top of the m e r c u r y .

A second p r o b l e m in the construction of the m a n o m e t e r s y s t e m

originated from the r e q u i r e m e n t of having s h o r t distances between the p r e s -
s u r e taps at the t e s t section. Long d i s t a n c e s would give m o r e p r e c i s e r e a d -
ings on the m a n o m e t e r s . Short d i s t a n c e s , however, w e r e p r e f e r r e d in o r d e r
to r e d u c e the e r r o r in the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the gas density which c o r r e -
sponded to the a v e r a g e void fraction between two p r e s s u r e t a p s . The t e s t
point was c o n s i d e r e d to be at halfway the distance between the two taps. The
gas density at that point was d e t e r m i n e d from gauge p r e s s u r e m e a s u r e m e n t s .
This p r o c e d u r e could not be justified unless the p r e s s u r e v a r i a t i o n between
the two m a n o m e t e r taps could be approximated by a straight line; this r e -
quired s h o r t d i s t a n c e s between the t a p s . The p r o b l e m was successfully
solved by inclining the m a n o m e t e r s to 10° with the horizontal. A schematic
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of this m a n o m e t e r s y s t e m i s shown in F i g u r e 7.
26

Pressure

s
Gauge

Two-Phase Mixture

Fig. 7. Inclined Manometer for Void-fraction Determination in the

N i t r o g e n - M e r c u r y Mixture

3. Orifice Flow M e t e r s

Both gas and liquid flow r a t e s w e r e m e a s u r e d by means of

orifice flow m e t e r s which w e r e constructed according to the r e c o m m e n d a -
tions of Grace and Lapple.w3) The liquid flow r a t e was m e a s u r e d in a
1.5-in.-ID pipe; the orifice plates w e r e 0.500, 0.750 and 1 in, in d i a m e t e r ,
r e s p e c t i v e l y . The gas flow m e t e r line was a l - i n . - I D pipe and the orifice
d i a m e t e r s w e r e 0.0312, 0.0597, 0.1250, and 0.5000 in., respectively. All
orifice d i a m e t e r s had a m a x i m u m uncertainty of ±0.0005 in,

4. P r e s s u r e Gauges

The absolute p r e s s u r e at the t e s t points in the n i t r o g e n - m e r c u r y

m i x t u r e was m e a s u r e d by m e a n s of Ashcroft p r e s s u r e gauges with a m a x i -
mum scale reading of 30 Ibf/in.^. The p r e c i s i o n of the gauges was ±1 per
cent of the m a x i m u m scale reading.

5. Dial T h e r m o m e t e r s and Thernaocouples

B i m e t a l dial t h e r m o m e t e r s w e r e used to m e a s u r e the average

t e m p e r a t u r e of the gas at the orifice flow m e t e r and to d e t e r m i n e the t e m -
p e r a t u r e of the liquid at a point u p s t r e a m of the liquid orifice flow m e t e r .
The p r e c i s i o n of these t h e r m o m e t e r s was ±1°C. I r o n - c o n s t a n t a n t h e r m o -
couples w e r e used to d e t e r m i n e the a v e r a g e t e m p e r a t u r e of the two-phase
m i x t u r e in the t e s t section. The voltages w e r e m e a s u r e d by means of a
Rubicon p o t e n t i o m e t e r . The t e m p e r a t u r e s could be m e a s u r e d with a p r e -
cision of ±1°F.
 III. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

The p r o c e d u r e which was followed throughout the e x p e r i m e n t a l

p r o g r a m is sunnmarized below. After the loop was filled with liquid and
the m a n o m e t e r lines c l e a r e d of bubbles, the gas flow was s t a r t e d and the
liquid c i r c u l a t i o n was adjusted to the d e s i r e d r a t e . The foUo'wing v a r i a b l e s
w e r e then r e c o r d e d : the liquid flow r a t e , the gas flow r a t e , the a v e r a g e
t e m p e r a t u r e of the t w o - p h a s e m i x t u r e , the b a r o m e t r i c p r e s s u r e , and the
p r e s s u r e differences between the taps on the t e s t section. F o r a specific
circulation r a t e of the liquid, the gas flow r a t e was varied over as wide a
range as p e r m i t t e d by the e x p e r i m e n t a l setup. In that way it was possible
to d e t e r m i n e how a two-phase flow p a r a m e t e r (e.g., the slip ratio) was
varying a s a function of quality. This completed, the liquid circulation r a t e
was adjusted to another value and a new s e r i e s of t e s t s was s t a r t e d . Two-
phase flow p a r a m e t e r s w e r e d e t e r m i n e d as a function of quality for s u p e r -
ficial liquid velocities of 0, 0 . 1 , 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1 f t / s e c ,
respectively.

The r e s u l t s , which a r e p r e s e n t e d in Chapter IV for a i r - w a t e r and

n i t r o g e n - F r e o n m i x t u r e s , w e r e derived from data obtained at t e s t point
No. 2 (see F i g u r e 2). The data for the n i t r o g e n - m e r c u r y m i x t u r e w e r e ob-
tained at t e s t point No. 5 (see F i g u r e 5).

I n a s m u c h as [see Equation (1.15)],

;^ =(r^x) (^l(g) .
the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the slip r a t i o r e q u i r e d the m e a s u r e m e n t of the quality
X, the void fraction a, the gas density Pg, and the liquid density p ^ . The
other t w o - p h a s e flow p a r a m e t e r s w e r e derived from the s a m e data. The
quality was d e t e r m i n e d by the r a t i o of the gas flow r a t e to the total m a s s
flow r a t e . The gas and liquid flow r a t e s w e r e m e a s u r e d by m e a n s of orifice
flow m e t e r s , and the calculations w e r e c a r r i e d out according to the r e c o m -
mendations of G r a c e and Lapple.\-^3) The void fraction was d e t e r m i n e d from
p r e s s u r e - d r o p m e a s u r e m e n t s or by m e a n s of the g a m m a t r a v e r s i n g equip-
ment. The d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the gas density consisted e s s e n t i a l l y in the
m e a s u r e m e n t of the absolute p r e s s u r e at the t e s t point. The exact liquid
density was derived from t e m p e r a t u r e m e a s u r e m e n t s obtained by m e a n s of
a b i m e t a l dial t h e r m o m e t e r . The e x p e r i m e n t a l p r o c e d u r e was the s a m e for
the t h r e e m i x t u r e s . The reduction of the data, however, was slightly dif-
ferent for each m i x t u r e and is d e s c r i b e d below.

A. Reduction of the A i r - W a t e r Data

The void fraction and the absolute p r e s s u r e at the t e s t point w e r e

derived from p r e s s u r e - d r o p m e a s u r e m e n t s . The reduction of the data was
b a s e d on the following t h e o r y .
28

Consider a v e r t i c a l channel in which a tv/o-phase m i x t u r e is flowing

at a steady r a t e . The p r e s s u r e drop AP between two points can be w r i t t e n
as

A P := AFYI + ^Ptpf + ^ ^ a c ' (3-1)

being given by the sum of the h y d r o s t a t i c head APj^, the frictional p r e s s u r e

drop AP^pf, and the a c c e l e r a t i o n p r e s s u r e drop APg^^^. The frictional p r e s -
s u r e drop is evaluated by the r e l a t i o n

AP,pf = RAP^ = R [ 4 f § ^ ] . (3.2)

w h e r e R is the M a r t i n e l l i - N e l s o n friction factor and f the Fanning friction

factor for s i n g l e - p h a s e flow. The low superficial liquid velocity
(VQ — 1 f t / s e c ) , hov/ever, does not c a u s e a significant frictional p r e s s u r e
drop, the maximuna value of the t e r m Ap. £ being 2 p e r cent of the h y d r o -
static head AP-j^. Thus, the frictional p r e s s u r e drop can be neglected with
r e s p e c t to the h y d r o s t a t i c head.

The m a x i m u m value of the a c c e l e r a t i o n p r e s s u r e drop is obtained

from homogeneous flow t h e o r y . If it be a s s u m e d that a homogeneous m i x -
t u r e flows in the t e s t section (see F i g u r e 2), the r a t e of change of m o m e n -
tum between the points 1 and 3 can be w r i t t e n as

Wt
ApAPac = — (V1-V3) . (3.3)
oC

Vi and V3 being the velocity of the two-phase m i x t u r e at the positions 1 and

3, r e s p e c t i v e l y . We also have

Wt/Ap = G ; (3.4)

V3P3 = ViPi = G ; (3.5)

and

p'= (1 - a)p^ + apg ~ ( 1 - a ) p^ (3.6)

unless a ^ 1. Substitution of Equations (3.4) to (3.6) into Equation (3.3),

followed by r e a r r a n g e m e n t , yields

AP . _±i_ r_i L_ (3.7)

ac gcPi
„ n. [ 1 _ ttj 1 - a.

or
 29

The m a s s flov/ r a t e per unit a r e a , G, is s m a l l because of the low superficial

velocities -which a r e involved. The m a x i m u m value of the a c c e l e r a t i o n p r e s -
s u r e drop i s found to be of the o r d e r of 1 per cent of the value of the h y d r o -
static head. Thus, the t e r m APg^^, can be neglected, and Equation (3.1)
becomes

AP = AP^ = H r ( l - a ) p ^ ^'"^Pg] = H p ^ ( l - a ) , (3.9)

H being the distance between t^wo p r e s s u r e t a p s . The a v e r a g e void fraction

between tAvo taps is now given by the formula

APh
a = 1 - -—^ . (3.10)

The absolute p r e s s u r e at the t e s t point was d e t e r m i n e d by adding

APQI + ~ APj3 to the b a r o m e t r i c p r e s s u r e (see F i g u r e 2). This p r o c e d u r e
was acceptable for the a i r - w a t e r m i x t u r e , since the p r e s s u r e variation as
a function of channel height could be a p p r o x i m a t e d by a straight line.

B. Reduction of the N i t r o g e n - F r e o n Data

The e x p e r i m e n t a l study of the n i t r o g e n - F r e o n m i x t u r e was the m o s t

difficult of the studies made b e c a u s e of secondary effects. These effects
included mixing of the F r e o n with the indicating fluids in the m a n o m e t e r
legs, evaporation of the F r e o n into the nitrogen, s e v e r e t e m p e r a t u r e
changes as a r e s u l t of this vaporization, and finally a s e r i o u s loss of expen-
sive liquid, w^hich limited the amount of data that could be taken. As a r e -
sult, the superficial liquid velocities had i n a c c u r a c i e s of ±10 per cent. In
addition, b e c a u s e of the mixing of the m a n o m e t e r fluid with the F r e o n , void
fractions d e t e r m i n e d by p r e s s u r e - d r o p m e a s u r e m e n t s w e r e in question.
T h e r e f o r e , the void fractions had to be d e t e r m i n e d by the gamma t r a v e r s i n g
technique. F u r t h e r m o r e , the slip-quality r e l a t i o n s b e c a m e dependent upon
the r e l a t i v e humidity 0 of the gas p h a s e .

The evaporation of F r e o n into the nitrogen r e s u l t e d in a change of

the density of the gas p h a s e . It can be shown, however, that the void f r a c -
tion at a point in the r i s e r did not depend upon the density of the gas phase.
The driving force in the n a t u r a l - c i r c u l a t i o n loop originated from the p r e s -
ence of a two-phase m i x t u r e in the r i s e r and c o r r e s p o n d e d to

F = ApAP^ = Ap APi^ = A p H p ^ ( l - a ) , (3.11)

with
r^a(H) dH
^= H • (^-l^)
30

The n a t u r a l - c i r c u l a t i o n loop was operated in such a Avay that a constant

c i r c u l a t i o n r a t e was m a i n t a i n e d during a run. This implied that the d r i v -
ing force was constant. Equation (3.11) shows that this condition w^as
equivalent to the condition of a constant average void fraction in the r i s e r .
It is left to prove that the v a r i a t i o n of the void fraction a(H) as a function
of channel height was not affected by the change in composition of the
gaseous p h a s e . It is sufficient to show that the evaporation of the F r e o n
did not r e s u l t in a s u b s t a n t i a l change of the c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y factor C of the
gas p h a s e . The c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y factor of the nitrogen was 0.998. The
c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y factor of the F r e o n vapor was d e r i v e d from a c o m p a r i s o n
between its B e a t t i e - B r i d g m a n equation of stated ' and the ideal gas law.
It was found to v a r y betw^een 0.994 and 0.981 in the t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s -
s u r e r a n g e s that-were p e r t i n e n t to these e x p e r i m e n t s . Thus, the gas m i x -
t u r e could be t r e a t e d as an ideal gas for any value of the r e l a t i v e humidity
0. T h e r e f o r e , the v a r i a t i o n of the void fraction with channel height was
independent of the r e l a t i v e humidity. As a r e s u l t , the knowledge of the
void fraction for one value of 0, although unknown, could be used in the
calculation of the slip r a t i o s for any value of 0.

The absolute p r e s s u r e at the t e s t point w^as d e t e r m i n e d by an i t e r -

ation calculation which -was b a s e d on the r e l a t i o n

APh = P ^ ( l - a ) H . (3.9)

F u r t h e r reduction of the data w^as p e r f o r m e d as follows.

The s a t u r a t i o n p r e s s u r e P s a t °^ ^^^ F r e o n vapor depended only

upon the t e m p e r a t u r e existing at the t e s t point. The p a r t i a l p r e s s u r e Pg
of the F r e o n vapor was given by

Ps = 0Psat . (3.13)

and the p a r t i a l p r e s s u r e of the n i t r o g e n gas was then given by

PN2 = P - Ps , (3.14)

the absolute p r e s s u r e at the t e s t point being denoted by P . The specific

volume of the n i t r o g e n was then r e a d i l y d e t e r m i n e d from Equation (3.14)
as

^N2 = RN2T/PN2 . (3.15)

R|vT2 being the ideal gas constant of the nitrogen, and T the absolute t e m -
p e r a t u r e at the t e s t point. The specific humidity SH was defined as the
number of pounds of F r e o n vapor per pound of dry nitrogen and was given
by

SH = 0 - ^ ^ - , (3.16)
VgFR
 31

^gFR l^^ii^g the specific volume of the F r e o n vapor. The m a s s flow r a t e of

the F r e o n vapor at the t e s t point was then equal to

WgFR = SH Wg = SH WN2 , (3.17)

and the quality was given by

X = ^ g ^ ^ ^ ^^^ . (3.18)
Wt

The density of the gas phase was d e t e r m i n e d by the relation

p^ = PN2 , - J i i S - > . (3.19)

SH
• MFR/

with Mj^2 3-nd Mpj^ denoting the m o l e c u l a r weights of nitrogen and

Freon-113, respectively.

C. Reduction of the N i t r o g e n - M e r c u r y Data

The reduction of the n i t r o g e n - m e r c u r y data was s i m i l a r to the r e -

duction of the air--water data. The approximations

APtpf/APj^ -.• 0 ; AP^^/APJ^ -^ 0

could not be verified by m e a n s of g a m m a t r a v e r s e s . They w e r e believed to

be valid, however, b e c a u s e the void fractions never exceeded the value 0.500.
This implied low frictional and a c c e l e r a t i o n p r e s s u r e d r o p s . As a r e s u l t ,
the void fraction was r e a d i l y d e t e r m i n e d by means of Equation (3.10):

^Ph
a . 1- - — . (3.10)
Hp_g
The absolute p r e s s u r e at the t e s t point was d e t e r m i n e d by m e a n s of p r e s s u r e
gauges.
32

IV. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

This chapter p r e s e n t s the e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s of the t h r e e m i x t u r e s

in g r a p h i c a l form. The r e s u l t s a r e d i s c u s s e d in detail, and a short e r r o r
a n a l y s i s is given to e m p h a s i z e the p r e c i s i o n of the e x p e r i m e n t a l p r o c e d u r e .

A. P r e s e n t a t i o n and Discussion of Results

Results a r e p r e s e n t e d for superficial liquid velocities of 0.1, 0.2,

0.3, 0.6, and 1 f t / s e c . The r e s u l t s for the superficial velocities of 0.4 and
0.8 f t / s e c have been omitted for the sake of clarity in the graphical p r e -
sentation; they fell within the bounds set by the r e s u l t s for 0.3 and 0.6 f t / s e c ,
and 0.6 and 1 f t / s e c , r e s p e c t i v e l y .

The slip-velocity r a t i o s of the a i r - w a t e r m i x t u r e s a r e p r e s e n t e d as

a function of quality and circulation r a t e in F i g u r e 8. A s i m i l a r plot is
given for the n i t r o g e n - m e r c u r y slip r a t i o s in F i g u r e 9. It can be seen that
the slip r a t i o s i n c r e a s e with quality, and d e c r e a s e with circulation r a t e .
The influence of the circulation r a t e , however, d e c r e a s e s with increasing
superficial liquid velocity. The r e s u l t s of the n i t r o g e n - m e r c u r y study
c l e a r l y i l l u s t r a t e that the influence of the circulation r a t e a l s o d e c r e a s e s
with d e c r e a s i n g quality. It is finally noted that the slopes of the s l i p -
quality lines d e c r e a s e with i n c r e a s i n g quality. The above observations
a r e consistent with those obtained in previous studies (see Section E of
the Introduction).

Fig, 8. Slip Ratio as a Function of Quality and Superficial

Liquid Velocity for the A i r - W a t e r Mixture
 0 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1 1 1 1
0 0,0005 0,0010 0.0015
Quality, X

Fig. 9. Slip Ratio as a Function of Quality and Superficial

Liquid Velocity for the N i t r o g e n - M e r c u r y Mixture

The n i t r o g e n - m e r c u r y slip r a t i o s determined in this study w e r e

significantly higher than those which Neal' ° ' obtained in a 1-in.-ID non-
wetted t e s t section. An acceptable explanation for the significant difference
in the slip r a t i o s is based on the fact that the nonwetting p r o p e r t y of the
m e r c u r y in N e a l ' s t e s t section caused the formation of large gas slugs.
Neal r e p o r t e d that t h e s e slugs w e r e r i s i n g along one side of the channel
wall, while the m e r c u r y was flowing downwards along the opposite side of
the wall, N e a l ' s visual study of flow in a 1-in,-ID nonwetted glass pipe
r e v e a l e d slugs of lengths up to 8 in. The velocity of a slug of that size was
apt to be strongly affected by the size of the conduit. The n i t r o g e n - m e r c u r y
t e s t s of this study, however, w e r e p e r f o r m e d in a wetted 2-in.-ID nickel-
plated t e s t section. Because the pipe was wetted it is believed that the
formation of l a r g e slugs was not encountered in the p r e s e n t t e s t s . This
difference in flow conditions possibly explains the difference in the slip
ratios.

F i g u r e s 10 and 11 give slip r a t i o s in a n i t r o g e n - F r e o n mixture as

a fiinction of quality and r e l a t i v e humidity of the gas phase for two specific
circulation r a t e s . It is r e c a l l e d that the F r e o n evaporated into the nitrogen.
As a r e s u l t , the gas phase was a m i x t u r e of nitrogen and F r e o n vapor. The
r e l a t i v e humidity 0 of the gas phase is the ratio of the p a r t i a l p r e s s u r e of
the F r e o n vapor in the gas phase to the saturation p r e s s u r e of the F r e o n .
34

0,005 0.010 0.015

Quality, X

Fig. 10. Slip Ratio as a Function of Quality and Relative Humidity

of the Gas P h a s e for the N i t r o g e n - F r e o n - 1 1 3 Mixture
for Vo = 0.36 f t / s e c

0.005 0.0100 0.015

Quality, X

Fig. 11. Slip Ratio as a Function of Quality and-Relative Humidity

of the Gas P h a s e for the N i t r o g e n - F r e o n - 1 1 3 Mixture
for Vo = 0.87 f t / s e c
 35

This s a t u r a t i o n p r e s s u r e is a function of the t e m p e r a t u r e of the two-phase

m i x t u r e at the t e s t point. The effect of the vaporization of the F r e o n into
the nitrogen is seen to d e c r e a s e with i n c r e a s i n g circulation r a t e .

The slip r a t i o s which w e r e given in F i g u r e s 8 to 11 a r e plotted as

a function of the r a t i o of the v o l u m e t r i c flow r a t e s in F i g u r e s 12, 13, and
14. The c o r r e l a t i o n used was that proposed by Kutateladze'9/ and worked
out by M a r c h a t e r r e and Hoglund'"/ for a i r - w a t e r and s t e a m - w a t e r m i x -
t u r e s . The working graph which was published by the aforementioned
authors was valid for superficial liquid velocities higher than 0.8 f t / s e c .
The r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d in F i g u r e 12 a r e not consistent with the working
graph of M a r c h a t e r r e and Hoglund.

0 Fr - 0.00136
O Fr = 0.01225
+ Fr = 0.0490
A FT •= 0.136

10 100

Volumetric Flow-Rate Ratio,

1-V V P ,

Fig. 12. Slip Ratio a s a Function of the Volumetric

Flow-Rate Ratio and the Froude Number
for the A i r - W a t e r Mixture
36

o Fr = 0.00187
a Fr = 0.01681
+ Fr = 0.0673
A Fr = 0.187

10 100

Volumetric Flow-Rate Ratio, ( — - ^ ( —

Fig, 13. Slip Ratio as a Function of the Volumetric Flow-Rate Ratio and
the Froude Number for the N i t r o g e n - M e r c u r y Mixture
10 T T T
8 - Fr o
gD
6 -
- Q-

&
ri 2 0 Fr - 0.0176
to
A Fr - 0.107

Relative Humidity qp - 0

1 2 4 6 8 10 20

Volumetric Flow-Rate Ratio, f—r ' (-^

Fig. 14. Slip Ratio as a Function of the Volumetric

Flow-Rate Ratio and the Froude Number
for the N i t r o g e n - F r e o n - 1 1 3 Mixture
 Attention should be paid to the fact that slip r a t i o s a r e higher in a
n i t r o g e n - m e r c u r y m i x t u r e than in an a i r - w a t e r m i x t u r e . Similarly, the
a i r - w a t e r slip r a t i o s a r e higher than those in the n i t r o g e n - F r e o n m i x t u r e .
It should be noted that the influence of the liquid density and the gas density
have been eliminated by plotting the slip r a t i o s v e r s u s the r a t i o of the
v o l u m e t r i c flow r a t e s . The fact that the curves for the various fluids w e r e
different despite the elimination of density effects leads to the conclusion
that fluid p r o p e r t i e s , other than the densities, do have an influence on
slippage.

The r e l a t i v e velocity between the gas phase and the liquid phase is
p r e s e n t e d as a function of quality and circulation r a t e in Figure 15 for the
a i r - w a t e r m i x t u r e and in F i g u r e 16 for the n i t r o g e n - m e r c u r y m i x t u r e .
The r e l a t i v e velocity is seen to i n c r e a s e with both the quality and the super
ficial liquid velocity. The v a r i a t i o n of the relative velocity as a function
of quality is linear except in the low-quality range in which bubble flow
o c c u r s . This c l e a r l y i l l u s t r a t e s that the bubble-flow pattern is governed
by physical laws which a r e different from those that a r e pertinent to the
slug- or churn-flow p a t t e r n s . It should be noted that all lines converge
toward the value of the t e r m i n a l velocity of a single bubble rising in a
fluid.

«> V = 0.1 ft/sec

0 0,02 0.04 0.06 0.08

Quality, X

Fig. 15. Relative Velocity as a Function of Quality and Superficial

Liquid Velocity for the A i r - W a t e r Mixture
38

0.0005 0.0010 0.0015

Quality, X

fig. 16. Relative Velocity as a Function of Quality and Superficial Liquid Velocity for the
Nitrogen-Mercury Mixture

Figure 17 p r e s e n t s the r e l a t i v e velocity between the gas and the

liquid phase for the n i t r o g e n - F r e o n m i x t u r e . The influence of the v a p o r i -
zation of the F r e o n into the nitrogen is again sharply depicted. Assuming
that one is p e r m i t t e d to extrapolate linearly the lines to z e r o quality, it

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ' >" ' 1 1

10
>'
- _

A^ ^ ~
.0
-
> _^0
=i
/i-
^o-"-""
- o V = 0.36
o
ft/sec -
/
> X V = 0.87 ft/sec
^ o^o-^ "^ —- q, = 07.
>
qj = 1007.

-
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 J 1 1 1
0.005 0.010 0.015
Quality, X

Fig. 17. Relative Velocity as a Function of Quality and Superficial Liquid Velocity for the
Nitrogen-Freon-113 Mixture
 39

b e c o m e s a p p a r e n t that a gas bubble into which F r e o n is evaporating will

have a higher t e r m i n a l velocity than a gas bubble which is not subject to
humidification.

The r e l a t i v e velocities a r e plotted v e r s u s the ratio of the volumetric

flow r a t e s in F i g u r e s 18, 19, and 20. Attention should be paid to the s i m i -
l a r i t y between F i g u r e 18 for the a i r - w a t e r mixture and F i g u r e 19 for the
n i t r o g e n - m e r c u r y m i x t u r e . G r a p h s , previously p r e s e n t e d , also showed a
distinct s i m i l a r i t y between the a i r - w a t e r and n i t r o g e n - m e r c u r y data. This
s i m i l a r i t y is used in Chapter V as the b a s i s for the hypothesis that it is
possible to combine slip r a t i o s for fluids with different p r o p e r t i e s into
one g e n e r a l c o r r e l a t i o n .

100
T 1 r
0 Fr - 0.00136
X Fr - 0.00540
n Fr - 0.01218
1- Fr - 0.0490
A Fr - 0.136

/ / J
10
- / - \ - / ~ / - / — / ~

01
>

II

J L
10 100

Volumetric Flow-Rate Ratio,

1 -X

Fig. 18. Relative Velocity as a Function of the

Volumetric Flow-Rate Ratio and the
Froude Number for the A i r - W a t e r
Mixture
40

Volumetric Flow-Rate Ratio, ^

1 - X,

t i g . 19. Relative Velocity as a Function of the Volumetric Flow-Rate Ratio and the Froude
Number for the Nitrogen-Mercury Mixture

20
1 1 1 1
V^
o
Fr =
gD

10
y
y
6—
_ 0 ^

4 - -

2 _
o Fr = 0.0176
I" Fr = 0.107
cp = 07.
cp = 1007.
1 1 1 "^ 1 1
8 10 20

Volumetric Flow-Rate Ratio, ( j

Fig. 20. Relative Velocity as a Function of the Volumeuic Flow-Rate

Ratio and the Froude Number for the Nitrogen-Freon-113
Mixture
 41

The void fraction has been plotted as a function of quality and c i r -

culation r a t e in F i g u r e 21 for the a i r - w a t e r m i x t u r e , and in F i g u r e 22 for
the n i t r o g e n - m e r c u r y m i x t u r e . F i g u r e 21 i l l u s t r a t e s that the void fraction

1.0

0.5 —I

0.05 0.10 0.15

Quality, X

Fig. 21. Void Fraction as a Function of Quality and Superficial Liquid Velocity for the Air-Water
Mixture

1 1 1 1 1
o V = 0.1 ft/sec -
o
0 V = 0 . 3 ft/sec
0
+ V = 0.6 ft/sec
o
4 V = 1 . 0 ft/sec
0.4 _

D^^^^

*
-
^--^'°'

o
> 0.2

————"o
,o -
5"

1 1 1
0.0002 0.0004 0.0006 0.0008
Quality, X

Fig. 22. Void Fraction as a Function of Quality and Superficial Liquid Velocity for the
Nitrogen-Mercury Mixture
is a rapidly i n c r e a s i n g function of the quality as long as the flow takes
place in the form of bubble or slug flow. The bubble-flow p a t t e r n exists
for void fractions ranging from 0 to approximately 0.280. The slug-flow
p a t t e r n can be identified for void fractions between 0.280 and 0.550. F o r
even higher void fractions, the flow takes place in the f o r m of churn or
s e m i - a n n u l a r flow. For these flow p a t t e r n s , the void fraction is a slowly
varying function of the quality, and the effect of the circulation r a t e has
decreased.

F i g u r e s 23 and 24 p r e s e n t the superficial gas velocity as a function

of the void fraction. F i g u r e 23, which p r e s e n t s the data of the a i r - w a t e r
m i x t u r e , i l l u s t r a t e s once m o r e that the bubble- and slug-flow p a t t e r n s
differ significantly from the c h u r n - and s e m i - a n n u l a r - f l o w p a t t e r n s . When-
ever quality has been used as a c o r r e l a t i n g p a r a m e t e r in the previously
p r e s e n t e d g r a p h s , the effect of the circulation r a t e has been introduced
through the quality itself. This, however, is not the c a s e in F i g u r e s 23
and 24, in which the v a r i a b l e s in both the a b s c i s s a and the ordinate a r e
not r e l a t e d to the circulation r a t e . Thus, the curves of F i g u r e s 23 and 24
c l e a r l y identify the effect of the circulation r a t e .

A few e x p e r i m e n t s have been p e r f o r m e d with no liquid circulation.

The superficial gas velocity is plotted v e r s u s the g a s - t o - l i q u i d hold-up in
Figure 25 for the a i r - w a t e r naixture and in Figure 26 for the nitrogen-
m e r c u r y m i x t u r e . This type of c o r r e l a t i o n was for the f i r s t time p r e s e n t e d
by Zmola et aL^^1 o)' for a i r - w a t e r m i x t u r e s . F i g u r e 25 is in good a g r e e m e n t
with the r e s u l t s r e p o r t e d by these a u t h o r s .

Void Fraction, a

Fig. 23. Superficial Gas Velocity as a Function of Void F r a c t i o n and

Superficial Liquid Velocity for the A i r - W a t e r Mixture
 2 _

>

o.
3

0.1 0.2 0.3

Void Fraction, O!

Fig. 24. Superficial Gas Velocity as a Function of Void Fraction and Superficial Liquid Velocity for
the Nitrogen-Mercury Mixture

T T 1—7"
/
0
/
10 T

> 9,"
p
o Fig. 25

Superficial Gas Velocity as a

Function of Gas-to-Liquid
/
Hold-Up for the Air-Water
/ Mixture

V = 0 ft/sec
o

0.1 10

Gas-to-Liquid Hold-Up,
1 - a
44

G a s - t o - L i q u i d Hold-Up,a
1 - cc
F i g . 26. Superficial Gas Velocity as a Function
of G a s - t o - L i q u i d H o l d - U p for the
Nitrogen-Mercury Mixture

B. E r r o r Analysis

T h i s s e c t i o n g i v e s a q u a l i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s of t h e e r r o r s t h a t a r e i n -
v o l v e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s l y p r e s e n t e d r e s u l t s . T h e p r e c i s i o n of e a c h i n s t r u -
m e n t i s g i v e n in t h e s e c t i o n on t h e i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and w i l l n o t b e r e s t a t e d
here.

F r o m the f o r m u l a for t h e s l i p r a t i o .

Vg Wg 1 - a PH
(1.15)
V^ Wg a Pg

it i s s e e n t h a t t h e r e l a t i v e e r r o r in t h e s l i p r a t i o c a n be w r i t t e n a s

A(V / V i ) AWi AW Aa APa 'Pi

v^ w^
+ -z::^ + 2
wg a
-f
Pi
(4.1)
It is immediately seen that the e r r o r s can be brought together into t h r e e
major g r o u p s , namely, e r r o r s in the m e a s u r e m e n t of the m a s s flow r a t e s ,
e r r o r s in the m e a s u r e m e n t of the void fraction, and e r r o r s in the d e t e r m i -
nation of the d e n s i t i e s .

A s h o r t r e v i e w of the difficulties which w e r e encountered in the

m e a s u r e m e n t of t h e s e data is given below. These difficulties included t r a n -
sients f r o m r e a d j u s t m e n t s of the c o n t r o l v a l v e s , liquid-flow-rate oscillations,
and pulsations in the m a n o m e t e r l e g s . F l o w - r a t e oscillations w e r e low-
frequency p e r i o d i c changes of the liquid flow r a t e . The pulsations in the
m a n o m e t e r legs originated f r o m the i r r e g u l a r flow in the t e s t section. They
o c c u r r e d with high frequencies and could be damped out without reducing
the i m m e d i a t e r e s p o n s e of the m e a s u r i n g device. Readings w e r e taken only
after the t r a n s i e n t s f r o m p r e v i o u s r e a d j u s t m e n t s had died out. F l o w - r a t e
oscillations and pulsations in the m a n o m e t e r s w e r e visually a v e r a g e d at the
t i m e that the data w e r e taken.

The f l o w - r a t e o s c i l l a t i o n s and the pulsations in the m a n o m e t e r s made

the m e a s u r e m e n t of the liquid flow r a t e r a t h e r difficult. Sufficient time was
spent to a s c e r t a i n that the a v e r a g e d value of the m a n o m e t e r reading c o r -
r e s p o n d e d to the d e s i r e d flow r a t e . The m e a s u r e m e n t of the gas flow r a t e ,
however, was not influenced by the difficulties d e s c r i b e d above because the
gas flow r a t e was supplied f r o m a r e g u l a t e d s o u r c e . Both flow r a t e s w e r e
m e a s u r e d by m e a n s of orifice flow m e t e r s , the orifice plates of which w e r e
s y s t e m a t i c a l l y changed in o r d e r to o p e r a t e with the highest possible p r e c i -
sion; the indicating fluids in the m a n o m e t e r s w e r e changed for the s a m e
purpose.

The m e a s u r e m e n t s of the void fractions which w e r e done by m e a n s

of differential m a n o m e t e r s w e r e affected by both the flow oscillations and
the pulsations in the m a n o m e t e r l e g s . E x t r e m e c a r e was taken to avoid the
p r e s e n c e of gas in the v e r t i c a l sections of the m a n o m e t e r l i n e s . The r u n s
w e r e i n t e r r u p t e d about e v e r y four to five m e a s u r e m e n t s so that the z e r o
r e a d i n g s of the m a n o m e t e r s could be checked. Any indication of the p o s s i b l e
p r e s e n c e of gas in the lines led to the r e j e c t i o n of the data, and the run was
r e p e a t e d after careful bleeding of the m a n o m e t e r l i n e s .

The difficulties in the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the gas density w e r e the s a m e

as those which affected the m e a s u r e m e n t s of void fraction. The liquid den-
sity, however, could be d e t e r m i n e d without any a p p r e c i a b l e e r r o r .

In view of the a b o v e - d e s c r i b e d difficulties, and the techniques that

w e r e used to r e d u c e t h e i r effects t o g e t h e r with the p r e c i s i o n of the i n s t r u -
m e n t s that w e r e employed, the a v e r a g e e r r o r of the slip r a t i o s is thought to
be of the o r d e r of ±7 p e r cent for the a i r - w a t e r data, ±15 p e r cent for the
n i t r o g e n - F r e o n data, and ±11 p e r cent for the n i t r o g e n - m e r c u r y data.
 V. D E V E L O P M E N T OF A GENERAL CORRELATION

The r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d in Chapter IV c l e a r l y i l l u s t r a t e d the influence

of both the quality and the c i r c u l a t i o n r a t e on slippage. The plotting of the
slip r a t i o s v e r s u s the r a t i o of the v o l u m e t r i c flow r a t e s eliminated the effect
of the d e n s i t i e s . A c o m p a r i s o n between the data for the t h r e e m i x t u r e s in-
dicated that slippage is influenced not only by the density of the fluids but
also by the other fluid p r o p e r t i e s . In this c h a p t e r , an attempt will be made
to identify t h e s e fluid p r o p e r t i e s and to d e t e r m i n e the i m p o r t a n c e of t h e i r
effect.

The p r o c e d u r e used for this p u r p o s e is b a s e d on the hypothesis that

it is p o s s i b l e to combine the slip r a t i o s of the t h r e e m i x t u r e s into one gen-
e r a l c o r r e l a t i o n . Dimensional a n a l y s i s was used to d e t e r m i n e suitable
d i m e n s i o n l e s s g r o u p s . The r e s u l t i n g c o r r e l a t i o n was found to fit the data
well. It was p o s s i b l e to derive an e m p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n to p r e d i c t slip r a t i o s
as a function of flow p a r a m e t e r s and fluid p r o p e r t i e s . Slip-quality c u r v e s
which w e r e c o n s t r u c t e d by m e a n s of this r e l a t i o n , however, showed slopes
which Avere slightly different f r o m the slopes of the c u r v e s p r e s e n t e d in
F i g u r e s 8, 9, 10, and 11. The follow^ing c o r r e l a t i o n i s , t h e r e f o r e , not a
substitute for the slip-quality g r a p h s which w e r e p r e s e n t e d in Chapter IV.
The c o r r e l a t i o n is valuable, however, in that it gives insight into the r e l a -
tive i m p o r t a n c e of the independent v a r i a b l e s which influence slippage.

A. D i m e n s i o n a l A n a l y s i s

The independent v a r i a b l e s which w e r e believed to affect slippage in

upward c o c u r r e n t flow w e r e the gas flow r a t e W , the liquid flow r a t e W^ ,
the gas density at the t e s t point, Pg, the liquid density at the t e s t point, p^,
the dynamic v i s c o s i t y of the liquid,/^^, the surface tension of the liquid, a,
the d i a m e t e r of the t e s t section, D, and the a c c e l e r a t i o n due to gravity, g.
Any product of Vg and V^ together with the a b o v e - l i s t e d v a r i a b l e s has the
following form,

TT = (Wg)^i (W^)^^ {p/^ (p^)^^ if,/' (a)^^ (D)^^ (g)^« (Vg)^^ (V_g)^^° (5.1)

If the a p p r o p r i a t e dimensions a r e i n s e r t e d , t h e r e is obtained

/M\^i /M\^2 /M\^3 fM^' fM\^' fM\' (^ \ ' ( l . \ ' ( l . b (l.\''

" = (-J (T) (U) (U) [jTi) (f^j {^) (F^) (Y) (T) (5 2)
T h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t t h e e x p o n e n t of e v e r y d i m e n s i o n i s z e r o g i v e s t h r e e
equations with nine unknowns:

k i + k2 + k3 -f k4 -F kg + kfe = 0 , (5.3)

- k i - k2 - kg - 2k6 - 2k8 + kio = 0 , (5.4)

-3k3 - 3k4 - kg + k7 + kg - kg - kio = 0 . (5.5)

 47

E q u a t i o n s ( 5 . 3 ) , ( 5 . 4 ) , a n d (5,5) c a n b e r e a r r a n g e d and k2, k4, a n d k7 ex-

p r e s s e d in t e r m s of the o t h e r e x p o n e n t s :

kz - 2k, 2k« + kg -f k 10 (5.6)

k^ = - k , + kft + 2ks '10 (5.7)

k= -t- 3kf, -t- 5k8 - 2kq - 2k 10 (5.8)

S u b s t i t u t i o n of t h e s e v a r i a b l e s i n t o E q u a t i o n (5.1) a n d g r o u p i n g t h e t e r m s
a c c o r d i n g to c o m m o n e x p o n e n t g i v e

(5,9)
!vW^/\ P g / V ^ V o / \ g D /J

T h e g r o u p W / W ^ = X / ( 1 - X) i s t h e r a t i o of the g a s flow r a t e to t h e l i q u i d
flow r a t e . T h e g r o u p PO/PQ i s t h e r a t i o of t h e l i q u i d d e n s i t y to t h e g a s d e n -
s i t y a n d i n c l u d e s t h e effect of the p r e s s u r e in t h e t e r m p . T h e s i g n i f i c a n c e
of t h e g r o u p a / u ^ V o b e c o m e s a p p a r e n t w h e n m u l t i p l y i n g trie n u m e r a t o r a n d
t h e d e n o m i n a t o r by D; i t i s the r a t i o of t h e s u r f a c e t e n s i o n f o r c e s to the
v i s c o u s s h e a r f o r c e s . T h e s u r f a c e t e n s i o n f o r c e s o r i g i n a t e f r o m the i n t e r -
a c t i o n b e t w e e n the l i q u i d p h a s e a n d t h e g a s p h a s e a t t h e g a s - l i q u i d i n t e r f a c e .
T h e v i s c o u s s h e a r f o r c e s find t h e i r o r i g i n in t h e v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n e x i s t i n g
in t h e l i q u i d p h a s e . T h e l a s t g r o u p , V o / g D , i s r e a d i l y r e c o g n i z e d a s t h e
F r o u d e n u m b e r a n d i s t h e r a t i o of t h e i n e r t i a l to t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l o r w e i g h t
f o r c e s . T h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h i s g r o u p b e c o m e s a p p a r e n t w h e n m u l t i p l y i n g
a n d d i v i d i n g by p ^ A p . It i s left to d e t e r m i n e the f u n c t i o n a l r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n
t h e s l i p r a t i o a n d t h e d i m e n s i o n l e s s g r o u p s of E q u a t i o n ( 5 , 9 ) .

B. D e r i v a t i o n of a G e n e r a l C o r r e l a t i o n

A c r o s s - p l o t of t h e g r a p h s p r e s e n t e d in F i g u r e s 12, 13, a n d 14 r e -
v e a l e d t h a t t h e l i n e s of c o n s t a n t F r o u d e n u m b e r c o u l d be b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r
b y m u l t i p l y i n g the s l i p r a t i o s by t h e d i m e n s i o n l e s s g r o u p (o//i^Vo) r a i s e d
to a p o w e r of 0 , 3 0 0 . A f a m i l y of c u r v e s w i t h t h e F r o u d e n u n a b e r a s p a r a m -
e t e r w a s o b t a i n e d . T h i s f a m i l y of c u r v e s c o u l d be c o m b i n e d w h e n the
F r o u d e n u m b e r v/as r a i s e d to a v a r i a b l e e x p o n e n t w h i c h w a s a l i n e a r f u n c -
t i o n of t h e l o g a r i t h m of t h e v o l u m e t r i c flow r a t e r a t i o . A f i r s t a t t e m p t to
c o r r e l a t e the s l i p r a t i o s of the t h r e e m i x t u r e s r e v e a l e d a f u n c t i o n a l r e l a -
t i o n of t h e f o r m

\C
X 2 / V o2 \\C ,
t^n fo Cl + in (5.10)
. \ i - x ; \Pg./'\MiVo; \ g D / __

where

' X
C3 = C4 - C5 l o g 10 (5-11)
1 -X
48

The b e s t combination of the constants Cj, C2, C4, and C5 was d e t e r -

mined by a s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s . A selection was made of 124 data points
(out of a total of 294) in such a way that for each m i x t u r e and for each
circulation r a t e both the m a x i m u m and the m i n i m u m deviations from the
expected value would be included. A digital computer p r o g r a m was de-
veloped to p e r f o r m this work. The p r o g r a m computed the l e a s t - s q u a r e
b e s t fit for the data for v a r i o u s connbinations of Cj, C2, C4, and C5. It also
p e r m i t t e d computation of the deviation (in per cent) of each point from the
line of b e s t fit. The p r o c e d u r e for determining the b e s t combination of
constants consisted in minimizing the standard deviation of the p e r cent
deviations of all points. The c o r r e l a t i o n which was found to be the "best"
for the data set is w r i t t e n as
TO.416
0.700 -A
X
= 0.815 (5.12)
Vi 1 - X /W/UiVo/
, [gDJ
with

A = 0.420 - 0.135 log 10 (5.13)

1 - X/Vp
g /-I
The c o r r e l a t i o n of Equations (5.12) and (5.13) is displayed in F i g u r e 27.

F i g . 27. Dimensionless C o r r e l a t i o n for Slip Ratios

 49

A close fit exists over the entire range of slip r a t i o s . The distribution of
the per cent e r r o r of the data is given in Figure 28. This distribution has
a standard deviation of

0.137 (5.14)
Frequency

Fig. 28
E r r o r Distribution of
Slip-Ratio Correlation

Relative Error (Per Cant)

-40 •20 Q 20
1 ^T ^
-3(T -2a -CT 0 +CT +2cr +3CT
Standard Deviation

Equation (5.12) can also be w r i t t e n as

-,0,416 0.29 -B
V Pi
g = 0.815 X Vi. (5.15)
Vi 1 -X Pc MiVc gD

where

B = 0.416 A = 0.175 - 0.056 log 10

X Pi
(5.16)
1 -X Pg

Equations (5.15) and (5.16) can be used to evaluate the slip ratio as a func-
tion of the flow p a r a m e t e r s and the fluid p r o p e r t i e s for superficial liquid
velocities ranging from 0 to 1 f t / s e c , and pipe d i a m e t e r s l a r g e r than 2 in.
F i g u r e 29 gives an e r r o r plot of the m e a s u r e d values of the slip r a t i o s
v e r s u s the values p r e d i c t e d by Equations (5.15) and (5.16).
 100

&

-< 10
T3

X Air-Hater
i Nitrogen-Freon
0 Nitrogen-Mercury

100
Measured Slip Ratios

F i g . 29. E r r o r Plot of P r e d i c t e d v e r s u s
M e a s u r e d Slip Ratios

A c o m p a r i s o n between Equations (1.15) and (5.12) shows that the

liquid-to-gas hold-up can be evaluated from the e m p i r i c a l e x p r e s s i o n
-0.584 B
1 - a
0.815
X Pi / a V'V yl (5.17)
a 1 -X g'-J
\/^iV( gD

with

X Pi
B = 0.175 - 0.056 logio (5.16)
1 -X Pc

An e r r o r plot of the m e a s u r e d void fractions v e r s u s those predicted by

Equations (5.17) and (5,16) is given in F i g u r e 30.

The e m p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n s which w e r e p r e s e n t e d for the prediction of

slip r a t i o s and void fractions a r e valid in the p a r a m e t e r ranges specified
in Table I. They a r e r e c o m m e n d e d for flow r e g i m e s with void fractions
ranging from 0.100 to 0.800 and apply to volumetric flow r a t e r a t i o s r a n g -
ing from 0.600 to 100. Care should be used in extrapolating the c o r r e l a t i o n
outside the ranges specified above.
 51

0.

0.6
03
c
o
y 0.4
u
Pt4

o
>
0)
* Air-Water
^ 0.2
A Nitrogen-Freon
PLI o Nitrogen-Mercury

0.1
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 I
Measured Void Fractions
F i g . 30. E r r o r Plot of P r e d i c t e d v e r s u s
Measured- Void F r a c t i o n s

Discussion of the C o r r e l a t i o n

Seven independent v a r i a b l e s a r e included in the g e n e r a l c o r r e l a t i o n ,

nannely, the quality, the superficial liquid velocity, the liquid density, the
gas density, the surface tension of the liquid, the viscosity of the liquid, and
the pipe d i a m e t e r . The gas density, however, includes the effects of t e m -
p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e . The effect of the t e m p e r a t u r e is also introduced
through the liquid p r o p e r t i e s , i.e., through the surface tension, the v i s c o s -
ity, and the density.

The effects of the gas viscosity and the p r e s s u r e w e r e not included

in the dimensional a n a l y s i s . Whether or not the viscosity of the gas phase
has an influence on slippage is not known. One w^ould expect that the gas
viscosity does have an influence, but its importance has not been i n v e s t i -
gated yet. The two g a s e s that w e r e used in the e x p e r i m e n t s , a i r and n i t r o -
gen, have p r a c t i c a l l y the s a m e viscosity. Any influence of this fluid
p r o p e r t y w^as t h e r e f o r e eliminated. The p r e s s u r e has not been included in
the dimensional a n a l y s i s , unless indirectly through the gas density. It has
been explained in the "Introduction" that the p r e s s u r e has a dual influence
on slippage, namely, changing the gas density and affecting the flow p a t t e r n s .
The p r e s s u r e range which was c o v e r e d in the e x p e r i m e n t s was r a t h e r s m a l l .
52

The p r e s s u r e in the n i t r o g e n - m e r c u r y m i x t u r e r a n g e d f r o m one to two

a t m o s p h e r e s (absolute). The p r e s s u r e in the air--water and n i t r o g e n -
F r e o n m i x t u r e s v a r i e d slightly above one a t m o s p h e r e . It is believed
that t h e s e v a r i a t i o n s in p r e s s u r e a r e not significant enough to have a
sizeable influence on the flow p a t t e r n s . When t e s t s w e r e p e r f o r m e d in a
wider p r e s s u r e range,, how^ever, the influence of the p r e s s u r e could be
included in the g e n e r a l c o r r e l a t i o n in the f o r m of a fifth d i m e n s i o n l e s s
group, g c ^ / P i V o , which is the r a t i o of the static p r e s s u r e to the dynamic
pressure.

The v a r i a b l e exponent of the F r o u d e n u m b e r in the c o r r e l a t i o n

can be i n t e r p r e t e d as a functional formulation of the flow-pattern effect.
The fact that the data points a r e c o r r e l a t e d over the e n t i r e range of the
slip r a t i o s indicates that this v a r i a b l e exponent is valid for all flow p a t -
t e r n s -which have b e e n e n c o u n t e r e d . T h e s e flow p a t t e r n s a r e bubble flow,
slug or plug flo^w, c h u r n - t u r b u l e n t flow, and s e m i - a n n u l a r flo^w,
respectively.

The values of the surface tensions which v/ere u s e d in t h e g e n e r a l

c o r r e l a t i o n a r e briefly d i s c u s s e d in this p a r a g r a p h , A value of 0.005 Ibr/ft
at 66°F was used for the surface tension of the •water.V-^-''' T e m p e r a t u r e
c o r r e c t i o n s w e r e nn.ade only if a sizeable e r r o r ( m o r e than 1 per cent)
would have r e s u l t e d f r o m neglecting the t e n a p e r a t u r e effect. The values
of the surface tension of m e r c u r y which a r e r e p o r t e d in the l i t e r a -
turev35-38j v a r y over a r a n g e of 6 per cent. An a v e r a g e value of
0.0 3 Ibf/ft was used in the c o r r e l a t i o n . The surface tension of the F r e o n
was 0.0013 lbf/ft,(39)

Equations (5,15) and (5,16) w e r e u s e d to r e c o n s t r u c t the s l i p -

quality g r a p h s of F i g u r e s 8, 9, 10, and 11. It was o b s e r v e d that the slopes
of the r e c o n s t r u c t e d c u r v e s w e r e slightly different f r o m those of the b e s t -
fit l i n e s . The a i r - w a t e r r e c o n s t r u c t e d c u r v e s had a lower slope than the
m e a s u r e d c u r v e s ; the n i t r o g e n - i m e r c u r y lines, h o w e v e r , showed the op-
posite t r e n d . This i n d i c a t e s that some effects or independent v a r i a b l e s
w e r e omitted in the d e r i v a t i o n of the g e n e r a l c o r r e l a t i o n . An a t t e m p t was
made to include the d i m e n s i o n l e s s group gcP/PiVo into the c o r r e l a t i o n ,
but this did not bring any i m p r o v e m e n t .

The cause of the a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d d i s c r e p a n c y between the slopes

could not be d e t e r m i n e d . The development of the g e n e r a l c o r r e l a t i o n was
based on the hypothesis that slip r a t i o s for fluids with different p r o p e r t i e s
can be brought together into one c o r r e l a t i o n . T h e r e is no evidence to date
that this hypothesis i s valid. Neal^ °' concluded in a r e c e n t study of
c o c u r r e n t n i t r o g e n - m e r c u r y flow that the c o r r e l a t i o n s developed for a i r -
water m i x t u r e s w e r e not valid for n i t r o g e n - m e r c u r y m i x t u r e s . This con-
clusion was b a s e d on r e s u l t s which w e r e obtained f r o m e x p e r i m e n t s in a
non-wetted t e s t section. The type of flow which -was o b s e r v e d in that c a s e
was entirely different from the types generally identified in wetted p i p e s .
The n i t r o g e n - m e r c u r y e x p e r i m e n t s of the p r e s e n t study, however, w e r e
c a r r i e d out in a m e r c u r y - w e t t e d t e s t section. Whether the wetting of the
wall by m e r c u r y gives flow^ types which a r e completely s i m i l a r to those
in air-w^ater m i x t u r e s could not be o b s e r v e d and has yet to be confirmed.
Thus, it is p o s s i b l e that the assumption of s i m i l a r flow types in the t h r e e
m i x t u r e s w^as not valid; this would explain the difference in s l o p e s .

A second r e a s o n for the d i s c r e p a n c y in the slip-quality slopes

could be found in an inadequate or incomplete choice of independent v a r i -
ables w^ith which the dimensional a n a l y s i s was p e r f o r m e d . It is believed
that m o r e two-phase m i x t u r e s should be tested to d e t e r m i n e the validity
of this a s s u m p t i o n .
 VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

This study w^as u n d e r t a k e n w^ith the p u r p o s e of providing s l i p - r a t i o

data for g a s - l i q u i d m i x t u r e s which c i r c u l a t e v/ith superficial liquid v e l o c -
ities ranging from 0 to 1 f t / s e c . The need for t h e s e data originated f r o m
the fact that existing c o r r e l a t i o n s failed to p r e d i c t a c c u r a t e l y slip r a t i o s
w^hen the m i x t u r e "was moving at a slow^ r a t e . The e x p e r i m e n t a l study i n -
volved the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of slip r a t i o s , r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t i e s , void f r a c t i o n s ,
and superficial gas v e l o c i t i e s as a function of quality and circulation r a t e
in a i r - w a t e r , n i t r o g e n - F r e o n - 1 1 3 , and n i t r o g e n - m e r c u r y m i x t u r e s . All
e x p e r i m e n t s "were c a r r i e d out in n a t u r a l - c i r c u l a t i o n loops under a t m o s -
p h e r i c p r e s s u r e , and the t e s t sections w e r e chosen l a r g e enough to avoid
g e o m e t r y effects. The n i t r o g e n - m e r c u r y m i x t u r e w^as studied in a m e r c u r y -
wetted t e s t section. This avoided the formation of l a r g e gas slugs and the
subsequent unstable flow^ p a t t e r n w^hich is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by s e v e r e static
p r e s s u r e o s c i l l a t i o n s . A c o m p a r i s o n w^as made between the slip r a t i o s
obtained in each of the t h r e e m i x t u r e s with the p u r p o s e of identifying the
influence of fluid p r o p e r t i e s on gas slippage.

It was o b s e r v e d that tw^o-phase flow^ p a r a m e t e r s w e r e strongly d e -

pendent upon both the quality and the superficial liquid velocity. Slip r a t i o s
and r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t i e s w e r e plotted v e r s u s the r a t i o of the v o l u m e t r i c flow^
r a t e s . A family of c u r v e s was obtained with the F r o u d e n u m b e r , which was
b a s e d on the superficial liquid velocity, as a p a r a m e t e r . The graph for the
a i r - w a t e r slip r a t i o s w^as o b s e r v e d to deviate significantly from the w o r k -
ing g r a p h w^hich v/as p r o p o s e d by M a r c h a t e r r e and Hoglundi") for superficial
liquid v e l o c i t i e s higher than 0.8 f t / s e c .

It w^as found that fluid p r o p e r t i e s have significant influences on

slippage in g a s - l i q u i d m i x t u r e s . Slip r a t i o s w e r e o b s e r v e d to i n c r e a s e
w^ith i n c r e a s i n g surface tension, and to d e c r e a s e with i n c r e a s i n g dynamic
v i s c o s i t y of the liquid. The effect of flow^ p a t t e r n s w^as found to be con-
veniently d e s c r i b e d by a v a r i a b l e exponent of the F r o u d e n u m b e r . This
exponent could be e x p r e s s e d as a l i n e a r l y d e c r e a s i n g function of the
l o g a r i t h m of the v o l u m e t r i c flow^ r a t e r a t i o . Dimensional a n a l y s i s was
u s e d to d e r i v e e m p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n s for the p r e d i c t i o n of slip r a t i o s and
void fractions as a function of the flo-w p a r a m e t e r s and the fluid p r o p e r t i e s :

0.416 / a \o-29 / Vo " ^ " ^

1M - 0.815 (5.15)
L MiVo/ \gD

• a .0.584 / f7 \ 0 . 2 9 / V Q "^"^
= 0.815 (5.17)
a l-X/VPe vM^Vo/ VgD
with

B = 0.175 - 0.056 logio (5.16)

i - x ) I p.

These e m p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n s w e r e d e t e r m i n e d for two-phase m i x t u r e s which

w e r e flowing at superficial liquid velocities ranging from 0 to 1 f t / s e c ,
with c o r r e s p o n d i n g void fractions ranging from 0.100 to 0.800. They a r e
not r e c o m m e n d e d for the p r e d i c t i o n of slip r a t i o s in pipes -with inner
d i a m e t e r s l e s s than 2 in. The e m p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n s p r e d i c t e d 95 p e r cent
of the slip r a t i o data with a m a x i m u m r e l a t i v e e r r o r of t27.2 p e r cent,
and 95 p e r cent of the void fraction data with a m a x i m u m r e l a t i v e e r r o r of
+ 15 p e r cent.

This study p r o v i d e s foundations upon which other studies can be

c a r r i e d out. The fluids which w e r e u s e d in this e x p e r i m e n t a l study had
surface t e n s i o n s w^hose values v a r i e d over a wide range. As a r e s u l t , the
effect of the surface tension could e a s i l y be observed. The values of the
dynamic v i s c o s i t i e s of the liquid, however, w e r e r e s t r i c t e d to a n a r r o w
r a n g e , and the p r e s e n c e of jU^ in the denominator of the d i m e n s i o n l e s s
group q/ju^Vo was justified on the b a s i s of dimensional a n a l y s i s . It is
suggested that t e s t s be made to e x p e r i m e n t a l l y confirm the validity of
this group as a c o r r e l a t i n g p a r a m e t e r .

The influence of the v i s c o s i t y of the gas was not investigated in

this study. More e x p e r i m e n t a l data a r e needed to identify the i m p o r t a n c e
of this fluid p r o p e r t y .

Dimensional a n a l y s i s p e r m i t t e d a c o r r e l a t i o n of slip r a t i o s and

void fractions as a function of flow p a r a m e t e r s and fluid p r o p e r t i e s in a
p a r a m e t e r range which was r e s t r i c t e d to low circulation r a t e s , l a r g e pipe
d i a m e t e r s , and a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e . An attempt should be made to
apply this c o r r e l a t i n g p r o c e d u r e to slip r a t i o s and void fractions which
hold for conditions outside the range of this work.
 VII. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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12. M a r c h a t e r r e , J. F . , The Effect of P r e s s u r e on Boiling Density in
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13. P e t r i c k , M., A Study of Vapor C a r r y u n d e r and A s s o c i a t e d P r o b l e m s ,
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B u b b l i n g S y s t e m s a n d t h e i r O p e r a t i n g L i m i t s , P a r t I: S t e a d y S t a t e
O p e r a t i o n , G. E . R e p o r t N o . 6 2 G L 1 0 0 ( J u l y 1962).
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S t e a m - W a t e r F l o w , A l C h E J o u r n . , _3 ( M a r c h 1957).
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A N L - 6 6 2 5 ( J a n 1963).
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(Dec 1956). ~
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S e c t i o n s w i t h N a t u r a l C i r c u l a t i o n , A N L - 5 6 2 1 (Nov 195 6).
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B e h a v i o r in B o i l i n g H e a t T r a n s f e r , B M I - 1 1 6 3 ( F e b 1957).
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W a t e r in V e r t i c a l T u b e s , U n p u b l i s h e d S c . D . T h e s i s , M a s s a c h u s e t t s
I n s t i t u t e of T e c h n o l o g y (1952).
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T h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y of M i n n e s o t a (1954).
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p u b l i s h e d T l j e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y of M i n n e s o t a (1954).
28. G a l e g a r , W. C , W. B . S t o v a l , a n d R. L . H u n t i n g t o n , M o r e D a t a on
T w o - p h a s e V e r t i c a l F l o w , P e t r o l e u m R e f i n e r , 33 (Nov 1954).
29. Liquid Metals Handbook, Sodium-Nak Supplement, p. 51.
30. B o n i l l a , C , a n d M i s z a , H e a t T r a n s f e r in t h e C o n d e n s a t i o n of M e t a l
V a p o r s : M e r c u r y a n d S o d i u m u p to A t m o s p h e r i c P r e s s u r e , H e a t
T r a n s f e r , C h e m . E n g . P r o g r e s s , S y m p o s i u m S e r i e s , 52 (1956).
31. H a c k e t , H. N . , M e r c u r y for t h e G e n e r a t i o n of L i g h t , H e a t a n d P o w e r ,
T r a n s . A S M E , 64 (Oct 1 9 4 2 ~
32. H o o k e r , H . H . , a n d G. F . P o p p e r , A G a m m a - r a y A t t e n u a t i o n M e t h o d
for Void F r a c t i o n D e t e r m i n a t i o n in E x p e r i m e n t a l B o i l i n g H e a t T r a n s -
f e r T e s t F a c i l i t i e s , A N L - 5 7 6 6 (Nov 1958).
33. G r a c e , H. P . , and G. E. Lapple, D i s c h a r g e Coefficients of S m a l l -
d i a m e t e r Orifices and Flow N o z z l e s , T r a n s . ASME, 73 (July 1951).
34. T h e r m o d y n a m i c P r o p e r t i e s of " F r e o n - 1 1 3 " T r i c h l o r o t r i f l u o r o e t h a n e
w^ith Addition of Other P h y s i c a l P r o p e r t i e s , E. I. Du Pont de N e m o u r s
& Company, " F r e o n " P r o d u c t s Division, Wilmington 98, D e l a w a r e .
35. S t r e e t e r , V. L., F l u i d M e c h a n i c s , McGraw^-Hill Book Company, Inc.,
New York (1962) Third Edition, p. 14.
36. Handbook of C h e m i s t r y and P h y s i c s , Chemical Rubber Publishing
Company (1961-1962) F o r t y - F o u r t h Edition, p. 2197.
37. S t r e e t e r , V. L., Handbook of Fluid D y n a m i c s , M c G r a w - H i l l Book
Company, Inc., New York (1961) F i r s t Edition, p . 1-19-
38. Metals Handbook, A m e r i c a n Society for Metals (1961) Vol. I, Eighth
Edition, p. 1215.
39- Surface Tension of the F r e o n Compounds, E. I. Du Pont de N e m o u r s
& Company, " F r e o n " P r o d u c t s Division, Wilmington 98, D e l a w a r e .
 59

APPENDIX
I. TABULATED DATA FOR AIR-WATER MIXTURE

Run
Number
^0
( f t / sec) X a
\
Vi
Vg-V^
(ft/sec)
Vog
(ft/sec)
^-^[p^r^
(1,1-xj
A-1 (3 0.597 _ _ 2.87 „

2 - 0.600 - - 2.74 -
3 - 0.584 - - 2.53 -
4 - 0.553 - - 2.31 -
5 - 0.553 - - 2,09 -
6 - 0.514 - - 1.84 -
7 - 0.481 - - 1.41 _
8 - 0.419 - - 0.97 -
9 - 0.339 - - 0.69 -
10 - 0.778 - - 11.80 -
11 - 0.784 - - 11.30 -
12 - 0.783 - - 10.60 -
13 - 0.766 - - 9.45 -
14 - 0.752 - - 8.19 -
15 - 0.733 - - 6.65 -
16 - 0.689 - - 4.68 _
17 - 0.619 - - 3.32 -
18 - 0.577 - - 2.63 -
19 - 0.847 - - 23.78 -
20 - 0.823 - - 18.90 -
21 ^' 0.803 - - 13.29 -

B-1 0.]10 0.0763 0.703 28.60 9.28 6.78 67.80

2 0.0661 0.691 25.90 - - 57.88
3 0.0545 0.666 23.40 - - 46.60
4 0.0492 0.644 23.30 - - 42.16
5 0.0313 0.559 20.60 4.43 2.61 26.10
6 0.1260 0.763 37.20 15.20 12.02 119.46
7 0.0964 0.744 28.60 11.50 8.80 88.17
8 0.0428 0.666 18.30 - - 36.45
9 0.0349 0.559 23.30 - - 29.48
10 0.0293 0.566 18.80 4.11 2.45 24.56
11 0.0205 0.475 18.70 3.54 1.69 16.87
12 0.0137 0.419 15.50 2.48 1.12 11.16
13 0.0089 0.303 16.40 2.22 0.711 7.15
14 0.0020 0.108 12.10 1.34 0.156 1.56
15 0.0018 0.092 13.90 - - 1.41
16 0.0013 0.067 14.20 1.42 0.105 1.02
17 0.2200 0.828 49.30 - - 236.50
18 0.1880 0.803 47.50 - - 193.95
19 0.1550 0.788 41.10 - - 153.01
20 0.1133 0.780 29.82 - - 105.74
21 0.0932 0.753 27.95 - - 85.21
22 ^ 0.0775 0.738 25.40 - - 69.04
60

Run V0 Vog
^g VgJ^i ( ^ \/'^^''
Number (ft/sec) X a (ft/sec) (ft/sec)
V£ V-^)[pg
C-1 0.20 0.0390 0.694 14.70 8.95 6.79 33.40
2 0.0277 0.644 12.90 6.64 4,65 23.30
3 0.0187 0.578 11.30 4.89 3.10 15.50
4 0.0672 0.753 19.60 15.01 11.93 59.60
5 0.0528 0.728 17.20 - - 46.10
6 0.0374 0.675 15.40 - - 32.00
7 0.0218 0.539 15.40 - - 18.10
8 0.0126 0.513 9.80 - - 10.40
9 0.0103 0.475 9.30 3.15 1.67 8.39
10 0.0059 0.377 7.80 2.18 0,94 4.71
11 0.0171 0.556 11.30 - - 14.18
12 0.0144 0.531 10.40 - - 11.85
13 0.0111 0.498 9.10 - - 9.05
14 0.1270 0.809 28.80 29.10 24.38 122.00
15 0.0978 0.781 25.40 - - 91.00
16 0.0843 0.772 22.70 18.98 15.35 76.80

D-1 0.:iO 0.0455 0.750 13.3 15.18 11.89 39.80

2 0.0358 0.731 11.3 11.51 9.23 30.74
3 0.0241 0.678 9.7 8.05 6.09 20.35
4 0.0116 0.541 8.1 4.84 2.85 9.52
5 0.0264 0.678 10.6 - - 22.33
6 0.0191 0.663 8.1 - - 16.00
7 0.0103 0.516 7.9 - - 8.43
8 0.0115 0.550 7.7 - - 9.40
9 0.0094 0.544 6.4 - - 7.72
10 0.0083 0.506 6.6 - - 6.80
11 0.0065 0.450 6.5 3.11 1.58 5.31
12 0.0866 0.794 20.6 28.96 23.80 79.39
13 0.0721 0.788 17.5 - - 64.97
14 0.0608 0.763 16.8 20.26 16.19 53.95

E-1 0.^10 0,0086 0.530 6.26 4.46 2.83 7.05

2 0.0081 0.527 6.00 - - 6.64
3 0.0073 0.509 5.80 - - 5.96
4 0.0064 0.486 5.50 - - 5.21
5 0.0052 0.447 5.20 - - 4.22
6 0.0041 0.402 4.90 - - 3.32
7 0.0029 0.338 4.60 2.15 0.93 2.32
8 0.0345 0.730 11.00 - - 29.76
9 0.0326 0.725 10.60 - - 27.88
10 0.0299 0.716 10.20 - - 25.60
11 0.0268 0.709 9.40 - - 22.85
12 0.0227 0.683 8.90 - - 19.19
13 0,0174 0.659 7.50 7.67 5.83 14.59
14 0.0127 0.614 6.60 5.83 4.22 10.53
15 0.0104 0.570 6.50 - - 8.58
16 0.0968 0.813 20.70 42.13 35.99 90.13
17 0.0756 0.805 16.60 32.01 27.42 68.68
18 0.0653 0.791 15.30 - - 58.14
19 0.0545 0.778 13.60 - - 47.85
20 0.0397 0,758 10.90 16.36 13.65 34.13
21 0.0292 0.723 9.50 - - 24.84
22 0.0333 0.752 9.52 - - 28.85
 61

Run ^g v-v^ Vog

Number (ft/sec) X a (ft/sec) (ft/sec) (.-x)($
E-23 0.40 0.0289 0.728 9.29 - - 24.85
24 0.0250 0.722 8.23 - - 21.38
25 0.0209 0.694 7.83 - - 17.76
26 0.0166 0.650 7.51 - - 13.97
27 0.0101 0.547 6.93 - - 8.37
28 0.0064 0.436 6.77 - - 5.23

F-1 0.60 0.0057 0.505 4.60 _ _ 4,65

2 0.0055 0.500 4,50 - - 4,49
3 0.0050 0.480 4,40 3.92 2.45 4.07
4 0.0044 0.464 4.10 - - 3.57
5 0.0038 0.434 4.00 - - 3.07
6 0.0029 0.375 3.90 - - 2.33
7 0.0019 0.313 3.30 2.05 0.97 1.52
8 0.0233 0.719 7.80 - - 19.88
9 0.0224 0.697 8.30 - - 19.02
10 0.0204 0.684 8.00 - - 17.26
11 0.0183 0.683 7.20 11.63 9.27 15.47
12 0.0148 0.658 6.40 - - 12.38
13 0.0120 0.617 6.20 8.11 5.97 9.94
14 0.0086 0.578 5.20 - - 7.10
15 0.0061 0.513 4.70 - - 4.98
16 0.0674 0.794 15.60 42.55 36.07 60.22
17 0.0604 0.783 14.80 - - 53.56
18 0.0518 0.772 13.40 32.64 27.23 45.42
19 0.0454 0.766 12.10 - - 39.54
20 0.0316 0.734 9.80 19.85 16.18 27.00
21 0.0455 0.775 11.50 - - 39.78
22 0.0370 0.741 11.20 - - 32.03
23 0.0286 0.741 8.60 - - 24,45
24 0.0222 0.728 7.08 - - 18.93
25 0.0193 0.709 6.72 - - 16.39
26 0.0168 0.700 6.09 - - 14,20
27 0.0140 0.664 5.95 - - 11,76
28 0.0105 0.616 5.43 - - 8.72
29 0.0066 0.527 4.85 - - 5.40
30 0.0042 0.419 4.54 - - 3.40

G-1 0.80 0.0041 0.444 4.20 _ _ 3.32

2 0.0043 0.475 3.90 - - 3.49
3 0.0037 0.444 3.70 - - 2.99
4 0.0034 0.425 3.70 3.79 2.22 2.74
5 0.0175 0.689 6.70 - - 14.77
6 0,0166 0.686 6.40 - - 14.02
7 0.0154 0.666 6.50 - - 12,92
8 0.0137 0.659 5.80 11.57 9.21 11.48
9 0.0112 0.639 5.30 - - 9.31
10 0.0081 0.589 4.70 7.17 5.34 6.72
11 0.0059 0.534 4.20 5.50 3.88 4,81
12 0.0044 0.483 3.80 - - 3.56
13 0.0511 0.766 13.70 - - 44.83
14 0.0506 0.761 13.90 - - 44.39
15 0.0333 0.747 9.70 27.61 22.97 28.69
16 0.0280 0.728 9.00 - - 23.96
 Run Vn Vg-Vf V•og
r X
1M
Number (ft/sec) X
a (ft/sec) (ft/sec) 1 -X Pg
v^
-17 0.80 0.0226 0.709 7.90 18.91 15.34 19.19
18 0.0142 0.664 6.00 11.90
19 0.0165 0.697 6.12 13.95
20 0.0147 0.686 5.70 12.44
21 0.0124 0.659 5.43 10.49
22 0.0098 0.620 5.04 8.23
23 0.0076 0.581 4.58 6.35
24 0.0041 0.472 3.73 3.33
25 0.0036 0.431 3.86 2.93

H-1 1.0 0.0135 0.659 5.77 14.11 11.21 11.18

2 0.0114 0.652 5.02 11.57 9.43 9.41
3 0.0097 0.647 4.35 9.46 7.96 7.98
4 0.0081 0.613 4.18 8.20 6.60 6.63
5 0.0071 0.609 3.72 6.93 5.77 5.79

II. TABULATED DATA FOR NITROGEN-MERCURY MIXTURE

Run Vo Vg-Ye
^?g { ^ \{^^\
Number (ft/sec) X a v^ (ft/sec) (ft/sec) \\ - x)\pj
I-l 0 _ 0.138 . _ 0.28
2 - 0.111 - - 0.22 -
3 - 0.101 - - 0.19 -
4 - 0.085 - - 0.15 -
5 - 0.062 - - 0.085 -
6 - 0.105 - - 0.21 _
7 - 0.083 - - 0.16 -
8 - 0.241 - - 0.86 _
9 - 0.239 - - 0.72 -
10 - 0.176 - - 0.51 -
11 - 0.094 - - 0.23 -
12 - 0.308 - - 0.93 -
13 - 0.247 - - 0.82 -
14 - 0.224 - - 0.71 -
15 - 0.197 - - 0.49 .
16 - 0.332 - - 1.19 -
17 - 0,317 - - 1.11 _
18 - 0.267 - - 0.95 _
19 - 0.381 - - 1.30 -
20 - 0.341 - - 1.03 _
21 - 0.296 - - 0.86 «
22 - 0.270 - - 0.63 _
23 1 - 0.206 - - 0.39 -

J-1 0.10 0.000502 0.110 21.08 2.25 0.26 2.60

2 0.000469 0.117 18.26 1.96 0.24 2.42
3 0.000393 0.100 18.13 1.90 0.20 2.01
4 0.000290 0.080 16.70 1.71 0.15 1.45
5 0.000203 0.052 18.09 1.80 0.10 1.00
6 0.000144 0.039 17.15 1.68 0.07 0.70
7 0.001125 0.231 24.28 3.03 0.73 7.29
8 0.000944 0.185 23.30 2.73 0.53 5.29
9 :' 0.00105 0.190 24.91 2.95 0.58 5.84
 63

Run Vo Vg-V^ f X \/Pji

^g V.og
Number (ft/sec) X a v^ (ft/sec) (ft/sec) W-^APg
J-10 0. 10 0.000670 0.134 23.34 2.58 0.36 3.61
11 0.00129 0.242 23.41 2.96 0.74 7.48
12 0.00150 0.256 26.15 3.38 0.90 9.00
13 0.00164 0.298 23.70 3.23 1.00 10.05
14 0.00183 0.321 24.60 3.48 1.16 11.64
15 0.00193 0.340 24.00 3.49 1.24 12.37
16 0.00114 0.225 22.14 2.73 0.64 6.43
17 0.00177 0.317 24.07 3.38 1.13 11.17
18 0.00263 0.374 29.10 4.49 1.74 17.38
19 0.00320 0.455 27.48 4.86 2.29 22.94
20 t 0.00352 0.463 27.60 4.49 2.53 25.20

K-1 0. 20 0.000264 0.116 10.51 2.16 0,28 1.38

2 0.000247 0.110 10.44 2.13 0.26 1.29
3 0.000220 0.096 10.62 2.13 0.23 1.13
4 0.000203 0.084 11.35 2.26 0.21 1.04
5 0.000165 0.079 9.74 1.90 0.17 0.84
6 0.000122 0.052 10.94 2.09 0.11 0.60
7 0.000079 0.035 10.53 1.98 0.08 0.38
8 0.000624 0.212 13.17 3.08 0.71 3.54
9 0.000542 0.165 15.57 3.49 0.62 3.08
10 0.000439 0.144 14.34 3.12 0.48 2.41
11 0.000331 0.108 14.37 3.00 0.35 1.74
12 0.000217 0.062 16.63 3.33 0.22 1.10
13 0.000637 0.213 13.45 3.16 0.73 3.64
14 0.000716 0.245 13.15 3.21 0.85 4.27
15 0.000870 0.269 14.81 3.77 1.10 5.45
16 0.000954 0.295 14.39 3.79 1.20 6.02
17 0.001020 0.320 14.00 3.81 1.32 6.59
18 0.001840 0.478 13.93 4.96 2.55 12.76
19 0.001520 0.410 15.16 4.81 2.10 10.54
20 0.001250 0.381 13.43 4.01 1.65 8.26
21 0.000868 0.287 12.59 3.26 1.06 5.07
22 0.000407 0.171 10.98 2.41 0.45 2.27

L-1 0. 30 0.000170 0.103 7.64 2.22 0.26 0.88

2 0.000491 0.250 8.54 3.01 0.85 2.85
3 0.000481 0.210 10.15 3.52 0.74 2.73
4 0.000374 0.200 8.00 2.62 0.63 2.00
5 0.000325 0.181 8.07 2.60 0.54 1.79
6 0.000271 0.152 8.15 2.52 0.44 1.47
7 0.000221 0.128 7.86 2.37 0.35 1.15
8 0.000658 0.293 9.73 3.71 1.21 4.03
9 0.000587 0.277 9.26 3.43 1.08 3.55
10 0.000495 0.235 9.39 3.30 0.87 2.89
11 0.000430 0.216 8.92 3.03 0.74 2.46
12 0.000569 0.259 9.70 4.03 1.02 3.39
13 0.000832 0.363 9.73 4.11 1.66 5.54
14 0.001103 0.431 9.70 4.59 2.20 7.35
15 y' 0.001265 0.443 11.03 5.41 2.63 8.77
64

Run Vo ^g ^g-^i \°g / X WPi

Number (ft/sec) X a Vf (ft/sec) (ft/sec) V-^)\pg
M-1 0.40 0.000355 0.238 6.59 2.93 0.82 2.06
2 0.000325 0.205 7.17 3.18 0.75 1.88
3 0.000283 0.184 7.28 3.09 0.63 1.64
4 0.000228 0.156 6.69 2.69 0.49 1.24
5 0.000182 0.126 6.63 2.57 0.38 0.96
6 0.000107 0.100 4.76 1.67 0.21 0.53
7 1r 0.000389 0.253 6.44 2.92 0.87 2.18

M-8 0.40 0.000363 0.236 6.86 3.07 0.85 2.12

9 0.000342 0.225 6.69 2.94 0.78 1.94
10 0.000351 0.212 7.51 3.31 0.81 2.02
11 0.000382 0.238 6.99 3.16 0.87 2.18
12 0.000437 0.259 7.37 3.16 1.03 2.58
13 0.000479 0.290 6.36 3.02 1.09 2.60
14 0.000507 0.304 7.06 3.49 1.23 3.09
15 0.000224 0.156 6.41 2.57 0.47 1.18
16 0.000447 0.271 7.01 3.30 1.04 2.61
17 0.000664 0.355 7.85 4.25 1.73 4.32
18 i 0.000759 0.400 7.41 4.28 1.93 4.94

N-1 0.60 0.000304 0.271 4.74 3.07 1.05 1.76

2 0.000278 0.223 5.61 3.57 0.97 1.61
3 0.000254 0.224 4.93 3.03 0.85 1.42
4 0.000230 0.192 5.30 3.21 0.76 1.26
5 0.000323 0.271 5.10 3.37 1.14 1.90
6 0.000217 0.211 4.40 2.59 0.71 1.18
7 0.000356 0.287 5.05 3.41 1.21 2.03
8 0.000435 0.314 5.55 3.99 1.52 2.54
9 0.000519 0.352 5.90 4.52 1.92 3.20
10 ^' 0.000578 0.384 5.90 4.79 2.21 3.68

O-l 0.80 0.000295 0.262 4.98 4.36 1.41 1.77

2 0.000312 0.282 4.90 4.37 1.54 1.93
3 0.000332 0.285 5.14 4.61 1.64 2.05
4 0.000376 0.322 4.96 4.69 1.88 2.36
5 0.000354 0.312 4.81 4.42 1.75 2.19
6 0.000397 0.347 4.68 4.49 1.99 2.49
7 0.000441 0.364 4.94 4.95 2.26 2.83
8 0.000441 0.365 4.42 4.31 2.13 2.54
9 0.000414 0.353 4.52 4.34 1.97 2.47
10 0.000373 0.347 4.21 3.91 1.79 2.24
11 0.000308 0.286 4.49 3.92 1.44 1.80
12 \f 0.000234 0.251 3.91 3.10 1.05 1.31

P-1 1.0 0.000266 0.287 3.85 4.02 1.55 1.55

2 0.000301 0.333 3.62 3.90 1.79 1.81
3 0.000342 0.336 4.24 4.89 2.14 2.14
4 0.000323 0.325 4.00 4.48 1.92 1.92
5 0.000285 0.302 3.92 4.17 1.69 1.70
6 f 0.000271 0.302 3.70 3.90 1.60 1.60
 65

III. TABULATED DATA FOR NITROGEN-FREON-113 MIXTURE

Run Vo ^g Vg-V^ Vog / X \ (P£

Number (ft/sec) 0 X a Vi (ft/sec) (ft/sec) [i-xj [pg
Q-1 0.870 0.00 0,00402 0.620 3.18 5.02 4.54 5.20
0.30 0.00610 3.70 6.20 5.27 6.04
0.60 0.00853 4.35 7.68 6.18 7.10
0.80 0.01039 4.89 8.89 6.93 7.98
1.00 0.01248 5.53 10.33 7.82 9.03

Q-2 0.870 0.00 0.00518 0.662 3.42 6.24 5.84 6.70

0.30 0.00755 3.91 7.49 6.66 7.67
0.60 0.01026 4.52 9.02 7.66 8.85
0.80 0.01230 5.00 10.23 8.47 9.80
1.00 0.01456 5.57 11.65 9.40 10.90

Q-3 0.870 0.00 0.00449 0.603 3.77 6.05 4.97 5.73

0.30 0.00632 4.25 7.09 5.59 6.45
0.60 0.00838 4.82 8.32 6.33 7.33
0.80 0.00991 5.27 9.29 6.91 8.01
1.00 0.01158 5.79 10.40 7.58 8.80

Q-4 0.870 0.00 0.00302 0.516 3.55 4.56 3.28 3.78

0.30 0.00413 3.95 5.27 3.64 4.21
0.60 0.00537 4.42 6.11 4.07 4.72
0.80 0.00628 4.79 6.76 4.41 5.11
1.00 0.00726 5.20 7.49 4.78 5.55

R-1 0.360 0.00 0.00422 0.525 4.90 2.89 1.91 5.42

0.30 0.00681 5.85 3.59 2.27 6.47
0.60 0.00992 7.10 4.50 2.75 7.85
0.80 0.01236 8.18 5.28 3.16 9.04
1.00 0.01518 9.51 6.24 3.66 10.51

R-2 0.360 0.00 0.00356 0.464 5.21 2.76 1.58 4.51

0.30 0.00554 6.11 3.34 1.86 5.29
0.60 0.00787 7.28 4.09 2.20 6.30
0.80 0.00966 8.25 4.72 2.49 7.14
1.00 0.01170 9.42 5.47 2.84 8.16

R-3 0.360 0.00 0.00222 0.357 4.96 2.16 0.97 2.75

0.30 0.00342 5.80 2.62 1.13 3.22
0.60 0,00484 6.88 3.20 1.34 3,82
0.80 0,00593 7.77 3.68 1.51 4.31
1.00 0.00717 8.84 4.26 1.72 4.91
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I -wish to gratefully ackno'wledge the aid, guidance and e n c o u r a g e -

m e n t that P r o f e s s o r N. J. P a l l a d i n o gave throughout the development of
this •work. I a m a l s o indebted to D r . M. P e t r i c k of the R e a c t o r E n g i n e e r -
ing Division at the Argonne National L a b o r a t o r y for h i s consultation and
a d v i c e . P a r t i c u l a r thanks a r e due to M e s s r s . M. G a t s , J, O'Grady and
E. Gunchin for t h e i r a s s i s t a n c e in the c o n s t r u c t i o n and operation of the
apparatus.

The e x p e r i m e n t a l p a r t of this t h e s i s v/as c a r r i e d out at the

Argonne National L a b o r a t o r y , under a p r o g r a m s p o n s o r e d by the A s s o c i -
ated Midwest U n i v e r s i t i e s and Argonne National L a b o r a t o r y .
 67

NOMENCLATURE

F r o u d e - n u m b e r exponent in d i m e n s i o n - Greek
less correlation
o. Void f r a c t i o n (dimensionless)
C r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a occupied by the
A Difference
gas phase (ft^)
p Density (Ibj^ft^)
C r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a occupied by the
liquid p h a s e (ft^) Pa Gas d e n s i t y (Ibnift')
C r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a of flow (ft^) Pg Liquid d e n s i t y (ibj^^ft^)
B F r o u d e - n u m b e r exponent in e m p i r i c a l jJ,^ Dynamic v i s c o s i t y of the liquid
relation (ibm/ft-sec)

C C o m p r e s s i b i l i t y factor in P = CRT TT Product

D D i a m e t e r of t e s t s e c t i o n (ft) CT Surface t e n s i o n (ibf/ft o r d y n e s / c m ) , or

s t a n d a r d deviation ( d i m e n s i o n l e s s )
f F a n n i n g f r i c t i o n factor ( d i m e n s i o n l e s s )
or function 0 R e l a t i v e h u m i d i t y (per cent)

F Driving f o r c e (Ibf)
Subscripts
Fr F r o u d e N u m b e r , Vg/gD ( d i m e n s i o n l e s s )
ac Acceleration
G M a s s flow r a t e p e r unit a r e a
FR Freon
I b r 'sec-ft^)

G r a v i t a t i o n a l c o n s t a n t , 32.2 f t / s e c ^ g Gas phase

h Hydrostatic head
gc C o n v e r s i o n f a c t o r , 32.2 Ibj-j^-ft/lbf-se
i Indicates a location, i 1, 2, 3, .
H Length in d i r e c t i o n of flow (ft)
i Liquid phase
L Length (ft)

M Mass (Ib^)
m Two-phase mixture
Nz Nitrogen
ki Exponent, k j , k2, k3, . . .

P Static p r e s s u r e (ibf/ft^)
0 Superficial

R Martinelli-Nelson two-phase friction

s Partial
factor sat Saturation
SH Specific h u m i d i t y ( d i m e n s i o n l e s s ) t Total
T T i m e (sec) tpf Two-phase friction
A v e r a g e l i n e a r velocity of the gas
Vg phase (ft/sec)

A v e r a g e l i n e a r velocity of the liquid

V^ phase (ft/sec)

S u p e r f i c i a l liquid velocity ( f t / s e c )
Vo
Vog S u p e r f i c i a l gas velocity ( f t / s e c )

Vom Superficial velocity of the m i x t u r e

(ft/sec)

V Volume (ft^)

V Specific volume (ft^/lbj^)

Wg Gas m a s s flow r a t e (Ibj-n/sec)

Liquid m a s s flow r a t e (ibj-n/sec)

Wt T o t a l m a s s flow r a t e (ibj-n/sec)

X M i x t u r e quality ( d i m e n s i o n l e s s )