MEANING

Defining meaning in semantics and pragmatics involves understanding two different but intertwined
perspectives:

1. Semantics:
 Deals with the literal meaning of words and sentences, independent of context.

 Focuses on:

o Lexical meaning: The meaning of individual words and morphemes.

o Sentential meaning: The meaning of phrases and sentences based on the meaning of
their constituents and the rules of grammar.
o Conceptual meaning: The mental representations that words and sentences evoke.

Semantics is the study of meaning in language. Language is arbitrary; it means that there isn’t any
natural or necessary connection between a word's meaning and its sound or form. Hence, Meaning
in a language is indefinite, which leads to why semantics is perhaps the most difficult part of a
language to learn.

In discussing Semantics, Linguists sometimes use the term lexeme (as opposed to word), so that
word can be retained for the inflected variants; the different forms of the same lexeme.

Lexeme is a Unit of language such as word or multi-word expression, understood as a set of inflected
forms and not one inflected form, with a meaning that cannot be understood from the meanings of
separate components.

2. Pragmatics:
 Concerned with how context influences the interpretation of meaning.

 Considers:

o Speaker/hearer intention: What the speaker intends to convey and how the hearer
interprets the message.
o Context of utterance: The surrounding circumstances that influence meaning,
including physical environment, social setting, and shared knowledge.

Here's an illustration of the relationship between semantics and pragmatics:

Defining meaning in semantics:

 Denotational approach: Defines meaning based on the objects or concepts that words refer
to.
 Connotation approach: Focuses on the emotional and associative meaning of words.
  Prototype theory: Suggests that meaning is based on our mental representation of the best
example of a category.
 Truth-conditional semantics: Evaluates the truth or falsity of a sentence based on its
meaning.

Defining meaning in pragmatics:
 Gricean Maxims: Four principles speakers and hearers follow to communicate effectively:
o Maxim of Quantity: Make your contribution as informative as is required for the
current purpose of the exchange.
o Maxim of Quality: Do not say what you believe to be false.
o Maxim of Relation: Be relevant.
o Maxim of Manner: Be clear and avoid obscurity.
 Implicature: What is conveyed indirectly, relying on context and shared knowledge.
 Speech acts: The actions performed by saying something, such as requesting, promising, or
apologizing.

Here are some examples to illustrate the difference:

 Sentence: "I'm starving."

o Semantic meaning: The speaker is experiencing a strong physiological need for food.
o Pragmatic meaning: The speaker may be requesting food, asking for sympathy, or
simply making a statement of fact.
 Utterance: "It's cold in here."
o Semantic meaning: The temperature in the room is below average.
o Pragmatic meaning: The speaker may be asking someone to close the window,
suggesting they are uncomfortable, or simply making an observation.

Conclusion: Meaning in language is not a fixed property of words or sentences, but a dynamic
process that arises from the interaction of semantics and pragmatics.
 DENOTATION AND CONNOTATION

Denotation and Connotation in Semantics

In semantics, denotation and connotation are two key concepts that contribute to the overall
meaning of a word or phrase. Here's a breakdown of each:
1. Denotation:
 Definition: The literal, dictionary meaning of a word, independent of context or personal
opinion.
 Focus: Objective meaning, what the word refers to in the real world.
 Examples:
o "Dog" denotes a domesticated carnivorous mammal.

o "Red" denotes the color between orange and yellow.

o "Knife" denotes a tool with a sharp blade used for cutting.

Denotation is the literal meaning of a word, or the dictionary’s definition of a word. For example, in
the sentence “Luocha’s pants are white”, the word ‘white’ means the color white.

2. Connotation:
 Definition: The emotional or subjective associations and feelings that a word evokes beyond
its literal meaning.
 Focus: Implied meaning, emotional baggage, and cultural associations.
 Examples:
o "Dog" can have positive connotations of loyalty and companionship, but also
negative connotations of aggression and dirtiness.

o "Red" can have positive connotations of love and excitement, but also negative
connotations of anger and danger.

o "Knife" can have positive connotations of cooking and culinary skill, but also
negative connotations of violence and danger.
Connotation is a word’s implied meaning, which differs from the thing it explicitly describes. For
example, in the sentence “the pure white heart of the devout”, the word ‘white’ means ‘free from
moral impurity’ or ‘innocence’.

The Difference between Denotation and Connotation:

 Denotation is objective and universal, whereas connotation is subjective and personal.
 Denotation is fixed and unchanging, whereas connotation can vary depending on the
context, culture, and individual experience.
 Denotation provides the core meaning of a word, whereas connotation adds additional
layers of meaning and emotion.
Importance of Denotation and Connotation:
 Understanding both denotation and connotation is crucial for interpreting the full meaning
of a word or phrase.

 This is especially important in areas like literature, poetry, and advertising, where words are
often used for their connotative effect.

 Recognizing the difference between denotation and connotation can help us to avoid
misunderstandings and communicate more effectively.

Examples of Denotation and Connotation in Context:

 Sentence: "The politician gave a fiery speech."
o Denotation: The politician's speech was passionate and energetic.
o Connotation: The politician's speech was likely aggressive and potentially
inflammatory.
 Sentence: "The woman wore a beautiful dress."
o Denotation: The dress was attractive and stylish.
o Connotation: The dress may have been expensive, luxurious, or elegant.
Additional Points:
 Words can have multiple connotations, both positive and negative.

 Connotations are often influenced by cultural norms and personal experiences.

 Writers and speakers can use connotation to manipulate emotions and influence their
audience.
 COMPOSITIONALITY
Definition of Compositionality

In semantics, compositionality is a principle that the meaning of a complex expression is

determined by the meanings of its constituent expressions and the rules used to combine them.
Compositionality can also be understood as the process of determining the meaning of a sentence
from two perspectives. On one hand, the meaning of each word, phrases, clauses, and morphemes
in a sentence are all meaningful. On the other hand, the meaning is formed based on the manner
those components are put together.

So, in short, Compositionality is the process of determining the meaning of a sentence from
two perspectives.

Compositionality is the core principle that governs how we understand the meaning of complex
expressions in language. It states that:

The meaning of a whole is determined by the meaning of its parts and the way they are combined.

Think of it like building with blocks. Each block represents a word with its own meaning. When you
combine the blocks in specific ways, following the rules of grammar, you create a structure with a
new, emergent meaning. That emergent meaning is the sentence and its overall understanding.

 Meaning is built up: The meaning of a sentence comes from the meaning of its individual
words and how they are combined. Think of each Lego brick adding its own contribution to
the overall structure.
 Rules are important: Just like Lego sets have instructions, languages have rules (grammar)
that guide how words can be combined. These rules help ensure everyone builds the castle
the same way and interprets its meaning correctly.

It focuses on the meaning of complex expressions based on the meaning of their

constituents. This means that the meaning of a whole sentence can be derived from the meanings of
its individual words and phrases, according to the grammatical rules of the language. For example,
the sentence "The cat is on the mat" has a clear meaning because we understand the meaning of the
words "cat," "is," "on," and "mat," and we know how they are combined grammatically.

It is concerned with the formal rules and principles that govern how meaning is built up from
smaller units. This includes rules for combining words into phrases, phrases into sentences, and
sentences into larger discourses. These rules are part of the grammar of a language and are essential
for understanding how meaning is conveyed.

It is based on the idea that meaning is compositional, meaning that the meaning of a whole
is determined by the meaning of its parts. This principle is central to many theories of semantics and
helps explain how we can understand an infinite number of sentences from a finite set of words and
rules.
Example of Compositionality

a. A creepy clown made the boy cried

b. The cried a boy clown made creepy

The first sentence is easily understood for an English-speaker, while the second sentence is
not. That is because the meaning is compositional or made up from the meanings of its constituent
lexemes.

Another examples:

 Sentence: "The cat chased the mouse."

 Meaning: We understand this sentence because we know the meaning of "cat," "chased,"
"mouse," and "the." We also know how these words are ordered and connected by the rules
of grammar.
 Compositionality at work: The meaning of the whole sentence ("the cat chased the mouse")
is simply the sum of the meanings of its parts ("the cat," "chased," "the mouse") combined
according to the rules of grammar.

Combination Words in Compositionality

Not all combination words are compositional. This can be seen in the sentence “hit the
sack”. The sentence ‘hit the sack’ is an idiom, which means that the speaker is not literally ‘hitting a
sack’, instead it means ‘go to sleep’.

It does not derive from the individual meanings, and for that reason, idiom is not
compositional.
 PROPOSITION

Propositions: The Building Blocks of Meaning

Propositions are fundamental units of meaning in language. They are the basic statements we use to
describe the world, and they serve as the building blocks for more complex thoughts and ideas.
Here's a detailed explanation of propositions:

Definition:

 A proposition is a declarative sentence that expresses a truth-value (true or false) about

some state of affairs in the world.
 It represents the content of a thought or statement, independent of its specific wording or
context.
According to David Crystal, Proposition can be defined as the unit of meaning which constitutes
the subject matter of a state, and which is asserted to be true or false. Proposition takes form of a
simple declarative sentence.

Hence, from the statement above, Proposition is the main part of what someone say that helps
the recipient to figure out whether the sender’s statement is true or not. In simpler terms,
Proposition is the main message of the sentence.

This is due to the fact that when a sentence is restructured, the change of structure may result in
a change of meaning. This is because each sentence produced by senders has an intended meaning
which is determined by parts or units that build the sentence. However, the case in which the
message of what the recipients can get from the sentence will remain the same even though the
sentence is restructured – is called Proposition.

Proposition – A declarative sentence, when uttered to make a statement, that is, to say something
true or false, about some state of affairs in the external world (Haung, 2014).

This definition of "proposition" breaks down into three key parts:

1. Declarative sentence: This refers to a sentence that makes a statement, as opposed to a

question, command, or exclamation. For example, "The cat is on the mat" is a declarative
sentence, while "Is the cat on the mat?" is an interrogative sentence.
2. Uttered to make a statement: This means that the speaker intends the sentence to convey
information and be judged as true or false. This distinguishes propositions from other uses of
language, such as asking questions or expressing emotions.
3. About some state of affairs in the external world: This refers to the fact that the proposition
describes something that exists or happens in the real world, independent of the speaker's
thoughts or feelings. For example, the proposition "John is happy" describes a state of affairs
 about John, while the proposition "I love you" expresses the speaker's feelings towards
another person.
Therefore, a proposition can be defined as the truth-value of a declarative sentence used to describe
a state of affairs in the real world.

Characteristics:

 Declarative: Propositions are expressed as statements, not questions, commands, or

exclamations.
 Complete thought: Each proposition conveys a complete thought or idea.
 Truth-valued: Propositions can be judged as true or false based on the state of the world
they describe.
 Abstract: Propositions are abstract representations of states of affairs, not the states
themselves.

Examples:

 "The cat is on the mat." (True)

 "John loves Mary." (True/False, depending on the specific situation)
 "2 + 2 = 4." (True)
 "Unicorns are real." (False)

a. Luocha is selling goods in the market now

b. Luocha is in the market now
c. Luocha is outside right now

The proposition is “Luocha selling goods in the market”

To elaborate, (A) states what Luocha is doing and where Luocha is, while (B) contains only
the place where Luocha is. The meaning from sentence (A) to (B) changed but the proposition
remains the same so it can be concluded that (A) and (B) are true. However, (C) shows a different
meaning and proposition, so (C) is false.

1. True Propositions:

 These propositions express factual statements proven to be true based on evidence or

accepted knowledge.
 Examples:
o The grass is green (observed fact)
o 2 + 2 = 4 (mathematical truth)
o Water boils at 100°C (scientifically verified)
2. False Propositions:

 These propositions express statements that are demonstrably untrue or contradict

established knowledge.
 Examples:
o The sky is purple (not factually accurate)
o 5 x 5 = 26 (mathematically incorrect)
o Dogs can fly (biologically impossible)

3. Open Propositions:

 These propositions express questions, uncertainties, or statements lacking definitive truth

values.
 Examples:
o Will it rain tomorrow? (unknown outcome)
o Does God exist? (a matter of faith and debate)
o Is this the best pizza ever? (subjective opinion)

4. Imperative Propositions:

 These propositions express commands, requests, or instructions.

 Examples:
o Close the door (a direct instruction)
o Turn off the lights (a polite request)
o Help me with this task (seeking assistance)

5. Compound Propositions:

 These propositions combine two or more simple propositions using logical operators like
conjunction, disjunction, conditional, negation, and quantifiers.
 Examples:
o The grass is green and the sky is blue (conjunction)
o Either it is raining or it is snowing (disjunction)
o If it is hot, then I will go swimming (conditional)
o It is not true that the earth is flat (negation)
o All humans are mortal (universal quantifier)
Key concepts:

 Truth-conditional semantics: This theory evaluates the truth or falsity of a sentence based on
its meaning and the world it describes. Propositions are central to this theory.
 Reference and sense: Propositions are related to both reference (what words refer to) and
sense (the meaning of a word itself). They use words to represent objects and concepts in
the world and convey their meaning.
 Logical operators: Propositions can be combined using logical operators (and, or, not) to
form more complex propositions.

Role of propositions:

 Building blocks of meaning: Propositions provide the basic units of information used to
construct thoughts and ideas.
 Reasoning and argumentation: Propositions are essential for logical reasoning and
argumentation, as they allow us to evaluate the truth or falsity of claims and draw
conclusions.
 Communication and understanding: Propositions are fundamental to clear and effective
communication, as they enable us to express our thoughts and understand the thoughts of
others.

Further details:

 Propositions can be expressed in various grammatical forms, not just simple declarative
sentences.
 The concept of propositions is not limited to natural languages but is also used in logic,
mathematics, and other formal systems.
 Understanding propositions is crucial for comprehending the meaning of language, engaging
in critical thinking, and communicating effectively.
 MEANING RELATIONS

"Meaning relation" refers to the various connections and relationships that exist between words and
phrases in a language based on their meaning. These relationships can be categorized into different
types, some of the most common being:

1. Synonymy:
 Words or phrases that have the same or very similar meanings.

 Synonymy is a semantic relationship between words or expressions that have the same or
similar meanings. They allow us to express the same ideas in different ways, adding variety
and richness to our language.

 Examples: "happy" and "joyful", "big" and "large", "car" and "automobile"

Types of synonymy

a. Absolute Synonyms:
These are synonyms that have exactly the same meaning and function in all
contexts. They can be interchangeably used without altering the overall meaning of
the sentence.
Example: Luocha is a merchant, he is a tradesman.
 Both "merchant" and "tradesman" refer to someone who buys and sells
goods for profit.
 They are absolute synonyms and can be substituted for each other without
any change in meaning.

b. Partial Synonyms:
These are synonyms that have similar but not identical meanings. They share some
core meaning but differ in subtle shades of meaning, connotation, or register.
Example: Sylvette has a bunny, she has a rabbit.
 Both "bunny" and "rabbit" refer to the same animal.
 However, "bunny" has a more informal and childish connotation, while
"rabbit" is more neutral and formal.

Factors Differentiating Synonyms:

Several factors can differentiate partial synonyms, including:

 Register: Some synonyms are more appropriate for formal writing, while others are more
common in informal speech.
  Connotation: Synonyms can evoke different emotions and associations, influencing the tone
and meaning of a sentence.
 Specificity: Some synonyms are more specific than others, providing a more precise
description of the concept.
 Collocation: Certain synonyms tend to be used together with specific words or phrases,
creating idiomatic expressions.

2. Antonymy:
 Words or phrases that have opposite meanings.
 A linguistic and semantic relationship between words with opposite or contrasting
meanings. For example: High – Low, Love – Hate, Full – Empty

 Examples: "hot" and "cold", "happy" and "sad", "light" and "dark"

Types of Antonymy

a) Gradable Antonymy
These antonyms have a midpoint on the spectrum of meaning between them. This
allows for gradations and varying degrees of the opposing concepts.
Example: Rich - Well-to-do – Poor
This series demonstrates that wealth can be expressed in varying degrees, from
being rich to being poor, with a middle ground of being well-to-do.

b) Non-Gradable Antonymy
These antonyms are direct opposites with no space between them. They represent
binary concepts where one implies the exclusion of the other.
Examples:
 Before - After (one cannot exist without the other)
 True - False (no middle ground between truth and falsehood)
 Alive - Dead (no intermediate state between life and death)

c) Converse Antonyms
These antonyms express a relationship between two entities that are involved in the
same situation, but from opposite perspectives.
Example: Doctor – Patient
 The doctor treats the patient, and the patient receives treatment from the
doctor.
 Both roles are necessary for the interaction to occur.

d) Reversives
These antonyms represent actions that are the opposite of each other. They
describe the reversal of a state or process.
Example: Open – Close
Opening something results in it being closed, and closing it reverts it back to being
open.
 e) Incompatibility:
This refers to a non-binary semantic opposition between two expressions that are
similar in meaning but differ in a single key feature.
 Example: Red – Blue
Both colors belong to the spectrum of visible light, but they differ in their
specific wavelengths.
 Example: Tulip – Rose
Both are flowers, but they have distinct characteristics like shape and petal
arrangement.

3. Hyponymy:
 A relationship where one word (the hyponym) is a more specific type of another word (the
hypernym).

 Examples: "dog" is a hyponym of "animal", "rose" is a hyponym of "flower", "chair" is a

hyponym of "furniture". Fruit is a hypernym, and strawberry, avocado, banana, and apple
are hyponyms. Animal is a hypernym, while wolf, cat, bunny, and pig is a hyponyms because
they are specific types of animals

4. Meronymy:
 A relationship between a part and a whole.

 Meronymy is a semantic relationship where a word (meronym) denotes a constituent part or

a member of something else (holonym). It allows us to describe objects and concepts by
referring to their individual components or members

 Examples: "wheel" is a meronym of "car", "finger" is a meronym of "hand", "page" is a

meronym of "book"
 "Arm" is a meronym of "hand" and "body."
 "Seed" is a meronym of "fruit."
 "Student" is a meronym of "class."

Holomerism:

Holomerism is the opposite of meronymy, where a word refers to the whole that contains the
meronym.

 Examples:
o "Hand" and "body" are holonyms of "arm."
o "Fruit" is a holonym of "seed."
o "Class" is a holonym of "student."
 Types of Meronymy

A. Component-Integral Object:
This type of meronymy refers to a part that has a clear structural and functional
relationship with the whole. The part plays a specific role in the functioning or
existence of the whole.
Examples:
 "Pedal" is a component of a "bike" and is necessary for its operation.
 "Handle" is an integral part of a "cup" and allows it to be held.
 "Phonology" is a component of "linguistics" and focuses on sound systems in
language.
B. Member-Group:
This type of meronymy refers to a part that is simply one of the elements that make
up a larger group. There may not be a direct structural or functional relationship
between the individual part and the whole.
Examples:
 A "ship" is a member of a "fleet."
 A "tree" is a member of a "forest."
 A "student" is a member of a "class."

Triple Meronymy:

If A is a meronym of B, and B is a meronym of C, then A is also a meronym of C.

This principle allows us to chain meronymy relationships to describe complex hierarchies.

5. Holonymy:
 The opposite of meronymy, referring to the whole of which a part is a member.

 Examples: "car" is a holonym of "wheel", "hand" is a holonym of "finger", "book" is a

holonym of "page"

6. Metonymy:
 Using the name of one thing to refer to another closely associated with it.

 Examples: "The crown" referring to the monarch, "The White House" referring to the U.S.
government, "Hollywood" referring to the American film industry

7. Polysemy:
 When a single word has multiple, unrelated meanings.

 Examples: "bat" (a flying mammal vs. a sports equipment), "pen" (a writing instrument vs. an
enclosure for animals), "key" (a metal object used to unlock doors vs. a crucial element)
8. Homonymy:
 Words that sound the same but have different meanings and origins.

 Examples: "bear" (the animal) vs. "bear" (to tolerate), "right" (correct) vs. "right" (opposite
of left)

Understanding these different types of meaning relations helps us to:

 Expand our vocabulary and use language more effectively.

 Interpret the meaning of complex sentences and texts more accurately.
 Analyze literary and poetic language, which often relies on exploiting these relationships.
 Gain a deeper understanding of the way language works and how it shapes our perception
of the world.
 CONVERSATIONAL MAXIM

Conversational maxims are a set of principles proposed by philosopher H. P. Grice to explain how
people cooperate to create successful communication. These principles help ensure that
communication is efficient, informative, and relevant to the context.

The four basic maxims are:

1. Maxim of Quantity:
 Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purpose of the
exchange).
 Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.

This maxim encourages us to provide information that is relevant to the conversation but avoid
unnecessary details that could be distracting or irrelevant.

There are two sub-maxims under the Maxim of Quantity, which are:

1. When the speaker talks, the speaker should say enough to make their point or
answer question, but don't say too much. Avoid giving too many details that aren't
needed.
2. Don't give extra information that isn't necessary for the listener to understand.

Example of Maxim of Quantity

Situation: Sylvette is having tea with Huo Huo, and Sylvette asks Huo Huo about what she did last
weekend. Instead of summarizing what she did the whole weekend, Huo Huo rambles on and giving
a lengthy detail of her entire weekend, including what she had for dinner and what type of exorcism
she performed. The answer Huo Huo gives is a violation of quantity.

2. Maxim of Quality:
 Do not say what you believe to be false.
 Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
This maxim emphasizes the importance of truthfulness and honesty in communication. We should
avoid stating information we know to be false or making claims without sufficient evidence.

There are two sub-maxims under the Maxim of Quality, which are:

a. Submaxims
This rule means that the speaker should not provide false information: Speakers should not
say things they believe to be false.
 b. Supermaxims
Do not provide information for which you lack adequate evidence: This sub-maxim suggests
that speakers should not make claims unless they have sufficient evidence to support those
claims

Example of Maxim of Quality

1. Truth

Situation: Sylvette asks what is the capital city of Indonesia and Luocha answer “Jakarta”.
then they are speaking the truth

2. False/Violation of Quality

Situation: Jing Yuan asks Sylvette of Luocha’s whereabouts and she admits that she hasn’t
seen him for the past few days. Sylvette told Jing Yuan that she didn’t know where Luocha is,
even though she knew that Luocha is heading towards the Shackling Prison. The answer that
Sylvette gave to Jing Yuan is a violation of quality since she gave out false information.

3. Maxim of Relation:
 Be relevant.

This maxim reminds us to stay on topic and avoid introducing irrelevant information or
digressions that do not contribute to the conversation.

In this maxim, the speaker is required to express an utterance or response that is related to
the comment and the topic of conversation. The speaker only provides information or responses
that occur in the current situation. The Maxim of Relevance keeps conversations on track and
helps prevent random conversations that don't add up. For example:
 Stelle: Do you know where Luocha is staying?
 Sylvette: Of course, he’s staying at the Petrichor Inn

4. Maxim of Manner:
 Avoid obscurity of expression.

 Avoid ambiguity.

 Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).

 Be orderly.

This maxim encourages us to express ourselves clearly, concisely, and in an organized manner. We
should avoid using ambiguous language, excessive jargon, and unnecessary complexity.
In this maxim, it is important to pay attention to the regularity of the information. We must avoid
ambiguity or vagueness. Therefore, it is the principle of effective communication that encourages
speakers to express themselves clearly, concisely, and regularly or we must be direct and
straightforward.

 SUPERMAXIM: Be clear
 SUBMAXIM: Avoid obscurity in expression, avoid ambiguity, try to be as short as possible
(not long-winded), and be more organized

Importance of Conversational Maxims:

By following these maxims, participants in a conversation can:

 Reduce misunderstandings and miscommunication.

 Ensure that information is conveyed accurately and efficiently.
 Maintain a cooperative and respectful dialogue.
 Interpret each other's meaning effectively.

Examples of Conversational Maxims in Action:

 Following the maxim of quantity: In a job interview, you may be asked to "Tell me about
your experience." You should provide enough information to answer the question without
going off on tangents or providing irrelevant details.
 Following the maxim of quality: When asked for directions, you should provide accurate
information based on your knowledge or research. It is important to avoid giving false or
misleading directions.
 Following the maxim of relation: During a discussion about climate change, you should avoid
introducing unrelated topics like your favorite football team.
 Following the maxim of manner: In writing a formal report, you should use clear and concise
language, avoiding slang, jargon, and unnecessary complexity.

Definition of Non-Observance Maxim

Non-observance of Grice's Maxims refers to situations where a speaker or listener fails to

follow one or more of these principles during a conversation. This can happen intentionally or
unintentionally and can lead to communication breakdowns or misunderstandings. To be considered
as Non-Observance of The Maxim:

1. If a speaker intentionally provides false information , it can lead to deception or

misinformation.
2. If a speaker uses overly complex language or speaks ambiguously, it can confuse the listener.
3. If a listener fails to recognize the relevance of a speaker's contribution, they may miss the
point of the conversation.
 4. If a speaker provides too much or too little information, it can disrupt the flow of the
conversation.

1. Maxim of Quality

When the speaker misrepresents his information in order to make the listener
understand the intended meaning of an utterance. There are several strategies of how
flouting the maxim of quality can occur

a. Hyperbole strategy
For example: “...Oh yeah, that I saw life flashing before my eyes”
b. Metaphor strategy
For example: “...the flavors were a symphony of ocean waves crashing on the shore,
with a hint of sunset in every bite.”
c. Irony strategy
For example: “...Wow, that was an absolutely flawless presentation. I've never seen
such a perfect blend of information overload and mindnumbing boredom.”
d. Banter Strategy
For example: “...You’re stubborn. You remind me of me.”

2. Maxim of Quantity

When the speaker gives more or less information that the situation needs as
response, using insufficient or incomplete words in conversation.

3. Maxim of Relation

When the speaker will change the topic by means of irrelevance topic of the partner
of the conversation.

4. Maxim of Manner

When the speaker says ambiguous language or uses another language which makes
the utterance incomprehensible.

Violation of Maxims

The speaker violates a maxim with misleading utterances. The speaker deliberately tries to
make his/her utterance overt or to be noticed, usually for lying purposes.

1. Maxim of Quality

Giving false statement or lying.

2. Maxim of Quantity

Not giving enough information to be talked about.

 3. Maxim of Relation

Changing the topic.

4. Maxim of Manner

Giving TMI or hard to understand.

Conversational maxims are not rigid rules and can be violated intentionally or unintentionally
depending on the context. In some situations, it may be necessary to break one of the maxims to
achieve a specific goal, such as humor, satire, or indirect communication. However, understanding
and applying these principles can significantly improve the quality and clarity of our communication.

 Maxim of Quantity:
o Sub-maxim of informativeness: Provide enough information for the listener to
understand your point and make informed decisions.
o Sub-maxim of exhaustiveness: Do not provide unnecessary details that distract or
overload the listener.
o Examples:
 In a restaurant, stating "I'd like the chicken pasta" is sufficient (Quantity),
but adding "I also like it with extra sauce and Parmesan cheese" provides
more information without being excessive (Informativeness).

 In a meeting, rambling about unrelated topics violates the maxim

(Exhaustiveness).

 Maxim of Quality:
o Truthfulness: Be honest and truthful in your statements.
o Evidence: Back up your claims with evidence or reliable sources.
o Examples:
 Stating your qualifications for a job honestly (Quality) builds trust.

 Making a claim without supporting evidence violates the maxim.

 Maxim of Relation:
o Relevance: Stay focused on the topic at hand and avoid digressions.
o Contribution: Ensure your comments contribute to the conversation and are not
irrelevant or distracting.
o Examples:
 In a discussion about books, sharing your personal reading experience is
relevant (Relation).

 Bringing up your vacation plans unexpectedly violates the maxim.

  Maxim of Manner:
o Clarity: Express yourself clearly and concisely using language that is easily
understood by the listener.
o Avoidance of ambiguity: Use language that has one clear meaning and avoids
potential misunderstandings.
o Organization: Present your ideas in a logical and orderly manner.
o Conciseness: Be brief and avoid unnecessary repetition or elaboration.
o Examples:
 Using simple and direct language in a presentation ensures clarity (Manner).

 Employing technical jargon in a conversation with someone unfamiliar with

the field violates the maxim.

Exceptions and Violations:

While conversational maxims are valuable guidelines, they are not absolute rules. In some situations,
violating a maxim can be intentional and serve a specific purpose:

 Humor: Exaggerating or using nonsensical language can be funny and break the ice.
 Satire: Criticizing something indirectly can be more effective than direct confrontation.
 Indirect communication: Avoiding directness can be more polite or tactful in certain
situations.
 Metaphorical language: Using figurative language can be more engaging and creative.

3. Cultural Variations:

The interpretation and application of conversational maxims can vary across cultures. For effective
communication, understanding these cultural differences and adapting accordingly is crucial.

4. Relevance to Different Communication Contexts:

The importance of each maxim can vary depending on the context of the communication. For
example, the maxim of quality may carry more weight in a legal setting, while the maxim of relation
may be more important in a casual conversation.
5. Conclusion:

Conversational maxims are powerful tools that can enhance our communication skills and foster
better understanding. By being aware of these principles and applying them thoughtfully, we can
ensure that our message is clear, relevant, and effectively received by our audience.

Definition of Infringing

Another example of Non-Observance Maxim is Infringing. Infringing a maxim means the

speaker has an imperfect command of language. The factors for the utterance disability could due to
the speaker’s condition themselves. They can be talking in excitement, drunkenness, nervousness,
and even a beginner learner of the language. Example:

 Sylvette: Do you prefer exorcising spirits together or would you be more comfortable
exorcising alone?
 Huo Huo : Oh, um... maybe...? Not maybe, um, y-yes.

Definition of Opting Out

When the speaker is unwilling to engage in a conversation, it means that they are opting out
a maxim. The speaker directly says their unwillingness to continue the conversation. This can happen
due to the unwillingness of letting out the truth and usually hopes to avoid generating false
implicature. Example:

 Sylvette: Is it true that you put a stellaron in the Xianzhou Loufu?

 Luocha: I have no comment/I have nothing to say to you

Definition of Suspending

This kind of Non-Observance maxim is found in a particular event when the speaker does
not need to fulfil the maxim. Usually found in funeral orations to honor the participants in the
conversation or to protect the feelings of certain participants by the needs to be praiseworthy and
exclude any potentially unfavorable aspects of someone’s life or personality. Example: You do not
speak ill of the dead. Even if the person who died was a bad person.
 THE POLITENESS PRINCIPLE

Politeness Principle
The politeness principle is a concept in pragmatics that describes how people use language to
maintain smooth and cooperative social interactions. It was first proposed by Geoffrey Leech in his
1983 book Principles of Pragmatics. Leech argued that there are six maxims that people follow in
order to be polite:
1. Tact maxim: Be tactful; minimize the expression of beliefs which imply cost to other and
maximize the expression of beliefs which imply benefit to other.
2. Generosity maxim: Be generous; minimize the expression of want; maximize the expression
of offering.
3. Approbation maxim: Show approbation; minimize disapproval; maximize approval.
4. Modesty maxim: Be modest; minimize self-praise; maximize self-deprecation.
5. Agreement maxim: Seek agreement; minimize disagreement; maximize agreement.
6. Sympathy maxim: Be sympathetic; minimize antipathy; maximize sympathy.

These maxims are not rules, but rather guidelines that people follow to a greater or lesser extent
depending on the context of the situation. The specific way in which the maxims are applied will vary
depending on factors such as the relationship between the speaker and the hearer, the social
setting, and the topic of conversation.

Examples of politeness maxims in use

Here are some examples of how the politeness maxims can be used in conversation:
 Tact maxim: A speaker might avoid mentioning a sensitive topic, such as someone's weight,
in order to be tactful.
 Generosity maxim: A speaker might offer to help someone with a task, such as carrying their
groceries, in order to be generous.
 Approbation maxim: A speaker might praise someone's work, such as a child's drawing, in
order to show approbation.
 Modesty maxim: A speaker might downplay their own accomplishments, such as saying that
they just got lucky, in order to be modest.
 Agreement maxim: A speaker might agree with someone's opinion, even if they don't fully
agree, in order to seek agreement.
 Sympathy maxim: A speaker might express sympathy for someone who is going through a
difficult time, such as saying that they are sorry to hear about someone's illness, in order to
be sympathetic.
The politeness principle is an important concept for understanding how language is used in social
interaction. By following the politeness maxims, people can make sure that their communication is
smooth, cooperative, and polite.

LEVELS OF LANGUAGE: UTTERANCE, SENTENCE, AND PROPOSITION

Language can be understood as having different levels, each with its own characteristics:

1. Utterance:

 The most concrete level: It refers to a specific instance of spoken or written language used
by a particular speaker or writer in a specific context.
 Examples:
o "I am reading the novel."
o "Hello!"
o "A cappuccino, please."
 Characteristics:
o Can be a single word, phrase, sentence, or sequence of sentences.
o Bounded in articulation (defined by pauses or intonation).
o Always written in quotation marks to indicate its specific context and occasion.

2. Sentence:

 An abstract grammatical unit derived from an utterance: It represents a well-formed string

of words created by following the grammatical rules of a language.
 Examples:
o "I eat mangoes."
o "Mangoes are eaten by me."
 Characteristics:
o Contains a complete thought or idea.
o Can express a statement, question, command, etc.
o May contain multiple propositions (the meaning expressed by a declarative
sentence).
3. Proposition:

 The lowest level of meaning: It refers to the abstract meaning conveyed by a declarative
sentence, independent of its specific wording or context.
 Examples:
o "Alice invaded Wonderland."
o "Wonderland was invaded by Alice."
o "The one who invaded Wonderland was Alice."
 Characteristics:
o Represents the state of affairs described by a sentence.
o Can be true or false.
o Can be expressed by various sentences with different grammatical structures.
o Often represented by capital letters in logic (e.g., ALICE INVADED WONDERLAND).

Relationships between the levels:

 Utterances are concrete instances of sentences: Any utterance can be analyzed as a specific
use of a sentence.
 Sentences express propositions: Every well-formed sentence conveys a propositional
meaning.
 Propositions are the building blocks of meaning: They provide the fundamental units of
information in language.

Here's a simple analogy:

 Imagine a house.
o Utterance: A specific house in a particular neighborhood.
o Sentence: The architectural blueprint of the house.
o Proposition: The basic concept of a house as a living space.
 LITERAL AND NON-LITERAL MEANINGS

1. Basic Distinction:

 Literal meaning: Reflects the dictionary definition of a word, representing its conventional
and factual association with a real-world entity or concept.
 Non-literal meaning: Deliberately employs language in a way that deviates from its literal
sense for creative expression or specific effects.

2. Interpreting Word Meanings:

 Dictionaries provide the literal meaning of words, serving as a reference for their
conventional usage.
 Literal meaning is often neutral and factually accurate, conveying straightforward
information like "I am hungry" or "He is sleeping."
 Non-literal meaning involves intentional deviation from literalness, employing figurative
language like metaphors, similes, or irony.

3. Sources of Meaning:

 Literal meanings are established by society and are considered "conceptual meanings" as
they represent the agreed-upon association between words and objects/concepts.
 Non-literal meanings are associated with symbolic meaning, where words evoke emotions,
imagery, or abstract ideas beyond their literal sense.

4. Examples:

 Literal meaning: "Elephant" in the dictionary defines it as "a very large animal with thick grey
skin, large ears, and two curved outer teeth called tusks."
 Non-literal meaning: "I could eat a horse" exaggerates hunger using a metaphor.
 Literal meaning: "I am a teacher" and "He is sleeping" convey direct information.
 Non-literal meaning: "My stomach is screaming for food" uses personification to express
intense hunger.

5. Non-Literal Meanings and Figurative Language:

 Non-literal meanings are traditionally called figurative language and encompass various
techniques like:
o Metaphor: Comparing two things directly, stating one is another.
o Simile: Comparing two things indirectly, using "like" or "as."
o Irony: Saying the opposite of what is meant, often for humorous effect.
6. Lakoff's Theory:

 Lakoff challenges the clear-cut distinction between literal and non-literal meanings.
 He argues that metaphors are fundamental to human thought and categorization, shaping
our understanding of the world.
 He proposes that central metaphors organize entire semantic fields, like the "time is money"
metaphor influencing how we perceive and value time.

7. Conclusion:

Understanding both literal and non-literal meanings is crucial for effective communication. Literal
meaning provides clarity and accuracy, while non-literal meaning adds expressiveness and depth.
Recognizing how these two types of meaning interact allows for richer understanding and
interpretation of language.

Semantics and Pragmatics

Main Points:
 Three schools of thought exist regarding the relationship between semantics and
pragmatics:
o Semanticism: Only semantics, morphology, and syntax are considered pure
linguistics. Pragmatics is excluded because it lacks logical basis and is seen as
subjective and difficult to study.
o Pragmatism: Focuses solely on pragmatics as the core of real conversation.
Semantics is disregarded as it provides only partial and incomplete meaning.
o Modern View: Both semantics and pragmatics are crucial for understanding
language. Semantics provides literal meaning, while pragmatics adds non-literal
meaning through context.
 The importance of both is illustrated by the "paper analogy": Just as a complete message
requires both sides of a torn paper, understanding language necessitates both semantics
and pragmatics.
 Conclusion:
o Semantics: Studies sentence meaning within the language system.
o Pragmatics: Focuses on speaker's intended meaning in a specific context.
o While the distinction is helpful, confusion arises when differentiating specific
phenomena as semantic or pragmatic.
Overall, the material emphasizes the importance of both semantics and pragmatics in
comprehending language. While they offer distinct perspectives, both are essential for interpreting
the full meaning of communication.