The Ham Radio Handbook

By

Donald L. Stoner, W6TNS

The National Amateur Radio Association

16541 Redmond Way, Suite 232
Redmond, WA 98052

..
,
This book is copyright© 1991. It was developed and published by:

The National Amateur Radio Association

16541 Redmond Way, Suite 232
Redmond, WA 98052
(206) 232-2579
CompuServe- 70371, 111
MCI Mai I - 365-8035

Publication, reproduction or any form of duplication of this book, or any part thereof, by
any means is prohibited without Lhe written consent of the publisher. All translation
rights are reserved.

The Author, publisher or seller assume no liability with respect to the contents of this
book or the use of the information contained herein.

For versions of this work customized for specific markets and applications, contact the
publisher, The National Amateur Radio Association.

Single reprinLc; of the lntioduction Chapter are available at no cost. Quantity reprints of
this material, for distribution by clubs, manufacturers and Amateur Radio dealers are
available at nominal cost. Contact the publisher for more information.

Purchasers of this book may register as Associate Members in the National Amateur
Radio Association at no charge. See page 200. ·

Second Printing 1991

Cover - Photos courtesy of Evelyn Garrison, WS7 A, ICOM America, Inc.
Composition - Patricia Meeks, KS7L.

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

ii Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 Table of Contents
Forward ..................................................................................................... iv
Introduction ............................................................................................. . Page 1
Chapter One ............................................................................................ . Page 15
Chapter A ................................................................................................. Page 23
Chapter B .................................................................................................. Page 63
Chapter C ................................................................................................. Page 81
Chapter D ................................................................................................. Page 97
Chapter E ................................................................................................. Page 117
Chapter F ................................................................................................. Page 139
Chapter G ................................................................................................ Page 155
Chapter H ................................................................................................ Page 165
Chapter I .................................................................................................. Page 177
Answers ........ .......................................................................................... .. Page 195
Men1bership Application ....................................................................... . Page 199
Index ....................................................................................... .................. Page 201

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook Ill

Foreword
'm a pretty "upfronl'' sorta guy and I won't try to kid you. Earning an Amateur li-

I cense may not be the easiest challenge you have ever faced. In the following chap-
ters, you will be confronted with terms you have never heard before and concepts
that may be totally alien. However, the rewards of earning an Amateur license far out-
weigh the value of the time you expend studying for the hrun test.

Actually, without the Morse code hurdle, passing the Amateur test is relatively easy. In
fact, you can do so simply by memorizing the answers to the questions you will find in
the various chapters of this book. It's not cheating, but it will leave you feeling vaguely
discontented each morning when you look in the mirror to shave or put on your makeup.

The new Technician class license, without a Morse requirement, appeals to people who
are not technically inclined. Hopefully, The Ham Radio Handbook will also. I've tried
to make the text understandable to the "non-techies" who constitute the averag~ reader.

Who is the average reader of this book? It's anyone who is interested in obtaining a ham
license. One could not conceive of a better hobby for young people. It doesn't matter
who you are or what you look like. To someone on the other end of a radio communica-
tions circuit, you are just one of many interesting people that congregate on the Amateur
bands. Want to make new friends? If so, ham radio is for you. And young ladies - want
to meet young men? Get a ham license and you '11 receive more attention than someone
wearing a string bikini .

Are you a boater? No matter where your vessel is located, on the face of the globe, you
can be in contact with an Amateur. Radio conditions may not be optimum to work a
commercial shore station or the Coast Guard. But with a ham rig connected to your
backstay, you are never out of radio contact with someone, somewhere in the world.

Ham radio is tJ1e most ideal hobby ever "invented" for retired persons. First, it is infi-
nitely more reliable than CB in your camper or van. When you want help, you don't
need whistles and static. With a FM two-way radio in your vehicle, you can have static-
free contact with other hams virtually anywhere you travel in the U.S .

This book is dedicatecl to two people and an organization. It was my dad, K6HX, who
convinced me to quit bootlegging and get my license almost 40 years ago. I miss you,
Dad! I cannot forget Fred Maia, WSYI, who started the ball rolling toward a code-free
Amateur license. He has forever changed the course of Amateur Radio. Finally, this
book is dedicated to those hard working and underappreciated people at the FCC who
gave our fraternity the most powerful tool since the invention of the vacuum tube.

Donald L. Stoner, W6TNS

Iv Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

Introduction

Amateur Radio - The King of Hobbies

T
o Lheir non-Amateur friends, "hams" are slightl y eccentric characters who live in
a little world all Lheir own. To their spouse, a ham is the "lunkhead" who gets
solder on the carpet and is responsible for enonnous electric bills. Neighbors
sometimes consider them members of a vast organization dedicated to the violent over-
Lhrow of television. All will agree Lhat hams seem to speak in a foreign tongue. But to
their fellow hams, an Amateur is simply a person with the most interesting, unusual and
rewarding hobby in the world.

Amateurs are special and participate in the only hobby, called the Amateur Service, reg-
ulated by the federal government and International law. Amateurs arc given free access
to radio frequencies which are worth literally billions of dollars to commercial interests.

Beyond question, the world of ham radio provides a thrill and excitement like no other
leisure time activity. The only question is do you have the desire and persistence to earn
the right to be called an Amateur?

Something For Everyone

Ham radio is actually a large group of sub-hobbies within a single hobby, all tied to-
gether by electromagnetic waves. IL can be an escape from the humdrum of everyday life
which allows you to talk with other hams all over the world. Amateurs are encouraged to
experiment with their equipment and develop new techniques.

Amateurs have many methods of communication. Most use a microphone since it is the
fastest way to convey your thoughts and comments to someone else. Many hams do
their "talking" with computers. A few hardy souls even have their own TV stations.
Some prefer to use Morse code, claiming it is more relaxing, reliable and the equipment
is less expensive.
 In all, Lhere are more faceL<; Lo the hobby than
there are on the British Crown jewels! Did
you know that Amateurs have their own sat-
ellites which support communication all over
the world? We can even talk by Amateur
radio to astronauts (both American and Rus-
sian) circling the earlh in Lheir space ships.
The fastest growing segment of our hobby
arc the computer buffs who can communicaLe
all over Lhe world .

Who Does It?

Ammcurs can be round in all walks of life.
Well known polilical figures, such as Barry
Goldwater (K7UGA) and Hjs Majesty King
Hussain or Jordan (JYl) are both Amateurs.
Dick Rutan (KB7LQS) had an Amateur sta-
tion aboard "Voyager" when he and Jeanna Yaeger made their famous flight.

Country western fans know lhe names of picker Chet Alkins ancl singer Ronnie Milsap
(W A4CZD and WB4KCG respectively). Other famous hams ind ude rock guitarist Joe
Walsh. Donnie Osmond used Lo be KA7EVD and Marlon Brando is still FOOGJ (Ta-
hiti). Some of the older readers will remember entertainers Andy Devine and Arthur
Godfrey (K4LIB) as well as musicians Pee Wee Hunt and Alvino Rey (W6UK).

What Do Hams Talk About?

Let's look at a few aclivities that occupy the
time of more than 450,000 Americans. Chat-
ting, or "rag-chewing", is the most popular
diversion. All hams love to talk! As soon as
his feet hit the floor, Sam Ham will nick on
his receiver and transmitter, even before turn-
ing on the coffee pot. Around lhe nation,
other hams are doing lhe same ming. More
often than not, a group of these "early birds"
collect in a "round-table". A microphone is
passed around via the air waves until it is
time for various members to dash off to
Barry Goldwater, K7UGA, is the elder work. The scene is repeated after supper by
stateman of Amateur Radio. (CQ Maga-
zine Photo) some of the more avid mcmbers of the clan.

"What do you fine! to talk about?" Iiams are often asked. Sex, religion, and politics usecl
to be avoided, but open discussion is quite commonplace these days. Generally, the con-
versation is less likely to be on technical things than on taking care of Lhe house, car
problems and critiquing the latest Steven Spielberg movie.

2 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 INTRODUCTION

Hamming On The Highway

Sam Ham might also be interested in another phase of the hobby called mobile opera-
tion. If so, he probably has a miniature duplicate of his home station built into the family
car. As Sam threads his way to the office, he can once again participate in the "round-
table" from his rolling radio station. Or, should Sam elect to, he can switch the fre-
quency of his equipment and join in the conversation with a similar group of hams clear
across the country.

s ••
Public Service
Before you get the idea t11at Amateurs are just a bunch of chattering magpies, remember
that it's called the Amateur Radio Service. The original intent was public service and
the handling of messages. The majority of Amateurs carry on in the same tradition. Am-
ateurs provide public service without. pecuniary interest (compensation).

Ham radio is also a communication service for self-training and technical experimen-
tation . We are allowed access to priceless radio spectrum on the assumption t11at Ama-
teurs form a valued pool of' skilled communicators in times of emergency. It is
absolutely essential that we maintain this tradition if we are to retain our frequency allo-
cations throughout tlle communications spectrum .

The Thrill Of DX'ing

The term DX means communicating long distance by radio. The DX-minded ham is an
unusual variation of t11e typical Amateur. Like Sam Ham, our inveterate DX'er rises be-
fore dawn. He turns on the station and starts the coflee brewing almost at the same time.
However, DX Dan does not jump into a round-table. Instead, he squashes a pair of
headphones on his ears and intently tunes the receiver dial to and fro. Several days may
come and go without so much as a peep out of DX Dan's powerful transmitter. Then
one morning Dan rtushes his quarry and a look of grim determination set.lies across his
face. He is listenirig to the faint rolling dots and dashes of 9Nl MM, Father Moran, oper-

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 3

 INTRODUCTION
ating from Katmandu, Nepal! Suddenly, as 9N1MM stands by, Dan's powerful "rig"
springs to life and the needles on the transmitter measuring instruments swing Lo and
fro. Less than one minute later, Dan pushes the telegraph key away and writes down this
new contact in his log book.

Most amazing, perhaps, is that DX Dan probably heard many other rare and exotic sta-
tions while searching the band for 9N 1MM. On a typical morning he may have heard
most of the districts of the Soviet Union, Sarawak, Brunei, Mauritius, the Orkney Is-
lands, Qatar, Trucial Oman, and of course the more common countries such as England,
Japan, Australia, or New Zealand. But Dan ignored their CQ ("I'm looking for a con-
tact") calls in favor of Lhe more elusive Nepal Amateur. He had contacted these other
stations long ago. As our inveterate DX'er prepared to dash off to work, he checked off
the new conquest. Nepal was number 261 on his list of the more than 300 countries in
the world.

To quote Dave Bell, W6AQ (who appeared in a video called The New World of Ama-
teur Radio), "When you turn on your radio and get on the air, it's like going fishing.
You never know exactly what you are going to catch. That's the thrill of DX."

Ham Radio "Wall Paper"

In addition to the thrill of having "hooked" a
new one, Dan will get a material reward also.
Hams exchange postcards, called QSL's,
which confirm their contacts. Each card car-
ries details such as the dale and time of con-
tact, mode of transmission (voice or code),
and a signal strength report. Thus, sometime
after his contact, Dan will receive a card that
he can proudly display on the wall or his ham
station.

~~ Ambassadors Of Goodwill
- ~=;'1 . An interesting variation of the DX-minded
- ! llllll . ~ ham is Ambassador Al. Al "gets his kicks" by
conversing with overseas Amateurs, mostly to
gain friends and exchange ideas. Although he
may never meet one of these hams, he is truly
an ambassador of international goodwill.
These electronic ambassadors can tell you
what the temperature was yesterday in Kuala
Lumpur, Malasia, or who is winning the ten-
·There's plenty of "wallpaper" In this
nis matches in Melbourne, Australia. Al has
Amateur's "ham shack."
two or three favorites overseas and maintains
weekly contact schedules with them. Often they exchange inexpensive gifts, and once in
a while they have the opportunity of meeting each other.

4 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 INTRODUCTION
Young people make excellent "ambassadors of the air waves" for the United States. By
communicating with youth in other countries, they help dispel the myth of the "ugly
American".

Radio Repeaters
Have you ever tried lo communicate with someone using Citizens Band equipment? Not
very effective is it? Ham radio has a couple of features not available Lo CB'ers. The first
is Amateur Radio use of FM (frequency modulation) equipment. The reception is
crystal clear and you only hear one station al a Lime. Another aspect of FM communica-
tions is the use of repeaters. These devices consist of a receiver and retransmitter. Nei-
ther FM or repeaters are allowed on the Citizens Band.

Repeaters are usually installed on mountain tops or on the roof of a tall building. The re-
peater picks up the signals from an Amateur's hand-held or mobile two-way radio and
resends (or repeats) it at higher power levels on another frequency as much as 100 miles
distant, and with perfect clarity.

There arc more than 12,000 Amateur repeaters on the air in North America. You can
drive from coast-to-coast and border-to-border and never be out of range of an Amateur
repeater. In an emergency you can always contact someone for help with a two-way
radio so tiny it will fit in your pocket or purse.

Repeaters are great for talking to friends in distant cities. For example, you can be driv-
ing around downtown Los Angeles and talk to another station motoring in San Diego.
Repeaters also permit communication beyond mountains (which would normally shield
or block the signals).

Some repeaters even h3ve a telephone access

so you can call your XYL and make up sto-
ries about why you'll be late for dinner. Many
Amateur mobile and hand-held radios have a
"Touch Tone" pad just like a regular tele-
phone. Th is permits you to access Lhc repeater
telephone channel and dial a telephone num-
ber. Best of all, you don't nce<l to pay money
10 the local cellular telephone system . There's
no free lunch, however. Remember, you can'l
use I.he ham bands for business. lf you want This tiny /COM handheld transceiver can
to call your broker and comer the stock mar- communicate for 100 m/les or more via a
repeater. (/COM Photo)
ket, you' II need a cellular telephone.

What's An XYL?
For convenience, I have used the male gender in describing I.he various types of Ama-
teurs. However, men certainly don 't have a monopoly on the hobby. Female Amateurs
are referred lo as YL's or "young laclies". An XYL (not ex-YL) is a married young lady.
The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 5
 INTRODUCTION
There is no accuraLe tabulation, but ap-
proximaLely ooe ouL of every thirty hams
is female.

Think it's Loo difficulL? Probably the first

woman ham was Miss Cecil Powell, sec-
retary Lo the co-founder of Lhe American
Radio Relay League, Hiram Percy
Maxim. In 1915, she constructed her own
station, learned the code, and became an
active Amateur.

What do YL 's talk about? Well, whaL do

women talk about whenever they get to-
gether? There arc DX'ers, public-service
spark plugs and "ambassadresses" among the skirt and sweater brigade too.

Welcome CB'ers!
Since it began, ham radio has grown at a steady pace with more newcomers arriving
each year than there were "silent keys" (a ham who has passed away). In the early 70's,
the ham population began to expand at a much higher rate than previously. This was due
to interest in the Citizens Band. People were introduced to the wonders of radio commu-
nications but wanted something better. Ham radio provided it. Hams talk worldwide,
limited only by radio conditions. There are no distance restrictions as in CB. Amateu.rs
use static-free FM radios for local contacts. They are also allowed up to l 500 watts out-
put power using any mode of communication rather than just a few watts on AM or sin-
gle sideband.

The problems of CB and the attraction of ham radio has brought many new members
into our hobby. Today, probably 20 percent of the existing Amateurs are ex-CB 'er's.
Amateurs embrace CB "born again" communicators and encourage them to get a ham
license.

6 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 INTRODUCTION

How About You?

Think you'd like Lo be a ham? Want to join about three million others worldwide who
experience the thrill of communications by ham radio? Anyone can become a licensed
AmaLeur operaLor. You don'L even have Lo be a U.S. citizen and there are no age restric-
tions. There are five year old AmaLeurs and senior citizen hams in their nineties.

It's really easy, and getting easier every day. Lo open that first door to the Amateur Ser-
vice. You have to pass a simple test but, you don't need to be examined at an office of
the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). Since 1984, the government has been
completely out of the ham testing business. Volunteer Examiners (VE's), holding se-
nior Amateur licenses, now handle this function.

The New Technician Class

What do I mean by "really easy and getting easier?" Until recenLly, Lhe regulations re-
quired thaL you be able to receive the Morse code 10 obtain an Amateur license. Actually
communication by Morse is quiLe enjoyable and challenging buL it was perceived by the
public to be a difficult obstacle.

As a resulL of this perception, the FCC recentJy created a new entry level of Amateur li-
cense. The recipient of this license does not need to show a proficiency using Morse
code. The license is called the new Technician Class. It was crcaLed by dropping the 5
word-per-minute Morse code tesLfrom the existing Technician Class license.

All prospective hams are tested by a VE (Volunteer Examiner) team. VE's examine
entry-level applicanLS under two different testing programs. These programs arc the
Novice examination program and the VEC (for Volunteer Examiner Coordinator) Sys-
tem. Up until recently there was only one entry level Amateur license, the Novice. Now
there arc Lwo: Novice and tbe new Technician. Novices are examined by a team of two
amateurs holding General Class and higher level operator licenses. It takes three Volun-
teer Examiners under the more formal VEC System and they musLhold either an Ad-
vanced or an Extra Class Amateur license.

Most Amateur examinations are administered under the VEC System since VE's are
systematically accredited and provided Amateur testing infonnation and materials by a
VEC. A VEC is an organization established to act as the testing liaison between the VE
and the Federal Communications Commission who issue the Amateur operator license.
VE's are always happy to have newcomers to ham radio appear at 1heir testing sessions .
The new no-code Technician Class applicant must be examined under the VEC System
and a small resting fee (approximately SS.00) is charged to defray the cost of the exam-
ining program. There is no charge Lo be administered the Novice examination.

VEC's now take the place of the FCC in the testing function. They develop all examina-
tions and testing guidelines and make them available to the Amateur testing community.
It is the VEC who now manages the Amateur operator testing function for the govern-

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 7

 mcnl. Practically every city of 50,000 or more
has monthly VEC examinations conducted by
volunteers.

The new Technician license is really a "be-

ginners permit". To earn it, and prove you are
qualified to be an Amateur, you still have to
pass a test. Volunteer Examiner Coordinators
have developed a large pool of multiple
choice questions that apply to the things be-
ginning hams should know. All of the ques-
tions, even the exact word-for-word multiple
choice answers are known to the public and
widely published . Copies of these exams,
with the correct answers, are included in this
book.

Celine Calvo, KB7LOY, who Is from Bruz,

France, passed her Novice exam during a
The new Technician question pool is a combi-
nation of the questions for the Novice Class
short vist to Seattle, WA., In conjunction
with the 1990 Goodwill Games. license (called Element 2) and the questions
from the previous Technician Class license
(called Element 3A). The Volunteer Examiner simply administers 55 questions from the
two pools according to a selection formula. This formula is stated by the government in
the Part 97 Rules and Regulations for the Amateur Service. There are about 700 total
questions in the Element 2 and 3(A) question pools from which the VE selects for your
Technician examination. [Approximately 375 in Element 2 and 325 in Element 3(A)].

Your VE team will select 30 questions from the Element 2 pool and 25 from Element
3(A). Passing Element 2 requires that you answer 22 questions correctly. Element 3(A)
requires 19 - a tot.al of 41 correcL. You need not pass both test elements at the same
time. Instead you may take one element and the other later. If you fail one portion, you
still receive credit for the test element passed. The VE team will give you a credit slip,
called a Certificate of Successful Completion of Examination (CSCE), good towards
the remaining examination element which must be completed during the next 365 days.
If you don't pass the remaining test element during the next year, you lose credit for the
portion you passed. The process is very similar to the written rest given to obtain an au-
tomobile driving license. You study the rules, procedures, questions and then pass the
test.

The first step in obtaining a Technician license, is to submit an application, called an

FCC Fonn 610, to your Volunteer Examiners. The FCC Form 610, called the Applica-
tion for Amateur Station and Operator License, consists of three sections. Section I
is completed by the applicant. The Section II Certification and the Administering VE's
Report is completed by your examiners. You can obtain a copy of the 610 form by call-
ing your local FCC office (listed under U.S . Gov.) or by requesting one from The Na-
tional Amateur Radio Association if you use or lose the copy included with this book.

8 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 INTRODUCTION
After you pass the test, your application will be immediately forwarded by the VE team
to the VEC who coordinated the testing session. (A copy or your credit certificate must
be attached to your application if you claim credit from a previously passed examination
element.) The VEC verifies everything is correct, then forwards the material to the FCC.
The application is returned to you if you fail the test. It is important to obtain a photo-
copy of your successful Novice application if you plan LO upgrade to a higher class be-
fore your license arrives. The next VE team will require proof tlrnt you have already
passed the examination before testing you further.

You can't go on-the-air until your license arrives. It takes about six weeks to two
months to get your "diploma" from Uncle Sam. Then the fun begins. The first time you
go on the air, your forehead will break out in a cold swcal! You'll forget all the rules of
communications and your sentences will be punctuated with "er's" and "uh's." But after
a few days of this "infection" from the ham radio "bug," you'll sound like an ole timer.

The new Technician Class License allows you full Amateur privileges on the very high
frequency (VHF) and ultra-high (UHF) bands including six meters and above. Most of
the satellite and computer communication occurs on these bands.

Once you earn your Technician Class license, don't stop there. The next step is the so-
called ''Technician Plus" (for Technician plus Morse code) level, followed by the Gen-
eral, Advanced and Extra Class. You no longer have the option of becoming a Novice
class operator once you enter at the code-free Technician level. To advance to "Tech
Plus" you must pass the Element l(A) five words-per-m inute telegraphy examination at
a VEC System test session. You are not permitted to go back and take the 5 WPM code
exam under the two VE Novice exam ination program. While considered an upgrade, no
new operator license will be issued by the FCC to the "Tech Plus" operator. Instead
your new privileges will be v~sted by the Certificate of Successful Completion given
you by the examining team when you pass the code.

"Tech Plus" operators additionally obtain segments of the Amateur 80, 40, 15 and 10
meter band. Most of these bands arc for telegraphy but you are permitted voice trans-
mission in a portion of the Len meter band.

Continue to study and improve your knowl-

edge. Remember, a Technician "ticket" is
simply a key which opens the first door and
allows you to enter a wondrous room with
many more doors. There is no "free lunch" in
this world. You gel what you pay for whether
the .currency is sweat or dollars. The new
Technician license is only the beginning, not
the ultimate goal. Plan on learning the Morse
code so you can access the OLher Amateur
bands. You' ll be glad you did!

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 9

 INTRODUCTION

The Novice Class

The Commission decided lo retain the Novice Class operator license in order to provide
an alternate enlry level operator license opportunity to persons - especially youngsters
- who can pass a telegraphy requirement in place of the more comprehensive written
examination requirement fo r the codeless Technician Class operator license.

Novice privileges are not as desirable as those associated with the new code-free Tech-
nician. Novices obtain code spec1rum on 80, 40, 15 and 10 meters and may operate in
the voice mode on a segment of ten. In addition Novices obtain portions of the 222 and
1270 MHz ham bands.

To become a Novice you must pass Element 2 (30 questions) and Element l(A), (to
prove you can send and receive Morse at not less than five words-per-minute). This ex-
amination may be administered by two General or higher class Amateur operators who
need not be accredited by a YEC. It is also frequently conducted at VEC sessions if the
applicant requests the Novice instead of the Technician examinations. The only differ-
ence is that the 5 WPM code will be administered instead of what some people perceive
is the harder Element 3(A). You may be administered the 5 WPM telegraphy test under
the two VE Novice program only if you have never held the code-free Technician Class
operator license. Once you hold the Technician license, you will be charged a test fee
for administration of the five word-per-minute code test. This is because "Tech Plus" is
considered an upgrade from the Technician Class license. All licensing above the Nov-
ice class must be conducted under the VEC system which carries a test fee. (2A 12. l)
(2Al 2.2)(2A 12.3)

As a general rule, to engage in worldwide communications you need at least a Novice or

Tech Plus class license (sometimes the six meter band transmissions travel great dis-
tances). With either license you can communicate by voice on the 10 meter Amateur
band and by Morse code on other bands. The 10 meLer band is capable of continent
spanning range at various times of the year. The bands where you arc permitted to use
Morse have long distance capabilities al nearly any hour of the day and night.

Leaming to receive the Morse code can best be done with a personal computer (using a
program such as Super Morse, by listening to over-the-air code practice or with the
audio training tapes available in the commercial marketplace. Morse code seems diffi-
cult, but in actual fact is quite easy. All it takes is a bit of practice. At examination time,
you will be sent a minimum of five minutes of Morse at five words-per-minute.

You are specifically required to correctly answer 41 out of 55 written test questions ex-
tracted from two question pools to become a Technician. However, your examiners are
allowed much more freedom to determine if you have passed the Morse code test. Their
only guidelines are: (1) they must be convinced and certify that you can send and re-
ceive the International Morse code at five words per minute during a transmission of at
least five minutes; and (2) the text transmitted must contain forty-three different charac-
ters. These are all the letters of the alphabet, all numerals 0-9, four punctuation marks
(the period, comma, question mark, slant bar) and three operating procedure signs (AR,
10 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association
 INTRODUCTION
BT and SK). While noL required, mosL Leleg-
raphy examinations take Lhe fonn of an actual
Lelegraphy communication, between Lwo am-
aLeurs. You probably will not be administered
a telegraphy hand-sending test since the FCC
has taken the position that operators who can
transcribe Morse code can also send it.

Some examiners will ask you to correctly

\-
copy 25 characters in a row (punctuation, nu-
merals and prosigns count as Lwo characLers)
to determine if you can copy the code. Others
might ask you to answer seven out of ten

~
questions about the transmitted text or fill in
missing words from the copy. Even a multi-
ple choice or uue/false code examination is Dan, NlNYO, went from a non-ham to
passing his General exam in only six
legal. The formal of Lhe telegraphy test is lefL months. Now he's working on his "Extra. "
t.o the discretion of the VE.

Helping Hams
In virtually every area of Lhe country there are "Helping Hams" who want to assist you
in joining our hobby. To paraphrase the BeaLles, if you could " use a Little help from your
friends'', let us know at The National Amateur Radio Association. Give us your ZIP
code and we will tell you how to contact one or more "Helping Hams" who live near
you. NARA also has a data base of information on Volunteer Examiners. These VE's
can advise you of local ham radio classes and, when the time comes, provide your Ama-
teur test NARA will also help you locate Amateur clubs and other organizations which
are interesced in guiding you to become a ham radio operator. Just call or write for infor-
mation.

Handicapped Hams
Volunteer examiners are permitted to utilize special provisions when administering ex-
aminations to handicapped applicants at the 5 WPM level. These accommodations may
include pausing the telegraphy test after sentences, phrases, words or even individual
letters. The examiners may require a physician's certification indicating the nature of
the disability before determining which, if any, special procedures must be used. Even if
you are sightless, have no hearing or do not have use or conLrol of your limbs, Lherc is a
way Lo transmit and receive ham radio communications. If you have a handicap of some
sorL, don'L be relucLant to contact the Courage-Handi Ham System in Minnesota. For
more information on this organization, wrile Courage Center, 3915 Golden Valley Rd.,
Golden Valley, MN 55422 or call (612) 588-0811.

Other Resources
The premier national group representing radio Amateurs is The American Radio Relay
League. Every AmaLeur should belong Lo this organization. Their address is:

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 11

 INTRODUCTION
American Radio Relay League
225 Main Street
Newington, CT 06111
T elephone (203) 666-1541

Membership is currently $30.00 per year and with it, you receive an auLomatic subscrip-
tion to their monthly publication, QST. The League has an extraordinary array of litera-
ture of interest to newcomers. Their book, How to Tune in lhe World is excellent. They
also produce other Novice course materials which are available al most Amateur Radio
stores.

The National Amateur Radio Association is a special interest group. This non-profit or-
ganization was formed to:(a) publicize Amateur Radio to the general public:(b) bring
young people into the hobby:(c) teach existing Amateurs how to be better Amateurs and
(d) protect Amateur frequency allocations. NARA can be reached in a number of ways:

National Amateur Radio Assoc.

16541 Redmond Way, Suite #232
Redmond, WA 98052
Inquiries 1-800-GOT-2-HAM
Business Phone (206) 232-2579
MCI ID: 365-8035
CompuSer ve: 70371,111

A membership in NARA is $10.00 per year. Your membership includes a subscription

to a monthly journal called The Amateur Radio Communicator. It also supports repre-
sentation in Washington, educational programs such as exhibitions at The National Sci-
ence Teachers Association meetings and al similar conferences.

Another special interest group is TAPR. If you are keen on computer communications
via ham radio, you should contact:

Tucson Amateur Packet Radio

P.O. Box 12925
Tucson, AZ 85732
Telephone (602) 749-9479

They arc the group which promoted and popularized packet radio communications via
ham radio.

Last, but by no means least, is AMSAT which stands for the Amateur Satellite Corpora-
tion. This amazing group has parlayed memberships, donations and contributed labor
into more than 20 communication satellites which have orbited the earth exclusively for
Amateur use. If you would like to learn how you can transmit all over the world via sat-
ellite, these "orbital mechanics" can be contacted at:

12 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 INTRODUCTION
AMSAT
850 Silgo Avenue
Silver Spring, MO 20910
Telephone (301) 589-6062

An excellent study device for Morse Code is the program mentioned earlier, caJled
Super Morse. This program, written for MS-DOS computers, is available from The Na-
tional Amateur Radio Association. IL comes on a 5 1/4 inch disk and the price is only
$3.00 to cover postage and handling. Super Morse is shareware (you owe the author a
contribution if you use it).

Magazines are an excellent source of information no mauer what field you arc inter-
ested in. You can sometimes pick up copies of Amateur magazines on newsstands.

QST has something of interest for every ham with special emphasis on ARRL activities.
Their address is ARRL, QST Magazine, 225 Main Street, Newington, CT 06111.

CQ's emphasis is on DX'ing, contesting and awards. They can be reached at CQ Maga-
zine, 76 North Broadway, Hicksville, NY 11801.

73 is famed for its rich editorials by Wayne Green and for its emphasis on construction
and articles for beginners. Write them at 73 Magazine, WGE Center, Hancock, NH
03449.

For those interested in Amateur television transmissions, there are two excellent publi-
cations on the subject. One is Amateur Television Quarterly, 540 Oakton St., Des
Plaines, IL 6001 8-1950. Drop a line to Henry Ruh, KB9FO if you would like a sample
copy.

USATVS Journal is published by Mike Donovan, KAOJAW. Mike has been reporting on
ham TV for 22 years. They can be reached at USATVS , 1520 Cerro Dr., Dubuque, IA
52001.

An excellent publication for "homebrew artists" is called Nuts & Volts magazine. If you
like to build things, or are interested in electronic parts and used equipment, you' II find
what you are looking for between the covers of this publication. N&V covers not only
ham things but television, test equipment and computer goodies. You can reach them by
writing T & L Publications, Inc., P.O. Box 1.1 ll, Placentia, CA 92670. Tell l11em
NARA sent you and watch for a sample copy in the mail.

If you would like to learn more about attaching your computer to an Amateur station,
you will enjoy reading Digital Digest. IL is the premier publication for the one's and
zero's crowd and is only $16.00 per year. Digital Digest is published bimonthly by Arvo
& Associates, 4063 Goldenrod Rd., Winter Park, FL 32792.

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 13

 INTRODUCTION
There are advertisements for a number of Amateur radio companies in Lhesc magazines.
A leller to Lhe advertiser requesting information will bring a quick response- usually a
fat envelope full of literature.

These magazines provide an exLraordinary amount of useful technical information.

However Amateur news is usually 60-90 days after the fact due lO publishing deadlines.
For the best up-to-date information on what's happening in the ham radio world, you
should subscribe Lo the popular newsletters.

The most famous is the W5YI Report. This 10 page document is published by Fred Maia
(W5YI) every two weeks and contains news which is never more than a few days old.
The W5YI Report costs $24.50 per year and can be obtained by writing: The W5YI Re-
port, P.O. Box 565101, Dallas, TX 75356-5101. The telephone number is (817) 461-
6443

The oldest newsletter is The West/ink Report. It is published 26 times per year. It covers
general Amateur radio news, FCC actions, new equipment releases, industry news, DX
reports and propagation forecasts. The price is $24.50 per year. It's available from:
Westlink Report, 28221 Stanley Ct., Canyon Country, CA 91351, telephone 1-(800)
HAM-7303 or (805) 251-5558 in California.

There's a free service that provides the latest information on ham radio each week. It is
the Amateur Radio Newsline, produced by Bill Pasternak (WA6ITF) and is heard
weekly on repealCrs all over the country. Check with your local repeater operator for the
time "Newsline" can be heard.

Let's Do It!
There's no shortage of information and there are no secrets. Come on and join us in this
world of dits and dah's and ones and zeros. I can personally guarantee that your life will
never again be the same. At the very least, you'll make new friends and have new expe-
riences. Isn't that worth a few hours of your time?

73, DE Don Stoner, W6TNS

President
T he National Amateur Radio Assoc.

14 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

Cha ter

The Birth Of A Hobby

N
one of Lhe questions in the Novice or Technician test relate 10 the traditions of
AmaLeurs. I think some of them should. These traditions are one of the things
which separate AmaLeur Radio from other l ess disciplined radio services.

Hertz, The First Ham

Although we consider ham radio a twentieth-
century hobby, Lhe birth of an infant called
"wireless" Look place long before the turn of
this century. In 1887, the chief interest of the
population was attending band concerts in the
park. That year, Heinrich HerLZ, a brillianL
young German scientist was experimenting
with the radiation of electricity. Hertz discov-
ered that if he applied el ectricity to a loop of
wire, he could cause a spark to jump the gap
in another loop a short distance away - and
with no connecting wires! This was the first
form of radio communication.

Heinrich concluded corrcclly that electromag-

netic waves traveled between the source gap
and the spark gap at the speed of light. The
source and the gap could be separated by only
a few feet, otherwi se the spark could not be '
detected. Heinrich Hertz could be called the Heinrich Hertz was the first person to gen·
erate radio waves
world's firsL Amateur. In appreciation and re-
spect for his contribution, we have ren amed
 CHAPTER 1

Lhe familiar uniL of frequency to honor Hertz. Today, instead of speaking of cycles, kilo-
cycles or megacycles, we use the terms Hertz, kiloHertz and MegaHertz (Hz, KHz and
MHz).

Morse Was an Artist

It's a little known fact but Samuel Finley Breese Morse first achieved distinction as an
artist, particularly as a painter of.miniatures. He was the son of a Calvinist minister who
was educated at Yale College and who received his art training in Europe. It was during
the return voyage from Europe in 1832 that he devised the now famous code bearing his
name.

Although well known for devising this system, he also invented the telegraphic sounder
and printer. Both devices employed electromagnets, a battery and a telegraph key.
Often the key was located a long distance from the electromagnets and connected by
wires. This was the first telegraph line.

Morse connected the armature (controlled by the electromagnet.) to an ink pen which
could print on paper moving through the device. This created a printed record of the
code. Using this scheme, the various alphanumeric characters of a message could be
represented by combinations of the two signal elements, the "dot" and the "dash". For
example, a "dot" followed by a "dash" represents an "a" in the international Morse
code.

After working with the "printing telegraph", Morse and his colleague, Alfred Vail, real-
ized that the messages could also be understood by the sound of the clicking armature.
Holding the key down for a short length of time created a shorL click or "dot" sound
while depressing the key longer increased the time before the next click This repre-
sented a "dash".

The Morse code was utilized when radio telegraphy was introduced in 1897. Even sub-
marines used the code by employing magnetic fields . Ships communicated between
themselves using a signaling lamp wherein a shutter was manually actuated to form
"dots" and "dashes".

Marconi Made Wireless Practical

Apparently Hertz did not see the possibility of
using electromagnetic waves for long dis-
tance communication. Guglielmo Marconi, an
Italian genius, carried Hertz's simple experi-
ment further by connecting one side of the
"sending" spark gap 10 wires buried in the
ground. The other side of the gap was con-
nected to a "skywire" or antenna. Marconi
utilized the telegraph code (devised by Sam-
·Guglielmo Marconi was the first to trans- uel Morse for telegraph lines) with his new
mit signals across the Atlantic. invention. Using this equipment, clcctromag-
16 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association
 CHAPTER 1

neLic waves generated by the crackling spark !raveled more than a mile to a remote re-
ceiving site. Transmiuers, receivers and wireless communications had arrived on the
scene; the year was 1895.

Marconi worked diligently to increase the range of communication. More sensitive de-
vices were invented to reproduce the sound of the code. In time practical distances
reached 200 miles. Government and commercial companies all over the world copied
Marconi's experiments and his wireless equipment. By the Fall of 1901, using a mighty
spark gap transmitter, Marconi was able to thrust his signals 1,800 miles across the At-
lantic Ocean from Wales to Newfoundland.

Litz Wire and Shellac

Cascading evenLs and technological advances created more public interest in wireless
communications Lhan had ever been known. Experimenters found that they could listen
in on this eighth wonder-of-the-world. They wound coils, varnished baseboards and
built their own receiving stations. Interest in sending Morse code surged with the gen-
eral population and Amateur Lransmitting stations sprang up all over the nation. Folks at
Lhe English end of the transatlantic circuit exhibited a similar interest. Their Amateur
experimenters were called "am's" and the name stuck for radio experimenters (it makes
a good story, anyway!).

Keep in mind that there were no tubes, transistors, integrated circuits or even such basic
items as capacitors, resistors or measuring meters. You couldn't go into a ham radio
store and pick up a kit of parts. And there were no government regulations, frequency
allocations, or organizations represenLing AmaLeurs. Anyone who wanted to experiment
built the necessary parts and plunged into the construction of his or her Amateur station.

Snap, Crackle and Pop

Then the rotary spark gap was invented. Rather than use a fixed gap for the spark, this
device used many gaps which roLated on a wheel at high speed. It produced pleasant
sounding oscillations at the then fantastic rate of 50,000 cycles per second.

Even more important, the oscillations could be modified by Lhe human voice! Reginald
Aubrey Fessenden, a physicist, used speech to communicate with ships from his experi-
mental station in Brant Rock, Mass. Many experimenters feared insanity when voices,
rather than the whine of the rotary spark gap, leapt out of their headsets. But once again,
Amateurs scrambled, this time to hurl their voices across space. The art of radiotele-
phone transmission had been created; the year was 1906.

Publications describing all kinds of devices for the experimenter were numerous. The
papers described feats of distance and "heroism" by wireless stations almost daily. The
tiny stream of fire created by Hertz and Marconi had become a tremendous blaze in the
eyes of experimenters everywhere.

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 17

 CHAPTER 1

With the increased activity came an ever-rising tide of interference between stations.
Amateur, commercial and government activities were intermingled. The calliope of
sounds culminated in the Wireless Act of 1912. This was the beginning of the rules
which provide the framework under which Amateurs operate today. Most important, the
government was Lo control all wireless transmissions and all operators had lo be li-
censed. The intrepid Amateurs, who sparked the imagination of commercial interests,
were relegated to purgatory. Their operations had to be confined LO wavelengths shorter
than 200 meters (near the high end of the present broadcast band). Commercial and gov-
ernm ent stations were the only wireless stations allowed below this frequency, except
by special permit.

The Amateur hobbyists pro tested violently, for they felt that this regulation effectively
slashed the wrist of their sending hands. The new wavelengths were uninhabited and in-
capable of propagating energy across a small village, or so 1hey thought. The more pro-
gressive experimenters soon discovered that their range had been increased, rather than
decreased, and with no additional transmitting power! The beuer stations could commu-
nicate over distances in excess of 30 miles.

Formation Of The ARAL

In 1914 another great event occurred. T he Radio Club of Hanford, Conn., formed a
league of Amateur stations. This group, known as the American Radio Relay League,
still represents it's members in all official matter s. The purpose of the League was to
band Amateurs together so they could relay messages from one point to another as com-
mercial stations did.

An early network of Amateurs was attempted between Boston and Denver, with the
eventual hope of spanning the continent. Soon, with the leadership of League co-
founder Hiram Percy Maxim, messages were flying back and forth. By 1921, with im-
proved equipment and techniques, a message and answer could make t.he round t.rip
between coasts in six minutes!

Although the L eague suffered severe financial

troubles, it was able Lo publish the first issue
of its official organ in December, 1915 - a
magazine still known as "QST'.

During the First World W'df, two-thirds of the

6,000 Amateurs trooped off to the battlefield,
and all Amateur transmissions ceased. During
the war, and wi th the help of Amateurs, the
governmem discovered how valuable the
Hiram Percy Maxim, co-founder of the wavelengths shorter than 200 meters were.
American Radio Relay League. (ARRL
These frequencies became the exclusive prop-
Photo)
erty of the Navy and after the shooting had
died down, the Navy was hesitant 10 return them. Under the pressure of League presi-
dent Maxim and secretary Warner, however, the government rel ented. In October of

18 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER1

1919, Amateur operation was restored. Call letters, consisting of a nwnber and two let-
ters, were again assigned, based on area, to Amateurs. (It was much later before the A,
K, N and W prefixes were added).

The Magic Bottle

The war also made a commercial item out of a device that was once a laboratory curios-
ity. In 1905, Sir Ambrose Fleming invented the diode "valve". It consisted of a filament
and plate inside an evacuated bulb. Current would only flo w from filament to plate and
not the other way around. Thus, it could be used to convert alternating into direct cur-
rent.

In 1907, Dr. Lee DeForest installed a grid between the filament ancl the plate. He found
that by varying the voltage on the grid, he could control the current now between the fil-
ament and the plate. More important, only a small change of voltage on the grid would
result in a large volt.age change at the plate. This is called amplification. The device
was patented as the "Auction" or triode vacuum tube.

Because of amplification, this "magic boule" could be used to make receivers more sen-
sitive. Even more important, the vacuum tube could be used to generate radio signals
electronically, witJ1 no moving parts whatever. Suddenly, generating stable radio fre-
quency energy became possible. Further, the human voice could now be transmitted
over che airwaves in channels much narrower than with the spark gap.

The glow of me vacuum tube filament cast a shadow over me spark gap and helix coil
which signaled the end of a great era. Wim a mighty whoosh of ozone, King Spark sput-
tered and died!

New Vistas
Armed with this new electronic invention, me ARRL sent Paul F. Godly, 2ZE, to Eu-
rope for transatlantic tests. During the experiments, mirty American Amateurs were
heard on me continent. Finally, after many months of preparation, me first two-way
Amateur contact flashed across me Atlantic.

In the course of mese tests, it was discovered

that the shorter wavelengths provided superior
propagation of electromagnetic energy. Later
iL was found that the wavelengLhs between 40
and 10 meLers were optimum for long djs-
tance contacts. A mass exodus Lo the "short
wavelength" bands began which made the
California Gold Rush seem like a school fire
drill. Former, Amateurs found mat their abil-
ity to communicale over long distances was Radio station FBAB in France was the
affected by me time of year and a strange, first to work an American Amateur Radio
new cycle which seemed to be influenced by Station.
the sun.
The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 19
 CHAPTER 1

An American Inventor
The inventions of Major Edwin Arms1.rong will forever shape and influence ham radio.
In 1918, he discovered the principal of heterodyning and invented the superheterodyne
receiver.

Unti l Armstrong's invention, it was necessary to peak each amplifier stage in a radio re-
ceiver individually. The receivers were cal led tuned radio frequency or TRF receivers.
This peaking was an awkward operation. Some designers tried to tie the knobs of the
various stages together, but it was virtuallytimpossible to obtain perfect tracking.

Major Armstrong discovered that the amplifying circuitsrof a radio could all be tuned to
a single frequency. Using the heterodyne principal, the desired station could be con-
verted to this single frequency for processing. All modem radios and television receiv-
ers employ this superheterodyne principal.

Equally important was Armstrong's invention of frequency modulation. Prior to 1937,

voice was broadcast by varying the amplitude or strength of the electromagnetic waves
rad iated by the antenna. Armstrong discovered that voice information could also btfcon-
veyed by varying the frequency of the electromagnetic waves, rather than the amplitude.
Since static and electrical interference varies in amplitude but not frequency, noise can
be completely filtered out in a frequency modulation receiver. Thanks to Armstrong,
you hear high fidelity, static free reception on the FM band, not to mention the VHF
ham bands.

The Single Sideband Mode

As you might suspect, spark gap transmissions were not very efficient. Each transmitter
consumed more radio spectrum "real estate" than does an entire Amateur band today!
The vacuum tube made narrow channel amplitude modulation possible. But with the
passage of' Lime a new technology made AM obsolete. The technique was called single
sideband, suppressed carrier or simply SSB.

Single sideband is nOL a recent invention. IL bas been around for longer than most people
reading this book. The telephone company has used single sideband since the '30's in
order to squeeze more channels into their telephone circuits.

It Look the Strategic Air Command (SAC) and the "cold wru"' of the '50's to bring single
sideband out of the closet. General "Butch Griswold" and Curtis LeMay, working in
conjunction with Arthur Collins of the Collins
Radio Company, developed an exLTaordinary
communications network using conventional
Amateur single sideband equipment. The net-
work permiued reliable communications with
SAC sideband equipped airplanes and SAC
bases all over the world at any time of the day
or night.

20 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER 1

Amateurs like Wes Schum and Herb Johnson adapted the SSB technique to popularly
priced ham gear. When this happened, the mass exodus from "Ancient Mary" (Ampli-
tude Modulation) to single sideband was underway on the ham bands.

The 1rnns ition was not painless, however. "Sidebanders" huddled at one end of the 20
and 75 meter ham bands, while the "AM'ers" reigned supreme in the remainder of the
bands. Slowly, but inexorably, the ranks of
those operating SSB expanded. Invariably
they interfered with diehard "AM'ers". The
SSB "static" a ham heard on their AM re-
ceiver was very annoying. But the benefits af-
forded by SSB could not be denied. Over
time, most "AM'ers" either died off or con-
verted to SS B.

For communications, AM (like spark) is a relic of the past. It is still used on the Citizens
Band. In commercial service, only the Aeronautical Service still uses AM for communi-
cation between planes and to the control tower at airports.

Not only is SSB an extremely efficient use of spectrum but it packs a lot of communica-
tion "punch" per watt of power. Want to see the hair on the neck of an ole time CW man
stand straight out? Just make the statement, at your next club meeting, that SSB will
"get through" anytime that CW can also be received! Most "sidebanders" believe that it
will but the subject is always good for a lively debate.

Ham Radio - Out Of This World

Today, with modem technology, we think nothing of speaking with Amateurs on the
other side of the globe - it happens daily! In fact, the Amateur Service has literally
soared through the ionosphere and far out into space.

The introduction of satellite communication certainly ranks as one of the major accom-
plishments of Amateurs. In 1959, I suggested in the April CQ Magazine the possibil ity
of putting an Amateur station in orbit. T he concept was picked up by a group of Ama-
teurs who worked for a major aerospace company. The idea grew to become the
OSCAR (Orbital Satellite Carrying Amateur Radio) prognun.

Their initial effort culminated in a shoebox siied satellite which held a tiny transmitter
and whip antenna. ILwas keyed electronicaJly and beeped the Morse code letters for the
Amateur greeting (HI) from space.

OSCAR One was launched on December 12, 1961. Amateurs around the world were
thrilled to hear their representative "speaking" from the cosmos.

If you would like to hear what the fi rst OSCAR satellite sounded like, the National Am-
ateur Radio Association sells a tape called "The Flight of OSCAR One." It was recorded

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 21

 CHAPTER 1

at Vandenberg AFB in 1961. Also captured are

transmissions on the 40 me1er OSCAR net
along with reception of the HI beacon. The tape
can be ordered from NARA and i s priced at
$4.95 postage paid.

Today, we Amateurs have sophisticated re-

pealer satellites in elliptical orbits which are ca-
pable of worldwide communications. They can
also store and forward digital messages. Ham
satellites are all the more amazing when one
considers that they were built witJ1 contributed
labor and are launched through private enter-
The "DOVE" MICROSAT sa te/l/te prise without government assistance. The orga-
(AMSAT Photo) nization responsible for these technological
miracles is called AMSAT, The Amateur Satel-
lite Corporation (see Introduction - Resources).

Computer Communications
Another event which forever changed the face of ham radio was the introduction of
computer packet communications. Until recenlly, clattering, oil spewing teletype ma-
chines were the closest thing hams had to digital communication.

The "sparkplug" of Amateur packet communications was Dr. John D. Mercado of the
Canadian Department of Communications. ln addition to introducing the Digital Certifi-
cate of Proficiency license in Canada, he inspired the Vancouver Amateur Digital Com-
munications Group to devel op packet radio. This i s a fast and error-free method of
communicating w i th computers. The Vancouver club developed a device called a Ter-
minal Node Controller (TNC). It is similar to a computer modem but optimized for the
one-way-at-a-lime communications of ham radi o.

In the early '80's, a group of Amateurs in Tucson, Arizona took the concept one step
further. The Tucson Amateur Packet Radio (TAPR) organization "twceked" and simpli-
fied the Vancouver design. They built kits and licensed the new TNC design to manu-
facturers. As a result, most packet TNC's sold today are based on this famous TAPR
design (see Introduction -Resources) .

Continue The Traditions

While this "thumb-nail " sketch is by no means complete, it should convey to you some
of the important history and t.radilion behind our fantastic hobby. Those who join us arc
expected to respect the traditions of Amateurs, Lo appreciate the loan of valuable spec-
trum and to maintain our high standards. Now, let's get to work and study for the Tech-
nician examination.

22 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 Cha ter

The FCC Rules and Regulations

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~ This secLion of your lcsl will include 10 questions from the Novice question pool of
! ~ Subelement 2A and 5 questions from Subelement 3AA. A L the end of various para- ~~
]i! graphs, in this and following chapters, you will note mysterious characters in paren- !
::=~ Lhesis. These refer to Lhe question pool numbers. If you understand an expl anation, ~~
!~ you can mentally and visually skip over these numbers and go on to the next para- ~
~! graph. If your understand_ing is a bit hazy, look up th~ question at the end of each [~~
i chapter and try lo answer 1t based on what you learned rn the paragraph. ~

Ii I~'s n?w time for the " mai.n event! " The precedin~ two chapters w~re ~ust the " pre- i[~[~
luns.' In this corner, weanng Lhe mauve trunks w1Lh Lhe brocade trun 1s the Federal ~
•:? Communications
ffe.! Commission. And in Lhe opposite corner, bouncing from foot-to- ~
•
l~! fool and throwing pracLice jabs, is "Prospective-Tech" (that's you). Proceed fear- J
~l Iessly, "Prospective-Tech," everyone is pulling for you to win this bout, including ~~
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The Rules of the Road

T
here's not much exciting about rules and regulations unless you happen to break
one! However, you ' ll need to know about the " rules of the road" in order to pass
your Amateur Radio license test. About a third of the questions you'll be asked
will invol ve rules.

Virtually all transmitting stations are regulated through rules established by the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) . Amateurs operate under the Amateur Service in
Part 97 of title 47 CFR (Code of Federal Regulations) of these rules. Amateur com-
munication is defined as non-commercial communications beLween Amateur stations,
for pleasure and not for compensation. The Amateur Service is a radio communications
service for the purpose of self-training in communicaLions and technical investigations.
 CHAPTER A

The rules in Part 97 discuss such things as station operating standards, technical stan-
dards and emergency communications. (2A2.1)(2A2.2)(2A3.1)(2A3.2)

Who can earn an Amateur license and become a ham? Almost anyone of any age, size
or shape, even if the they are not a citizen of this coumry. There arc even Russians who
hold a valid American Amateur Radio license. In fact, the only people who are specific-
ally precluded from holding a U.S. Amateur license are representatives of a foreign gov-
ernment. (2AI 1.1)(2A11.2)

At the present time, Amateur rules and regulations are in a state of fl ux. In November,
1988, the FCC decided to reallocate a part of the Amateur 220-225 MHz band to com-
mercial service. The "new" 220 band will now be from 222 to 225 MHz.

During 1989, the FCC released PR Docket No. 88-1 39 which reorganizes and further
deregulates Part 97 of the FCC Rules and Regulations. Part 97 is the section which es-
tablishes the rules for the Amateur Service. There have been a few changes in the ques-
tion pools as a result of this docket.

Another factor which affects the traditional order of things is the newly created Techni-
cian Class Amateur license which eliminates Morse code testing. The questions and an-
swers in this book are up-to-date and include any revisions that result from the new
code-free Technician license.

As we proceed through this decade, questions on the Amateur examinations will

change. If you would like to study Part 97 in depth, a booklet containing the rules can be
obtained from The National Amateur Radio Association for $5.00 postage paid.

But fear not, "slugger;" the dedicated Volunteer Examiners who conduct the testing for
your Amateur license are also aware of the changes in the rules. IL is highly unlikely that
anyone would "flun k" you because of confusion due to changing law.

The Amateur FCC License

One of factors which distinguishes the Amateur Service from the Citizens Band is the
Amateur license. This document, sometimes referred to as a "ticket" by hams, is issued
by the Federal Communications Commission. Let's talk a bit about the ham license.
You could be asked severaJ questions based on it when you take the Technician test.

The FCC authorization really consislS of two licenses on a single piece of paper. One
part of the document conveys operator privileges. This is the operator license and, as
the name implies, permits you to operate an Amateur station. (2A5. l) (2A6. l)

As a newly licensed Amateur, the doc ument the government sends you also provides a
station license. This portion perm its you to have an Amateur station. An Amateur su1-
tion consislS of the apparatus necessary for carrying on radio communications. The ad-
dress on your ham license is the current and accurate mailing address. This is where you

24 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER A
nAl l :'ll'ro~C)ti;

09/09/83 09/09/SQ K6H)( EXTRA PR !MARY

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receive correspondence and where the FCC can communicate with you, if they need to.
(2A6.2)(2A 7.1)(2Al3.1)(2A14. l)

The Amateur operator named by the license has a written authorization to be the control
operator of an Amateur station. He or she is held responsible for the correct operation of
m1 Amateur station. Your Amateur license is good for the period specified on the li-
cense, which is currently 10 years from the date of issue. If your license expires and you
forget to renew it, you have a two year grace period to do so. Renewal or modification
of your license is simply a matter of filling out an FCC Form 610 and sending it to the
FCC in Genysburg, PA. You can obtain a copy of Form 610 upon request at no charge
from The National Amateur Radio Association. (2A4.1)(2A4.2)(2A5.2)(2A8.1)(2A8.2)
(2Al6.1)(3AA3. l )(3AA3.2)(3AA3.3)

Your Amateur Call Sign

There is a third component to the Amateur license. It is your station identification.
When you are granted a license, you also receive a distinct set of alphanumeric charac-
ters which constitutes your call letters The call letters of US Amateur stations begin
with the letters A, K, Nor W. The group can be 2 by 1 (WX7S), I by 2 (K6DC), l by 3
(N7NQL), 2 by 2 (AC7XY) or 2 by 3 (KB7GIS). The digits can be any number, zero
through nine. The numbers represent certain geographic areas of the country. For exam-
ple aU California or Hawaii licensees are issued number six designators. As a brand new
Amateur, your call letlers will be from the 1 by 3 (Group C) or 2 by 3 (Group D) vari-
ety. Novice operators are always issued Group D format callsigns. Technicians usually
get Group C (1 by 3) call signs starting with the leuer "N." Technicians receive Group
D (2 by 3) callsigns when all of the "N" prefixed I by 3 callsigns are allocated in a spe-
cific radio district. (2A15.l)(2Al 5.2)(2Al 5.3) (2A 15.4)(2A15.5)

Your call is unique. No one else in the world has one like it. You should be proud of
what it represents - the license you have earned. Always use your call properly. You
must identify your station with the call sign at the end of each transmission series and
every 10 minutes in an extended conversation. In other words, you need not give your
caJl after you say " Hi Joe, how's the weather in Moosejaw?" or when Joe says "It's a bit
cold and overcast". After 10 minutes of this chit-chatting, however, you must identify.
No matter when you end the conversation, you must also identify your station. It is the
responsibility of the person you are talking to, to identify his or her station.
(2A27. l )(2A27 .2)(2A27 .3)(2A27.4(2A27.5)(2A27 .6)(2A27 .7)

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 25

 CHAPTER A

Classes Of License
There are two beginner or "enLry level" points. These arc the Novice and the Techni-
cian Class license. Tile written tests for the code-free Technician are officially desig-
nated Element 2 and Element 3(A) by the FCC. Element 2 consists of 30 questions from
the Novice question pool. Elemcm 3(A) is made up of 25 questions from the Technician
question pool. Both tests consist of multiple choice questions on elernent.ary theory,
Amateur practices and basic FCC regulations.

A step up the ham radio ladder is the Technician Plus. To reach this level you must
pass a five word-per-minute Morse code test called Element 1A. This test is conducted
by three Volunteer Examiners. Once it is established that you have passed the test, you
receive a Certificate ofSuccessful Completion of Examination (CSCE) from the examin-
ers. At this point you become a "Technician Plus" and you are immediately allowed LO
operate on certain long distance high frequency bands below 30 MHz.

Examinees who have upgraded are permiued to immediately utilize their new operating
privileges. They must, however, append their call signs wiU1 an identifier Lo denote that
they have not yet received ilieir new license. The identifier for Technician is "temporary
KT." (3AA8-1.1)

The other path for beginners is called the Novice Class. Thjs license class was discussed
in the Introduction Chapter. It allows Morse code operation on the high freq uency (HF)
bands, plus voice comm unications on 10 meters. (See page 10, The Novice Class)

Most Amateurs aspire to become General Class hams because it allows worldwide
communications on the most popular high frequency (HF) bands. The written tesl for
U1e General Class license (Element 3B) is about the same difficulty as for the Techni-
cian Element 3A tcsl. However, Ule general theory questions emphasize operating on
bands to which the General Class ham has access. The Morse code requirements are in-
creased LO 13 words-per-minute. This class of license gives one access to all of the Ama-
teur bands, but not all parts of them.

The next higher class is called the Advanced Class, while the top of the pyramid is
called the Amateur Extra. These licenses provide a few more privileges and total ac-
cess Lo the Amateur bands.

Remember these five classes of license - Novice, Technician, General, Advanced and
ExLra. SeveraJ test questions are based on this ranking. (2A9.1)(2A9.3)

Amateur Principals
There are five principaJs that guide ilie Amateur Service. They are; (1) recognition of
emergency communications; (2) advancemem of the radio art; (3) improvement of com-
munication and technical ski1ls; (4) increase the number of trained radio operators and
electronics experts; and (5) the enhancement of international goodwill. Etch these five

26 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER A

principals imo your brain. You will be asked about Lhis in the Element 2 questions.
(2Al .1)(2A 1.2)(2Al.3)(2Al .4)

Emission Designators
Emission means the radio frequency signals transmiLLed by a radio station. Emissions
can take many di fferent forms. Until recentl y, the FCC liked LO be much more precise
than simply using Lhe words phone or code to describe voice and Morse emiss ions. They
used terms like A3J and F3 LO describe vari ous modulation systems and the emissions
they produced. Modulation, by the way, means adding intelligence or information to a
radio signal or emission. (2Al7.l)

With the Pan 97 rewrite, the FCC decided that such precision was not necessary. The
rewrite speaks of CW (Morse), phone (voice), image (ham TV), RTTY (radio tele-
type), data (computer communications, usually packet), test (a blank signal with no in-
formation}, SS (spread spectrum) and so on. There is no reference LO a precise emission
designaLOr.

You've already learned about Amateur Morse and voice communication, but you might
not be familiar with some of the other term s in the preceding paragraph. Did you know,
for example, that Amateurs arc authorized to transmit television pictures? The term
RTIY may be unfamiliar Lhese days. IL st.ands for radio teletype which is a narrow band
emission that prims directly on paper. Teletype is actually the trademark and name of
Lhe Teletype Corp. Remember those text printing machines going "chunk-chunk-churtk"
in the old war movies? Those were teletype machines. (2A20. l )

Computers have virtually replaced these noisy, oily machines for the transm iu.ing and
printing of text. Computers are also used to generate the information sent on the data
mode. T he data mode is considered to be a w ideband emission sending inform ation in
error- free packets of 128 byles (characLers) or so. Computers are also used for telemetry,
that is, the control or collection or information from remote objects. (2A20.2)

Fi nally, spread spectrum, is a relatively new ( for Amateur Radio) communication mode.
Instead of an emission appearing on one frequency, it is sent on a number of frequen-
cies. This makes the information less susceptible to interference.

Visualizing The Spectrum

J I ULF I I
SOUND LF MF U1F
WAVES
a:: ct: I:!:'
~~
l.U
t-
l.U
:L ~ l'.:i
0 0 0
80 10 IS 10 M
CS) M
I/ \ \ '° "' . . : " M "'
I I I I I I I I I I

0 30 300 3,000 30 300 3,000 30,000

~ ~ MHZ MHz
>:L
KHZ KHZ :I:
< KHZ MHZ t- u. MHZ
CQM.V.ERCIAL 00'\MERCIAL
RADIO FREQUENCY SPECTRUM
The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 27
 CHAPTER A

In order to "understand" the Amateur bands and the frequencies we use, you have to be
able to visualize the radio spectrum. You will have to learn what parts of this spectrum
Amateurs are allowed to use. These arc the bands that the FCC has allocated to us.

Imagine for a moment that you are sLanding on a high plateau of land overlooking a vast
panorama in front of you. From off in the distance, to your far left, you hear the faint
sounds of MoLley Crue flogging their guitars to death. These are the sound frequencies
with an address of 0 to .02.

Clockwise from that locaLion, you can see numerous airplanes converging. This is the
land where the navigation beacons arc located at. addresses between 0.2 and 0.5.

Next to this is a forest of tall steel towers supported by guy wires. These are the antenna
of the AM broadcast band stations. The address of these stations is between 0.5 and 1.5.

Then arrayed in front of you are numerous towers, boats with antennas and aircraft with
wires from wing tip to tail. Sprinkled among them are wires stretched between trees,
and Amateur antenna systems looking like TV antennas with an overacti ve thyroid. This
conglomeration is the high frequency band which occupies the real estate address be-
tween 3.0 and 30.

Off to your right is another forest of tall towers and buildings which represent the FM
mid television broadcasting stations. Again, nesllcd in the shadow or these monsters, are
another group of antennas representing the Amateur Radio inhabitants in the land be-
tween 30 and 300. There are more huge antennas to the right owned by the UHF televi-
sion stations between 500 and 800.

Off in the distance to the far right arc literally millions of automobiles all with tiny tails
raised in anticipation from their rear windows. A closer inspection reveals drivers in an-
imated conversation. This is the land or I.he cell ular telephone whjch has an address of
approximately 800 to 900.

Next to these automobiles are almost an equal number of shiny aluminum dishes
pointed skyward. These arc the satellite receiving and sending terminal antenna sys1.ems.
They arc planted on real estate labeled 1,000 on up.

Finally, off to the ex treme right is a bright illumination representing the visible light
spectrum. A lthough you can't sec the emissions, invisible tanning as well as infrared
rays are being radiated from the same general area.

The panorama just described is an overview of the radio communications spectrum. The
"address" referred to is the frequency. The numbers refer to millions of cycles per sec-
ond. Millions of cyc les is the same as megaHertz (MHz). So that you can beucr visual-
ize emissions, you may want to take a "side trip" to Chapter C at I.his point.

28 Ham Rad io Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER A

With this general picture of the radio spectrum in mind, let's examine the various bands
lhat you are allowed to utilize as a Technician Class Amateur.

The Amateur Bands

The accompanying charts show l11e radio spectrum and where the popular Amateur
bands are located. If you would like a more elegant, full color frequency chart of the
Amateur bands, wrile to ICOM. Ask for llleir high frequency (HF) and very high fre-
quency (VHF) charts. Their address is:

ICOM America, Inc.

2380-116th Ave. N.E.
Bellevue, WA 98004

The most popular bands are localed in the portion or the radio spectrum called Very
High Frequencies (VHF). The VHF bands are localed between 30 and 300 MHz. Be-
tween 300 and 3,000 MHz, the spectrum is considered llle Ultra High Frequencies
(UHF). The majority of operation on VHF and UHF is voice using the frequency mod-
ulation (FM) mode.

These are called "line-of-sight" frequencies since VHF (and higher) radio transmissions
don't bend (except under unusual circumstances). Thus, these frequencies are not capa-
ble of following l11e curvature of the earth. As a result you can expect to talk 20 miles or
so directly, or up to 100 miles via a VHF repeater. TI1en these "straight line" transmis-
sions head for !lie cold eternity or space.

Six Meters - This is the lowesl frequency VHF band on which the new "codefree"
Technician is allowed to operate. The band ex tends from 50 to 54 MHz. All Amateur
classes, except Novice, can operate on t.he six meter band. The band from 50.0 10 50. l is
reserved exclusively for CW. Thus, frequency modulation (FM) can only be used from
50.1 to 54.0 MHz. The only other prohibition is that stations on this band may nol be
used for satellite communications. (3AA2.2)(3AA4. 1)(3AA17.1)

The six meter band is rather unusual from a number of standpoints. For many years six
mecers was shunned because of television interference. It is "located" right next Lo
Channel 2 in the radio spectrum (Channel 2 occupies frequenci es between 54 and 60
Ml1Z.). Because of proximity, a six meter transmiuer can interfore wilh a neaJby televi-
sion set through no fault of the equipment or the Amateur. Try explaining that to an irate
neighbor when "Wheel of Fortune" is getting "creamed! "

Television set designs have improved and they are now better able to reject unwanted
signals. More imporlantly, cable television is starting to dominate lhe landscape. It is
highly unlikely that a six meter transmitter would interfere with Channel 2 on a televi-
sion connected to cable since the signal is enclosed in a shielded coaxial line.

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 29

 CHAPTER A

50.0 MHZ THE 6 METER BAND 54.0 MHZ

144.0 MHZ THE 2 METER BAND 148.0 MHZ

222.0 MHZ THE 1.25 METER BAND 225.0 MHZ

420.0 ,MHZ THE 70 CM BAND 450.0 MHZ

902.0 MHZ THE 33 CM BAND 928.0 MHZ

1270 MHZ 1295 MHZ

-
1240.0 MHZ THE 23 CM BAND
TECHNICIAN ~
NOVICE/TECHNICI AN/TECH PLUS ~
1300 MHZ

Six is an excellem band for around town communication with a simple low power trans-
mitter. Occasionally, when the sun decides to act up (see Chapter C), it is possible to
communicate with foreign countries. It is not unusual to tune across a "dead" band and
hear a single Slation coming in from Buenos Aires, Argentina in South America!

Radio Control - New Technicians, interesLecl in the radio comrol of models, will want
to investigate this band. There is a lot of unused "space" for their control systems. The

30 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER A

interference level should be considerably lower Lhan the popular 72 MHz RC frequency.
The bancl allocated to radio control of models is crowded with commercial users and
subject to interference. Model hobbyists arc increasingly attracted to the six meter band
because of large number of clear frequencies. You can use a maximum of one watt out-
put to control models on Lhe Amateur bands. You need not identify your iransmissions.
The only requirement is that you aLtach a label, indicating your call letters plus name
and address, to the transmitter. (3AAl0.1)(3AA l0.2)(3AA 10.3) (3AA 10.4)

Two Meters - The favorite of the new Technician Class is the two meter band which
occupies J44 to 148 Mhz. The majority of people operating VHF will be found on
"two." Like six meters, Novice operation is not permitted but all other Amateur classes
may use Lhc band. The maximum transmitting power permitted an Amateur station is
1,500 watts peak envelope power (PEP). Note that the band between 144.0 and 144.1 is
reserved exclusively for CW. Thus, the FM emission can only be used between 144.l
and 148.0 MHz. (3AA2.3)(3AA4.2)(3AA6-3. l)

Most repeaLers operate on two meters. Many of the orbital satellites carrying Amateur
Radio (OSCAR) receive two meter signals. Computer communication (packet) is con-
centrated on two meters.

1.25 Meters - Presently Techn icians are permitted to operate on the entire band be-
tween 220 and 225 MHz.. But this will change when the other services occupy the 220 -
222 portion of the band. All Amateur modes and emissions are aulhorized for the Tech-
nician and higher license classes. Novices are only permined operation between 222.1
and 223.91 MHz and arc restricted to a transmilter power of 25 walls or less. Also, they
Me not allowed to establish or control a repeater. (2A10.5) (2A17.10)(2Al 7.13)
(2A 19.3)(3AA2.4)

70 Centimeters - This is an interesting band for the experimenter. The band limits are
420-450 Mhz and there are some operating restrictions near the Canadian border and
adjacem LO military reservations. No Novice operation is pennilled, but all other classes
may use the band. (3AA2.5)

Most of the present Amateur television (ATV) transmissions occLtr within this band.
Hams in some of the larger cities have installed television repeaters. Many of the voice
repeaters operating on this band belong to clubs and are closed to non-members.

33 Centimeters - There is an Amateur freq uency allocation between 902 and 928
MHz. It is shared with a number of unlicensed services such as vehicle locators, video
ljnks for VCR's and wireless data Jinks. It is likely that Amateur activity or interest in
this band will fwther decrease as commercial use increases. There are no questions in
the test pool relating Lo the 33 cm. band.

23 Centimeters - This band, which extends from 1240 to 1300 MHz is getting more
popular as crowding increases on the lower VHF bands. New repeaters are regu larly
heard as more commercial equipment becomes available.
The National Amateur Rad io Association Ham Radio Handbook 31
 CHAPTER A

3.675-3.725 MHZ

3.5 MHZ THE 80 METER BAND 4.0 MHZ

7.l-7.15 MHZ

7.0 MHZ THE 40 METER BAND 7.3 MHZ

2L0-21.2 MHZ

21.0 MHZ 21.45 MHZ

THE 15 METER BAND

28. J-28.5 MHZ

~
28.0 MHZ THE 10 METER BAND 29.7 MHZ

GENERAL/ADVANCED/EXTRA ~
G/A/E/NOVICE/TECH PLUS ~
There is much more "real estate" for Amateur television transmissions. It is likely that
most ATV operation will move up to 23 cm. Even though Lhe wavelength is very short,
the perfomrnnce of equipment is excellent Signals are more susceptible Lo refl ection.

32 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER A

Thus, 23 cm. transmissions seem LO bounce into areas tliaL are not penetrated by lower
band VHF signals.

Technicians arc allowed to operate on any frequency within the band. Novices are re-
stricted to the portion between 1270 and 1295 MHz. All emissions authorized for this
band may be used but transmitling output for Novices is restricted to 5 watts peak enve-
lope power (PEP). (2Al0.6)(2A 17.'l J )(2A 19.4)

There are several micro wavelength Amateur bands higher in frequency than the ones
just discussed and Technician Class Amateurs can use them all. These bands will be-
come increasingly popular as Amateur satellite activity multiplies.

The High Frequency Bands

Although the new Technician Class Amateurs are permitted all operating privileges
above 30 MI-lz, they are not allowed Lo operate on the high frequ ency (HF) bands. The
HF band is the frequency spectrum between 3.0 and 30.0 MHz. The International Tele-
communications Union (ITU), requires a knowledge of Morse code for operation on the
high frequency bands.

Technicians can access the high frequency bands by taking a five word-per-minute
Morse test called Element I (A). Passing this test reclassifies them as Technician Plus
(plus Morse). Novice high frequency operation is permiued since this class of Amateur
has already passed the Element I (A) Morse test.

Novice and Technician Plus opcraLOrs arc pennittcd a maximum output of 200 watts
peak envelope power on the high frequency bands (3-30 MHz). Even so, one should use
the minimum legal power necessary to carry out the desired comm unications. (2Al8.1)
(2A I 8.2)(2A l 8.3)(2A I 8.4)(2A 18.5)(2A 19.1)(2A19.2)(2A 19.5)

The following is a brief discussion of the characteristics of the high frequency Amateur
bands.

80 Meters - The entire band extends from 3.5 to 4.0 MHz (3500 Lo 4000 kHz). Nov-
ices and "Tech-Plus" arc permitted to operate between 3675 and 3725 kHz (3.675 to
3.725 MHz) within this band. Operation is sLrictly by Morse code, or continuous wave
(CW) as it is more correctly called. No phone operation by Novices is permitted. You
can usually communicate up to 50-75 miles during 1.he day and 400 miles or more at
night. (2A I0.7)(2A 17.2)(2A17 .5)

40 Meters - This is the favorite CW band (code emission only) of Novices and "Tcch-
Plus". They are permitted to operate between 7100 and 7150 kHz (7.1 to 7.15 MHz).
During the day you can expect to "talk" with other hams around 300 miles distance. At
night it's possible to work all over the United States. If the foreign shortwave broadcast
interference is not too great, don't be surprised if someone from overseas answers your
CQ (I'd like to communicate with someone) call. (2Al0.2)(2Al0.8) (2A 17.3)(2A17.6)

The Natlonal Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 33

 CHAPTER A

15 Meters - This is another CW emission only band which pennits worldwide com-
munications, but mostly in the daytime. At night the band is usually dead (except during
solar peaks every l 1 years). Novice and "Tech-Plus" hams are permitted Lo thump away
on their telegraph keys between 21 .100 and 21.200 MHz (what is that in kiloHertz?).
(2Al0.3)(2A 10.9)(2A17.4)(2Al 7.7)

10 Meters - The 10 meter band is the favorite of Novice and "Tech-Plus" operators.
During periods of high solar activity one can communicate all over the world on 10 me-
ters. It is also the only Novice and "Tech-Plus" HF band where phone communication is
permitted. The full band is 28.0 LO 29.7 MHz. Novice and "Tech-Plus" hams are pennil-
Led CW, RTTY and digital opera Lion between 28.100 and 28.300 MHz. Between 28.3
and 28.5 MHz Novices and "Tech-Plus" can operate CW and phone. (2Al0.4)
(2Al0.10)(2Al 7.8)(2Al 7.9)(2A 17.12)(2A20.3)

There are several other small Amateur aJlocations within the HF spectrum, but a Gen-
eral Class or higher license is required Lo access them.

Beacon Stations - At various times, certain Amateur bands are capable of supporting
communication over great djstances (see Chapter C-Propagation). While there are cer-
tain patterns, it is not possible to predict with absolute certainty when a band will be
"open." A popular aid to observation of propagation and reception and other related ex-
perimental activities is called a beacon station. The concept is simplicity itself. Every so
often, the beacon transmits it's call letters and location. If you can hear the beacon at
your location, you know the band is open and a "CQ" call is likely to result in a re-
sponse.

The maximum permissible power output of a beacon station is 100 watts PEP. You must
hold a Technician or higher class license to operate a beacon. Novices are not allowed
Lo do so. (3AA6-4.1 )(3AA9-1.1)(3AA9-2. l)

Who's In Charge?
The answer, in a single word, is you. You have (or should have) total control of your
Amateur station. You, as the licensee! Amateur in charge, are called the control opera-
tor. The control point is the location at which the control operator function is per-
formed. By the way, you must always have your Amateur license (or a photocopy) in
your possession whenever you are operating an Amateur Station. The license (or a pho-
tocopy) must also be retained at the station. (2A21.1 )(2A23.1)(2A24.1)(2A25.l) (2A
26.1)(3AA1.1)(3AA1.2)

As the control operator, you are held responsible for the proper operation of your station
whenever it is transmitting. You are always held accountable by the FCC. If someone
else uses your station improperly, you are held equally responsible with the olher per-
son. You cannot permit an unlicensed person to use your station without your supervi-
sion. Any Amateur station must have a licensed control operator present whenever
transmitting (unless it is remote controlled). (2A21.2)(2A21.3)(2A21.4)(2A22.1)(2A
22.2)
34 Ham Rad io Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association
 CHAPTER A

Miscellaneous Do's and Don't

Broadcasting - Mosl of the rules which regulate Amateurs are based on common
sense. For example, if commercial activities were permitted, it would destroy the Ama-
teur Service. Can you imagine some large company or distributor broadcasting adver-
tisements on your favorite ham band? Soon everyone would do it and there would be no
room left for Amateur activities.

By the same Loken, you cannot use your ham radio for broadcasting. Broadcasting is de-
fined as one-way transmissions intended for reception by the general public. Broadcast-
ing of bulletins· solely of interest to radio Amateurs (such as the Newsl ine Report) is
permitted. Bul there is no way you can broadcast "Hi, this is Fuzzy Fred from
Farmingdale with all the latest hits and Top 40 tunes." To emphasi.:e Lhe poinc, the
Lransmission or music on ham radio is strict.l y forbidden. (2A33.1)(2A35.1)(3AA12.l)

Note that beacon operation, radio comrol, emergency comm unication and information
bulletins for Amateurs, and Morse code practice are not considered to be broadcasting.
(3AA13.1)(3AA13.2)(3AA 13.3)(3AA13.4)

Third Party Traffic - The same principal of common sense applies to handling mes-
sages for other people. Umil Lhe last 20 years or so, there was a paranoia on the part of
governments about Amateurs. Their concern was not about spies but about revenue.
They feared that their Post, Telephone and Telegraph (PTT) entities would lose business
if Amateurs were allowed to handle messages into and out of their countries. As a result
"third party traffic" was usually forbidden. Third party traffic is a message passed by
one Amateur control operator Lo another Amateur control operator on behalf of an unli-
censed person. The other person is called the third party. (2A34.1)(2A34.2)(2A34.3)

Over the intervening years, most governments have "mellowed". The U.S. has agree-
mentS with other governments which permit certain form s of third party traffic. If in
doubt, always check with the ARRL to sec if third party traffic is permitted with a spe-
cific count1y. The FCC also issues periodic lists of nations to which Amateurs may ex-
change non-commercial messages. (3AA14.3)

The Commission rec-

ognizes two categories
of third party traffic:
(1) other licensed Ama-
teurs (who are eligible
to be the control opera-
tor of Lhe station); and
(2) non-licensed people
or organizations. Obvi-
ously the FCC is going
to be more concerned
about the later cate-
gory.
The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 35
 CHAPTER A

If the Lhird party is present in the Amateur "shack" (the room contain ing Lhe Amateur
station), they are allowed Lo talk on the microphone even I.hough they may not be a li-
censed Amateur. The control operator must be present and continuously monitor and su-
pervise the conversation. Normally Amateur communications need not be identified
more often than every 10 minutes. However, in the case of international third pany traf-
fic, the transmissions must be identified at Lhe end of each exchange of communications.
This allows monitoring stations to quickly identify the pcuticipams in third party com-
munications. (3AA15.1)(3AA15 .2)(3AA 15.3)(3AAI 5.4)

Business Communications - Even if your dad wants co use your radio to order a
pizza, he can't. It's illegal and you have to tell him so. Business communications are
never permitLed unless it involves lhe immediate safety of life of individuals or property
is threatened. (2A30.1)(2A30.2)(2A30.3)

You should exercise good judgement about the nature of tl1e traffic, witll respect to the
law on business communication. "Your cousin just had a baby", or some such, is cer-
tainly permitted. "Henry, your XYL is shipping your HF rig Monday. You should have
it by the end of the week" probably would not raise any eyebrows. However, "Hey Sam,
the 'widgets' you ordered aren' t available with .35 hole spacing. Will you accept 0.5?"
is certainly "over the line". I'm sure you get the idea.

When handling messages you cannot accept any compensation for yow· services. If you
did, it would be a business transaction, which is clearly and absolutely forbidden. By the
way, compensation docs not mean simply money. You cannot accept goods, services,
favors or any sort of reward for handling messages. (3AA14.l)

There is one situation where you could use ham rad io to aid a business. This might
occur during an emergency. Let's say you are providing communications during a .flood.
You might say "If we don't get some sandbags down here to the Ajax building, it's
going to wash away." Ir lhe sandbags were delivered and the building was saved, you
certainly used Amateur Radio to aid t11e businesses in lhe building. But you also saved
the building from certain destruction and maybe even saved a Ji fo (someone might try to
get their belongings out of the building). While this is a hypotheticaJ situation, I'm sure
you understand the intent of the law. (3AA 14.2)

Several organizations broadcast infonnation bulletins and code practice. For example,
the ARRL operates a code practice and news bulletin station for Amateurs. The cal l let-
ters are Wl AW, with the transmitter located in Newington, CT. WIAW is an extensive
operation which requires several employees of the League to manage. Some time ago
t11ey realized that, in the strict sense, these employees were receiving compensation for
sending messages on the Amateur bands. An Amateur station cm1 never be hired to
transmit messages. Thus. the rules were modified slightly to stale that the control opera-
tor can be paid if they work for a station that sends code practice or news bulletins to
Amateurs. (2A32.1)(2A32.2)(3AA 14.1)

36 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER A

For various reasons, usually political, communication wilh Amateurs in other count.ries
may be forbidden either by our government or theirs. Once again, Lhe ARRL stays cur-
rent on the shifting winds and can aclvise you on countries which should be avoided.
Currently there arc no countries on Lhe banned list. (2A28. I )(2A3 l. l)

Emergency Communications
Amateur Radio reall y "shines" when Lhcre is a disaster which disrupts normal communi-
cation systems in a particular area. When this happens, the FCC may declare a tempo-
rary state of communications emergency. This declaration is usually initiated by the
FCC Engineer-in-Charge of the affected area. This official representative of Lhe FCC
will detail any special conditions and special rules Lo be observed by Amateur stations
during the emergency. Generally speaking, Lhe FCC will restrict transmissions Lo that
necessary to meet essential communication needs and 10 facilitate relief actions. (3A
Al I-2. l)(3AA1l -2.2)(3AA11-2.3)(3AA I1 -2.4)

Normally you arc noLallowed Lo communicate with stations other than those in the Am-
ateur Service, buL this is not always the case. You can communicate with non-Amateur
st.aLions when authorized by the FCC. Exceptions are also made when safely is involved.
For example in an emergency, the FCC would permit you to establish contact with the
U.S. Coast Guard on frequencies outside a ham band. The FCC would also permit non-
Amateur Coast Guard personnel to operate inside a band allocated to Amateur opera-
tion. This is perfectly legal. In an emergency situation, where safety of human life is
involved, you would be allowed to communicate by any means or frequencies at your
disposal. (2A28.2)(2A40.2)(2A40.3)

You can use you own judgement if your safety is involved. Let's say you are piloting a
pleasure boat off the coast. of California. In an emergency situation, where safety of life
and or the craft is involved, you could use your ham rig to contact a commercial shore
station. Many mariners are geuing ham tickets and installing Amaleur gear on Lheir
boaLs. Because of their wide dispersion and activity, one is far more likely Lo contact a
ham than a specific shore station regardless of time, distance or radio conditions.

Station Location - There are no geographical limitations to the use of your ham li-
cense within the United States or on the high seas. You can operate wherever you wanL
to without notifying the FCC. ln
the territorial waters of another
country, you should check with
Lhc local authorities on the status
oC reciprocal licensing agree-
ments. (2A29. 1)(2A29.2)

Many years ago, the address on

your license was where the FCC
expected to find your station. If
you operated at another location
you were supposed to advise the

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 37

 CHAPTER A

FCC Engineer-in-Charge for your radio districL This requirement was abandoned when
vehicular radio opcraLion and our mobile society flooded them with unnecessary
paperwork.

Deceptive Signals - With the possible exception of "pig-Latin", you are not pennitted
LO transmiL messages in code or ciphers. The FCC must be able to monitor what you are
saying. Since English is understood by all FCC monitoring stations, it must be used for
station identification. The CW emission may be used anywhere in a ham band and thus
it can always be used to identify an Amateur station. Abbreviations or substitutions
(other than a standard phonetic alphabet) which obscure the meaning of a message arc
just another form of coding. They are not permitted either. (2A36.1)(2A36.2)(2A37.l)
(3AA4.3)(3AA8-2.1)(3AA8.3. l)

It is inconceivable that an Amateur would send false signals or that they need to be cau-
tioned about doing so. However, you will probably be asked a question to make sure
you understand that false and deceptive signals are absolutely forbidden. For example,
sending MAYDAY or SOS when there is no emergency is a "hanging offense" (not
quite, but maybe it should be!). (2A37.2)

Emission Bandwidth
Not only can an Amateur transmitted signal (emission) vary up and down in amplitude,
but it will also vary from side to side in width. Frequency modulation is a good exam-
ple. The louder you talk (without limiting). the greater the frequency excursions of the
transmitter emission. lf your signal is too wide, it can also interfere with adjacent Ama-
teurs. That's why all FM transmitters incorporate modulation deviation limiters to pre-
vent this from happening.

The data rate of a digital transmission has a direct bearing on the bandwidth of the trans-
mitted emission. The faster the data speed, the more "real estate" occupied by the signal.
Digital modes, such as radio teletype (R'TTY) and multiplexed emissions can really
"spread out" as the data rate increases.

RITY and most digital radio transmissions use two adjacent frequencies. One repre-
sents a digital zero and Lhe other a digital one. On the HF bands (below 50 MHz), Lhe
FCC specifies the maximum spacing between the one-zero pair at 1,000 Hz or l kHz
maximum. The maximum spacing or frequency shift is not specified above 50 MHz.
(3AA7-2.1)(3AA7-2.2)

Above 50 MHz, the Commission rules specify how wide a digital signal can be. On the
six and two meter band, it cannot exceed 20 kHz. On the 222 and 420 band, the width
can increase to 100 kHz. (3AA7-3. l)(3AA7-3.2)(3AA7-3.3)

The FCC also specifi es the maximum data rate permitted on various Amateur bands.
For example, on 10 meters the maximum data rate is 1,200 baud but it increases to 19.6
kilobaud on six and two meters. On Lhe 222 MHz band data can zip along at 56 kilo-
baud. (3AA7-1.1)(3AA7-1.2)(3AA7-1.3)
38 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Associat ion
 CHAPTER A

Power Output - The FCC is concerned that you understand the in's and out's of
power (no pun intended!). Let's talk about power output. As an Amateur, you are per-
mitted to transmit a large amount of power. For example, a Technician is permilled
1,500 wattS PEP output on the two meter band (144-148 MHz). (3AA6-3.1)

Even so, 1.hcrc i s another important rule which takes precedence over any maximum per-
mitted power output. Part 97.313(a) states that you should never use more power than is
necessary Lo carry ou~ the desired communication. (2A I 9.5) (3AA6-2. I)

At what point docs power become power output? So there is no confusion about power
output measurement, Lhe FCC specifies the power delivered by your transmitter or
power amplifier to the terminals that connect to the antenna system. (3AA6- l .1)

ln various places throughout this book you will see the Lenn " peak envelope power"
(PEP) used. T his refers to Lhc measurement of power when the information or modula-
tion of a transmitter varies the amplitude of t11e power rather than the frequency. An FM
transmitter doesn' t have a modulation envelope and the power outpu1. is steady. Bui. if
you vary I.he amplitude or strength of 1.he signal with information (data, speech, etc.),
power output must be defined differently. The definition of peak envelope power is tlle
average power supplied during one RF cycle at the crest of the modulation envelope.
(3AA6-1.2)

Obscene Language - It used to be that Amateurs strictly avoided discussing sex, poli-
tics or religion. But in this liberated age, these taboos have fallen by t11e wayside. Sadly,
too, has common decency in a few cases. There will al ways be those losers who hide
behind the anonymity of a microphone. They use foul l anguage and ru·c magically trans-
formed, for Lile first lime in their drab lives, into someone tllat people notice. It is bcsL to
ignore these eanderthals.

The rules clcru·ly and specifically swle that obscene, indecent or profane words not be
transmiued by an Amateur station. (3AA 16.1)(3AA l6.2)(3AA16.3)

Interference
While Amateurs aren't likely to send false signals, they can interfere wit11 other stations
unintenLionally. Sometimes interference cannot be avoided, like trying Lo move around
in a crowded room. You'll always bump into people you are unaware of. This is unin-
tentional and part of the game. However, it is clearly unlawful to m aliciously or inten-
tion al!)' inlerf'ere with another station. T he law states that you must always idenLify
your transmissions with your call sign. Transmitting an unmodulated interfering signal
breaks the rules twice! (2A38. l )(2A382)(2A38.3)(2A39. I )(2A39 .2)(2A39 .3)

There is concern on the part of the FCC that you undersiand the rules regarding interfer-
ence between primary and secondary users of a frequency. For example, on the 902
MHz band, Amateurs are the secondary users. If the primary user interferes with you,
you must assume that you are also interfering with them. As the secondary user, you are
required to change frequency to eliminate t11e possibility of interference. (3AA5.1 )
The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 39
 CHAPTER A

It's possible for an Amateur LO interfere wiLh another service in a diffcrcnl region of the
world. For example, if you were a Technician-Plus and operaLcd 40 CW, you mighL
"tangle" with foreign shorLwavc broadcasting staLions. The InternaLional Tclecommuni-
calions Union allocates spectrum for different uses in different pans of the world. Thus,
you have the exclusive right Lo be nogging away on the telegraph key between 7000 and
7100 kHz. Broadcast stations arc tJ1e primary users of frequencies between 7100 and
7300 kHz and Amatew·s are the secondary users. One of the advantages of CW, by the
way, is the ability LO copy it even in the presence of a powerful broadcasting station.
Under the same conditions, you could never stand Lo listen to a voice transmission in the
presence of such powerful interference. (3AA5.2)

Repeaters
A similar situation exists locally with radio repeaters (see Introduction chapter). In al-
most every case Amateur repeaters are coordinated by an area committee or ham group.
If interference occurs between a coordinated and uncoordinated repeater, it is up LO the
licensee of the uncoordinated repeater to solve the problem. If two coordinated repeaters
or uncoordinated repeaters interfere, the licensees of the repeaters arc equally responsi-
ble for resolving the interference. (3AA I l-l.l )(3AA11-1.2)(3AA 11-1.3)

Auxiliary, repeater and space stations are all allowed to repeat Amateur transmissions,
but beacon stations are specifically excluded from doing so. We Amateurs are also per-
miued LO retransmit U.S. Government communications of the space shuttle with the per-
mission of NASA. (3AA12.2)(3AA I 2.3)(3AA 12.4)(3AA 12.5)

Rul e Compliance
If you break the rules (accidentally or oLherw ise), there is a good chance you will re-
ceive an " Official Notice of Violation" from the FCC. This is a serious document You
must respond to Lhe FCC office which originated the NoLice as insLructed in the Notice
(usually wiLhin 10 days) . Your reply should describe in detail what SLcps you are taking
Lo insure that the violation docs noL reoccur. Let's say a transistor in your radio commiL-
ted "hari-kari" and puL out garbage all over the band. An FCC monitoring station heard
the noise and sent you a ·ouce. Don't wait until your radio comes back from the repair
shop before writing to the FCC. As soon as you get their form, respond saying some-
thing like "A defect in my transmitLer caused tJ1e problem. IL has been senL in for repair
and as soon as it is returned I will reporL the nature of the defect ancl verify that it has
been corrected." This way the FCC knows that you have received their documem and
are responsive. Even if it takes several weeks Lo fix lhe radio, you have complied with
the law by responding immediately. (2A40.l)

Now that you have all this informaLion stored in the random access memory between
your cars, let's talce a test. The following questions are from the Novice and Technician
pool section which pertains to rules and regulations. The correct answers will be found
starting on page 195, near the end of the book. Don't be tempted LO "sneak a peak."
Also, write your answers on a separate sheet of paper, not on the pages of the book. You
don't want Lo give your answers (right or wrong) to someone else who might like to take
the lCSl.

40 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER A

SUBELEMENT 2A (10 questions).

2Al.1 What are the five principles that express the fundamental purpose for which
the Amateur Ser vice rules are designed? (A) Recognilion of emergency communica-
tions, advancement of the radio art, improvement of communication and technical skills,
increase in the number of craincd radio operators and electronics experts, and the en-
hancement of international goodwill; (B) Recognition of business communications, ad-
vancement of the radio art, improvement of communication and business skills, increase
in the number of trained radio operators and electronics experts, and the enhancement of
international goodwill; (C) Recognition of emergency communications, preservation of
the earliest radio techniques, improvement of communication and technical ski lls, main-
tain a pool of people familiar with early tube-type equipment, and the enhancement of
international goodwill; (D) Recognition of emergency communications, advancement of
the radio art, improvement of communication and technical skills, increase in the num-
ber of trained radio operators and electronics experts, and the enhancement of a sense of
patriotism.

2Al.2 Which of the following is not one of the basic principles for which the Ama-
teur Service rules are designed? (A) Providing emergency communications; (B) Im-
provement of communication and technical skills; (C) Advancement of the radio art;
(D) Enhancement of a sense of patriotism and nationalism.

2Al.3 The Amateur Service rules were designed to provide a radio communica-
tions ser vice that meets five fundamental purposes. Which of the following is not
one of those principles? (A) Improvement of communication and technical skills; (B)
Enhancement of internat..i onal goodwill; (C) Increase the number of I.rained radio opera-
tors and electronics experts; (D) Preserving t11e history of radio com munications.

2Al.4 Th e Amateur Service rules were designed to provide a radio communica-

tions service that meets five fundamental purposes. What are those principles? (A)
Recogni tion of business communications, advancemenl of the radio art, improvement of
communication and business skills, increase in the number of trained radio operalors
and electronics experts, and the enhancement of international goodwill; (B) Recognition
of emergency communications, advancement of the radio an, improvement of commu-
nication and technical skills, increase in the number of trained radio operators and elec-
tronics experts, and the enhancement of international goodwill; (C) Recognil.ion of
emergency communicat..ions, preservation of the earliest radio techniques, improvement
of communication and technical skills, maintain a pool of people familiar with early
tube-type equipment, and the enhancement of international goodwill; (D) Recognition
of emergency communications, advancement of the radio art, improvement of commu-
nication and technical skills, increase in the number of crained radio operators and elec-
tronics experts , and the enhancement of a sense of patriol.ism.

2A2.l What is the definition of' the Amateur Service? (A) A private radio service
used for personal gain and public benefil; (8 ) A public radio service used for public ser-
vice communications; (C) A radio communication service for the purpose of self-train-

The Nationa l Amateur Radio Associat ion Ham Rad io Handbook 41

 CHAPTER A

ing, intercommunication and technical investigations; (D) A private radio service in-
tended for the furtherance of commercial radio interests.

2A2.2 What name is given to the radio communication ser vice that is designed for
self-training, intercommunication, and technical investigation? (A) The Amateur
Service; (B) The Citizen's Radio Service; (C) The Experimenter's Radio Service; (D)
The Maritime Radio Service.

2A3.l What document contains the specifi c rules and regulations governing t he
Amateur Service in the United States? (A) Part 97 of title 47 CFR (Code of Federal
Regulations); (B) The Communications Act of 1934 (as amended); (C) The Radio
Amateur's Handbook; (D) The minutes of the International Telecommunication Union
meetings.

2A3.2 Which one of the following topics is not addressed in the rules and regula-
tions of the Amateur Service? (A) Station operation s tandards; (B) Technical stan-
dards; (C) Providing emergency communicatio ns; (D) Station construction standards.

2A4.l What is the definition of an Amateur OJlerator? (A) A person who has not re-
ceived any rraining in radio operations; (B) A person holding a written authorization to
be the control operator of an Amateur station; (C) A person who performs private radio
communications for hire; (D) A trainee in a commercial radio station.

2A4.2 W hat term describes a person holding a written authorization to be the con-
trol operator of an Amateur station? (A) A Citizen Radio operator; (B) A Personal
Radio opera tor; (C) A Radio Service operator; (D) An Amateur operator.

2AS.1 What is the portion of an Amateur operator/primary station license that

con veys operator priviJeges? (A) The verification section; (B) Form 610; (C) T he op-
erator license; (D) The station license.

2AS.2 What a uthority is d erived from an operator/primary station license? (A) The
authority tO operate any shonwave radio station; (B) The authority to be the control op-
erator of an Amateur station; (C) The authority to have an Amateur station at a particu-
lar location; (D) The authority to transmit on either Amateur or Class D citizen's band
frequencies.

2A6.1 W hat a uthority is derived from a written authorization for an Amateur sta-
tion? (A) The authority to use specified operating frequencies; (B) T he aut.hority to op-
eraLe an Amateur station; (C) The authoriLy to enforce FCC Rules when violations are
noted on the part of ocher operators; (D) The authority to transmit on either Amateur or
Class D citizen's band frequencies.

42 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER A

2A6.2 What part of your Amateur license gives you authority to operate an Ama-
teur station? (A) The operator license; (B) The FCC Form 610; (C) The station license;
(D) An Amateur operator/primary station license does not specify a station location.

2A7.1 What is an Amateur station? (A) A licensed radio station engaged in broadcast-
ing to the public in a limited and well-defin ed area; (B) A radio station used to further
commercial radio interests; (C) A private radio service used for personal gain and public
service; (D) A station in an Amateur Service consisting of the apparatus necessary for
carrying on radio communications.

2A8.1 Who is a control operator? (A) An Amateur operator designated by the licensee
of a station to be responsible for the transmissions from that station to assure compli-
ance with the FCC rules; (B) A person, either licensed or not, who controls the emis-
sions of an Amateur station; (C) An unlicensed person who is speaking over an Amateur
station's microphone while a licensed person is present; (D) A government official who
comes to an Amateur station to take control for test purposes.

2A8.2 If you designate another Amateur operator to be responsible for the trans-
missions from your station, what is the other operator called'! (A) Auxiliary opera-
tor; (B) Operations coordinator; (C) Third party; (D) Control operator.

2A9.1 List the five United States Amateur operator/primary station license Classes
in order of increasing privileges. (A) Novice, General, Technician, Advanced, Ama-
teur Extra; (B) Novice, Technician , General, Advanced, Digital; (C) Novice, Techni-
cian, General, Amateur, Exira; (D) Novice, Technician, General, Advanced, Amateur
Extra.

2A9.3 What is the license Class immediately above Novice Class? (A) The Digital
Class license; (B) The Technician Class license; (C) The General Class license; (D) The
Experimenter's Class license.

2Al0.2 What frequencies are available in the Amateur 40-meter wavelength band
for a control operator holdipg a Novice Class oper ator license in ITU Region 2?
(A) 3500 to 4000 kHz; (B) 3700 LO 3750 kHz; (C) 7100 to 7150 kHz; (D) 7000 to 7300
kHz.

2A10.3 What frequencies are available in the Amateur 15-meter wavelength band
for a control operator holding a Novice Class operator License? (A) 21.100 to 21.200
MHz; (B) 21.000 LO 21.450 MHz; (C) 28.000 LO 29.700 MHz; (D) 28.100 to 28.200
MHz.

2A10.4 What freq uencies are available in the Amateur 10-meter wavelength band
for a control operator holding a Novice Class operator license? (A) 28.000 to 29.700
MHz; (B) 28.100 to 28.300 MHz; (C) 28.100 to 28.500 MHz; (D) 28.300 to 28.500
MHz.

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 43

 CHAPTER A

2Al0.5 What frequencies are available in the Amateur 220-MHz band for a control
oper ator holding a Novice Class operator license in ITU Region 2? (A) 225.0 to
230.5 MHz; (B) 222.l to 223.91 MHz; (C) 224.1 to 225.1 MHz; (D) 222.2 to 224.0
MHz.

2A 10.6 W hat frequencies are available in the Amateu r 1270-MHz band for a con·
trol operator holding a Novice C lass operator license? (A) 1260 to 1270 MHz; (B)
1240 to 1300 MHz; (C) 1270 Lo 1295 MHz; (D) 1240 to 1246 MHz.

2A10.7 If you are operating your Am ateur station on 3725 kHz, in what meter
ban d are you operating? (A) 80 meters; (B) 40 meters; (C) 15 meters; (D) 10 meters.

2Al0.8 If you ar e operatin g your Amateur station on 7125 k Hz, in what m eter
band are you operating? (A) 80 meters; (B) 40 meters; (C) 15 mete rs; (D) 10 meters.

2Al0.9 If you a re operating your Amateur station on 21150 kHz, in wha t meter
band are you operating? (A) 80 meters; (B) 40 meters; (C) 15 meters; (D) 10 meters.

2A 10.10 If you are operating your Amateur station on 28150 kHz, in what meter
band are you op erating? (A) 80 meters; (B) 40 meters; (C) 15 meters; (D) 10 meters.

2All.l W ho is eligible to obtain a U.S. Amateur operator /p r ima r y station license?

(A) Anyone except a representative of a foreign government; (B) Only a citizen of lhe
United States; (C) Anyone; (D) Anyone except an employee of the United States Gov-
ernment.

2All.2 Wh o is not eligible to obtain a U.S. Amateur operator/ primary station li-
cense? (A) Any citizen of a country other than the United States; (B) A representative
of a foreign government; (C) No one; (D) An employee of the United States Govern-
ment.

2Al2.l What FCC examination elements are req uired for a Novice Class license?
(See page 10) (A) Elements l(A) and 2(A); (B) Elements l(A) and 3(A); (C) Elements
I(A) and 2; (D) Elements 2 and 4.

2Al2.2 W hat is an FCC E lemen t l(A) examination intended to prove? (See page
10) (A) The applicant's ability to send and receive texts in the international Morse code
al not less than 5 words per minute; (B) The applicant's ability to send and receive texts
in the international Morse code al not less than 13 words per minute; (C) T he
applicant's knowledge of Novice Class theory and regulations; (0) The applicant's abil-
ity to recognize Novice frequency assignments and operating modes.

2Al 2.3 What is an FCC Elemen t 2 examination? (See page 10) (A) A test of the
applicant's ability to send and receive Morse code al 5 words per minute; (B) The writ-
ten examination concerning the privileges of a Technician Class operator license; (C) A

44 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER A

test of the applicant's ability to recognize Novice frequency assignments; (D) The writ-
ten examination concerning the privileges of a Novice Class operator license.

2Al3. l W ho is eligible to obtain an FCC-issued written authorization for an Ama-

teur station? (A) A licensed Amateur operator; (B) Any unlicensed person, except an
agent of a foreign government; (C) Any unlicensed person, except an employee of the
United States Government; (D) Any unlicensed United States Citizen.

2Al4.l Why is an Amateur operator required to furn ish the FCC with a current
mailing address served by the U.S. Postal service? (A) So the FCC has a record of the
location of each Amateur station; (B) In order LO comply with Lhe Commission's rules
and so the FCC can correspond with Lhe licensee; (C) So the FCC can send license-re -
newal nolices; (D) So the FCC can compile a list for use in a call sign directory.

2Al5.1 Which one of the following call s igns is a valid U.S. Amateur call? (A)
UA4HAK; (B) KBL7766; (C) KA90LS; (D) BY7HY.

2Al5.2 Which one of the following call s igns is a valid U.S. Amateur call? (A)
CE2FrF; (B) G3GV A; (C) UAlZAM; (D) AA2Z.

2Al5.3 Which on e of the followin g call signs is not a valid U.S. Amateur call? (A)
KDV5653; (B) WAIDVU; (C) KASBUG; (D) NTOZ.

2Al5.4 What letters may be used for the first letter in a valid U.S. Amateur call
sign? (A) K, N, U ancl W; (B) A, K, N and W; (C) A, B, C and D; (D) A, N, V and W.

2A l5.5 Excluding specia l-event call signs that may b e issued by the FCC, what
numbers may be used in a valid U.S. call s ign? (A) Any double-digit number, 10
through 99; (B) Any double-digit number, 22 through 45; (C) Any single dig it, 1
through 9; (D) A single digit, 0 through 9.

2Al6.1 Your Novice license was issued on November 1, 1988. When will it expire?
(A) On the date specified on lhc license; (B) November 30, 1998; (C) November 1,
1993; (D) November 1, 1990.

2Al7.l W hat does the term emission mean? (A) RF signals transmitted from a radio
station; (B) Signals refracted by the E layer; (C) Filter out the carrier of a received s ig-
nal; (D) Baud rate.

2A17.2 W hat emission types are Novice control operators perm itted to use on the
80-meter wavelength band? (A) CW only; (B) Data only; (C) RITY only; (D) Phone
only.

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 45

 CHAPTER A

2A 17 .3 What emission types are Novice control operators permitted to use in the
40-meter wavelength band? (A) CW only; (B) Data only; (C) RTIY only; (D) Phone
only.

2A l 7.4 What emission types are Novice control operators perm itted to use in the
IS-meter wavelength band? (A) CW only; (B) Data only; (C) RTIY only; (D) Phone
only.

2A l7.S What emission types are Novice control operators permitted to use from
3675 to 3725 kHz? (A) Phone only; (B) CW and phone; (C) All Amateur emission
privileges authorized for use on those frequencies; (D) CW only.

2Al7.6 What emission types are Novice control operators permitted to use from
7100 to 7150 kHz in ITU Region 2? (A) CW and data; (B) Phone; (C) All Amateur
emission privileges authorized for use on those frequencies; (D) CW only.

2Al 7.7 What emission types are Novice control operators pcrmiU.ed to use on fre-
quencies from 21.1 to 21.2 MHz? (A) CW and data only; (B) CW and phone only; (C)
All Amateur emission privileges authorized for use on those frequencies; (D) CW only.

2Al7.8 What emission types are Novice control operators permitted to use on fre-
quencies from 28.1 to 28.3 MHz? (A) All authorized Amateur emission privileges; (B)
Data or phone only; (C) CW, RTIY and data; (D) CW and phone only.

2Al7.9 What emission types are Novice control operators permitted to use on fre-
quencies from 28.3 to 28.5 MHz? (A) All authorized Amateur emission privileges; (B)
CW and data only; (C) CW and single-sideband phone only; (D) Data and phone only.

2Al7.10 What emission types are Novice control operators permitted to use on the
Amateur 220-MHz band in ITU Region 2? (A) CW and phone only; (B) CW and data
only; (C) Data and phone only; (D) All Amateur emission privileges authorized for use
on 220 MHz.

2Al 7.11 What emission types are Novice control operators permitted to use on the
Amateur 1270-MHz band? (A) Oat.a and phone only; (B) CW and data only; (C) CW
and phone only; (D) All Amateur emission privileges authorized for use on 1270 NlHz.

2A l 7.12 On what frequencies in the 10-meter wavelength band may a Novice con-
trol operator use single-sideband phone? (A) 3700 to 3750 kHz; (B) 7100 to 7150
kHz; (C) 21100 to 21200 kHz; (D) 28300 Lo 28500 kHz.

2A l 7.13 On what frequencies in the 1.25-meter wavelength band in ITU Region 2

may a Novice control operator use FM phone emission? (A) 28.3 to 28.5 MHz; (B)
144.0 to 148.0 MHz; (C) 222.l to 223.91 MHz; (D) 1240 to 1270 MHz.

46 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER A

2Al8.1 What amount of output transmitting power may a Novice Class control op-
erator use when operating below 30 MHz? (A) 200 watts input; (B) 250 waus output;
(C) 1500 watts PEP output; (D) The minimum legal power necessary to carry out the
desired communications.

2Al8.2 What is the maximum transmitting power ever permitted to be used by an

Amateur station transmitting in the 80, 40 and 15-meter Novice bands? (A) 75
watts PEP o uLput; (B) l 00 watts PEP output; (C) 200 watts PEP output; (D) 1500 watt5
PEP output.

2A18.3 What is tbe maximum transmitting power permitted an Amateur station

t ransmitting on 3725 kHz? (A) 75 watts PEP output; (B) 100 watts PEP output; (C)
200 watts PEP output; (D) 1500 walls PEP output.

2Al8.4 What is the maximum transmitting power permitted an Am<1tcur station

transmitting on 7125 kHz? (A) 75 watts PEP output; (B) 100 watts PEP output; (C)
200 watts PEP output; (D) 1500 walls PEP output.

2Al8.S What is the maximum transmitting power permitted an Amateur station

transmitting on 21.125 MHz? (A) 75 watts PEP output; (B) 100 watts PEP output; (C)
200 watts PEP output; (D) 1500 walls PEP output.

2A19.1 What is the maximum tr ansmitting power permitted a n Amateur station

with a Novice control operator transmitting on 28.125 MHz? (A) 75 watts PEP out-
put; (B) l 00 watts PEP output; (C) 200 watts PEP output; (D) 1500 watts PEP output.

2Al9.2 What is the maximum t.rans mitting power permitted a n Amateur station
with a Novice control operator transmitting in the Amateur 10-meter wavelength
band? (A) 25 watts PEP output; (B) 200 watts PEP output; (C) 1000 watts PEP output;
(D) 1500 watts PEP output.

2A 19.3 What is the maximum transmitting power permitted an Amateur station

with a Novice control operator transmitting in the Amateur 220-MHz band? (A) 5
watts PEP output; (B) 10 watts PEP output; (C) 25 watts PEP output; (D) 200 wallS PEP
output.

2Al9.4 What is the maximum transmitting power permitted an Amateur station

with a Novice control operator transmitting in the Amateur 1270-MHz band? (A) 5
mi lliwatts PEP output; (B) 500 milliwatts PEP output; (C) l watt PEP output; (D) S
watts PEP output.

2Al9.5 What amount of transm itting power may an Amateur station with a Novice
control operator use in the Amateur 220-MHz band? (A) Not less than 5 watts PEP
output; (B) The minimum legal power necessary to maintain reliable communications;
(C) Not more than 50 watts PEP output; (D) Not more than 200 walls PEP output.

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 47

 CHAPTER A

2A20.1 What term is used to describe narrow-band direct-printing telegraphy

emissions? (A) Teleport communications; (B) Direct communications; (C) RTTY com-
munications; (D) Third-party communications.

2A20.2 What term is used to describe telemetry, telecommand and computer com-
munications emissions? (A) Telepon communications; (B) Direct communications;
(C) Data communications; (D) Third-party communications.

2A20.3 On what frequencies in the IO-meter wavelength band are Novice control
operators permitted to transmit RTTY? (A) 28.1 LO 28.5 MHz; (B) 28.0 to 29.7
MHz; (C) 28. l to 28.2 MHz; (D) 28. l to 28.3 MHz.

2A21.1 Wbo is held responsible for the proper operation of an Amateur station?
(A) Only the control operator; (B) Only the station licensee; (C) Both the control opera-
tor and the station licensee; (D) The person who owns the property where the station is
located.

2A21.2 You allow another Amateur operator to use your Amateur station. What
are your responsibilities, as the station licensee? (A) You and the other Amateur op-
erator are equally responsible for the proper operation of your station; (B) Only the con-
1.rol operator is responsible for the proper operation of the station; (C) As the station
licensee, you must be at the control point of your station whenever it is operated; (D)
You must. notify the FCC when another Amateur will be the control operator of your
station.

2A21.3 What is your primary responsibility as tbe station licensee'? (A) You must
permit any licensed Amateur operator 1.0 operate your station at any Lime upon request;
(B) You must be present whenever the station is operated; (C) You must notify the FCC
in writing whenever another Amateur operator will act as the control operator; (D) You
are responsible for the proper operation of the station for which you are licensed.

2A21.4 If you are the licensee of an Amateur station when are )'Ou not responsible
for its proper operation? (A) Only when another licensed Amateur is the control oper-
ator; (B) The licensee is always responsible for the proper operation of the station for
which he or she is licensed; (C) Only after notifying the FCC in writing that another li-
censed Amateur will assume responsibility for the proper operation of your station; (D)
Only when your station is in repeater operation.

2A22.l When must an Amateur station have a control operator? (A) A control op-
erator is only required for Lraining purposes; (B) Whenever the station receiver is oper-
ated; (C) Whenever the station is transm itting; (D) A control operator is not required.

2A22.2 Another Amateur gives you permission to use her Amateur station. What
are your r esponsibilities, as the control operator? (A) Both you and she are equally
responsible for the proper operation of her station; (B) Only the station licensee is re-

48 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER A

sponsible for tbe proper operation of the station, not you the control operator; (C) You
must be certain the station licensee has given proper FCC notice that you wiH be the
control operator; (D) You must inspect all antennas and related equipment to ensure
they are working properly.

2A23.l Who may be the control operator of an Amateur station? (A) Any person
over 21 years of age; (B) Any properl y licensed Amateur operator that is designated by
the station licensee; (C) Any licensed AmateUI operator wi th an Advanced Class license
or higher; (D) Any person over 21 years of age with a General Class license or higher.

2A24.l Where must an Amateur operator be when he or she is performing the du·
ties of control operator? (A) Anywhere in the same building as the transmitter; (B) At
the control point of the AmateUI station; (C) AL the station entrance, to control entry to
the room; (D) Within sight of the station monitor, to view the output spectrum of the
transmitler.

2A25.1 Where must you keep your Amateur operator license when you are operat-
ing a station? (A) Your original operator license must always be posted in plain view;
(B) YoUI original operator license must always be taped to the inside front cover of your
station log; (C) You must have the original or a photocopy of your operator license in
yoUI possession; (D) You must have the original or a photocopy of your operator license
posted at your primary station location. You need not have the original License nor a
copy in your possession to operate another station.

2A26.l Where must you keep your written authorization for an Amateur station?
(A) Your original station license must always be taped to the inside front cover of your
station log; (B) Your original station license must always be posted in plain view; (C)
You must post the original or a photocopy of your station license at the main entrance to
the transmitter building; (D) The original or a photocopy of the written authorization for
an Amateur station must be retained at the station.

2A27.l How often must an Amateur station be identified? (A) At the beginning of
the contact and at least every ten minutes during a contact; (B) At least once during each
transmission; (C) At least every ten minutes during a contact and at the end of the con-
tact; (D) Every 15 minutes during a contact and at the end of the contact.

2A27.2 As an Amateur operator, how should you correctly identify your station?
(A) With the name and location of the control operator; (B) With the station call sign;
(C) With the call of tJ1e control operator, even when he or she is visiting another radio
Amateur's station; (D) With the name and location of the station licensee, followed by
the two-letter designation of the nearest FCC field office.

2A27.3 What station identification, if any, is required at the beginning of com mu·
nication? (A) The operator originating the contact must transmit both call signs; (B) No
identification is required at the beginning of the contact; (C) Both operators must trans·
mit their own call signs; (D) Both operators must Lransmit both call signs.
The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 49
 CHAPTER A
2A27.4 What station identification, if any, is required at the end of a communica-
tion? (A) BoLh stations must transmit their own call sign, assuming Lhey are FCC-li-
censed; (B) No identification is required at the end of Lhe contact; (C) The station
originating lhe conlact must always transmil bolh call signs; (D) Both stations must
uansmit their own call sign followed by a two-letter designator for Lhe nearest FCC field
office.

2A27.5 What do the FCC rules for Amateur station identification generally re-
quire? (A) Each Amateur station shall give its call sign at the beginning of each com-
munication, and every ten minutes or less during a communication; (B) Each Amateur
station shall give its call sign at the end of each communication, and every Len minutes
or less dming a communication; (C) Each Amateur station shall give its call sign at the
beginning of each communication , and every five minutes or less during a communica-
tion; (D) Each Amateur stat.ion shall give its call sign at the end of each communication,
and every five minutes or less during a communication.

2A27.6 Whal is the fewest number of times you must transmit your Amateur sta-
tion identification during a 25 minute QSO? (A) 1; (B) 2; (C) 3; (D) 4.

2A27.7 What is the longest period of time during a QSO that an Amateur station
does not need to transmit its station identification? (A) 5 minutes; (B) 10 minutes;
(C) 15 minutes; (D) 20 minutes.

2A28.l With which Amateur stations may an FCC-licensed Amateur station com-
municate? (A) All Amateur stations; (B) All public noncommercial radio stations un-
less prohibited by the station's govemmem; (C) Only witJ1 U.S. Amateur stations; (D)
All Amateur stations, unless prohibited by tJ1e Amatem's government.

2A28.2 With which non-Amateur stations may an FCC-licensed Amateur station

communicate? (A) No non-Amateur stations; (B) All such stations; (C) Onl y those au-
thorized by the FCC; (D) Only those who use the International Morse code.

2A29.1 When must the licensee of an Amateur station in portable or mobile opera-
tion notify the FCC? (A) One week in advance if the operation will last for more Lhan
24 hours; (B) FCC notification is not required for portable or mobile operation; (C) One
week in advance if the operation will last for more than a week; (D) One month in ad-
vance of any portable or mobile operation .

2A29.2 When may you operate your Amateur station at a location within the
United States, its territories or possessions other than the one listed on your station
license? (A) Only during times of emergency; (B) Only after giving proper notice to the
FCC; (C) During an emergency or an FCC-approved emergency preparedness drill; (D)
Whenever you want to.

50 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER A

2A30.1 When are communications pertaining to the business or commercial affairs

of any party permitted in the Amateur Service? (A) Only when the immediate safety
of human life or immediate protection of property is threatened; (B) There are no rules
against conducting business communications in the Amateur Service; (C) No business
communications of any kind are ever pennitted in Lhe Amateur service; (D) Business
communications are permitted between the hours of9 AM to 5 PM, only on weekdays.

2A30.2 You wish to obtain a n application for member ship in the American Radio
Relay League. When would you be permitted to send an Amateur Radio message
requesting the application? (A) At any time, since the ARRL is a not-for-profit organi-
zation; (B) Never. This would facilitate the commercial affairs of the ARRL; (C) Only
during normal business hours, between 9 AM and 5 PM; (D) At any time, since there
are no rules against conducting business communications in the Amateur Service.

2A30.3 On your way home from work you decide to order pizza for dinner. When
would you be permitted to use the autopatcb on your radio club repeater to order
the pizza? (A) At any time, since you will not profit from the communications; (B)
Only during nonnal business hours, between 9 AM and 5 PM; (C) At any Lime, since
there are no rules against conducling business communications in the Amateur Service;
(D) Never. This would facilitate the commercial affairs of a business.

2A31.1 When m ay an FCC-licensed Amateur operator communicate with an Ama-

teur operator in a foreign country? (A) Only when the foreign operalor uses English
as his primary language; (B) All the time, except on 28.600 to 29.700 MHz; (C) Only
when a third party agreement exists between the U.S. and the foreign country; (D) At
any time unless prohibited by either the U.S. or the foreign government.

2A32.1 When may an Amateur station be used to tra nsmit m essages for hire? (A)
Under no circumsLances may an Amateur station be hired to transmit messages; (B)
Modest payment from a non-profi t charitable organization is permissible; (C) No money
may change hands, but a radio Arnatew- may be compensated for services rendered with
gifts of equipment or services rendered as a returned favor; (D) All payments received
in return for transmitting messages by Amateur radio must be reponcd to the IRS.

2A32.2 When may the control operator be paid to transmit messages from an Am-
ateur station? (A) The control operator may be paid if he or she works for a public ser-
vice agency such as the Red Cross; (B) The control operator may not be paid under any
circumstances; (C) The control operator may be paid if he or :she reports all income
earned from operating an Amateur station to the IRS as receipt of tax-deductible contri-
butions; (D) The control operator may accept compensation if he or she works for a club
station during the period in which the station is transmitling telegraphy practice or infor-
mation bulletins if cer1.ain exacting conditions are met

2A33.1 When is an Amateur operator permitted to broadcast information intended

for the general public? (A) Amateur operators are not permitted to broadcast informa-
tion intended for the general public; (B) Only when the operator is being paid to trans-

The National Amateur Rad io Association Ham Rad io Handbook 51

 CHAPTER A

mit the information; (C) Only when such transmissions last less than 1 hour in any 24-
hour period; (D) Only when such transmissions last longer than 15 minutes.

2A34.l What is third-party communications? (A) A message passed from the control
operator of an Amateur station to another control operator on behalf of another person;
(B) Public service communications handled on behalf of a minor political party; (C)
Only messages that are formally handled through Amateur radio channels; (D) A report
of highway conditions transmitted over a local repeater.

2A34.2 Who is a third party in Amateur communications? (A) The Amateur station
that breaks into a two-way contact between two other Amateur stations; (B) Any person
for whom a message is passed through Amateur communication chmrnels other than 'the
control operators of the two stations handling the message; (C) A shortwave listener
mon itoring a two-way Amateur communication; (D) The control operator present when
an unlicensed person communicates over an Amateur station.

2A34.3 When is an Amateur operator permitted to transmit a message to a foreign

country fo r a third party? (A) Anytime; (B) Never; (C) Anytime, unless there is a
third-party communications agreement· between the U.S. and the foreign government;
(D) When there is a third-party communications agreement between the U.S. and the
foreign government, or when the third party is eligible to be the control operator of the
station.

2A35.1 Is an Amateur station permitted to transmit music? (A) The transmission of

music is not permitted in the Amateur Service; (B) When Lhe music played produces no
dissonances or spurious emissions; (C) When it is used to jam an illegal transmission;
(D) Only above 1280 MHz.

2A36.1 Is the use of codes or ciphers where the intent is to obscure the meaning
permitted during a two-way communication in the Amateur Ser vice? (A) Codes
and ciphers are permitted during ARRL-sponsored contests; (B) Codes and ciphers are
permitted during nationally declared emergencies; (C) The transmission of codes and ci-
phers where the intent is to obscure Lhe meaning is not perm itted in the Amateur Ser-
vice; (D) Codes and ciphers are permiued above 1280 MHz.

2A36.2 When is an operator in the Amateur Service permit.led to use abbreviations

that are intended to obscure the meaning of the message? (A) Only during ARRL-
sponsorecl contests; (B) Only on frequenc ies above 222.5 MHz; (C) Only during a de-
clared communications emergency; (D) Abbreviations that are imended to obscure the
meaning of the message may never be used in the Amateur Service.

2A37.l Under what circumstances, if any, may the control operator cause false or
deceptive signals or communications to be transmitted? (A) Under no circum-
stances; (B) When operating a beacon transmiuer in a "fox hunt" exercise; (C) When
playing a harmless "practical joke" without causing interference to other stations that

52 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER A

are not involved; (D) When you need to obscure the meaning of transmitted information
to ensure secrecy.

2A37.2 If an Amateur operator transmits the word "MAYDAY" when no actual

emergency bas occurred, what is this called? (A) A traditional greeting in May; (B)
An Emergency Action System test transmission; (C) False or deceptive signals; (D)
"MAYDAY" has no signjficance in an emergency situation.

2A38.1 When may an Amateur station transmit unidentified communications? (A)

A transmission need not be identified if it is restricted to brief tests not intended for re-
ception by other parties; (B) A transmission need not be identified when conducted on a
clear frequency or "dead band" where interference will not occur; (C) An Amateur op-
erator may never transmit unidentified communications; (D) A transmission need not be
identified unless two-way communications or third-party communications handling are
involved.

2A38.2 What is the meaning of' the term unidentified radio communications or sig-
nals? (A) Radio communications in which the transmitting station's call sign is trans-
mitted in modes other than CW and voice; (B) Radio communications approaching a
receiving station from an unknown direction; (C) Radio comm unications in which the
operator fails to transmit his or her name and QTH; (D) Radio communications in which
the station identification is not transmitted.

2A38.3 What is the term used to describe a transmission from an Amateur station
that does not transmit the required station identification? (A) Unidentified commu-
nications or signals; (B) Reluctance modulation; (C) NON emission; (D) Tactical com-
munication.

2A39.1 When may an Amateur operator willfully or maliciously interfere with a

radio communication or signal? (A) You may jam another person's transmissions if
that person is not operating in a legal manner; (B) You may interfere with another
station's signals if that station begins transmitting on a frequency already occupied by
your station; (C) You may never willfully or maliciously interfere with another station's
transmissions; (D) You may expect, and cause, deliberate interference because it is un-
avoidable during crowded band conditions.

2A39.2 What is the meaning of the term malicious interference? (A) Accidental in-
terference; (B) Intentional interference; (C) Mild interference; (D) Occasional interfer-
ence.

2A39.3 What is the term used to describe an Amateur radio transmission that is in-
tended to disrupt other communications in progress? (A) Interrupted CW; (B) Mali-
cious interference; (C) Transponded signals; (D) Unidentified transmissions.

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 53

 CHAPTER A

2A40.1 As an Amateur operator, you r eceive an Official Notice of Violation from

the FCC. How promptly must you respond? (A) Within 90 days; (B) W ithin 30 days;
(C) As specified in the Notice; (D) The next day.

2A40.2 If you wer e to receive a voice distress signal from a station on a frequency
outside your operator privileges, what restrictions would apply to assisting the sta-
tion in distress? (A) You would not be allowed to assist the station because the fre-
quency of its signals were o utside your operator privileges; (B) You would be allowed
Lo assist the station only if your signals were restricted to the nearest frequency band of
your privi legcs; (C) You would be allowed to assist the station on a frequency outside of
your operator privileges on ly if you used international Morse code; (D) You would be
allowed to assist the station on a frequency outside of your operator privileges using any
means of radio communications at your disposal.

2A40.3 If you were in a situation wher e normal com munication systems wer e dis-
rupted due to a disaster, what restrictions would ap ply to essential communications
you might provide in connection with the immediate safety of human Ufe? (A) You
would not be allowed to communicate at all except to the FCC Engineer in Charge of
the area concerned; (B) You would be reslricted 10 communications using only the
em issions and frequencies authorized to your operator privileges; (C) You would be al-
lowed to communicate on frequencies outside your operator privileges only if you used
international Morse code; (D) You would be allowed to use any means of radio commu-
nication at your disposal.

SUBELEMENT 3AA (5 questions).

3AA1.1 W hat is the control point of' an Amateur station? (A) The location at which
the control operator function is performed; (B) The operating position of any Amateur
Radio station operating as a repeater user station; (C) The physical location of any Arna·
teur Radio transmitter, even if it is operated by radio link from some other location; (D)
The variable frequency oscillator (VFO) of the transmitter.

3AA1.2 What is the term for the location at which the control operator fun ction is
performed? (A) The operating desk; (B) The control point; (C) The station location;
(D) The manual control location.

3AA2.2 Which operator licenses a uthorize privileges on 52.525 MHz? (A) Extra,
Advanced o nly; (B) Extra, Advanced, General only; (C) Extra, Advanced, General,
Technician o nly; (D) Extra, Advanced, General, Technician, Novice.

3AA2.3 W hich operator licenses a uthorize privileges on 146.52 M Hz? (A) Extra,
Advanced, General, Technician, Novice; (B) Extra, Advanced, General, Technician
only; (C) Extra, Advanced, General only; (D) Extra, Advanced only.

3AA2.4 Which operator licenses authorize privileges on 223.50 MHz? (A) Extra,
Advanced, General, Technician, Novice; (B) Exira, Advanced, General, Technician
only; (C) Ex1rn, Advanced, General only; (D) E xtra, Advanced only.
54 Ham Rad io Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association
 CHAPTER A

3AA2.S Which operator licenses authorize privileges on 446.0 MHz? (A) Extra, Ad-
vanced, General, Technician, Novice; (B) Extra, Advanced, General, Technician only;
(C) Extra, Advanced, General only; (D) Extra, Advanced only.

3AA3.1 How often do Amateur service licenses generally need to be renewed? (A)
Every 10 years; (B) Every 5 years; (C) Every 2 years; (D) They are lifetime licenses.

3AA3.2 The FCC currently issues Amateur licenses carrying IO-year terms. What
is the "grace period" during whicb the FCC will renew an expired 10-year license?
(A) 2 years; (B) 5 years; (C) 10 years; (D) There is no grace period.

3AA3.3 What action would you take to modify your operator/primar)' station li-
cense? (A) Properly fill oul FCC Form 610 and send il LO the FCC in Gellysburg, PA;
(B) Properly fill ouL FCC Form 610 and send it to the nearest FCC field office; (C)
Write the FCC at their nearesL field office; (D) There is no need to modify an Amateur
license belween renewals.

3AA4.l On what frequencies within the 6-meter wavelength band may FM phone
emissions be transmitted? (A) 50.0-54.0 MHz only; (B) 50. 1-54.0 MHz only; (C)
51.0-54.0 MHz only; (D) 52.0-54.0 MHz onl y.

3AA4.2 On what frequencies within the 2-meter wavelength band may FM image
emissions be transmitted? (A) 144.1-148.0 MHz only; (B) 146.0-148.0 MHz only; (C)
144.0-148.0 MHz only; (D) 146.0-147.0 MHz only.

3AA4.3 What emission type may always be used for station identification, regard-
less of the transmitting frequency? (A) CW; (B) RTTY; (C) MCW; (D) Phone.

3AA5.1 lf you are using a frequency within a band designated to the Amateur ser-
vice on a secondary basis and another station assigned to a primary ser vice on that
band causes inter ference, what action should you take? (A) Notify the FCC's re-
gional Engineer in Charge of the inLerfercnce; (B) Increase your transmitter's power Lo
overcome the interference; (C) Auempt to contact the station and request tJ1aL it stop the
interference; (D) Change frequencies; you may also be causing interference LO the Olher
SI.a.Lion and thal would be a violalion of FCC rules.

3AAS.2 What is I.be basic principle of frequency sharing between two stations allo·
cated to a primary service within a freq uency band, but each in a different ITU
Region or Subregion? (A) The station with a control operator holding a lesser Class of
license musl yield the frequency to the station with a control operator holding a higher
Class license; (B) The station with a lower power outpul must yield lhe frequency to the
station with a higher power output; (C) Both stations have an equal righL to operate on
the frequency ; (D) Stations in ITU Regions I and 3 must yield the frequency to stations
in ITU Region 2.

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 55

 CHAPTER A

3AA6· 1.l FCC Rules specify the maximum transmitter power that you may use
with your Amateur Radio station. At what point in your station is the transmitter
power measured? (A) By measuring the final amplifier supply voltage inside the trans-
mitter or amplifier; (B) By measuring the final amplifier suppl y current inside the trans-
mitter or amplifier; (C) At the antenna terminals of the transmitter or amplifier; (D) On
the antenna itself, after the feed line.

3AA6-l.2 What is the term used to define the average power supplied to the an-
tenna transmission line during one RF cycle at the crest of the modulation enve-
lope? (A) Peak transmitter power; (B) Peak output power; (C) Average radio-frequency
power; (D) Peak envelope power.

3AA6-2.1 Notwithsta nding the numerical limitations in the FCC Rules, how much
transmitting power shall be used by an Amateur station? (A) There is no regulation
other than the numerical limits; (B) The minimum power level required to achieve S9
signal repons; (C) The minimum power necessary Lo carry out the desired communica-
tion; (D) The maximum power available, as long as it is under the allowable limit.

3AA6-3.1 What is the maximum transmitting power permitted an Amateur station

on 146.52 MHz'? (A) 200 waus PEP output; (B) 500 watts ERP; (C) 1000 watts DC
input; (D) 1500 watts PEP output

3AA6-4.l W hat is the maximum transmitting power permitted an Amateur station

in beacon operation? (A) 10 walls PEP output; (B) 100 watts PEP output; (C) 500
watts PEP output; (D) 1500 watts PEP OULlJUl.

3AA 7-1.I What is the maximum sending speed permitted for a RITY transmission
between 28 and SO M Hz? (A) 56 kilobauds; (B) 19.6 kilobauds; (C) 1200 bauds; (0)
300 bauds.

3AA 7-1.2 What is the maximum sending speed permitted for a RTTY transmission
between SO and 220 M Hz? (A) 56 kilobauds; (B) 19.6 kilobauds; (C) 1200 bauds; (D)
300 bauds.

3AA7-l.3 W hat is the maximum sending speed permitted f'or a RTTY transmission
above 220 MHz'? (A) 300 bauds; (B) 1200 bauds; (C) 19.6 kilobnuds; (D) 56 lci lobauds.

3AA 7-2.1 What is the maximum frequency sh ift permitted for RTTY when trans-
mitted below SO MHz? (A) 100 Hz; (B) 500 Hz; (C) 1000 Hz; (0 ) 5000 Hz.

3AA 7-2.2 What is the maximum frequency shift permitted for RTTY when trans-
mitted above SO MH z? (A) 100 Hz or the sending speed, in bauds, whichever is
greater; (B) 500 Hz or Lhe sending speed, in bauds, whichever is greater; (C) The FCC
rules do not specify a maximum frequency shift above 50 MHz; (D) 5000 Hz or the
sending speed, in bauds, whichever is greater.

56 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER A

3AA7-3.l What is the maximum authorized bandwidth of an RTTY, data or multi-

plexed emission using a specified digital code within tbe frequency range of SO to
225 MHz? (A) 20 kHz; (B) 50 kHz; (C) The total bandwidth shall not exceed that of a
single-sideband emission; (D) The total bandwidth shall not exceed 10 times that of a
CW emission.

3AA7-3.2 What is the maximum authorized bandwidth of a RTTY, data or multi-

J>lexed emission using an unspecified digital code within the frequency range of 220
to 450 MHz? (A) 50 kHz; (B) 150 kHz; (C) 200 kHz; (D) 100 kHz.

3AA7-3.3 What is the maximum authorized bandwidth ofan RTTY, data or multi-
plexed emission using an unspecified digital code within the 420 to 450 MHz Ama-
teur band? (A) 50 kHz; (B) 200 kHz; (C) 300 kHz; (D) 100 kHz.

3AA8-l.l How must a control operator who has a Novice license and a Certificate
of Successful Completion of Examination for Technician privileges identify the sta-
tion when transmitting on 146.34 MHz? (A) The new Technician may not operate on
146.34 until his or her new license arrives; (B) The licensee gives his or her call sign,
followed by any suitable word that denotes the slant mark and the identifier "KT"; (C)
No special fonn of identification is needed; (D) The licensee gives his or her call sign
and st.ates the location of the VE examination where he or she obtained the certificate of
successful completion.

3AA8-2.l W hich language(s) must be used w hen making the station identification
by telephony? (A) The language being used for the con1.act may be used if it is not En-
glish, providing the U.S. has a third-party traffic agreement with that country; (B) En-
g lish must be used for idemification; (C) Any language may be used , if the counlry
which uses that language is a member o f the International Telecommunication Union;
(D) T he language being used for the contact must be used for identification purposes.

3AA8-3.l What does the FCC recommend to aid correct station identification
when using phone? (A) A speech compressor; (B) Q sig nals; (C) A recognized pho-
netic alphabet; (D) Unique words of the operator's choice .

3AA9-1.1 What is the term used to describe an Amateur station transmitting com-
munications for the purpose of observation of propagation and reception or other
related experimental activities? (A) Beacon operation; (B) Repeater operation; (C)
Auxiliary operation; (D) Raclio control operation.

3AA9-2.l What Class of Amateur operator license mus t you bold to operate a bea-
con station? (A) Technician, General, Advanced or Amateur Extra Class; (B) General,
Advanced or Amateur Extra Class; (C) Amateur Extra Class only; (D) Any license
Class.

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 57

 CHAPTER A
3AA10.1 What is the maximum transmitter power an Amateur station is permitted
when transmitting signals to control a model craft? (A) One wall; (B) One milliwatt;
(C) Two watts; (D) Three waus.

3AA10.2 What minimum information must be indicated on the label affixed to a

transmitter transmitting signals to control a model craft? (A) Stat.ion call sign; (B)
Station call sign and operating times; (C) Stat.ion call sign and the station licensee's
name and address; (D) Station call sign, Class of I icense, and operating times.

3AA10.3 What are the station identifi cation requirements for an Amateur station
transmitting signals to control a model craft? (A) Once every ten minutes, and at the
beginning and end of each transmission; (B) Once every ten minutes; (C) At the begin-
ning and end of each transmission; (D) Station identification is not required provided
that a label indicat.ing the station call sign and the station licensee's name and address is
affixed to the station transmitter.

3AA10.4 Where must the writing ind icating the station call sign and the licensee's
name and address be affixed in order to operate under the special rules for radio
control of remote model craft and vehicles? (A) It must be in t.he operator's posses-
sion; (B) It must be affixed to the Lransmilter; (C) It must be affi xed to the craft or vehi-
cle; (D) IL must be fi led with the nearest FCC field office.

3AA11-1.1 If an Amateur repeater is causing har mfu l interference to another Am-

ateur repeater and a frequency coordinator has coordinated (recommends) the op-
eration of one sta tion and not the otber , who is pr imarily r esponsible for resolving
the interference? (A) The licensee of the non-coordinated (unrecommended) repeater;
(B) Both repeater licensees; (C) The licensee of Lhe coordinated (recommended) re-
peater; (D) The freq uency coordinator.

3AA U-1.2 II' an Amateur repeater is causing harmful inl.erference to a nother Am -

ateur repeater and a frequency coordinator has coordinated (recommends) the op-
er ation of both stations, who is primarily responsible for resolving the
interference? (A) The licensee of the repeater which has been coordinated for Lhe long-
est period of Lime; (B) Both repeater licensees; (C) The licensee of the repeater which
has been coordinated the most recently; (D) The frequency coordinator.

3AA 11-1.3 If an Amateur repeater is causing harmful inl.crfcrcnce to anotlier Am·

ateur repeater and a frequency coordinator has not coordinated the operation of
either station, who is primar ily responsible fo r resolving the inter ference? (A) Both
repeater licensees; (B) The licensee of the repeater which has been in operation for the
longest period of time; (C) The licensee of the repeater which has been in operalion for
the shortest period of Lime; (D) The frequency .

3AA11-2.1 Under what circumstances does the FCC declare a temporary state of
communication emergency? (A) When a declaration of war is received from Congress;
(B) When the maximum usable frequency goes above 28 MHz; (C) When communica-
58 Ham Rad io Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association
 CHAPTER A

tions facilities in Washington, DC, are disrupted; (D) When a disaster disrupts nonnal
communications systems in a particular area.

3AA11-2.2 By what means should a request for a declaration of a temporary state

of communication emergency be initiated? (A) Communication with the FCC Engi-
neer-In-Charge of the affected area; (B) Communication with the U.S. senator or con-
gressman for the area affected; (C) Communication with the local Emergency
Coordinator; (D) Communication with the Chief of the FCC Private Radio Bureau.

3AA11-2.3 What information is included in an FCC declaration of a temporary

state of communication emergency? (A) Designation of the areas affected and of or-
ganizations authorized to use radio communications in the affected area; (B) Designa-
tion of Amateur frequency bands for use only by Amateurs participating in emergency
communications in the affected area, and complete suspension of Novice operating priv-
ileges for the duration of the emergency; (C) Any special conditions and special rules to
be observed during the communication emergency; (D) Suspension of Amateur rules re-
garding station identification and business communication.

3AA1l-2.4 If a disaster disrupts normal communication systems in an area where

the Amateur service is regulated by the FCC, what kinds of transmissions are au-
thorized to Amateur stations in such an area'? (A) Communications which arc neces-
sary to meet essential communication needs and facilitate relief actions; (B)
Communications which allow a commercial business to continue to operate in Lhe af-
fected area; (C) Communications for which material compensation has been paid to the
Amateur operator for delivery into the affected area; (D) Communications which are to
be used for program production or newsgathering for broadcasting purposes.

3AA12.l What is meant by the term broadcasting? (A) Transmissions intended for
reception by the general public, either direct or relayed; (B) Reiransmission by auto-
matic means of programs or signals emanating from any Class of station other than Am-
ateur; (C) The transmission of any one-way radio communication, regardless of purpose
or content; (D) Any one-way or two-way radio communication involving more than two
stations.

3AA12.2 Which of the following is an Amateur station that cannot automatically

retransmit signals of other Amateur stations? (A) Auxiliary station; (B) Repeater sta-
tion; (C) Beacon station; (D) Space station.

3AA12.3 Which of the following is an Amateur station that is permitted to auto-

maticaJly retransmit signals of other Amateur stations? (A) Beacon station; (B)
Space station; (C) Official bulletin station; (D) RACES station.

3AA12.4 Signals from what type of radio station may be directly retransmitted by
an Amateur station? (A) AM radio station; (B) Police or fire department radio station;
(C) NOAA weather station; (D) U.S. Government communications between the space

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 59

 CHAPTER A

shuttle and associated Earth stations wilh prior approval from I.he National Aeronautics
and Space Administration (NASA).

3AA12.5 When may U.S. Government communications between the space shuttle
and associated Earth stations be directly retransmitted by an Amateur station? (A)
After prior approval has been obtained Crom the FCC in Washington, DC; (B) No radio
stations other than Amateur may be retransmitted in the Amateur service; (C) Afler
prior approval has been obtained from the National Aeronautics and Space Administra-
tion (NASA); (D) After prior approval has been obtained from I.he nearest FCC Engi-
neer-In-Charge.

3AA13.1 What kinds of one-way communications by Amateur stations are not con-
sidered broadcasting? (A) All types of one-way comm unications by Amateurs are con-
sidered by the FCC as broadcasting; (B) Beacon operation, remote control of a device,
emergency communications, information bulletins consisting solely of subject matter of
direct interest LO the Amateur service, and telegraphy practice; (C) Only code-practice
transmissions conducted simultaneously on all available Amateur bands below 30 MHz
and conducted for more than 40 hours per week are not considered broadcasting; (D)
Only actual emergency communications during a declared communications emergency
are exempt.

3AA13.2 Which of the following one-way communications may not be transmitted

in tbe Amateur service? (A) Transmissions to remotely control a device at a distant lo-
cation; (B) Transmissions to assist persons learning or improving their proficiency in
Morse code; (C) Brief transmissions to make adjusu11ents to the stat.ion; (D) Transmis-
sion of music.

3AA13..3 What kinds of one-way information bulletins may be transmitted by Am-

ateur stations? (A) OAA weather bulletins; (B) Commuter traffic reports from local
radio stations; (C) Regularly scheduled announcements concerning Amateur Radio
equipment for sale or trade; (D) Messages directed only to Amateur operators consisting
solely of subject mauer or direct interest to the Amateur service.

3AA13.4 What types of one-way Amateur communications may be transmitted by

an Amateur station? (A) Beacon operation, raruo control, code practice, retransmission
of other services; (B) Beacon operation, radio control, transmiuing an unmodulated car-
rier, NOAA weather bulletins; (C) Beacon operation, remote control or a device, infor-
mation bulletins consisting solely of subject matter of direct interest to the Amateur
service, telegraphy practice and emergency communications; (D) Beacon operation,
emergency-drill-practice transmissions, automatic retransmission of NOAA weather
transmissions, code practice.

3AA14.1 What types of material compensation, if any, may be in volved in third-

party traffic transmitted by an Amateur station? (A) Payment of an amount agreed
upon by the Amateur operator and the parties involved; (B) Assistance in maintenance

60 Ham Rad io Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER A

of auxiliary station equipment; (C) Donation of Amateur equipment to the control oper-
ator; (D) No compensation may be accepted.

3AA14.2 What types of business communications, if any, may be transmitted by an

Amateur station on behalf of a third party? (A) The FCC rules specifically prohibit
communications with a business for any reason; (B) Business communications involv-
ing the sale of Amateur Radio equipment; (C) Communications Lo a business may be
provided during an emergency as provided by the FCC rules; (D) Business communica-
tions aiding a broadcast station.

3AA14.3 Does the FCC allow third-party messages when communicating with Am-
ateur Radio operators in a foreign country? (A) Third-party messages with a foreign
country are only allowed on ·behalf of other Amateurs.; (B) Yes, providccl the third-party
message involves the immccliate fami ly of one of the communicating Amateurs; (C)
Under no circumstances may U.S. Amateurs exchange third-party messages with an
Amateur in a foreign country; (D) Yes, when communicating with a person in a country
with which the U.S. shares a third-pany agreement.

3AA15.l Under what circumstances, if any, may a third party participate in radio
communications from an Amateur station if the third party is ineligible to be a
control operator of one of the stations? (A) A control operator must be present at the
control point and continuously monitor and supervise the third party participation. Also,
contacts may only be made with Amateurs in the U.S. and countries with which the U.S.
has a third-party communications agreement; (B) A control operator must be present
and continuously monitor and supervise the radio communication to ensure compliance
with the rules only if contacts arc made with Amateurs in countries with which the U.S.
has no third-party traffic agreement; (C) A control operator must be present and contin-
uously monitor and supervise the radio communication to ensure compliance with the
rules. In addiLion, the control operator must key tl1e transmitter and make the station
identification .; (D) A control operator must be present and continuously monitor and su-
pervise the radio communication to ensure compliance with the rules. In addition, if
contacts are made on frequencies below 30 MHz, the control operator must transmit the
call signs of both stations involvccl in the contact at 10-minute intervals.

3AA15.2 Where must the control operator be situated when a third party is partic-
ipating in radio communications from an Amateur station? (A) If a radio remote
control is used, the control operator may be physically separated from the control point,
when provisions are incorporated to shut off the transmitter by remote control; (B) If the
control operator supervises 1.he third party until he or she is satisfied of the competence
of the third party, the control operator may leave the control point; (C) The control oper-
ator must be present at the control point; (D) If the third party holds a valid radiotele-
graph license issued by the FCC, no supervision is necessary.

3AA15.3 What must the control operator do while a third party is participating in
radio communications? (A) If the third party holds a valid commercial radiotelegraph
license, no supervision is necessary; (B) The control operator must tune up and down 5

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 61

 CHAPTER A

kHz from the transmitting frequency on another receiver, lo ensure that no inLerference
is taking place; (C) If a radio control link is available, lhe control operator may leave the
room; (D) The contro1 operator must conlinuously monitor and supervise the third
party's participalion.

3AA15.4 In ah exchange of' international third-party communications, when is the

station identification procedure required? (A) Only at the beginning of the communi-
cations; (B) At the end of each exchange of communications; (C) The station identifica-
tion procedure is not required during intemalional third-pany communications; (D)
Only at the end of multiple exchanges of communications.

3AA16.1 Under what circumstances, if any, may an Amateur station transmit

radio communications containing obscene words? (A) Obscene words are pennitted
when they do nol cause interference to any other radio communication or signal; (B)
Obscene words are prohibited in Amateur Radio transmissions; (C) Obscene words are
permitted when tJ1ey are not retsansmitted through repeater or auxiliary stations; (D)
Obscene words are permitted, bul Lhere is an unwritten rule among Amateurs that they
should not be used on the air.

3AA16.2 Under what circumstances, if any, may an Amateur station transmit

radio communications containing indecent words? (A) Indecent words are permitled
when they do nol cause interference to any other radio communication or signal; (B) In-
decem words are permitted when they are not retransmitted through repeater or auxil-
iary stations; (C) Indecent words are permilted, bul there is an unwritten rule among
Amateurs thal tJ1ey should not be used on the ai r; (D) Indecent words are prohibited in
Amateur Radio transmissions.

3AA16.3 Under what circumstances, if any, may an Amateur station transmit

radio communications containing profane words? (A) Profane words are pennitted
when they are nol retransmitted through repeater or auxiliary stations; (B) Profane
words are permilted, bul there is an unwritten rule among Amateurs that they should not
be used on the air; (C) Profane words are prohibited in Amateur Radio transmissions;
(D) Profane words are permitted when they do not cause interference to any other radio
communication or signal.

3AA17.1 Which of the following VHF/UHF bands may not be used by Earth sta-
tions for satellite communications? (A) 6 meters; (B) 2 meters; (C) 1.25 meters; (D)
70 centimeters.

62 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

Cha ter

Operating Procedures

Interference
s an Amateur, you are permiucd Lo operate a high power radio transmiuer. In the

A last chapter, we discussed the rules regarding intentional interference wilh an-
ol.her station. Unless you observe good operating practice, your transminer can
also cause unintentional interference.

Just Lhink what would happen if anyone could transmit anywhere they wanted to at any
time. The feuding would make the Hatfield and McCoy battles seem like a sewing circle
competition. The FCC would probably assign I.he frequencies 10 the public and give it a
name like "The Citizens Band".
 CHAPTER B

When selecLing a frequency for your Lransmitter, the mosl important consideration is to
insure tlrnL you minimize the interference with other Amateurs. IL is common courtesy Lo
say "Is this frequency in use?", before calling anoLher specific AmaLeur or calling CQ.
By the way, CQ is a general call meaning "I want Lo make a conLacL." (2B 1-1.1 )(2B2
4.1)

There's notl1ing subtle about having someone starl transmitting on top of you. There are
other fonns of inLerference which are subtle, however. For example, droning "CQ" on-
and-on without signing your call is a form of on-the-air pollution. Rather man making
filibuster CQ's, you should make crisp, short transmissions. When trying to contacl an-
otl1er station using CW, the correct format is to send CQ three times fo llowed by the let-
ters DE (from, or this is) and your call letters tl1ree times. At this point you can let up on
the key long enough to see if anyone returns your call. If the band is dead or conditions
are poor, you may wish to repeat Lhe sequence a few times before listening. (2B2-
l.1 )(2B2-4 .2)

If you answer someone else's CQ, you should send their call twice followed by the
characters DE followed by your call sign twice. Then standby to see if you were heard.
Incidentally, your CW sending speed should be paced to the speed of the Amateur you
heard sending CQ. You should never call a station at a speed faster than you can reliably
copy. Otherwise it is necessary to take time to tell the sender to QRS (slow down). This
transmission would not have been necessary if you had responded at the speed at which
you wished to receive. (282-1.2)(282-2.1)

If there is a lot of QRM (interference) you may need Lo repeat the send/listen sequence a
couple of Limes before giving up. Obviously, if the station you am caJling goes back to
someone else, you should slop calling.

On 10 meters, you might want Lo listen for beacon stations (see Chapter A) below 28.3
MHz. before transmiuing. Amateur beacons are low power automatic CW stations that
Lransmit Lhe call letters ancl location of the station. It is nol unusual to hear an Aus1ralian
beacon when tlle Novice{fechnician phone portion of the band (28 .3 -28.5 MHz) seems
totally dead.

On phone, the standard format is similar LO a CW call except that you do not use the
Lenn DE. Normally, you would say CQ three times, then "tl1is is" and your call lellers
three times. If you respond to someone else's CQ, you should give tl1eir call once fol -
lowed by "this is" and your call letters spelled out phoneLically. (2B3-1.1)(2B3-1.2)

As a practical matter, calls are ol'Len paced according to band concliLions. If tl1e band is
very active, it means that many people will be tuning around looking for a CQ. A short
"CQ, CQ, CQ JO meters, this is K6HX located in Del Mar, California calling CQ 10
meters" will often suffice. If the band seems dead, you may wish LO repeat the sequence
several Limes.

64 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Rad io Association

 CHAPTER B

Band propagation, as well as band conditions should be considered when trying to con-
tact a specific station. For example, if you live in Seaule and wish to contact a friend in
San Diego, you wouldn ' t try to do it on the two meter band. Why not? Two meters, for
the most part, is a VHF line-of-sight band (an exception, of course, is the use of an
OSCAR satellite). Calling a station which is out of range for the band propagation and
characteristic is a subtle form of inLerference for other users of the band.

To work the Seattle/San Diego path (about 1,500 miles) a "Tech-Plus" or Novice would
use 1l1e 10 or 15 meter band. Before calling your friend, you should tune around to see if
there are other stations coming from that area. If not, it is likely that the call to your
friend will be unsuccessful. (2Bl-l.2)

One of the most annoying form s of interference is not confined to newcomers. Some
Amateurs persist in tuning up their transmitters into an antenna. Occasionally they do
not listen (or ask) to see if the frequency is clear. Their unmodulated signal can cause
annoying interfering whistles or entirely "blot out" weak signals. Transmitter tune up
should always be done using a device called a dummy load. This device is sometimes
called a dummy antenna. (See Chapter D - Test Equipmenc). The dummy load appears
just like an antenna as far as the transmitter is concerned except that it does not radiate a
signal. Thus there is no radio frequency energy to interfere with other operators. (2B 1-
l .3)(3AB3.2)

Procedural Signals
Amateurs use a form of shorthand to speed up their CW transmissions. These are called
procedural signals which are one or two letters sent together as one code character. An
example, mentioned earlier, was the substitution of "DE" for the word "from" or "this
is." The most common procedural signal is "CQ". AnoLher. is "AR" which means "over"
or signifies the end of a Lransmission. This is different from "SK" which signifies the
end of the contact or good-bye. Some of the less common procedural signals are "BT"
(a double dash or equal sign), "DN" (the fraction bar, often used in call letter strings 10
indicate portable operation in another call area - i.e. W6TNSn, Seattle). One that con-
fuses everyone is "KN", which means that only 01e called station should transmit. A
similar pool question asks the meaning of "K" at the end of a transmission. The "K"
(not "KN") mecu1s that any station can transmit. Commit these abbreviations to the fron-
tal lobe of your brain, as you will probably be asked about them during your test (2B2-
3. l )(2B2-3 .2)(2B2-3 .3)(2B2-3.4)(2B2-3.5)(2B2-4 .3)

How Do You Copy Me?

COOE"' STAR
Amateurs have also devised a standardized 0
shorthand method of indicating how a station iCIAI - - i~---
T T- --
Y
sounds. This is called the R-S-T reporting I
system. The "R" part means the readability I ?1(ic.10c~a{t
- - - - " - - - - - - - 1.1 (1 1\ • -

on a scale of one to five (barely Lo perfect

copy). The "S" designator tells the other ham, The Microcraft uCode-Star" makes it easy
on a scale of one to nine, their signal strength. to copy Morse code.

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 65

 CHAPTER B

A one would be extremely weak and unreadable, while nine would be a " rock crushing"
strong signal. The e nding "T' is used to indicate the tone of the CW note, again on a
scale of one to nine (badly distoned to a pure musical note). A good signal from a
nearby station would probably get an RST report of 599.

Most modern communication products include a signal strength meter. These indicators
used to be calibrated with a 0-9 relative reading which used to correspond to the "S" in
the RST. In the 1950's, a famous ham radio manufacturing company decided to cali-
brate their meters in decibels (a relative strength measurement). The upper limit of the
scale was 60 db (decibels). This made the ir products seem better than the competition so
everyone starling printing a decibel scale on the meter (few, if any, calibrated their re-
ceiver to the meter scale!). Most modem Amateur radios have a signal strength indicator
calibrated zero to nine (which appears about mid-scale) and further graduations up to 60
on the right half of the meter. Th us, the typical signal report today might be " You are 20
db over 9 at this QTH". CW operators stick to tradition and anything over nine on the
met.er gets a nine in the RST report. (3AB 1.3)

The "T' (tone) designator is dropped for phone and there is no correlation with the old
RST system. One often hears the "Q" designator substituted for the " R". The "Q" slands
for a general , ove rall indication of quality. It is correct etiquette to say " I hear you Q5-
S9, OM" or simply "you are 5-9." (2B2-5.1)(2B2-5.2)(2B2-5.3)(3AB 1.1)(3 AB 1.2)

By the way, the tenn " OM" deserves explanation. It stands for "old man" and is ham
radio generic-talk for a male ham of any age. If your dad is a hru11, he is also an "old
man" but you may wish to exhibit a biL of discretion with the use of the te rm! Female
hams don't seem Lo have an equivalem Lenn, probably for very good reasons.

What's A Que-Tee-Ach?
Amateurs use another form of shorthand, called Q-signals. They were developed many
years ago by hams Lo save time sending telegraphic messages. Here are a few of the
more common Q-signals (some of which you may be asked on the Novice tesL).

QRL- Used to ask if the frequency is in use.

QRS- This Q-signal means "Send more slowly".
QRT- Means to stop sending as in " I have to QRT now for dinner".
QRZ- "Who is the staLion calling me?"
QSL- Acknowledgement of transmission copy such as "QSL your message number
five". A QSL card is a document which confirms a two-way transmission.
QTH- A location of the ham radio s ta tion such as " QTH- Mercer Island".

These Q-signa ls are in the question pool and you may be asked to identify one of them.
(2B2-6.1)(2B2-6.2)(2B2-6.3)(2B2-6.4)(2B2-6-5)(3AB3.3)

Here arc some of the other commonly used Q-signals for your infonnaLion .

66 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER B

QRK- "Whal is my signal like?" You would probably respond with a Q-signaJ. Con-
sider Lhe elegant simplicity of three CW letters (QRK) and Lhe response, "479". It may
not seem important with an occasional ham conta'ct but what if you were a telegrapher
handling hundreds of messages each day?
QRM· Man-made interference such as other nearby signals, motors, ignition noise, etc.
QRN· Natural static such as lighuiing bursts and static crashes.
QRX- "Please stand by" or "I am standing by", depending on how it is used. For exam-
ple, "Please QRX while I answer the phone".
QSB· Fading of signals due to atmospheric conditions.
QSM- "Can you repeat the last message?"
QSO· A conversation on the ham radio.
QSY- To change frequency such as "QSY down 15" (kHz).

The Phonetic Alphabet

ln the presence of fading, static or olher fo rms of QRM , it is easy to mistake A6HX for
K6HX. To avoid this, the International Telecommunication Union, in Geneva, Switzer-
land, has developed a standard phonetic alphabet. The words they have picked to rep-
resent the 26 letters of the alphabet arc tJ1ose which are least likely to be confused wilh
other words on a world-wide basis.

The phonetic representations are shown in the accompanying charL It is unlikely that
Kilo Six Hotel X-Ray would be mistaken for A6HX. Kilo and Alpha do not sound alike
but "K" and "A" sound almost Lhe same, particularly at the other end of a noisy or weak
communications circuit.
. A-Alpha J- .Juliette S- Sierra You must memorize the correspondence
B- Bravo K· Kilo T-Tango between lellers and the standard pho-
C- Cha rlie L- Lima U- Uniform netic words. You will be using Lhese
D- Delta M · Mike V- Victor forever (at least until the ITU changes
E- Echo N- November W- Whiskey them) so long as you arc an Amateur. In
F- Foxtrot 0- Oscar X - X-Ray addition you will probably be asked for
G- Golf P-Papa Y- Yankee Lhe phonetic representation of various
H- Hotel Q· Quebec Z- Zulu call letters in your Technician test.
I· India R- Romeo There are 11 questions on phonetics and
Th e International Telecommunication Union Phonetic Alphabet

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 67

 CHAPTER B

you will almosl certainly get one of tJ1em. The best way to commit tJ1ese lo memory is
Lo spell out words phonetically on Llle signs you see along tJ1c highway as you are travel-
ing. After a while they will become second nature to you. Have you got that Oscar-
Kilo?(2B3-2.1 )(2B3-2.2)(2B3-2.3)(2B3-2.4)(2B3-2.5)(2B 3-2.6)(2B 3-2.7)(2B3-2.8)(2B-
3-2.9)(2B3-2.10)(2B 3-2. I I )

Digital Procedures
Long before the computer era, Amateurs were engaging in an early form of digital com-
munications called radio teletype (RTIY). A teletype machine is a mechanical device
designed to reproduce alphanumeric characters sent from one place Lo another. The
u·ansport medium can be wire or by radio.

The leletype machine has a selector mechanism which detennines what character is
printed on a paper roll or strip fed through the RTIY machine. A train of ones and zeros
determines what character is selected and printed each time the motorized distributor re-
volves. The speed of the motor rotation detennines the data or "baud" rate. Most Ama-
leurs used 45 baud for sending and receiving communication. This amounts to about
five printed characters per second. (284-2.1)

In actual practice, few Amateurs followed a "standard RITY CQ format" such as al-
luded to in the question pool. Rather, they used paper punch tapes (holes represented
ones, no holes represented a zero) to call CQ. They would make the tape (called "brag
tapes") into a loop by glueing the ends together. As the tape rotated in a distribu-
lor/reader, the transmitter would be activated to call CQ in a unique, custom ized style.

This is not the correct answer for the YEC Question pool , however. If you arc asked for
the proper formal for a standard RTIY CQ call, the correct answer is "CQ Lhree to six
times, followed by DE with your call sign sent three Limes." (2B4-1.1)

In addition to the machines being slow, noisy and cantankerous, RTTY is prone Lo er-
rors. The error correction and message addressing and routing is very rudimentary.
RTIY was revolutionized (as was mosL everything else) with the introduction of com-
puters. Amateurs carried the revolution one step further with the introduction of packet
radio. This scheme splits any message into packets of information by a device called a
Terminal Node Controller (TNC). Each packet has Lhe sender and recipients address
or identification. In addition, packet communicalion includes a fool-proof mctJ10d of
telling if the message has been corrupled by one or more errors. If so, the sending sta-
tion receives a retransmission request. Thus, Llle data you receive is error-free.

The TNC has the capability of storing an incoming message (to any addressee) and then
repeating it error-free to the recipient. When used in this mode, the TNC is called a digi-
tal repeater or "digipeater". Because of this capability, an unlimited number of TNC's
can be inlerconnectcd into a packet radio network for passing messages. The network
can move information anywhere a TNC is located. (285-2. 1)(285-2.2)

68 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER B

By using an addressing scheme, many messages for different Amateurs can fly back and
forth on 1.hc same frequency. You normally do 1101. see any messages excep1. tJ1ose ad-
dressed Lo you. Your equipment simply monitors Lhe traffic flow on a channel. You can
display messages meant for others by entering the monitoring mode of your TNC. The
message content w ill appear on your CRT screen even though the message is not ad-
dressed to you. Your TNC will noL correct errors since this is clone by the TNC of the
addressee. (285-1 .2)

l f a transmitting station sends data speci fically addressed to your receiving site, you will
see the words CON NECTED on your screen. T he term is so universal that Jim Grubs,
K9EI, used it in the Lille of his book "Getting ***CONNECTED***". If you arc inter-
ested in computer communications, be certain Lo pick up a copy of Jim's book at a store
selling Amateur products. (2BS- l. l )

Repeater Communication
Once again, in this chapter, the subject of repeaters comes up. The Commission wants to
be sure that you have a complete understanding of repeater operation.

As mentioned in the first chapter, repeaters are used to extend the operating range of
portable and mobile stations. You will recall that lie repeater receives on frequency "A"
and retran:smiLs wha1.ever ii. picks up on frequency " B." The receiving frequency is
called tJ1e inpul. and the transmi1.ting frequency is called the ou1.puL (2B6-2.1)(2B6-
3.1)(3AB2- 1.5)

You should use proper etiquette on a repeater just as you would on any oilier Amateur
frequency. Since the reception is so crystal clear, there is no need to repeat calls several
times. If you do, it brands you as a "lid" (a poor operator). When using the repeater,
simply call the s1.a1.ion you want to Lalk to and identify your own station. (2B6-
l .1)(3AB2- l. l)

Most repeaters use a "courtesy 1.one" or "beep" to indicate a station has slopped trans-
miLting. You should wait a few seconds after the " beep" before transmitti ng. This allows
a station Lo break in, iJ tJ1ey need access LO 1.he repeal.er. (3AB2-1.2)(3AB2-l.4)

If you are physically near the station you wish to contact, there is no need 10 use the
wide area capability of a repeater. Usually you establish contact on 1.he repeater, I.hen
swi1.ch over 1.0 a mu1.ually agreed simplex frequency or channel. Simplex means that you
1.ransmiL and listen on the same frequency. Always use a simplex channel whenever a
contact is possible wilhoul using the repeater. This leaves the repeater channel clear for
someone else. (286-4 .1 )(3AB2-2. l )

Common sense dictates thal you would not use a high frequency (HF) band 1.0 chal. wilh
someone across town. Your local transmissions would aJso traverse great distances by
skywave and might ini.erfere witll communications in another state or country. (3AB3.1)

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 69

 CHAPTER B

There are other good manners which should be observed if the repeater has an autopatch
function. An autopatch is a device that allows repeater users to make telephone calls
from their portable handheld or mobile station. Make your calls short and Lo the point so
that you do not Lie up the repeater excessively. (286-5. l)

I cannot overstress the imponancc of not "hogging" the repeater. If you arc talking to
someone else, try to keep your transmissions short so that someone could call in an
emergency. Repeaters are required by the FCC to have a Lime-out device (appropriately
called a timer). It is sel to switch off after three minutes of continuous transmission so
that the repeater cannot be accidentally stuck in the transmitting mode. (2B6-
5.2)(3AB2-l .3)(3AB2-l .6)

Repeater Interference
Let's say you are visiting a friend in a nearby state. You both operate two meters. By
telephone, you tell the friend to listen for you on 147.60 MHz simplex. As you approach
your friends city, you hear him calling you and he "talks you in", right Lo his driveway.
Everything worked out great. Or did it?

The frequency of 147.60 happens to be the inpur for the local repeater. While you and
your friend are chatting away, the repeater is picking you up and retransmitting your
conversations on 147.00 MHz.. This, of course, totally locks up the repeater for anyone
else to use. It's unintentional, of course, and you are unaware of it, but it still drives the
repeater users "up tJ1e wall."

For this reason, the FCC wants you to understand about repeater input-output spacing.
On the six meter band, the I/O spacing is one megaJ-!ertz (MHz). On two meters it is
600 kiloHertz (kHz). The output frequency that you hem· may be 600 kHz higher or
lower than the input or receive frequency. A repeater directory will indicate which it is
with a plus or minus sign specifying your transmit frequency. The 1/0 spacing increases
to l.6 MHz (1600 kHz) on the l.25 meter band and 5 MHz on the 70 cm. band. If you
know these spacings and have a repeater directory, you can avoid operating on one of
the repeater inp~1t frequencies. (3AB2-3 .1)(3AB2-3.2)(3AB2-3.3)(3AB2-3.4)

If you operate simplex and imcrrcre with a repeater, good Amateur practice dictates that
you change frequency for several reasons. The repeater is probably frequency coordi-
nated and has a right to be on the assigned frequency. Further, a repeater is usually crys-
tal controlled which makes it very difficuJt Lo change frequency. (3AB2-2.2)

What is frequency coordination? To mi nimize interference between repeaters in each

area, a person or group studies the situation and recommends frequency input-output
pai rs for repeater usage. (3AB2-4.l)

During periods when usage is low, repeaters often handle nets (shorthand for "net-
works"). Nets arc groups of people who have a common interest. The activity may in-
volve personally owned equipment trading, YL (young lady) meetings and third party

70 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER B

message handling. Naturally these nets should avoid tying up the repeater during traffic
rush hours. (3AB2-1.7)

Emergency Communications
One never knows when an emergency is going to occur. You could be chatting away
with a friend on the local repeater or talking with a ham across the country on 10 me-
ters. Suddenly, you hear someone say "break-break with emergency traffic." What
should you do? The law requires that you immediately standby to copy the emergency
communications. (2B 1-2.1)

You might use the above procedure Lo report an accident where injuries appear to be in-
volved. In more serious situations (there's more water inside the bom than outside!), you
would simply say the word "MAYDAY" several times along with your call. On CW,
the equivalent of "MAYDAY" is the famous l.hree leuers "SOS." (3AB4.1)(3AB4.2)

You will recall from Chapter A, I.he fust Amateur Principle is I.he "recognition of emer-
gency communications." Amateurs have banded into an important group called The
Radio Amateur Civil Emergency Service (RACES). If you are interested in using your
Amateur station to serve the public, you should contact your local civil defense agency
for information and enrollment forms.

To participate in RACES drills and exercises, you must be registered with your local
civil defense organization. To avoid excessive use of Amateur frequencies, RACES
drills are limited to one hour per week. Messages sent during a drill must be identified
as simply tests so as not to unduly alann the casual listener. (3AB5- l . l )(3AB5-1.2)(3A
BS-2.1)

During the fi rst stages of an emergency situation, the traffic is called tactical communi-
cations. In such cases, some of the more structured Amateur formats described in this
book are modified. For example, one might use tactical call signs such as "command
post," "hospital" or "weather center." (3AB6- l. l)(3AB6- l .2)

Most of tll(: traffic (messages) in and out of a disaster area will relate to the status of
people living in the area and affected by the situation. T his is called health and welfare
traffic. (3AB6-2.l)

Would you like to configure your station to be ready in the case of a disaster? It can be
easily accomplished. Let's say you have a two meter base station in your bedroom. It
probably operates from a 12 volt power supply connected to the commercial power
lines. Of course, if the power fails, you rig is useless. However, you can continue to op-
erate by connecting a 12 volt sealed (gel-cell) motorcycle battery across I.he power leads
of your AC supply. If the commercial AC power fails, your two meter rig will then draw
power from the battery. (3AB6-3.l)

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 71

 CHAPTER B

You will be able to maintain communications for many hours, wilh !his setup, depend-
ing on how long you transmit. The exact time can be calculated by dividing 3 (a typical
two meter base station draws 3 amperes on transmit) into the ampere rating of the bat-
tery. For example, you could u·ansmit continuously for four hours with a 12 ampere-
hour sealed mOLorcycle battery.

There is one other situation that can put you "out of business" in an emergency. Let's
say you arc caught in a hurricane. The chances are that your antenna will be blown
down. You may be able Lo transmit with emergency power but the signal will not go
anywhere without an antenna. rt is an excellent idea Lo have a dipole antenna rolled up
and staShed in the closet "just in case." Once the wind dies down, you can easily erect
the antenna. A dipole will even work with a volunteer holding each insulated end in the
air over their head! (3AB6-3.2)

SUBELEMENT 28 (2 questions)
28 1-1.1 What is the most importa nt factor to consider when selecting a transmit-
ting frequency witbfo your a uthorized sub-band? (A) The frequency should not be in
use by other Amateurs; (B) You should be able Lo hear other sta tions on the frequency
1.0 ensure that someone will be able to hear you; (C) Yow· antenna should be resonant at
the selected frequency; (D) You should ensure that the SWR on the antenna feed line is
high enough at the selected frequency.

2B l-l.2 You wish to contact an Amateur station more than 1,500 miles away on a
summer afternoon. Which band is most likely to provide a successful contact? (A)
The 80-or 40-meter wavelength bands; (B) The 40-or 15-meter wavelength bands; (C)
The 15-or 10-meter wavelength bands; (D) The 1-1/4 meter or 23-centimeter wave-
length bands.

2B l-1.3 How can on-the-air transmitter tune-up be kept as short as possible? (A)
By using a random wire antenna; (B) By tuning up on 40 meters fust, then switching to
the desired band; (C) By tuning the transmitter into a dummy load; (D) By using twin
lead instead of coaxial-cable feed lines.

281-2.1 You are having a QSO with your uncle in Pittsburgh when you hear an
emergency call for help on the frequency you are using. What should you do? (A)
Inform the station that lhe frequency is in use; (B) Direct the station to the nearest emer-
gency net frequency; (C) Call your local Civil Preparedness Office and inform them of
the emergency; (D) Immediately stand by to copy the emergency communication.

282-1.l What is the form at of a standard Morse code CQ call? (A) Transmit the
procedural signal "CQ" three times, followed by the procedural signal "DE", followed
by your call three times; (B) Transmit the procedural signal "CQ" three times, followed
by the procedural signal "DE", followed by your call one Lime; (C) Transmit the proce-
dural signal "CQ" ten times, followed by the procedural signal "DE", followed by your
call one time; (D) Transmit the procedural signal "CQ" continuously until someone an-
swers your call.
72 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association
 CHAPTER B

282-1.2 How should you a nswer a Mor se code CQ call? (A) Send your call sign four
Limes; (B) Send the other sLaLion's call sign Lwice, followed by the procedural signal
"DE", followed by your call sign Lwice; (C) Send the other station's call sign once, fol-
lowed by the procedural signal "DE", fo llowed by your call sign four times; (D) Send
your call sign followed by your name, station location a nd a signal report.

282-2.1 At what telegraphy speed should a "CQ" message be transmitted? (A)

Only speeds below five WPM; (8) The highcsLspeed your keyer will operate; (C) Any
speed at which you can reliably receive; (D) The highesl speed at which you can control
the keyer.

282-3.1 What is the meaning of the Morse code character AR? (A) Only the called
staLion transmiL; (B) All received correclly; (C) End of transmission; (D) Best regards.

282-3.2 What is the meaning of the Morse code character SK? (A) Received some
correctly; (B) Best regards; (C) Wait; (D) End of contact.

282-3.3 What is the meaning of the Morse code character BT? (A) Double dash
"="; (B) Fraction bar "f'; (C) End of contact; (D) Back to you.

282-3.4 What is the meaning of the Morse code character ON? (A) Double dash
"="; (B) Fraction bar "/"; (C) Done now (end of contact)(D) Called station only trans-
miL.

282-3.5 What is the mea ning of the Morse code character KN? (A) Fraction bar "f';
(B) End of contact; (C) Called station only transmit; (D) Key now (go ahead to trans-
mit).

282-4.1 What is the procedural s ignal "CQ" used for? (A) To notify another station
that you will call on the quarter hour; (B) To indicate that you are tesLing a new antenna
and are not listening for another station to answer; (C) To indicate that only the called
station should Lransmit; (D) A general call when you arc trying to make a contact.

282-4.2 Wha t is the procedural signal "DE" used for? (A) To mean "from" or " this
is," as in "W9NGT DE N9BTI"; (B) To indicate directional emissions from your an-
tenna; (C) To indicate "received all correcLly"; (D) To mean "calling any station".

2B2-4.3 W ha t is the procedural signal "K" used for? (A) To mean "any station trans-
mit"; (B) To mean "all received correclly"; (C) To mean "end of message"; (D) To
mean "called station only transmit".

282-5.1 What does the R in the RST signa l report mean? (A) The recovery of the
signal; (B) The resonance of Lhe CW wne; (C) The rate of s ignal flutter; (D) The read-
ability of the signal.

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 CHAPTER B

282-5.2 What does the S in the RST signal report mean? (A) T he scinLillation of a
signal; (B) The strength of I.he sig nal; (C) The signal quality; (D) T he speed of the CW
Lransmission.

282-5.3 What does the T in the RST signal report mean? (A) The LOne of the signal;
(B) T he closeness of the signal to " telephone" quality; (C) The timing of the sig nal dot
to dash ratio; (0) The tempo of the signal.

282-6.l What is one meaning of the Q signal "QRS"? (A) Interference from s tatic;
(B) Send more slowly; (C) Sencl RST report; (D) Radio station location is ...

282-6.2 What is one meaning of the Q signal " QRT"? (A) The correct time is; (B)
Send RST report; (C) Stop sending; (D) Send more slowly.

282-6.3 What is one meaning of the Q signal "QTH"? (A) Time here is; (B) My
name is; (C) Stop sending; (0) My location is ...

2B2-6.4 What is one meaning of the Q signal "QRZ," when it is followed with a
question mark? (A) Who is calling me?; (B) What is your radio zone?; (C) What time
zone are you in?; (D) Is this frequency in use?

282-6.5 What is one meaning of the Q signal "QSL," when it is followed with a
question mark? (A) Shall I send you my log?; (B) Can you acknow ledge receipl (of rny
message)?; (C) Shall I send more slowly?; (D) Who is calling me?

2B3-1.l What is the format of a standard radiotelephone CQ call? (A) Transmit the
phrase "CQ" at least ten times, followed by "this is," followed by your call sign at least
Lwo times; (B) TransmiL the phrase "CQ" at least five times , fo llowed by " this is," fol-
lowed by your call sign once; (C) Transmit the phrase "CQ" three times, followed by
"this is," followed by your call sign three Limes; (D) Transmit t.he phrase "CQ" at least
ten times, followed by "this is," followed by your call sign once.

283-1.2 How should you answer a r adiotelephone CQ call? (A) T ransmit the o ther
station's call sign at least ten Limes, followed by "this is," followed by your call sign at
least twice; (B) Transmit the other station's call sign at least five times phonetically, fol-
lowed by " this is," followed by your call sign at least once ; (C) Transmit the other
station ' s call sign al least three Limes, followed by "this is," followed by your call sign at
least five times phonetically; (D) Transmit the other station 's call sign once, fo llowed
by " this is," followed by your call sign given phonetically.

2Il3-2.l How is the call sign "KA38GQ" stated in Standard International Phonet-
ics? (A) Kilo Alfa Three Bravo Golf Quebec; (B) King America Three Bravo Go lf Que-
bec; (C) Kilo watt Alfa Three Bravo George Queen; (D) Kilo America Three Baker Golf
Quebec.

74 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER 8

2B3-2.2 How is the call sign "WESTZD" stated phonetically? (A) Whiskey Echo
Foxtrot Tango Zulu Delta; (B) Washington England Five Tokyo Zan7.ibar Denmark; (C)
Whiskey Echo Five Tango Zulu Delta; (D) Whiskey Easy Five Tear Zebra Dog.

2B3-2.3 How is the call sign "KC4HRM" stated phonetically? (A) Kilo Charlie Four
Hotel Romeo Mike; (B) Kilowatt Charlie Four Hotel Roger Mexico; (C) Kentucky Can-
ada Four Honolulu Radio Mexico; (D) King Charlie Foxtrot Hotel Roger Mary.

283-2.4 How is th e call sign "AF6PSQ" stated phonetically? (A) America Florida
Six Portugal Spain Quebec; (B) Adam Frank Six Peter Sugar Queen; (C) Alfa Fox Si-
erra Papa Samiago Queen; (D) Alfa Foxtrot Six Papa Sierra Quebec.

2B3-2.S How is the call sign "N B8LXG " stated phonetically? (A) November Bravo
Eight Lima Xray Golf; (B) Nancy Baker Eight Love Xray George; (C) Norway Boston
Eight London Xray Germany; (D) November Bravo Eight London Xray Germany.

2B3-2.6 H ow is the call sign "KJlUOI" stated phonetically? (A) King John One
Uncle Oboe Ida; (B) Kilowatt George India Uncle Oscar Lndia; (C) Kilo Juliette One
Uniform Oscar India; (D) Kentucky JulietLC One United Ontario Indiana.

2B3-2.7 How is the call sign "WV2BPZ" stated phonetically? (A) Whiskey Victor
Two Bravo Papa Zulu; (B) Willie Victor Two Baker Papa Zebra; (C) Whiskey Victor
Tango Bravo Papa Zulu; (D) Willie Virginia Two Boston Peter Zanzibar.

2B3-2.8 How is the call sign "NY3CTJ " stated phonetically? (A) Norway Yokohama
Three California Tokyo Japan; (B) Nancy Yankee Three Cat Texas Jackrabbil; (C) Nor-
way Yesterday Three Charlie Texas Juliette; (D) November Yankee Three Charlie
Tangc:>Julictte.

28 3-2.9 How is the call sign "KG7DRV" stated phonetically? (A) Kilo Golf Seven
Denver Radio Venezuela; (B) Kilo Golf Seven Delta Romeo Victor; (C) King John
Seven Dog Radio Victor; (D) Kilowatt George Seven Delta Romeo Video.

2B3-2.10 How is the call s ign "WX9HKS" stated phonetically? (A) Whiskey Xray
Nine Hotel Kilo Sierra; (B) Willie Xray November Hotel King Sierra; (C) Washington
Xray Nine Honolulu Kentucky Santiago; (D) Whiskey Xray Nine Henry King Sugar.

283-2.11 How is the call sign "AEOLQY" stated p honetically'? (A) Able Easy Zero
Lima Quebec Yankee; (B) Arizona Equador Zero London Queen Yesterday; (C) Alfa
Echo Zero Lima Quebec Yankee; (D) Able Easy Zero Love Queen Yoke.

284-1.1 What is the for mat of a standard RTTY CQ call? (A) Transmit the phrase
"CQ" three times, followed by "DE", followed by your call sign two times; (B) Trans-
mit the phrase "CQ" three to six times, foJJowed by " DE", followed by your call sign
three times; (C) Transmit the phrase "CQ" ten times, foll owed by the procedural signal

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 75

 CHAPTER B

"DE", followed by your call one time; (D) Transmit the phrase "CQ" continuously until
someone answers your call.

284-2. 1 You r eceive an RTTY CQ call at 45 bauds. At what speed should you re·
spond? (A) 22-1/2 bauds; (B) 45 baucls; (C) 90 bauds; (D) Any speed, since radiotele-
type systems adjust to any signal rate.

285-1.l What does the term "connected" mean in a packet-radio link? (A) A tele-
phone link has been established between Lwo Amateurs; (B) An Amateur Radio mes-
sage has reached the station for local delivery; (C) The transmitting station is sending
data specifically addressed to the receiving station, and the receiving station is acknowl-
edging that the data has been received correctly; (D) The transmiuing station and a re-
ceiving station are using a certain digipcater, so no other contaclS can take place until
they are finished.

2B5-1.2 What does the term monitoring mean on a frequency used for packet
radio? (A) The FCC is copying all messages to deteimine their content; (B) A member
of the Amateur Auxiliary to the FCC's Field Operations Bureau is copying all messages
to determine their content; (C) The receiving station's video monitor is displaying all
messages intended for that station, and is acknowledging correct receipt of the data; (D)
The receiving station is displaying informal.ion that may not be addressed LO that siation,
and is not acknowledging correct receipt of the data.

28 5-2.1 What is a digipeater? (A) A packet-radio station used to retransmit data that is
specifically addressed to be retransmitted by that stalion; (B) An Amateur Radio re-
peater designed to retransm it all audio signals in a digital form; (C) An Amateur Radio
repeater designed using only digital electronics components; (D) A packet-radio station
that retransmits any signals it receives.

21l5-2.2 What is the meaning of the term network in packet radio? (A) A system of
telephone lines interconnecting packet-radio stations to transfer data; (B) A method of
interconnecting packet-radio stalions so that data can be transferred over long distances;
(C) The interlaced wiring on a terminal- node-controller board; (D) The Lerminal-node-
controller function that automalically rejects another caller when Lhe station is con-
nected.

2H6- l.1 What is a good way to establish contact on a repeater? (A) Give the call
sign of the station you want to contact three times; (B) Call the other operator by name
and then give your call sign three times; (C) Call the desired station and then identify
your own station; (D) Say, "Breaker, breaker," and then give your call sign.

2B6-2.l What is the main purpose of a repeater? (A) To provide a station Lhm makes
local information available 24 hours a day; (B) To provide a means of linking Amateur
stations with tl1e telephone system; (C) To retransmit NOAA wcatJ1er information dur-
ing severe storm warnings; (D) Repeaters extend the operating range of port.able and
mobile stations.
76 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association
 CHAPTER B

286-3.1 What does it mean to say that a repeater has an input and an output fre-
quency? (A) The repealer receives on one frequency and Lransmils on another; (B) All
repeaters offer a choice of operating frequency, in case one is busy; (C) One frequency
is used to control repealer funclions and the other frequency is the one used Lo retrans-
mit received signals; (D) Repealers require an access code Lo be transmitted on one fre-
quency while your voice is transmitted on Lhe other.

2B6-4.l When should simplex operation be used instead of using a repeater? (A)
Whenever greater communications reliability is needed; (B) Whenever a contact is pos-
sible without using a repeater; (C) Whenever you need someone to make an emergency
telephone call ; (D) Whenever you are traveling and need some local info rmation.

286-5.1 What is an autopatch? (A) A repeater feature that automatically selects lhe
strongest signal Lo be repeated; (B) An automatic system of connecting a mobile station
to the next repeater as it moves out of range of the first; (C) A device that allows re-
peater users to make telephone calls from their portable or mobile stations; (D) A sys-
tem that automatically locks other stations out of the repeater when there is a QSO in
progress.

2B6-5.2 What is the purpose of a repeater time-out timer ? (A) IL allows the repeater
to have a rest period after heavy use; (B) IL logs repeater transmit time to determine
when the repeater mean time between failure rating is exceeded; (C) IL limits repeater
transmission time to no more than Len minutes; (D) It limits repealer transmission Lime
to no more than three minutes.

SUBELEMENT 3AB (3 questions).

3AB1.1 What is the meaning of: "Your r eport is fi ve seven ..." ? (A) Your si1;,rnal is
perfectly readable and moderately strong; (B) Your signal is perfectly readable, buL
weak; (C) Your signal is readable with considerable diffic ulty; (D) Your signal is per-
fectly readable with near pure tone.

3AB1.2 What is the meaning of: "Your r eport is three three..."? (A) The contact is
serial number thirty-three; (B) The station is located at latitude 33 degrees; (C) Your
signal is readable with considerable difficulty and weak in strength; (D) Your signal is
unreadable, very weak in strength.

3A BI.3 What is the meaning of: " Your report is five nine plus 20 dB ..." ? (A) Your
signal strength has increased by a factor of 100; (B) Repeal your transmission on a fre-
quency 20 kHz higher; (C) The bandwidth of your signal is 20 decibels above linearity;
(D) A relative signal-strength meter reading is 20 decibels greater than strength 9.

3AB2-1.1 How should a QSO be initiated through a station in repeater operation?

(A) Say "breaker, breaker 79"; (B) Call the desired station and then identify your own
station; (C) Call "CQ" three times and identify three Limes; (D) Wait for a "CQ" to be
called and then answer it.

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 77

 CHAPTERS

3AB2-l.2 Why should users of a station in repeater operation pause briefly be-
tween transmissions? (A) To check the SWR of the repeater; (B) To reach for pencil
and paper for third party traffic; (C) To lislCn for any hams wanting to break in; (D) To
dial up the repeater's autopalch.

3AB2-1.3 Why should users of a station in repeater operation keep their transmis-
sions short and thoughtful? (A) A long transm ission may prevent someone with an
emergency from using the repeater; (B) To see if the receiving station operator is still
awake; (C) To give any non-hams that arc listening a chance to respond; (D) To keep
long-distance charges down.

3AB2-1.4 What is the proper procedure to break into an on-going QSO through a
station in r epeater operation? (A) Wait for the end of a transmission and start calling;
(B) Shout, "break, break!" to show that you're eager to join the conversation; (C) Tum
on your 100-watt amplifier and override whoever is talking; (D) Send your call sign
during a break between transmissions.

3AB2-l.5 What is the purpose of repeater operation? (A) To cut your power bill by
using someone's higher power system; (B) To enable mobile and low-power stations to
extend their usable range; (C) To reduce your telephone bill; (D) To call the ham radio
distributor 50 miles away.

3AB2-1.6 What is meant by " making the repeater time out"? (A) The repeater's bat-
tery supply has run out; (B) The repeater's transmission Lime limit has expired during a
single transmission; (C) The warnrnty on the repeater duplexer has expired; (D) The re-
peater is in need of repairs.

3AB2-1.7 During commuting rush hours, which types of operation should relin-
quish the use of the repeater? (A) Mobi le operators; (B) Low-power stations; (C)
Highway traffic information nets; (D) Third-IDarty communications nets.
..
3AB2-2. l Why should simplex be used where possible instead of using a station in
repeater operation? (A) Farther distances can be reached; (B) To avoid long distance
toll charges; (C) To avoid Lying up the repeater unnecessarily; (D) To permit the testing
of the effectiveness of your antenna.

3AB2-2.2 When a frequency conllict arises between a simplex operation and a re-
peater operation, why does good Amateur practice call for the simplex operation to
move to another frequency? (A) The repeater's output power can be turned up to ruin
the front end of the station in simplex operation; (B) There are more repeacers than sim-
plex operators; (C) Changing the repeater's frequency is not practical; (D) Changing a
repeater frequency requires lhe authorization of the Federal Communications Commis-
sion.

78 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER B

3AB2-3.l W ha t is the usual input/output frequen cy separ ation for stations in r e-

peater operation in the 2-meter wavelength band? (A) 1 MHz; (B) 1.6 MHz; (C) 170
Hz; (D) 0.6 MHz.

3A 132-3.2 What is the usual input/output frequency separation for stations in re-
peater operation in t he 70-centimeter band? (A) 1.6 MHz; (B) 5 MHz; (C) 600 kHz;
(D) 5 kHz.

3AB2-3.3 W hat is the usu al input/output freq uency separation for a 6-meter sta-
tion in repeater oper ation? (A) I MHz; (B) 600 kHz; (C) 1.6 MHz; (D) 20 kHz.

3AU2-3.4 What is the usual input/output frequency separation for a 1.25-meter sta-
tion in repeater operation? (A) 1000 kHz; (B) 600 kHz; (C) 1600 kHz; (D) 1.6 GHz.

3A82-4.l What is a repeater frequency coordinator ? (A) Someone who coordinates

the assembly of a repeater stat.ion; (B) Someone who provides advice on what kind of
system to buy; (C) The club's repeater trustee; (D) A person or group that recommends
frequency pairs for repeater usage.

3AD3.1 W by should local Amateur communications be conducted on VHF and

UHF frequencies? (A) To minimize interference on HF bands capable of long-distance
sky-wave communication; (B) Because greater output power is permitted on VHF and
UHF; (C) Because HF transmissions are not propagated locally; (D) Because absorption
is greater at VHF and UHF freq uencies.

3AB3.2 How can on-the-air tr ansmissions be minimized during a lengthy transmit-

ter testing or loading up procedure? (A) Choose an unoccupied frequency; (B) Use a
dummy antenna; (C) Use a non-resonant antenna; (D) Use a resonant antenna that re-
quires no loading up procedure.

3Al33.3 What is the proper Q signal to use to determine whether a frequency is in

use before making a t ra nsmission? (A) QRV?; (B) QRU?; (C) QRL?; (D) QRZ?

3AJ34. l What is t he proper distress calling procedure when using telephony? (A)
Transmit MAYDAY; (B) Transmit QRRR; (C) Transmit QRZ; (0) Transmit SOS.

3AB4.2 What is the proper distress calling procedure when us ing telegr aphy? (A)
Transmit MAYDAY ; (B) Transmit QRRR; (C) Transmit QRZ; (D) Transmit SOS.

3AB5-1.1 What is one req uirement you must meet before you can par ticipate in
RAC ES drills? (A) You must be registered with ARRL; (B) You must be registered
with a local racing organization; (C) You must be registered with the responsible civil
defense organization; (D) You need not reg ister with anyone to operate RACES.

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 79

 CHAPTER B

3AB5-l.2 What is the maximum amount of time allowed per week for RACES
drills? (A) Eight hours; (B) One hour; (C) As many hours as you want; (D) Six hours,
but noLmore Lhan one hour per day.

3AB5-2.l How must you identify messages sent during a RACES drill? (A) As
emergency messages; (B) As Amateur traffic; (C) As official government messages; (D)
As drill or test messages.

3AB6-l.1 What is the term used to describe first-response communications in an

emergency situation? (A) Tactical communications; (B) Emergency communications;
(C) Formal message uaffic; (D) National Traffic System messages.

3AB6-l.2 What is one reason for using tactical call signs such as " command post"
or " weather center" during an emergency? (A) They keep the general public in-
formed about what is going on; (B) They promote efficiency and coordination in public-
service communications activities; (C) They are required by the FCC; (D) They promote
goodwill among Amateurs.

3AB6-2.l What is the term used to describe messages sent into or out of a disaster
area that pertain to a person's well being? (A) Emergency traffic; (B) Tactical traffic;
(C) Formal message traffic; (D) Health and welfare traffic.

3AB6-3.1 Why is it important to provide a means of operating your Amateur sta-

tion separate from the commercial AC power lines? (A) So that you can take your
station mobile; (B) So that you can provide communications in an emergency; (C) So
thaL you can operale field day; (D) So that you will comply wiLh Subpart 97.169 of the
FCC Rules.

3AB6-3.2 Which type of antenna would be a good choice as part of a portable HF

Amateur station that could be set up in case of a communications emergency? (A)
A Lhree-element quad; (B) A Lhree-clemcnL Yagi; (C) A dipole; (D) A parabolic dish.

80 Ham Rad io Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

Cha ter

Radio Propagation

~-=i-')S;.'<~::;:g.;:;..<,¥;:;.:;:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::.v.::::::::~::~::~~~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::x::::f.:~*'<-~:--XW*'.xx;:::::::::;::::::::::~::::>::~::::::;::::::::::~:;.-x:-:::.~::t.-~":':~:::::::;..:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::x:::::::::::::

j This is a "fun" chapter. IL discusses a number interesting aspects of ho~v radio sig- ~j o!
~ nals get from one place to another. The questions arc easy too. You will be asked ::~
l only one question from 1he Novice pool and three from the Technician pool (2A and ~j!
:J..:&~~~:: :~~:P:x~~~~f!,,t1i:: :>x<Z:d::::,:,,:;:,:, , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,,,m::::»'""'''' :' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '~"';;;:~,"' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ''' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ~: ,:,;:;:,:,:1;:,:;:m: : : :~,:;:,:,:,: ~: :':': :;:;:,:,:,:;:;:;:;:· :
The "Exciting" Word of Ham Radio
How does one Amateur communicate with another? By means of invisible waves which
are radiatecl from an antenna connected to a transmiuer. The radio frequency (RF) en-
ergy produced by the transmitter travels up to the antenna via one or more wires called a
transmission line. The antenna accepts this energy and uses it to excite the environment
surrounding the antenna.

True enough, but why can' t one talk a thousand miles on a hanclheld transceiver? How is
it possible to hear stations from thousands of miles away on a portable shortwave re-
ceiver? Clearly, there's a lot more going on here than the fi rst paragraph would seem to
indicate.

Exciting the environment is a confusing concept and il doesn't mean shaking your
"booty" at the disco! We cannot see, feel or hear this "excitation". Even so, we know
there is a coupling between the antenna and the space surrounding it.

Ham Radio Billiards

You can think of the radio freq uency excitation as an almost endless series of invisible
billiard balls. They stretch out from the antenna in all directions and pass tJ1e excitation
along by clicking ball-to-ball. No single ball moves very far but the energy is imparted
ball-to-ball. This continues until they either run out of energy or bang into another an-
tenna.
 CHAPTER C

When our imaginary billiard balls reach another antenna, they induce a weak voltage in
it. The receiver connected Lo the antenna converts the tiny signal back into the original
information.

Several volts of energy will be delivered to and radiated by a rransmiuing antenna. Only
a few millionths of a volt will be i11duced in the receiving antenna. Obviously banging
all those billiard baUs around dissipates a lot of energy!

SPL ASH!

Woves spreod equally

in oil directions.

Figure C.1 - There are analogies between water action and radio signals

The billiard balls are actually electrons that vibrate and pass along their energy (see
Chapter £). The electrical signal that radiates from the antenna does so in undulations
similar to waves traveling across water. If you could, by magic, make the waves visible,
you would see ripples spreading out from the antenna very much as if you had thrown a
pebble into a still pond. The waves would radiate out in concentric circles consisting of
a series of crests and valleys. Near the impact point of the pebble (the antenna), the
waves would be strongest. They would diminish in strength as they traveled across the
water.

ff the pond was not too wide and the force of the thrown pebble was sufficient, the
waves might make an impact on the shore. The size of the pebble and the force accom-
panying it, represent the transmitter power. The water surface, and the loss of strength
resulting from trying to move the waler, represents resistance.

VHF and UHF Characteristics

The last chapter presented a simple chart of the various radio frequencies. The section
also described the characteristics of Amateur bands on which the Novice and Techni-
cian licensee arc permitted operate. You will recall there was a remarkable difference in
the communication range between say 10 meters (HF) and the 3/4 meter (UHF) band.

With a couple of exceptions, VHF and UHF signals are relati vely undisturbed by exter-
nal forces. They are radiated by the antenna, travel by direct waves in a straight line and
are intercepted by a distant antenna. Contrary to what the "Fial Earth Society" believes,

82 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER C

Figure C.1- VHF signals travel in a straight line. They can be intercepted by an antenna
which is close but will pass above (and not be heard by) a distant reception point

the earth is round. Since the signals do not bend around the earth, they will pass high
over your head (and your antenna) if you are distant from the transmitting point. This is
called line-of-sight communication. In other words, if the antennas can "see" each
other, the radio stations connected to lbe antennas can communicate. (2C1.1)(2Cl.2)
(3AC6. l )(3AC6.2)

What are lbe exceptions mentioned above? Well for one, VHF signals are easily re-
flected. It is not at all unusual for two distant VHF stations to communicate with each
oilier with the help of a mountain. If the Amateurs were to point their directional anten-
nas at each other, most of lbe signal strength might pass overhead and be lost in space.
However, by pointing their antennas at a mutually visible moumain, enough signal is re-
flected between stations to permit communications. (2C6.1)(2C6.2)

High Frequency Signal Characteristics

The transmission or propagation of signals on the HF bands (3-30 MHz) is fascinating.
Unlike VHF, high frequency (HF) signals are almost completely influenced by external
factors.

The energy which departs the HF antenna actually has two components, the sky wave
and the ground wave. The ground wave "slithers" electronical ly along the surface of
the earth. It is dissipated within a few miles of the transmitter due to the resistance it en-
counters from the dry earth. Because of this, working distant stations solely by means of
the ground wave is actually quite difficult. The sky wave travels many times further and
can even reach foreign countries. (2C2.1)(2C2.2)(2C2.3)(2C2.4)

Ultraviolet rays from the sun beam down on the earth each day. The excitation causes
an effect called ionization. The sun's rays excite the electrons in the ionosphere, caus-
ing them to behave in a strange way. When the excitation is high enough, radio signals

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 83

 CHAPTER C

which strike the ionosphere can be repelled or reflecLed back to earth at a poinL far dis-
LanL from their origin. This signal bending is caUed ionospheric refraction. (3AC1-
1.2)(3 AC l-1.3)

During I.he night the free electrons dissi -

. .j. '' .. paLe. Thus the minimum ionization level

.../ft~:.=/);L:~: F1 ~· :~//:>:,/( :;:f_:::_...:_~·_. :_ ·::._·:·::

occurs just before dawn. The ionosphere
... •. . ~ -:.-· :·:... ~·: E ,~ .H ,. !".~. ~ • ·~· ..
absorbs radiation very quickly. By noon
. . the ionization reaches a maximum. This
o·. . ,
.:· .:.' ·7-
,. does not mean that this i s the best Lime to
,.. communicaLe over long disLances. Re-
member that the ionosphere has lo be per-
colating along at both ends of the circujt.
Thus Lhe best Lime for DX'ing is right after
dawn and just before sunset. (3AC3.1)
(3AC3.2)(3AC3.3)(3AC3.4)
EARTH

Figure C.2 - The ionosphere layers actuallyThis is what causes the difference in char-
_ acteristics between HF and VHF. The iono-
m_e_rg_e_a_n_d_a_re_n_o_t_d_is_u_·n_ct_._ _ _ __ _
sphere, well above the atmosphere,
contains enough ions and free electrons that it is capable of reflecting high frequency
signals. Signals transmitted via this medium are called skywave communicat ions.
(2C3.1 )(2C3.2)(2C3.6)(3AC1- 1.1)

For the most pan, VHF signals are not affecLed by the ionosphere and pass straight
Lhrough. I f this were not the case, we would be unable to communicate witJ1 our satel-
lites which orbit above the ionosphere and travel to oLher planetary systems.

While we cannot see tJ1e ionosphere, we think iL looks something like the drawing in
Figure C.2. The sketch is a little misleading. Actually there are no distinct layers like a
84 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association
 CHAPTERC

Jello desert. Rather, one layer blends into the next. TI1e regions are labeled D, E, Fl and
F2 because certain layers of the ionosphere have different characteristics. Some layers
influence the lower frequencies. For example, the ionized D layer (the lowest) limits
daytime 80-meter communications to short distances due to radio waves entering at a
low angle. This causes absorption of the energy. (3AC1-2.1)(3AC1-2.2)(3AC2.1)(3AC
2.2)(3AC2.3)(3AC2.4)

The E layer is the lowest region that is useful for long distance propagation. It also cre-
ates erratic propagation conditions at the upper end of the high frequency spectrum.
When this occurs, it is called sporadic-E. (3AC1-3.1)

The F layers (Fl and F2) are capable of supporting worldwide communications on a
consistent basis. The F2 layer is mainly responsible for long distance skywave commu-
nications. At night the Fl and F2 layers combine as shown in Figure C4. (3AC1-
4.1)(3AC1-4.2)(3AC1-4.3)

Although we cannot see the ionosphere, we can certainly observe and describe its ef-
fects. The ionosphere acts very much like an electronic mirror which reflects radio sig-
nals back to earth at some distant point. Unfortunately the "mirror" is not as consistent
as the one you stare at each morning. The ionosphere is constantly in motion and in a
state of turmoil. The "reflectability" varies from transparent to neru-ly perfect. It can also
move up and down, thereby increasing or decreasing the angle of the signals bounced
back to earth (and therefore the impact point). We refer to those signals which are re-
flected by the ionosphere as skip transmissions. The signals actually leave the surface
of the earth and are bent (or reflected) by the ionosphere. They arrive back at the earth's
surface at some distance from the point of origin. (2C3.3)

Fz LAYER

' ' :· : .. ... ' '

. .· .,
E LAYER ·:;;.:

EARTH

SKIP ZONE-------~

Figure C.3 - The distance between the transmitter and the point of closest reception is called
the skip zone.

Note that between the transmission and reception point, the signal cannot be received.
The ground wave has long since dissipated. This area of no reception is called the skip
zone. Typically, the 10 meter skip zone is 500-1,000 miles but can be considerably
shorter or longer under unusual conditions. (2C3.4)(2C3.5)

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 85

 CHAPTER C

Antenna Polarization
The pebble explanat,ion mentioned earlier denotes radiation solely in a horizontal plane.
However, the transmitting antenna could just as well be rotated 90 degrees. Now our
imaginary pond would have Lo be turned on its side to simulate vertical polarization.

There can be a significant amount of signal loss between cross polarized antennas. The
reason is quite simple to understand. If our imaginary billiard balls were traveling in a
horizontal plane, not as many of them would strike a vertical antenna element.

VirtuaJly all mobile antennas are vertically po-

larized. Fixed stations, communicating with
these mobiles, must also have vertically polar-
ized antennas or a significant loss of signal
strength would result. Since there are so many
mobile stations, most VHF base station antennas
are vertically polarized.

Playing tricks with the antenna polarity can

sometimes reduce interference from other sta-
tions. One can use the polarization effect to ad-
vantage by receiving with the antenna polarity
opposite that of an interfering station.

For working long distances on the lower frequencies, horizontal polarization of the an-
tenna seems to be more effective. Some Amateurs will argue that a vertical antenna is
better for working the really distant stations. Others conLend that the cubical quad an-
tenna is better since it radiates both vertical and horizontal components. The subject of
antennas can result in long heated and opinionated discussions among Amateurs. For
more informalion on this subject, see Chap1er 1 - Polariza1ion.

Nature's Acne - The Sunspots

The ionosphere is highly charged by particles
from the sun. This explains why the charac-
teristics of radio signals are different between
day and night. BuL what explains the reason
the ionosphere sometimes "goes crazy"?

The sun exhibits a cyclic condition in which

sunspots appear on the surface. The action of
the sun over this period is called the sunspot
cycle. Approximately every 11 years, these
Two views of sunspots taken by high a/ti- solar "pimples" reach a peak as shown in Fig-
tude rockets.
ure C.6. For two or three years on either side
of the peak, all heck breaks loose in the HF portion of the radio spectrum. The effecLis
particularly noticeable on the 10 meler band. (2C4. 1)(2C4.2)

86 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER C

I'
'
I
\
\

\
\
\
Occasionally one of Lhe sunspots erupts into a solar flare. ElecLrons shower the earth
like an oil leak from an old Volkswagen. \.Vhen this occurs, the Ionosphere blows its
chromosomes and becomes paralyzed at all frequencies. This can completely disrupt
radio communications circuits and cause radio "blackmns". The intensity of the solar ra-
diation can even disrupt telephone cables lying on the ocean floor! The blackout can lasL
for hours or days, depending on Lhe intensity and duration of Lhe flare. During Lhe
Spring of 1990, Amateurs experienced a total blackouL of the 10 mcLcr band, even
though we are at a peak in the sunspot cycle. The ionization level was so high that 10
meter signals were absorbed, rather than being passed or reflected, by the ionosphere.

Sunspots are magnetic field blemishes on the surface of the sun which can be observed
and photographed. The spot<> seem to be directly related with how much radiation
strikes the ionosphere and its level of ionization. The fact that the sun plays such an im-
portant pan in the functioning of the ionosphere also causes a number ot associated phe-
nomena. The seasons will affecL propagation differently. Usually distant signals are
much stronger in the Winter than in the Summer. Just the opposite is true for sporadic-
E, which accounts for the recepLion of distant
television stations in the summer. 200 .------.-----~
150
The ionosphere of the northern hemisphere re- (/)
w 100
_J
acts differently from that of the souLhem hemi- MID DAY
~ 50
sphere, since tlieir seasons are opposite. Some 0
;?;;
radio conditiohs will improve at night, as
I- 200
shown in Figure C.4, while on oLher bands the
G 150 I F2
signals will disappear altogether. No doubt
w 100 __/
you've heard broadcast stations coming in from I
great distances on your car radio. This usually )E MIDNIGHT
50
happens at night during the Winter. In the ../
0
southern hemisphere, the effect is most notice- IONIZATION DENSITY-
able in the Summer. Figure C.4 - At night the F·layers, as well
as the D and E·layers, merge together

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 87

 CHAPTER C

The Maximum
Usable Frequency
The ionosphere has some of
the properti es of a photo-
graphic filter. Some of the
"colors" (frequencies) will
pass through, while others
wi ll be absorbed or re-
flected.

T he ion ization level deter-

mines how high a fre-
A looping flare from the surface of the sun. The arrow points quency will be reflected by
to a dot of burning gas about the size of the earth! the ionosphere. The more
sunspoL<; there are, the
greater the ionization. By observing the onset of the spots near the sun's rim, we can
predict what radio conditions will be like in the following weeks. (2C5.2)

If we were to beam signals of an increasingly higher frequency al the ionosphere, they

would be reflected farther and farther from their origin. Finally, a point where reflection
no longer occurs would be reached. AL this point, the angle would be so sharp and the
ionization level sufficiently low that reflection can no longer occur. Above this critical
point, signals will pass through the ionosphere and be lost forever in space as illustrated
in Figure C.5.

The highest or critical frequency which can be rellected by the ionosphere i s called the
maximum usable frequency or MU F. This is defined as the highest frequency that w ill
reach its destination in a single hop. As the sunspot number and act.iviLy increases, so
docs the radiation reaching the earth and the MUF increases. (2C5. 1)(3AC-4.1) (3AC
4.2)(3AC4.3)

3.S
E LAYER

E ARTH

Figure C.5 - The Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF) is somewhere between 28 and 50 MHz
in this dra wing.

88 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Rad io Association

 CHAPTER C

During periods of peak solar acLiv-

ity, MUF can reach 50 MHz or
higher. When Lhe MUF geLS Lhis <00

high, the ol' ionosphere really gets 1so

swinging like a Jai alai champion. ·~i
World wide communication be- ""
comes commonplace on the 10 iw

meter band and even occurs on the 100

6 meters (50 MHz). IL is not al all w

unusual to work European or Asian &i

stations from your car on 10 meters <-0

during these peaks. The current 2')

peak in sunspot acLivity occurred in 17&&11'l9091!12 M~9596r1/9e

Winter of 1990 or early in 1991. PREl>!CTEO SltlSP!Jl HUHBERS FOR CYIJ..E 22

Figure C.6 - The most recent sun-spot cycle peak oc-

One might think that the MUF currred In early 1991.
would drop to a very low value at
night when Lhe sun is illwninating Lhe other side of the earth. This is not the case fortu-
nately. Usually al night the Flayers merge together, as do the D and E layers. Dr. Van
Allen's satellite experiments discovered a radiation doughnut around the earll1 (the Yan
Allen belt). The belt follows the earth's magnetic lines of force and serves to trap solar
radiation in its electronic spider web. As a result, ionization can continue long after Lhe
sun has set. Because of the Van Allen belt, ionizaLion will be minimal at ll1e earth 's
poles and maximum near the equator. This accounts for the fact that we hear a prepon-
derance of Central and South American stat.ions when the skip really starts coming in.
(3AC1-4.3)

Selective Fading
The ionosphere has another phenomenon which you might find interesting. The iono-
sphere is not smooth, like the mirror we talked about earlier. Rather, it is highly irregu-
lru· and has areas of ion concentration. As a result, signals transmitted from point A can
arrive at point B simultaneously over a number of different pall1s. Often the paths shift
around, some gelling longer and OLhers getling shorter, and signal cancellation , or fading
(remember QSB f rom Chapter B ?), can occur. When this happens, it is actually possible
to have carrier cancellation of an AM station while the modulation sidebands are lefl in-
tact. This selective fading causes horrible distortion of an AM signal (such as a short-
wave broadcast station) which makes it totally unreadable. The same effect can destroy
data transmissions. The effect does not arise on SSB because there is no carrier to selec-
tively fade. Fading simply causes Lhe volume of the SSB station LOrise and fall with the
gyrations of the ionosphere. The automatic volume control (A YC) circuit in most SSB
receivers can easily cope with this fading and level out large signal variations. Thus, the
effects of selective fading are hardly noticeable on SSB while they make AM reception
intolerable.

The ionosphere can tell you when it's about to "close shop" for the day, if you know
what signs to look for. At limes (not just in the evening) you may hear tremendous sig-
nal strengths from distant stations. The signal strengll1 meter may read as high as for a
The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 89
 CHAPTER C

staLion a few miles away. This effect is often noted just as the band "shuts down", usu-
ally in the evening, but not always. Just before everything geLS quiet, Lhere is a peaking
of signals which will last for several minutes. The observance of abnormally strong
transmissions usually signifies the party i s over. When it happens, it i s just as if some-
one flipped a switch and turned off the ionosphere. Signals can go from S9 plus 20 db to
inaudible within 30-40 seconds.

Other Propagation Modes

Sporadic-E - Occasionally " hot spots" develop in the ionosphere around the E layer.
This effect is stronger in the summer months, while longer distance (because it is
higher) F layer propagaLion is stronger in the Winter. These hot patches of ionosphere
arc called sporadic-E and may be only a few hundred miles across. Between any two
points that are able to bounce a signal off Ilic hotspot, extremely strong si gnal strengths
can occur. The MUF can actually double due to this invisible ionized cloud . When spo-
radic-E hits, it is not at all unusual to have contacts with South America on the 6 meter
(50 MHz) Amateur band. On 10 meters you may hear the band open up suddenly 10 a
specific area and then, sometime later, shut down just as quickly as it started. This is the
effect of sporadic-E.

Scatter - It is possible for two stalions witJiin each others skip zone to communicate.
As we've seen, the ionosphere is not a smooth continuous surface. Some radiation will
scatter at angles that reach stations within a skjp zone. The signals will be weak and hol-
low sounding but if the stations have enough power and interference is low, they can
hear each oilier. This mode is called "scatter communications." (3AC5.1)

Backscatter - When calling DX, several Amateurs may have their directional
antenna's pointed toward the DX station. Since the antennas arc pointed in t11e same
general direction , it i s possible for sLaLions within a skip zone 1.0 hear each other. Like
the scaLLer mode mentioned previously, the ionosphere can renect signals toward the
source. This mode is called backscatter propagation. Backscauer reception sounds
much the same as scatter communications. (3AC5.2)

Figure C.7 ·Signals striking the ionosphere will be "scattered" weakly back toward the
source, In addition to being reflected toward distant locations.

90 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER C

Figure C.8 ·Large warm air masses can actually function like a "waveguide" to bend VHF sig-
nals around the curvature of the earth.

Tropospheric Propagation - DX communication is acLuaJly possible on VHF which

is nom1ally line-of-sight. The effecl is called atmospheric ducting or tropospheric
propagation. How does DX on VHF happen? Occasionally, when a layer of cool air
stalls over an area of warm air, the temperature inversion acts as a "pipe" for VHF radio
signals. Many Southern California Amateurs have communicated wilh Hawaii via wide-
spread temperature inversions over the ocean. (3AC7.1)(3AC7.2)(3AC7.3) (3AC7.4)
(3AC7.5)(3AC7.6)

~~~:~ED :C'iff:¥t~,1~-METEOR
I -~
I .... .. . . ._..____ ___ _ _. , . ~~:-:;:~·! ·-'\vi.(
~~~-
.. ~..,..._,."'

'.·" :·· .·-~~·:.,:.""

r-I ./·",-}'( : . . ...·:::.. 1·::"\;r ~
"'~·~.
. . .~ .·:. ST ABTIO N
..-~~-;.f
!./
~ 4·"'' · ,,_, i ·
/0:: -'.r • • ' \ '~ t : •,', ~~
STATION !''
( r~ ,
,.. · '-~ ...•.;.....~~-·
/i.::r-r.....
•, .,..
·J....,,j :'
"" .,
~ . . _. ~

A ;·
•
1//
r •J
·-/0:::w
• :·
\,' '·~""• . . ;:·~~\
• '
~ •. • ....,~.. •' J... . • •• ·~
I f· /"'-'v,:i . . :! >'- . ). • ·<:'
!
, ·
f ·l
Jr ~
\ ·/''"
,l_r,/
,..+,) /-~""..
'"'~.,~...~ •
.: .= \
• '
~ : .... I(> '\ : ""' ..

Figure C.9 • Meteors hurtling through the upper atmosphere leave an ionized trail that is ca-
pable of reflecting radio signafs over great distances.

Much of the information in this chapter is not required knowledge to pass the Techni-
cian test. Hopefully you found the subject interesling and informative. On the following
pages, you will find the questions relating to propagation and what happens to emissions
when they travel from one place Lo another. (Subelement 2C and 3AC from the Novice
and Technician question pool).

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 91

 CHAPTER C

SUBELEMENT 2C (1 question).
2Cl.1 Wbat type of radio-wave propagation occurs when tbe signal travels in a
straight line from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna? (A)
Lineofsight propagation; (B) Straight-line propagation; (C) Knifccclge diffraction; (D)
Tunnel propagation.

2Cl.2 What path do radio waves usually follow from a transmitting antenna to a
receiving antenna at VHF and higher frequencies? (A) A bent path through the iono-
sphere; (B) A straight line; (C) A great circle path over either the North or South pole;
(D) A circular path going either cast or west from the transmiuer.

2C2.1 What type of propagation involves radio signa ls that travel a long the surface
of the Earth? (A) Sky-wave propagation; (B) Knifeedge diffraction; (C) E layer propa-
gation; (D) Groundwave propagation.

2C2.2 What is the meaning of the term groundwave propagation? (A) Signals that
travel along seismic fault lines; (B) Signals that travel along the surface of the earth; (C)
Signals that arc radiated from a groundplane antenna; (D) Signals that are radiated from
a ground station to a satellite.

2C2.3 Two Amateur stations a few miles apart and separated by a low hill blocking
their lineofsight path are communicating on 3.725 MHz. What type of propagatfon
is probably being used? (A) Tropospheric ducting; (B) Ground wave; (C) Meteor scat-
ter; (D) Sporadic-E.

2C2.4 When compared to sky-wave propagation , what is the usual effective range
of groundwave propagation? (A) Much smaller; (B) Much greater; (C) The same; (D)
Dependent on the weather.

2C3. l What ty1>e of propagation uses radio signals refracted back to earth by the
ionosphere'? (A) Sky wave; (B) Earth-moon-earth; (C) Ground wave; (D) Tropospheric.

2C3.2 What is the meaning of the term sky-wave propagation? (A) Signals reflected
from the moon; (8) Signals refracted by the ionosphere; (C) Signals refracted by water-
dcnse cloud formations; (D) Signals rctransmiuecl by a repeater.

2C3.3 What does the term skip mean? (A) Signals arc reflected from the moon; (B)
Signals are refracted by water-dense cloud formations; (C) Signals are retransmitted by
repeaters; (D) Signals are refracted by the ionosphere.

2C3.4 What is the area of' weak signals between the ranges of ground waves and
the first hop called? (A) The skip zone; (B) The hysteresis zone; (C) The monitor zone;
(D) The transequatorial zone.

92 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER C

2C3.5 What is the meaning of the term skip zon e? (A) An area covered by skip prop-
agation; (B) The area where a satellite comes close to the earth, and skips off the iono-
sphere; (C) An area that is too far for groundwave propagation, but too close for skip
propagation; (D) The area in the atmosphere that causes skip propagation.

2C3.6 What ty pe of' r adio wave propagation ma kes it possible for Amateur stations
to communicate long distances? (A) Direct-inductive propagation; (B) Knifecdge dif-
fraction; (C) Groundwave propagation; (D) Sky-wave propagation.

2C4.l How long is an average sunspot cycle? (A) 2 years; (B) 5 years; (C) 11 years;
(D) 17 years.

2C4 .2 What is the term used to describe the long-term variation in the number of
visible s unspots? (A) The 11-year cycle; (B) The solar magnetic nux cycle; (C) The
hysteresis count; (D) The sunspot cycle.

2CS.1 What effect d oes the number of sunspots have on the maximum usable fre-
quency (MUF)'? (A) The more sunspots there are, the higher the MUF will be; (B) T he
more sunspots there are, the lower the MUF wiU be; (C) T he MUF is equal to the square
of the number of sunspots; (D) The number of sunspots effects the lowest usable fre-
quency (LUF) but not the MUF.

2CS.2 What effect does the number of sunspots have on th e ionization level in the
atmosphere? (A) The more sunspots there are, the lower the ionization level will be;
(B) The more sunspots there are, the higher the ionization level will be ; (C) The ioniza-
tion level of the ionosphere is equal to tJ1e square root of tJ1e number of sunspots; (D)
The ionization level of the ionosphere is equal to the square of the number of sunspots.

2C6.1 Why can a VHF or UHF radio s ignal tbat is transmitted toward a mountain
often be received at some distant point in a different direction? (A) You can never
tell what direction a radio wave is traveling in; (B) These radio signals are easily bent
by tJ1c ionosphere; (C) These radio signals are easily reflected by objects in their path;
(D) These radio signals arc sometin1es scattered in the ectosphere.

2C6.2 Why can the direction that a VHF or UHF radio s ignal is traveling be
chan ged if there is a ta ll building in the way? (A) You can never tell what direction a
radio wave is traveling in; (B) These radio signals are easily bent by the ionosphere; (C)
These radio signals are easi ly renected by objects in their path; (D) These radio signals
are sometimes scattered in tJ1e ectosphere.

SUBELEMENT 3AC (3 questions).

3AC1-1.l What is the ionosphere? (A) T hat part of the upper atmosphere where
enough ions and free e lectrons exist to affect radio-wave propagation; (B) The boundary
between two air masses of different temperaLUre and humidity, along which radio waves

The National Amateur Rad io Association Ham Radio Handbook 93

 CHAPTER C
can travel; (C) The ball Lhat goes on the top of a mobile whip antenna; (D) That part of
the acmosphere where wealher takes place.

3ACl-1.2 What is the region of the outer atmosphere that makes long-distance
radio communications possible as a result of bending of radio waves? (A) Tropo-
sphere; (B) Stratosphere; (C) Magnetosphere; (D) Ionosphere.

3ACl-1.3 What type of solar radiation is most responsible for ionization in the
outer atmosphere? (A) Thermal; (B) Ionized particle; (C) Ultraviolet; (D) Microwave.

3ACl-2.l Which ionospheric layer limits daytime radio communications in the 80-
meter wavelength band to short distances? (A) D layer; (B) Fl layer; (C) E layer; (D)
F2 layer.

3ACl-2.2 What is the lowest ionospheric layer? (A) The A layer; (B) The D layer;
(C) The E layer; (D) The F layer.

3AC1-3.1 What is the lowest region of the ionosphere that is useful for long- dis-
tance radio-wave propagation? (A) The D layer; (B) The E layer; (C) The Fl layer;
(D) The F2 layer.

3AC1-4.l Which layer of the ionosphere is mainly responsible for long- distance
sky-wave radio communications? (A) D layer; (B) E layer; (C) Fl layer; (D) F2 layer.

3AC1-4.2 What are the two distinct sub-layers of the Flayer of the ionosphere dur-
ing the daytime? (A) Troposphere and stratosphere; (B) Fl and F2; (C) Electrostatic
and electromagnetic; (D) D and E.

3AC1-4.3 Which two daytime ionospheric layers combine into one layer at night?
(A) E and Fl; (B) D and E; (C) F1 and F2; (D) El and E2.

3AC2.1 Which layer of the ionosphere is most responsible for absorption of radio
signals during daylight hours? (A) The E layer; (B) The Fl layer; (C) The F2 layer;
(D) The 1) layer.

3AC2.2 When is ionospheric absorption most pronounced? (A) When tropospheric

ducting occurs; (B) When radio waves enter Lhe D layer at low angles; (C) When radio
waves travel to the Flayer; (D) When a temperature inversion occurs.

3AC2.3 During daylight hours, what effect does the D layer of the ionosphere have
on 80-meter radio waves? (A) The D layer absorbs the signals; (B) The D layer bends
the radio-waves out into space; (C) The D layer refracts Lhe radio-waves back to earth;
(D) The D layer has little or no effect on 80-meter radio-wave propagation.

94 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER C
3AC2.4 What causes ionospheric absorption of radio waves? (A) A lack of D layer
ionization; (B) D layer ionization; (C) The·presence of ionized clouds in the E layer; (D)
Splitting of the F layer.

3AC3.l What is usually the condition of the ionosphere just before sunrise? (A) At-
mospheric attenuation is at a maximum; (B) Ionization is at a maximum; (C) The E
layer is above the F layer; (D) Ionization is at a minimum.

3AC3.2 At wbat time of day does maximum ionization of the ionosphere occur? (A)
Dusk; (B) Midnight; (C) Midday; (D) Dawn.

3AC3.3 Minimum ionization of the ionosphere occurs daily at what time? (A)
Shorlly before dawn; (B) Just after noon; (C) J usl after dusk; (D) Shortly before mid-
night.

3AC3.4 When is E layer ionization at a maximum? (A) Dawn; (B) Midday; (C)
Dusk; (D) Midnight.

3AC4.l What is tbe name for the highest radio frequency that will be refracted
back to earth? (A) Lowest usable frequency; (B) Optimwn working frequency; (C)
U11.ra high frequency; (D) Critical frequency.

3AC4.2 What causes the maximum usable frequency to vary? (A) Variations in the
temperature of ll1e air at ionospheric levels; (B) Upper-atmospheric wind patterns; (C)
The amount of ultraviolet and other types of radiation received from the sun; (D) Pres-
ence of ducting.

3AC4.3 What does the term maximum usable frequency refer to? (A) The maxi-
mum frequency that allows a radio signal to reach its destination in a single hop; (B)
The minimum frequency that allows a radio signal to reach its destination in a single
hop; (C) The maximum frequency Lhat allows a radio signal to be absorbed in the lowest
ionospheric layer; (D) The minimum frequency ll1at allows a radio signal to be absorbed
in the lowest ionospheric layer.

3AC5.1 When two stations are within eacb other's skip zone on the frequency
being used, what mode of propagation would it be desirable to use? (A) Ground-
wave propagation; (B) Sky-wave propagation; (C) Scatter-mode propagation; (D) Iono-
spheric dueling propagation .

3AC5.2 You are in contact with a distant station and are operating at a frequency
close to the maximum usable frequency. If the received signals are weak and some·
what distorted , what type of propagation are you probably experiencing? (A) Tro-
pospheric ducting; (B) Line-of-sight propagation; (C) Backscatter propagation; (D)
Waveguide propagation.

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 95

 CHAPTER C

3AC6. l What is the transmission path of a wave that travels directly from the
transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna called ? (A) Line of sighL; (B) The sky
wave; (C) The linear wave; (D) The plane-wave.

3AC6.2 How arc VHF signals within the range of the visible horizon propagated?
(A) By sky wave; (B) By direcL wave; (C) By plane wave; (D) By geometric-wave.

3AC7.l Ducting occurs in which region of the atmosphere? (A) F2; (B) Ionosphere;
(C) Troposphere; (D) Stratosphere.

3AC7.2 What effect does tropospheric bending have on 2-meter radio waves? (A) IL
increases the distance over which they can be transmitted; (B) It decreases the distance
over which they can be transmitted; (C) It tends to garble 2-meter phone transmissions;
(D) It reverses the sideband of 2-meter phone transmissions.

3AC7.3 What atmospheric phenomenon causes tropospheric ducting of radio

waves? (A) A very low pressure area; (B) An aurora to the north; (C) Lighming be-
tween the transmitting and receiving station; (D) A temperature inversion.

3AC7.4 Tropospheric ducting occurs as a result of what phenomenon? (A) A tem-

perature inversion; (B) Sunspots; (C) An aurora to the north; (D) Lightning between the
transmitting and receiving station.

3AC7.5 What atmospheric phenomenon causes VHF radio waves to be propagated

several hundred miles through stable air masses over oceans? (A) Presence of a
maritime polar a ir mass; (B) A widespread temperature inversion; (C) An overcast of
cirriform clouds; (D) Atmospheric pressure of rough! y 29 inches of mercury or higher.

3AC7.6 In what frequency range does tropospheric ducting occur most often? (A)
LF; (B) MF; (C) HF; (D) VHF.

96 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 Cha ter

Amateur Radio Practice

;:~~~~~::::~::~:::~::::::::::::::::::::.~.s».~~::;;:X:~~::::::::::::::::::::::::::=-.:::::::::::$.;.·:';:":~<!:~::.~:::::,:~:~::::::::.:::::-:~:::::::::--:.w::..<::f.f.::.::::::::.-:.-:.-::~-w.,:~
..:::-.::--..xx:x~:w.::-~-:.;.'!.;.:}.!;~

To see if you underst.and safety and good practice, you will be asked four questions i
~11
lMom Subelement 20 and four questions from the Subelement 3AO question oool. ~
:-.*:::.::::.::.:<::&:.::::~::::.:&:;.'"!"$.S~~~-t.~~.ili:::::::::::~~~:-:·~~-~......_~~~~.z:~:;:;.:~:;:::::X:%':~;;;:$~~~~'i;S:

Safety Practices

H
obbies are general ly rather benign. One might cut a lip while licking a scamp
hinge or get a bruised ankle from a runaway RC model car. Unless you collect
dangerous snakes or navigate hot air balloons, your hobby probably docs not
involve personal safety.

Amateur Radio is not a benign hobby. But don' t get the impression that it is a dangerous
hobby, either. However, there are a number of areas where care must be exercised to
avoid harmful situations.

Antennas and Towers

All too often we hear of an unfortunate Amateur who, in erecting an antenna, comes in
contact with power lines and is electrocuted. Everything seems Lo be under control, then
someone loses their grip or stumbles, the tower fa lls and poof!

Some thoughtless Amateurs do not wear a safety belt (in good condition!) when climb-
ing an antenna tower. Seldom a year goes by without a ham falling and breaking bones,
or worse. It seems so simple, but up about the 40-foot level of the tower, Harry Ham's
high blood pressure kicks in, he gets a little dizzy and loses his grip. Presto - he is
transported LO the emergency entrance of the local hospital for treatment of mulliple bro-
ken bones. (20-6. l )(20-6.2)

You would be surprised at the number of hams, working under a friend's alllenna, who
get "beaned" by wre11ches and screwdrivers. Hams are pretty "thick-skulled" but a Phil-
ips screwdriver tmveling at 40 miles an hour makes a very effective arrow. One should
 CHAPTER D

always wear a hard-hat in any area where there is any possibility of falling objects. It
has nothing to do with macho - it has to do with "smarts". (2D-6.4)(2D-6.5)

Electrical Shock
Most Amateur equipment today is all solid state and operates from a 12 volt DC power
supply. A ham rig seldom presents a serious safety hazard except for the occasional RF
burn from an antenna. Since this can happen, an antenna should be mounted high
enough that a person cannot touch it. (2D-6.3)

RF burns are painful but seldom lethal since radio frequency energy travels on the sur-
face of objects (including the human body). Thus the RF is not able to reach the heart
and paralyze the muscles which keep it pumping. Even so, radio frequency energy can
be very dangerous. Not only can it burn and cook you, but evidence indicates there may
be harmful long-term effects of exposure to radio frequency energy. We' ll look at some
of the dangers of RF shortly.

The ETO "Alpha Bl" linear power amplifier can continuously deliver 1500 watts output.

Amateur high power radio frequency amplifiers can legally deliver 1500 watts of power.
Most of these amplifiers still use vacuum tubes and employ a thousand or more volts in
the power supply circuit. The result of contacting this voltage is often fatal. Always
make certain the 1x>wer cannot be energized when you are exposed to lethal voltages. In
case you forget this precaution, any equipment employing voltages greater than SO volts
should employ an interlock. This device, usually a power switch auached to the remov-
able covers, automatically disables the power supply whenever entry is made into the
cabinet. The covers also prevent radiation of RF energy. Sometimes it is necessary to
troubleshoot a "hot box". If you absolutely must work on equipment which uses lethal
voltages, always keep one hand in your pocket when the safety covers are off. (2D-
4.3)(2D-S.l )(2D-S.2)(2D8-2.4)(3AD 11-3.1)

Fire!
The voltages used in most modern solid state transmilter/receivers will not cause electri-
cal shock. The current available, however, can easily start a fire. As an example, if a
paper clip should happen to short mi unfused 12 volt, 40 ampere power supply, the

98 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER D

meLal clip would glow red-hol just like an automobile cigarcue lighter. This can easily
ignite combustible materials.

An Ounce of Prevention
Obviously you should not leave metal obj ects near your high amperage power supplies.
Even wiLh precautions, however, accidenLs can and do happen in Lhe ham shack.

For a number of reasons, it is an excellent idea to install a key operated power switch in
your Amateur station. This will prevent your pesky kid brolher or sister from tampering
with your gear or creating an unsafe condition. (2D-1.1)(2D- I .2)

Electrical Storms
Lightening can cause havoc in your ham shack. It is not necessary for a "bolt" to strike
your antenna in order to cause damage. Electrical ly charged clouds, passing overhead,
can cause a buildup of electricity on antennas. The buildup, or charge, will eventually
jump or discharge to ground. With proper grounding the charge will not accumulate on
the antenna.

Even when lightning strikes hundreds of yards away, an enormous electromagnetic field
is generated. This field will induce voltage in any metal objects within Lhe field. Re-
member Hertz's spark experiments mentioned in Chapter One? Exactly the same thing
can happen with your antenna. Very little voltage is required to damage the rransi stors
in your radio equipment. In fact, it takes far less than the vollage required to create a
spark.

If the lightning su-oke is sufficiently strong,

and your station is not adequately grounded,
it can cause sparks Lo jump between your
radio equipment. Even if the level is not le-
thal, i t might be suffi cient Lo start a fi re. A
key operated power switch won't sol ve this
problem.

Grounding Protection
It is not possible to stop the phenomena of
lightning induced voltage and static electric-
ity. We can, however, take steps to mini mize
the damage or harm caused by il. The first
step is 10 properly ground all your radio
equipment. The metal chassis of each piece of
equipmenL should be connected cogelher with
a heavy copper wire. The gauge used for
house wiring, #10 or #12 (available al most
hardware scores), is quite adequate. T his w ire
should run to ground by a short direct route.
(2D-2.4)(2D-3.2)
The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 99
 CHAPTER D

In addiLion, you must ground the antenna and (if used) rotor or control wires with a
switch (such as a knife switch) whenever there is a storm in the vicinity. Several compa-
nies sell grounding devices which can be left connected at all Limes. These are usually
mounted outside the house. (2D-2.1)(2D-2.2)

This covers Lhe situation when a storm comes up while you are away from home. If you
don't install static discharge devices, it is a good idea to always ground the wires enLer-
ing yow· stalion whenever you are nol using your station. It's also a good idea to unplug
your valuable equipment when it is nol in use. (2D-2.3)

Where do you find a good ground connection? The preferred method is LO install a
ground rod in the earth just outside the window nearest the radio equipment. The ground
rod should be at leasL 8 foot long and plated with copper, to be effective. These can be
purchased at most Amateur Radio stores. They are driven into the ground with a sledge
hammer. (2D-3.3)(2D-3.4)

Sometimes it is just nol practical to install a ground rod. You may be on the upper story
of an apartment building or your folks may object to your drilling holes in the waJI of
their tidy mortgaged bungalow. A "second best" ground is to connect all your equip-
ment to a cold water pipe. Why second best? Usually the plumber puts compound on the
pipe joints. This may prevent a good electrical connection between pipes. (2D-3.1)

Why a cold water pipe? The hot water pipes go to the water heater which is probably
not grounded. In this case, static discharges are more likely to head for the electrical cir-
cuits or natural gas pipes instead of going directly to an earth ground. Even so, the static
electricity will ultimately reach ground.

There is another way that your radio equipment is grounded which should always be re-
spected. Virtually all electronic equipment found in the hamshack uses a three wire
plug. Two lugs carry the power, while a round center pin is used for ground. This is
where the green ground wire is connected. At the other end, the green wire is connected
to the metal frame of a drill, electric saw or the metal chassis of an electronic product.
Never cut off this safely pin or use an adapter that has no provision for grounding the
green wire to the wall outlet. (3AD-1-l .1)

While speaking of electrical winng, we

should mention the correct connection of the
current carrying wires. Anything Lhat breaks
the electrical circuit (a fuse or switch) should
be connected in series wilh the black (or red)
wire of the power cord or house wiring. By
the same token, the unswit.ched side of the
wiring should use the white wire. (3AD-l-
The MFJ AC voltmeter has an expanded l.2)(3AD- l-1.3)
scale for accurate measurement of AC
line voltage

100 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER D

Maintaining these relationships is very impor-

tant to minimize shock hazard in electronic
equipment. Look at the two lugs that carry the
current in the power cord. Did you ever no-
tice they arc a different size. This insures that
you insert the plug correctly when there is no
-·••
ground pin. This respect for polarity explains This single-sideband linear power ampli-
why the screws that secure the wi.ring on each fier (the Ten-Tee "Titan '1 is rated at 1500
watts output.
side of a switch or light socket arc different
color. (3AD- I -1.4)

Electric Shock - Why all this concern about proper wiring? The answer is simple. An
electric current flowing tJ1rough your body can kill you. Even voltages as low as 30
volts can be dangerous under certain conditions. However, it is not the voltage, but
rather the current level that matters. Ever work on an automobile engine and get
shocked by the ignition circuit? If so, it's likely that something in the order of 20,000
volts was conducted through your ole "bod." Fonunately, there is not enough conducted
current to hurt you. (3AD1-2.2)

How docs current affect you? AnytJ1ing below five milliamperes (mA) is probably
harmless. If the current increases to 50 mA, you will experience pain and muscular con-
tractions that may prevent you from "letting go." Over 100 mA, the heart will be af-
fected and may cause death in people with heart problems or if the current is sustained.
(3AD-l-2. l)(3AD- l-2.3)

For safety sake, always place the power switch (either the master switch or transmitter
high voltage power switch) where it is obvious to anyone and can be easily reached.
Someone else may have Lo throw the switch if you can't let go! (3AD-I-3.l)

RF Exposure
If you doubt that RF has the ability 10 cook things, ask for a demonstration of a micro-
wave oven at the local discount slore. Any concentration of radio frequency energy will
raise the Lemperature of maLerial in its' field. Dish shaped antennas, designed to work al
microwave frequencies (above 1,000 MHz or l GigaHertz) concentrate RF energy so
that it may be directed like a flashlight beam. If you happen to be standing at tlle focus
poinl, you will quickly realize how Lhat meatloaf feels in the microwave oven. You
should never stand near any kind of anLenna which concentrates RF energy (or open
waveguide transmission line, for that matter) when the transmitter power is on. Always
use a good quality of coaxial cable transmission line to minimize RF leakage. (20-
4.1)(204.4)

Insofar as possible, your antenna (regardless of frequency) must be mounted high

enough so thaL people cannot touch it. Even if the antenna is out of reach, you should
never transmit if someone is standing near it. The strong field around an antenna can be
very intense. There is growing concern that the radiation from hand-held transceivers
may be harmful if used constantJy over long periods of time. There is no direct evidence

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 101

 CHAPTER D

to support this, but it is an excellent idea to keep the whip or "rubber duck" antenna on
your hand-held away from your head. (2D-4.2)

Scientists at the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) have established maxi-
mum level standards for exposure to RF energy. These standards state the maximum RF
exposure limits. (3AD-l l-2. l )(3AD-l l-2.2)

ANSI is concerned about the heating caused by RF energy. The eyes m·e particularly
sensitive to heating caused by this form of radiation. The standards in 300 to 3,000 MHz
range are the most stringent since RF energy can be concentrated inLo powerful beams
in this region. (3AD-l 1-1.1)(3AD- l l- l.2)(3AD-11-2.3)(3AO- l l-2.4)

I-land-held units, which are operated near the head and eyes, should not have a power
rating in excess o!'7 watts according to ANSI. (3AD-11-2.5)

Antenna Tuning and SWR - The last chapter mentioned that energy from tJ1e trans-
mi tter is fed through ilie transm ission line to the antenna, where it is coupled to the envi-
ronment. .For this to occur, the antenna must be the correct length for the frequency in
question. lf it is too long or too short, it will lose efficiency as a coupling device. This
can also happen if the electrical resistance (tJ1c impedance) of me antenna is incorrect.

In this case, what happens to tJ1c energy sent up to the antenna? Most of it will be radi-
aLed into space, but some will not. A portion of the energy will be reflected back down
the transmission line to ilie transmitter. The antenna "says" "Hey, I can 't handle this"
and sends some of the energy back to the transmitter. The transmiuer doesn't want it ei-
ther. [tjust got rid of it, and back up the transm ission line it goes.

The ret1ected energy back and fo1th, is called standing waves. The intensity of these
waves is measured with a device called an SWR meter. An SWR meter can also be
used to indicate the impedance matching condition between the transmitter and ilie an-
tenna. A reading of 1: I indicates a perfect condition, while anytJ1ing above 2: 1. is an un-
acceptable match which can damage your transmitter. The SWR meter can also indicate
an open or shorted u-ansmission line wiili an exceptionally high SWR reading. A poor or
intermittent connection might be indicated by an erratic meter reading. (2D-7-1.1)(2D-
7-l .2)(2D-7-2. 1)(2d-7-2.2)(2D-7-2.3)(2D-7-2.4)(20-7-3.1 )(20-7-3.2)

As mentioned, the antenna must be ilie correct length to be most efficient at a specific
frequency. If tJ1c antenna is too long it will tune lower than the desired frequency . [f the
antenna is Loo short, it will tune above the desired frequency. The SWR meter can be
used to indicate ilie frequency to which the anicnna is tuned. Let's say, for example, you
measure an SWR of 2.5: I at the low end of the Amateur band and 5: 1 at the high end.
Bow numbers arc excessively high but improving at the low end. Just like a golf score,
2.5 is better than 5 so the SWR is improving al the low freq uency. This means that the
antenna is probably tuned below ilic low end of the band. Remember mat "long is low"
so ilie antenna is probably too long for the band in question. (20-7-3.3)(20-7-3.4)

102 Ham Radio Handbook The Nationa l Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER D

If you are adjusting an antenna for lowest SWR , the meter should be connected right at
the antenna terminals for best accuracy. This is because a long transmission line can
mask poor SWR readings. (3AD-8-2. l) (3AD-8-2.2)

One occasionally hears the standing wave

radio meter called an SWR bridge or reflec-
tometer. The reflectometer or SWR meter is
connected between the 50 ohm impedance
transmitter output and the transmission line to
the antenn11. If the antenna system (including
transmission ljne) also measures 50 ohms im-
The MFJ SWR meter has a dual meter
pedance there will be no reflected power. The scale which shows the forward and re-
SWR meter will indicate a perfect 1: 1 imped- verse energy at the same time.
ance match. It the reading is higher than 1: 1,
it indicates an impedance mismatch. (3AD-5- l.1 )(3AD-5-1.3) (3AD-8-l.l)(3AD-8-J.2)

The transmitter antenna jack is also where a power output measuring device should be
connected for best accuracy. (3AD-5-1.2)

A simple SWR meter measures the relative power delivered to, and reflected by, the an-
tenna system. More elegant versions are called directional watt-meters and are cali-
brated in watts forward and watls reflected. (3AD-5-1.4)

The only time the forward power reading will be accurate is when there is no reflected
power. The reflected power will artificiall y add to the forward power reading and the
forward reading will by higher than the actual level. For example, let's say a transmitter
that produces 80 watts is connected to an antenna that shows 10 watts reflected power
on the directional watt-meter. In this circumstance, the forward power will actually read
90 watts, 10 watts more than the transmitter is capable of producing. If a transmitter
shows 96 watts forward and 4 watts reflected, tl1e transmitter is actually producing 92
watts. (3AD-5-2.1)(3AD-5-2.2)

The previous explanation is the correct answer for the Technician test, but may not al-
ways be true in practice. Most modem (meaning all solid-state) transmillers and trans-
ceivers (a combination transmitter-receiver) employ ~ circuit to protect the power
amplifier transistors against excessive SWR. When the SWR value rises above a certain
point, the transmitter may shut down and provide little or no power output. This can be
somewhat inconvenient when you are IJ)'ing to tun~ an antenna system. But it is even
more annoying to take your rig to the repair shop ~o have t11c power amplifier transistors
replaced!

Television Interference
As more and more people become radio Amateurs, interference due Lo close proximity
of an Amateur station becomes more common. The energy from a nearby Amateur can
be so strong where you Jive, that it might completely paral yze your ham radio receiver.
Technically this is called receiver overload. A typical Amateur receiver is designed to
The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 103
 CHAPTER D

"hear" signals in the order of a millionth of a volt (a microvolt). The signal from another
ham down the street could induce several volts at your receiver antenna terminal. This
would certainly overload your receiver, no matter how much you paid for it. An indica-
tion of receiver overload is reception of the local Amateur all over the dial, indepen-
dent of frequency, no mauer where you tune. (2D-8-1.1)(2D-8-1.2)

Another manifestation of receiver overload is interference by your transmitter with

nearby television receivers. The signal radiated by your antenna can also induce several
volts of energy in a nearby TV antenna. If the TV set connected to this antenna is not
desi&TTied to rej ect the interference, your signal can "chop up" the picture on all chan-
nels. If this occurs no matter where you are transmitting, it is almost certainly due LO
overload of the television receiver. (2D-8- I .3)

How do you design a TV set to reject this sort

of interference? By incorporating a simple de-
vice which passes the high frequency televi-
sion signals but rejects your low frequency
transmitter signals. The device is called a
high pass filter and is discussed in Chapter G
(Filters) . (2D-8-l .4)

Some TV manufacturers do not include high

pass filters in order to reduce costs. A high
pass filter can be added to eliminate this sort
W3EFG transmits Amateur television on
70 cm from New Smyrna Beach, Florida of interference. This is done right at the an-
tenna terminals of the television set.

ff your transmitter bothers TV reception only on specific channels (usually the lower
two or three), it indicates that your rig is emitting spurious signals. The most common
spurious is called a harmonic. Harmonics can cause interference to other services and
can result in out-of-band transmissions. (2D-8-2.2)

A harmonic is a mathematical multiple of

the transmitting frequency. For example, i f
you operate on the 28 MHz band, your sec-
ond harmonic at 56 MHz is very close LO
Channel 2 (56-60 MHz). Other harmonics
might interfere with commercial frequencies
rather than a television channel. (2D-8-
2.1 )(20-8-2.5)
The FSTY- 430 Fastscan TV transmitter
from AEA duplica tes most of the func-
tions of a commercial TV station. A high pass filter on the TV set will not solve
this problem . The spurious signal from your
transmitter is near the desired television channel or station so there is no way to filter it
out at the receiver. In this instance you must add a Jilter between your transmitter and
the transmission line. This harmonic filter is called a low pass filter . It lets the low fre-

104 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER D
quencies you are rransmiLLing pass through, but suppresses Lhe high frequency harmon-
ics that :interfere with other services. (20-8-2.6)

An improperly Luned Lmnsmiuer or poorly maLched antenna (or a multi-band antenna)

can agitale Lhe problem of harmonic radiation. Because of this, it is a good idea to incor-
porate a low pass filter in your transmission line, even if you do not hear repons of tele-
vision inLerfcrence by your station. (20-8-2.3)

If you arc notified that your sLaLion is interfering with someones' TV reception, whal
should you do? First, be responsive and friendly. Check your own television set to see if
you also have interference. If your set is bothered also, it probably means that your
transmitter is putting out some "garbage" and you should add a low pass filter.

If your set is "clean", it means Lhat your neighbor's television is not well equipped to re-
ject Amateur Radio interference. In almost every case a simple high pass filter (avail-
able from an Amateur Radio store) will solve the problem. (20-8-3.1 )(20-8-3.2)

Test Equipment
The most important devices an Amateur can own are used Lo make measurements. The
SWR meter mentioned earlier is probably the most useful. Let's discuss some of the
other types of Amateur Lest equipment.

Marker Generators - Equipment that produce test signals are quite useful in the ham
radio "shack." For example a marker generator places an accumte, stable, crystal con-
trolled marker (a tone or whistle) at various intervals on the receiver dial. In the last
chapter, we learned that the frequencies between 50.0 and 50.l MHz are reserved for
CW operation. A 100 kHz (0.1 MHz) marker generator would cause a tone to be heard
as you tuned to these frequencies. This can be used to warn you of the band edges. Nat-
urally, you can switch off the marker generator once you have noted where the limits
are. A marker generator is sometimes called a crystal ca librator since it can be used to
accurately calibrate the receiver dial. (3AD-6.1)(3-6.2)(3AD-6.3)

Signal Generators - A similar device, but variable in frequency, is called an RF sig-

nal generator . This device produces a stable, low level variable signal that can be used
for receiver testing and checking alignment (3AD-7. I)(3AD-7.2)

The Multimeter - One of the most useful pieces of test equipment fo und in the ham
shack is called a multimeter or Y-0-M (volt-ohm-milliampere) meter. As the name im-
plies, it will measure electromotive force (voltage), resistance (ohms) and current (am-
peres).(3AD-4. l)

The multimeter has a switch on the from panel Lo select the function and range. To mea-
sure voltage, the test leads are placed across or in parallel with the source. To measure
current, Lhc meter leads are connected in series with the source of current. (3AD-2-
1.1)(3A0-3- l.1)

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 105

 CHAPTER D

The swiLCh changes the range of the multimeter by connecting resistors to the meter. To
decrease the reading of a volLmeter, resistors would be connected in series with the
mcLer movement. Thus it would be possible to read 0-1, 0- 10 and 0-100 volLS with the
same zero LO Len meter scale. (3AD-2-2.1 )

To decrease the reading of an ammeter, resistors would be connected in parallel with the
meter movement. Again, the same zero to ten meter scale calibration could be used to
read 0-100 mA, 0-1 ampere and 0-10 amperes. (3AD-3-2.1)

Dummy Antenna - This piece of test equipment, also called a dummy load, should
be found in every hamshack. IL is used for off-the-air transmiuer testing and tuning.
(3AD-9. 1)(3AD-9.5)

The dummy antenna is connected in place of the antenna transmission line. ft tricks the
transm itter into thinking it is connected to a perfect antenna. The dummy load is far
from perfect, however. IL does not radiate any signal. (3AD-9.2)(3AD-9.4)

The main component of the device is a large carbon composition resistor (see ChapLer
F). Resistors made with resistance wire (such as sometimes seen on old fashioned elec-
tric stoves) arc never used. The wire wi ll have inductance which can confuse the SWR
meter. Sometimes the resistor is immersed in a container of mineral oil LO keep it cool
and increase iLS power rating. (3AD-9.3)

The power rating should be observed to avoid damaging the resistive element. Always
use a dummy antenna load which matches the power rating of the transrniucr Lo which it
is connected. (3AD-9.6)

S-Meter - While this is nol a separate instrument, it is a useful meter. The S-meter is
included in most Amateur receivers to indicate relative signal strength (see Chapter B-
"How Do You Copy Me?"). (3AD-10.1)(3AD-10.2)

Now it's time to see if you absorbed all this knowledge. Herc are the questions from the
Novice and Technician pools.

SUBELEMENT 20 (4 questions).
201.1 How can you prevent the use of your Amateur station by unauthorized per-
sons? (A) InsLall a carrier-operated relay in Lhc main power line; (B) Install a key-oper-
ated "ON/OFF" switch in the main power line; (C) Post a "Danger - High Voltage" sign
in the station; (D) Install AC line fuses in the main power line.

201.2 What is the purpose of' a key-operated "ON/OFF" switch in the main power
line? (A) To prevent the use of your station by unauthorized persons; (B) To provide an
easy method for the FCC to put your station off the air; (C) To prevent 1.he power com-
pany from inadvertently turning off your elcciricity during an emergency; (D) As a
safety feature, to kill all power Lo the station in the event of an emergency.

106 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER D

202.1 Why should a ll antenna a nd rotator cables be grounded when an Amateur

station is not in use? (A) To lock the antenna system in one position; (B) To avoid
rad io frequency interference; (C) To save e lectricity; (D) To protect !be station and
building from damage due to a nearby lightning strike.

202.2 How can an antenn a system be protect.ed from damage caused by a n earby
lightning strike? (A) Install a balun at the antenna feed point; (B) Install an RF c hoke
in the feed line; (C) Ground all antennas when they are not in use; (D) Install a line fuse
in the antenna wire.

2 02.3 How can Amateur station equipment be protected from damage caused by
voltage induced in the power lines by a n earby lightning strike? (A) Use heavy insu-
lation on the wiring; (B) Keep the equipment on constantly; (C) Disconnect the ground
system; (D) Disconnect all equipment after use, either by unpl ugging or by using a main
disconnect switch.

202.4 For proper protection from lightning strikes, what equipment sh ould be
grounded in an Amateur stat ion ? (A) T he power supply primary; (B) All station
equipment; (C) The feed line center conductors; (D) The AC power mains.

203.1 What is a convenient indoor gr ounding point for a n Amateur station? (A) A
metallic cold water pipe; (B) PVC plumbing; (C) A window screen; (D) A natural gas
pipe.

203.2 To protect against electrical s hock hazards, what s hould you connect the
chassis of each piece of your eq uipment to? (A) Insulated shock mounts; (B) The an-
tenna; (C) A good ground connection; (D) A circuit breaker.

203.3 What type of material should a driven gr ound rod be made of? (A) Ceramic
or other good insulator; (B) Copper or copper-clad steel; (C) Iron or steel; (D) Fiber-
glass.

203.4 What is the sh ortest ground rod you should consider installing for your Am-
ateur station RF ground ? (A) 4 foot; (B) 6 foot; (C) 8 foot; (D) 10 fool.

204.1 What precautions should you take when working with 1270-MHz wavegu-
ide? (A) Make sure that the RF leakage filters are installed at both ends of the wavegu-
ide; (B) Never look into the open end of a waveguide when RF is appUed; (C) Minimize
the standing wave ratio before you test the waveguide; (D) Never have bolh ends of Lhe
waveguide open at the same time when RF is applied.

204.2 What precau tions should you take when you mount a UHF a ntenna in a per-
manent location? (A) Make sure that no one can be near the antenna when you are
transmitting; (B) Make sure that the RF lield screens arc in place; (C) Make sure that

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 107

 CHAPTER D

Lhe antenna is near the ground to maximize directional effect; (D) Make sure you con-
nect a RF leakage filter at the antenna feed point.

2D4.3 Whal precautions should you take before removing the shielding on a UHF
power amplifier? (A) Make sure all RF screens are in place at the antenna: (B) Make
sure the feed line is properly grounded; (C) Make sure the amplifier cannot be acciden-
tally energi:led; (D) Make sure that the RF leakage fi lters are connected.

204.4 Why should you use only good-quality, well-constructed coaxial cable and
connectors for a UHF antenna system? (A) To minimize RF leakage; (B) To reduce
parasitic oscillations; (C) To maximize the directional characteristics of your antenna;
(D) To maximize the standing wave ratio of the amenna system.

2D4.5 Why should you be careful to position the antenna of your 220-MHz band-
held transceiver away from your head when you are transmitting? (A) To take ad-
vantage of the directional effect; (B) To minim ize RF exposure; (C) To use your body to
reflect the signal, improving the direclional characteristics of the antenna; (D) To mini-
mize stalic discharges.

204.6 Which of the followin g types of radiation produce health risks most like the
risks produced by radio frequ ency radiation ? (A) Microwave oven radiation and ul-
traviolet radiation; (B) Microwave oven radiation and radiation from an electric space
heater; (C) Radiation from Uranium or Radium and ultraviolet radiation; (D) Sunlight
and radiation from an electric space heater.

205.1 Why is there a switch that turns off the power to a high-voltage power sup-
ply if the cabinet is opened? (A) To prevent RF from escaping from the supply; (B) To
prevenLRF from entering the suppl y through the open cabinet; (C) To provide a way to
turn the power supply on and off; (D) To reduce the danger of electrical shock.

205.2 What purpose does a safety interlock on an Amateur transmitter serve? (A)
It reduces the danger that the operaLOr will come in contact with dangerous high volt-
ages when the cabinet is opened while the power is on; (B) It prevents the transmitter
from being turned on accidentally; (C) IL prevents RF energy from leaking out of the
transmitter cabinet; (D) It provides a way for the station licensee LO ensure that only au-
thorized operators can turn the transmiuer on.

2D6.l What type of safely equipment should you wear when you are working at
the top of' an antenna tower? (A) A grounding chain; (B) A reflective vest; (C) Loose
clothing; (D) A carefully inspected safety belt.

206.2 Why should you wear a safety belt when you are working at the top of an an-
tenna tower? (A) To provide a way to safely hold your tools so they don't fall and in-
jure someone on the ground; (B) To maintain a balanced load on the tower while you

108 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER D

are working; (C) To provide a way to safely bring tools up and down the tower; (D) To
prevent an accidental fal l.

206.3 For s afety purposes, how high should you locate all portions of your horizon-
tal wire antenna? (A) High enough so that a person cannot touch them from the
ground; (B) Higher than chest level; (C) Above knee level; (D) Above e lectrical lines.

206.4 What type of safety equipment s hould you wear when you are on t he gr ound
assisting someone who is working on a n antenna tower ? (A) A reflective vest; (B) A
safety be lt; (C) A grounding chain; (D) A hard hat.

206.S Why should you wear a ha rd hat when you a r e on the ground assisting
som eone who is working on an a ntenna tower ? (A) To avoid injury from tools
dropped from the tower; (B) To provide an RF shie ld during antenna testing; (C) To
avoid injury if the to wer should accidentally collapse; (D) To avoid injury from walking
into towe r g uy wires.

207-1.1 What accessory is used to measure s tanding wave ratio? (A) An ohm meter;
(B) An ammeter; (C) A SWR meter; (D) A current bridge.

207-1.2 W hat instrument is used to indicate the r elative impedance m atch between
a transmitter and antenna? (A) An ammeter; (B) An ohmmeter; (C) A volunctcr; (D)
A SWR meter.

207-2.1 What does a SWR-meter reading of 1: 1 indicate? (A) An antenna designed

for use on another frequency band is probably connected; (B) An optimum impedance
match has been attained; (C) No power is being transferred to the antenna; (D) A SWR
meter never indicates 1:1 unless it is defective.

20 7-2.2 W hat does a SWR-meter r eading of less tha n 1.5:1 indicate? (A) An unac-
ceptably low reading; (B) An unacceptably high reading; (C) An acceptable impedance
match; (D) An antenna gain of 1.5.

207-2.3 W hat d oes a SWR-meter reading of 4:1 indicate'? (A) An unacceptably low
reading; (B) An acceptable impedance match; (C) An antenna gain of 4; (D) An imped-
ance mismatch, which is not acceptable; it indicates problems with the antenna system.

207-2.4 What does a SWR-meter reading of 5: 1 indicate? (A) The antenna will
make a 10-wau signal as strong as a 50-watt signal; (B) Maximum power is being deliv-
ered to the antenna; (C) An unacceptable mismatch is indicated; (D) A very desirable
impedance match has been attained.

2D7-3. l W hat kind of SWR-meter r eading may indicate poor electrical contact be-
tween pa rts of an antenna system '? (A) An erratic reading; (B) An unusuaJly low read-
ing; (C) No reading at all; (D) A negative reading.

The National Amateur Radio A ssociation Ham Radio Handbook 109

 CHAPTER D

207-3.2 What d oes an unus ually high SWR-meter reading indicate? (A) That the
antenna is not the correct length, or that there is an open or shorted connection some-
where in the feed line; (B) That the signals arriving at the antenna are unusually strong,
indicating good radio conditions; (C) That the transmitter is producing more powe r than
normal, probably indicating that the fina l amplifier tubes or transistors are about to go
bad; (D) That there is an unusually large amount of solar white-noise radiation , indicat-
ing very poor radio conditions.

207-3.3 The SWR-meter reading at the low-frequency end of an Amateur ba nd is

2.5:1, and the SWR-met.er reading at the high-frequency end of the same band is
5:1. What d oes this indicate about your antenn a? (A) The antenna is broadbanded;
(8) The antenna is too long for operation on this band; (C) The antenna is too short for
operation on this band; (D) The antenna has been optimized for operation on this band.

207-3.4 The SWR-meter reading at the low-frequency end of an Amateur band is

5: 1, and the SWR-meter reading at the high-frequency end of the same band is
2.5:1. What d oes this indicate about your antenna? (A) The antenna is broadbanded;
(B) The antenna is too long for operation on this band; (C) The antenna is too short for
operation on this band; (D) The antenna has been optimized for operation on this band.

208-1.1 W h at is meant by r eceiver over load? (A) Interference caused by transmitter

harmonics; (B) Interference caused by overcrowded band conditions; (C) Interference
caused by strong signals from a nearby transmitter; (D) Interference caused by turning
the receiver volume too high.

2 08-1.2 What is a likely indication that radio-frequency interference to a receiver

is caused by front-end overload? (A) A low pass filler at the transmitter reduces inter-
ference sharply; (B) The interference is independenl of frequency; (C) A high pass filler
at the receiver reduces interference litUe or not at all; (D) Grounding the receiver makes
the problem worse.

208-1.3 Your n eighbor reports interference to his television whenever you are
transmitting from your Amateur station. This interfer ence occurs regardless of
your transm itter frequency. W hat is likely to be the cause of the interference? (A)
Inadequate transmitter harmonic suppression; (B) Receiver YR tube discharge; (C) Re-
ceiver overload; (D) Incorrect antenna length.

208-1.4 What type of filter should b e installed on a TV receiver as the first step in
preventing RF overload from an Amateur HF station transm ission ? (A) Low pass;
(B) High pass; (C) Band pass; (D) Notch.

208-2.1 What is meant by harmonic r adiation? (A) Transmission of signals at whole

number multiples of the fundamental (desired) frequency; (B) Transmission of signals
that include a superimposed 60-Hz hum; (C) Transmission of signals caused by sympa-
thetic vibrations from a nearby transmitter; (D) Transmission of signals to produce a
stimulated emission in the air Lo enhance skip propagation.
11 o Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association
 CHAPTER 0

208-2.2 Why is harmonic radiation from an Amateur station undesirable? (A) It

will cause interference Lo other stations and may result in ouL-of- band signal radiation;
(B) It uses large arnounls of electric power; (C) It will cause sympathetic vibrations in
nearby transmitters; (D) lt will produce stimulated emission in Lhe air above the trans-
mitter, thus causing aurora.

208-2.3 What type of interference may radiate from a multi-band antenna con-
nected to an improperly tuned transmitter? (A) Harmonic radiation; (B) Auroral dis-
tortion; (C) Parasitic excitation; (D) Intermodulation.

208-2.4 What is the purpose of shielding in a transmitter? (A) It gives the low pass
filler structural stability; (B) It enh<1nces the microphonic tendencies of radiotelephone
transmiLters; (C) It prevenLs unwanted RF radiation; (D) IL helps maintain a sufficientJy
high operating temperature in circuit components.

208-2.5 Your neighbor reports interference on one or two channels of her televi-
sion when you are transmitting from your Amateur station. This interference only
occurs when you are operating on 15 meters. What is likely to be the cause of the
interference? {A) Excessive low-pass filtering on the transmitter; (B) Sporadic-E de-
ionization near your neighbor's TV anLenna; (C) TV Receiver front-end overload; (D)
Harmonic radiation from your transmitter.

208-2.6 What type of' filter should be installed on an Amateur transmitter as the
first step in reducing harmonic radiation? (A) Key click l'iller; (B) Low pass filler;
(C) High pass filter; (D) CW filler.

208-3.l lf you are notified that your Amateur station is causing television interfer-
ence, what should you do first? (A) Make sure Lhat your Amateur equipment is operal-
ing properly, and Lhat iL does not cause interference to your own television ; (B)
Immediately turn off your transmitter and contact the nearesLFCC office for assistance;
(C) Install a high-pass filler at the transmitter outpul and a low-pass filter at the amenna-
inpul terminals of the T V; (D) Continue operating nonnally, since you have no legal ob-
ligation Lo reduce or eliminate the interference.

20 8-3.2 Your neigh bor informs you that you are causing television interference,
but you are sure your Amateur equipment is operating properly and you cause no
interference to your own TV. What should you do? (A) Immediately Lum off your
transmitter and contacl the nearesL FCC office for assistance; (B) Work with your neigh-
bor to determine that you are actually the cause of the interference; (C) Install a high-
pass filter at the transmitter output and a low-pass filter at the antenna-input terminals of
the TV; (D) Continue operaLing normally, since you have no legal obligaLion to reduce
or eliminale the interference.

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 111

 CHAPTER D

SUB ELEMENT 3AD (4 questions).

3AD1-1.1 Where should the green wire in an AC line cord be attached in a power
supply? (A) To the fuse; (B) To Lhe "hot" side of the power switch; (C) To the chassis;
(D) To the mcLer.

3AD1-1.2 Where should the black (or red) wire in a three-wire line cord be at-
tached in a power supply? (A) To the filter capacitor; (B) To the DC ground; (C) To
the chassis; (D) To the fuse.

3A01-l.3 Where should the white wire in a three-wire line cord be attached in a
power supply? (A) To the side of tJ1e transfonner's primary winding that has a fuse;
(B) To the side of the transformer's primary winding without a fuse; (C) To the black
wire; (D) To tlle rectifier junction.

3AD1-1.4 Why is the retaining screw in one terminal of a light socket made of
brass while the other one is silver colored? (A) To prevent galvanic action; (B) To in-
dicate correct wiring polarity; (C) To better conduct current; (D) To reduce skin effect.

3AD1-2.l How much electrical current flowing through the human body is usually
fatal? (A) As little as 100 milliamperes may be fatal; (B) Approximately 10 amperes is
required to be fatal; (C) More than 20 amperes is needed to kill a human being; (D) No
amount of current will harm you. Voltages of over 2000 volts are always fatal, however.

3ADI-2.2 What is the minimum voltage considered to be dangerous to humans?

(A) 30 volts; (B) 100 volts; (C) 1000 volts; (D) 2000 volts.

3AD1-2.3 How much electrical current flowin g through the human body is usually
painful? (A) As little as 50 milliamperes may be painful; (B) Approximately 10 am-
peres is required to be painful; (C) More than 20 amperes is needed to be painful Lo a
human being; (D) No amounL of current will be painful. Voltages of over 2000 volts are
always painful, however.

3AD1-3.1 Where should the main power-line switch for a high voltage power sup-
ply be situated? (A) Inside the cabinet, to interrupt power when the cabinet is opened;
(B) On the rear panel of the high-vo!Lage supply; (C) Where it can be seen and reached
easily; (D) This supply should not be switch-operaLed.

3AD2-1.1 How is a voltmeter typically connected to a circuit under test? (A) In se-
ries with the circuit; (B) In parallel with the circuiL; (C) In quadrature with tJ1e circuit;
(D) In phase wiLh the circuit.

3AD2-2.l How can the range of a voltmeter be extended? (A) By addfog resistance
in series with the circuit under test; (B) By adding resistance in parallel with the circuit
under test; (C) By adding resistance in series wiLh the meter; (D) By adding resistance in
parallel with the meter.
112 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association
 CHAPTER D

3AD3-1.1 How is an ammeter typically connected to a circuit under test? (A) In se-
ries with the circuit; (B) In parallel with the circuit; (C) In quadrature with the circuit;
(D) In phase with the circuit.

3AD3-2.1 How can the range of an ammeter be extended? (A) By adding resistance
in series with the circuit under test; (B) By adding resistance in parallel with the circuit
under test; (C) By adding resistance in series with the meter; (D) By adding resistance in
paraHel with the meter.

3A D4.1 What is a multimeter? (A) An instrument capable of reading SWR and power;
(B) An instrument capable of reading resistance, capacitance and inductance; (C) An in-
slrument capable of reading resistance and reactance; (D) An instrument capable of
reading voltage, current and resistance.

3ADS-1.1 Where in the antenna transmission line should a peak-reading watt-

meter be attached to determine the transmitter output power? (A) Al the transmit-
ter output; (B) At the antenna feed point; (C) One-half wavelength from the antenna
feed point; (D) One-quarter wavelength from the transmitter output.

3ADS-1.2 For the most accurate readings of transmitter output power, where
should the RF watt-meter be inserted? (A) The watt-meter should be inserted and the
output measured one-quarter wavelength from the antenna feed point; (B) The watt-
meter should be inserted and the output measured one-half wavelength from the antenna
feed point; (C) The watt-meter should be inserted and the output power measured at the
transmitter antenna jack; (D) The wall-meter should be inserted and the output power
measured at the Transmatch output.

3ADS-1.3 At what line impedance are RF watt-meters usually designed to operate?

(A) 25 ohms; (B) 50 ohms; (C) 100 ohms; (D) 300 ohms.

3ADS-l.4 What is a directional watt-meter? (A) An insLrument that measures forward

or reflected power; (B) An instrument that measures the directional pattern of an an-
tenna; (C) An instrument that measures the energy consumed by the u-ansmitter; (D) An
instrument that measures thermal heating in a load resistor.

3ADS-2.1 lf a directional RF watt-meter indicates 90 watts for ward power and 10

watts reflected power, what is the actu al transmitter output power? (A) lO watts;
(B) 80 watts; (C) 90 watts; (D) 100 watts.

3ADS-2.2 If a directional RF watt-meter indicates 96 watts forward power and 4

watts reflected power, what is the actual transmitter output power? (A) 80 watts;
(B) 88 watts; (C) 92 watts; (D) 100 watts.

3AD6.1 What is a marker generator ? (A) A high-stability osci llator that generates a
series of reference signals at known frequency intervals; (B) A low-stability oscillator

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 113

 CHAPTER D

thaL "sweeps" through a band of frequencies; (C) An oscillator often used in aircraft to
deLermine the crafL's location relaLive to Lhe inner and outer markers at airports; (D) A
high-stability oscillator whose output frequency and amplitude can be varied over a
wide range.

3AD6.2 What type of circuit is used to inject a frequency calibration signal into a
communications receiver? (A) A product detector; (B) A receiver incremental Luning
circuit; (C) A balanced modulaLOr; (D) A crystal calibrator.

3AD6.3 How is a marker generator used? (A) To calibrate the tuning dial on a re-
ceiver; (B) To calibrale the volume conL.rol on a receiver; (C) To tesl the ampli tude lin-
earity of a SSB transmitter; (D) To test Lhe frequency deviation of a FM transmiller.

3AD7.1 What 1>iece of test equipment produces a stable, low-level signal that can
be set to a specific frequency? (A) A wave-meter; (B) A refiectometer; (C) A signal
generator; (D) A balanced modulator.

3AD7.2 What is an RF signal generator commonly used for? (A) Measuring RF sig-
nal amplitude; (B) Aligning receiver tuned circuits; (C) Adjusting the transmitter imped-
ance-matching network; (D) Measuring transmission line impedance.

3AD8·1.1 What is a reflectometer? (A) An insLrument used to me<!Sure signals re-

J1ected from the ionosphere; (B) An instrument used to measure radiation resistance; (C)
An instrument use~ to' measure transmission-line impedance; (D) An instrument used to
measure standing wave ratio.

3AD8-l.2 What is tpe device that can indicate an impedance mismatch in an an-
tenna system? (A) A field-strength meter, (B) A set of lecher wires; (C) A wave-meter;
(D) A reflectometer.

3AD8-2.1 For best accuracy when adjusting the impedance match between an an-
tenna and feed line, where should the match-indicating device be inserted? (A) At
the antenna feed point; Q3) At Lhe transmitter; (C) At the midpoint of Lhe feed line; (D)
Anywhere along the fee4 ljpe.

3AD8-2.2 Where should a r eflectometer be inserted into a long antenna transmis-

sion line in order to obtain the most valid standing wave ratio indication? (A) At
any quarter-wavelength interval along the transmission line; (B) At the receiver end; (C)
At the antenna ef)d; (D) At any even half-wavelength interval along Lhe transmission
line.

3AD9.l W hen adjl!sting a transmitter filter circuit, what device is connected to the
transmitter output? (A) A multimeter; (B) A seLof Litz wires; (C) A receiver; (D) A
dummy antenna.

114 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Rad io Association

 CHAPTER D

3AD9.2 What is a dummy antenna? (A) An isotropic radiator; (B) A non-radiating

load for a transmitter; (C) An antenna used as a reference for gain measurements; (D)
The image of an antenna, located below ground.

3AD9-3 Of what materials may a dummy antenna be made? (A) A wire-wound re-
sistor; (B) A diode and resistor combination; (C) A non-inductive resistor; (D) A coil
and capacitor combination.

3AD9.4 What station accessory is used in place of an antenna during transmitter

tests so that no signal is radiated? (A) A Transmatch; (B) A dummy antenna; (C) A
low-pass filter; (D) A decoupling resistor.

3AD9.5 What is the purpose of a dummy load? (A) To allow off-the-air transm itter
testing; (B) To reduce output power for QRP operation; (C) To give comparative signal
reports; (D) To allow Transmatch tuning without causing interference.

3AD9.6 How many watts should a dummy load for use with a 100-watt single- side-
band phone transmitter be able to dissipate? (A) A minimum of 100 waus continu-
ous; (B) A minimum of 141 watts continuous; (C) A minimum of 175 watts continuous;
(D) A minimum of200 watts continuous.

3AD10.l What is a S-meter'? (A) A meter used to measure sideband suppression; (B)
A meter used to measure spurious emissions from a transmitter; (C) A meter used to
measure -relative signal strength in a receiver; (D) A meter used to measure solar flux.

3AD10.2 A meter that is used to measure relative signal strength in a receiver is

known as what? (A) A S-metcr; (B) A RST-meter; (C) A signal deviation meter; (D) A
SSB meter.

3AD11-1.l Large amounts of RF energy may cause damage to body tissue, depend-
ing on tbe wavelength of the signal, the energy density ot' the RF field, and other
factors. How does RF energy effect body tissue? (A) IL causes radiation poisoning;
(B) It heais the tissue; (C) It cools the tissue; (D) It produces genetic changes in the tis-
sue.

3AD11-1.2 Which body organ is most susceptible to damage f'rom the heating ef-
fects of radio frequ ency radiation? (A) Eyes; (B) Hands; (C) Heart; (D) Liver.

3AD11-2.l Scientists have devoted a great deal of effort to determine safe RF expo-
sure limits. What organization has established an RF protection guide'? (A) The In-
stitute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers; (B) The American Radio Relay League;
(C) The Environmental Protection Agency; (D) The American National Standards Insti-
tute.

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 115

 CHAPTER D

3AD11-2.2 What is the purpose of the ANSI RF protection guide? (A) It protects
you from unscrupulous radio dealers; (B) It sets RF exposure limits under certain cir-
cumstances; (C) It sets transmitter power limits; (D) It sets antenna height requirements.

3AD11-2.3 The American National Standards Institute RF protection guide sets

RF exposure limits under certain circumstances. In what frequency range is the
maximum exposure level the most stringent (lowest)? (A) 3 to 30 MHz; (B) 30 to
300 MHz; (C) 300 to 3000 MHz; (D) Above 1.5 GHz.

3ADll-2.4 The American National Standards Institute RF protection guide sets

RF exposure limits under certai11 circumstances. Why is the maximum exposure
level the most stringent (lowest) in the ranges between 30 MHz and 300 MHz'? (A)
There are more transmitters operating in this frequency range; (B) There are fewer
transmitters operating in this frequency range; (C) Most transmissions in this frequency
range are for an extended time; (D) Human body lengths are close to whole-body reso-
nance in tJlat range.

3AD11-2.5 The American National Standards Institute RF protection guide sets

RF exposure limits under certain circumstances. What is the maximum safe power
output to the antenna terminal of a hand-held VHF or UHF radio, as set by this RF
protection guide? (A) 125 milliwatts; (B) 7 watts; (C) 10 watts; (D) 25 watts.

3AD11-3.l After you make internal tuning adjustments to your VHF powe r ampli-
fier, what should you do before you turn the amplifier on? (A) Remove all amplifier
shielding tO ensure maximum cooling; (B) Connect a noise bridge to eliminate any in-
terference; (C) Be certain all amplifier shielding is fastened in place; (D) Be certain no
antenna is attached so that you will not cause any interference.

116 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Rad io Association

Cha ter

Electrical Principles

r
*~~~1o{o.<~::::;:::~:::.::::::::::::::.::::::::::::::::::::::::.;:.;:::::::::::~::.;:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~$*:~~::::~::P'h::~::::::::::~-:::::::::-::::.~@.*~:::::x~m.-:x.rza:::.:::::~~:::>«-::..<»:-:~~<=:>::=::$::=:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::;:::::::::::~

To be perfectly honest, this is a tough chapter. But look at Lhe bright side. After it's ff
" fini shed, you're halfway through the test preparation! You can probably skip Chap- ~i
~ ter E and still pass Lhe Technician test or you can simply memorize the correct an- i!
~ swers. You will be asked four questions from the section of the Novice test (2E) and i
f 2 questions from the Technician question pool (3AE) related LO Electrical Principles. t
~ On the olher hand, Lhis chapter can provide you with a comprehensive understanding \l·
: of electronics if you care to study it. The principles described provide the underlying ~
foundation of electronics. I recommend, at a minimum, that you study and under- ~
~ st~!~?.~:,!;,~gr,~£:~,~,,,~~,!.~.~,sng,,,\,~,, 3,~~~,t~~~,,,~,~m,~~~L~,},~,,R~,~~!~Jl~~<$;;@,~««~,,, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,., , , ,~[~
The World of The Atom
The entire science of electronics is based on Lhe behavior of that minute particle, the
electron. For any understanding of the electron, what it does and why it docs iL, we have
to observe the electron in its home territory, the world of the atom.

The atom is constructed somewhat like our own solar system. It has a central sun (the
nucleus) and u number of planets (the electrons) revolving or orbiting around it. The nu-
cleus, or core, is comprised of a number of positively charged particles ca!Jecl protons.
 CHAPTER E

Similarly, the planets revolving around the nucleus are called electrons. They are tiny
particles of negative electricity. It should be understood that this expl~mation is some-
what simplified. Sometimes there are electrons in the nucleus. There are also some other
minor types of particles within the atom. However, we are primarily interested in the
electrons.

All matter is basically composed of electrons and protons, each carrying an electric
charge. The difference in characteristics of various substances is dependent on the num-
ber and position of the protons and electrons which make up each atom. This is true
whether the substance is gold, silver, glass or Coca Cola.

Electrons tend to repel each other with relatively enormous force. Protons react against
ol11er protons in the same way. But elecLrons have a strong attraction for protons, and
protons feel the same way about electrons.

This characteristic provides us with one of the basic laws of electricity: Like charges
repel and unlike charges auract. If this were not so, atoms and molecules would be fly-
ing apart in all directions. It is only the atlractive force between l11e positive charge of
the nucleus and the negative charge of the planetary electrons which holds them to-
gether.

This delicaLe balance between charges within the atom or molecule may be upset, how-
ever. The substance may lose a few electrons from the outermost orbit, or this same
orbit may be constantly seeking to add a few more electrons.

If either of tilese two events occur, the body itself is said lo be charged. As an example,
consider tile old trick of running a comb briskly through t11c hair and tilen using it to
pick up bits of paper by static attraction. In this case, friction has caused the comb LO
gain of lose some electrons and become charged.

If the comb has lost electrons, the negative charges in the orbit no longer cancel the pos-
itive ones in tile nucleus, and the substance is said to be positively charged. If the comb
has added electrons, their force now exceeds l11at in each nucleus , and the substance is
negatively charged. This leads us to another fundamental electronic law: A negative
charge indicates an excess of electrons, while a positive charge results from an electron
deficiency.

The reader should understand that we cannot

really "make" elcc1ricity. We can cause clec-
1.rons to move from place to place. But
whether we use friction to create the move-
ment, or a dynamo or a solar battery, we are
simply controlling electrons which are al-
The Ten-Tee receiver has a number of fea- ready there. A battery or generator does not
tures that make it popular with DX opera- create electricity any more than a pump cre-
tors.
ates water.
118 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association
 CHAPTER E

Let's get back to our hair and comb experiment. The charge developed between the two
bodies can be easily discharged. Simply touch the comb co the hair without the friction
which caused the charge and the charge disappears. But note that the bodies themselves
do not actually have to touch to cause a discharge.

Suppose instead that one end of a copper wire touches the hair and the comb is touched
to the other end of the wire. Now when we try to pick up the bits of paper with the
comb, nothing happens. The charge has been equaJized or discharged. But how? Obvi-
ously electrons must have moved along the wire from the negatively-charged body to
the positive ly-charged one in order to discharge the two objects. There must have been a
flow of electron current through the wire.

Anything which causes an electron flow through a conductor is called an electromotive

force or e.m.f. Each excess electron does not flow all the way through the conductor m
the point of electron deficiency. It is more like the maneuver in croquet when you try to
knock your opponent's ball out. (2E3-l .1 )(3AE2.4)

In this case you hold your foot on your own ball so it won't move. But when you smack
it with the mallet, the opposing ball which was lying next to it goes flying. You could do
the same thing with a whole string of croquet balls in line, if you wanted to. Remember
our billiard ball explanation in Chapter C?

Conductors, Resistors and Insulators

This same kind of chain reaction occurs in a conductor. An electron near one end
strikes another. That in turn, hits still another, and so on until the effect is felt all the
way down the line. No one e lectron moves very far, but the effect of the electron flow is
felt at all points along the conductor.

If we connect the ehds of a copper wire (a conductor) to the positive and negative termi-
nals of a battery, a fairly sizable electron current will flow. If we connect a piece of
carbon rod across these same termina ls, the current will be much less. If we touch a
piece of glass to the terminals, no current will flow al all. Obviously some materials are
better conductors than others. (2E2-1.1 )(2E3- l .3)

It appears that the better conductors ;u-e those, such as gold, si Iver and aluminum, whose
atoms readily give up an e lectron from its outer she ll or orbit Some materials hold on to
their electrons so tightly that it is difficult to free any and cause them to move along in a
given direction. Depending upon how strongly the atoms hold on to their outer elec-
trons, the materials are called, conductors, resistors or insulators. (2E4.1)(2E5. l)

:~I
Combinations of compdhcnts are called dr-
cuits. One of the most basic circuits, the door-
bell, is shown in Figure E. l. The button, or p-J>hbunoo"
switch, opens and closes the circuit. When ~
you press the button, the circuit is closed or '-..bm1<>rloo er I! Figure E. 1
trcnsfcrmer
completed and the battery forces electrons to
The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 119
 CHAPTER E

flow through the bell, which rings. When electrons go rushing through an electronic cir-
cuit, they do so because they are being pushed. Something is putting the pressure on
them to move. The pressure is the electromotive force (e.m.f.) discussed earlier. This
concept is very similar to the water pressure in a pipe. The greater the e.m.f., the more
electrons will flow. If you were to short circuit the two battery terminals with a screw-
driver, a large number of electrons would also flow. (2E3-1.2)

To get some idea of the fantastic number of electrons which are in motion when even
small currents now, consider this. When the e.m.f. is great enough to send a current of
one ampere through a wire, 6,280,000,000,000,000,000 electrons pass a given point
every single second! You don't need to memorize this number, by the way. You will not
be asked it in a test question.

There are many methods known for generating an e.m.f., but the two most commonly
used are chemical and electromagnetic. The first is the basis of cells and batteries. The
second method is tJ1e basis of electric generators.

Ohm's Law
Whenever the e.m.f. tends to force electrons through a wire, there will be some opposi-
tion to the flow. There is no such thing as a perfect conductor. Every circuit elemenL has
some resistance. But when it is specifically desired to oppose or limit the current flow
to a certain value, a component known as a resistor is installed. It is neither a good con-
ductor or a good insulator. The properties of a resistor lie somewhere in between the
Lwo extremes depending on the resistance value. (3AE1-1.1)(3AE1-2.l)

Resistors come in all sizes and shapes, and their ability to oppose or limit electron cur-
rent flow (or resistance) is expressed in a unit called the ohm. By international agree-
ment, the ohm is designated as the opposition offered to a steady current by a column of
mercury of specified dimensions. (2E6- l .1)(2E6-l .2)(2E6-2.1)(3AD1-2.2)

E.m.f. is described by the term volts. The volt is simply that amount of electrical pres-
sure, (or e.m.f.) which will drive a current of one ampere ilirough a resistance of one
ohm. From this definition it is obvious that there is a close relationship between volts,
ohms and amperes. (2E3-2.l)

If the voltage increases, we would expect the

current to go up also. But if the resistance in-
creases Lhere will be more opposition to flow
and the current will drop. These relationships
were expressed in three litlle mathematical
formulas over 150 years ago by a German

IR Figure E.2
physicist, Georg Simon Ohm, after whom
they are called Ohm's Law. This is one of
the most important of all electrical relation-
ships for voltage, current and resistance in a
circuit (2E7.1)(3AE2.l )
120 Ham Radio Handbook The Nationa l Amateur Radio Association
 CHAPTER E

Figure E.2 shows Mr. Ohm' s law in a graphic way. We have adopted the letter symbol
(I- intensity) for the currern in amperes, (E) for Lhe e.m.f. in volLs, and (R) for the resis-
tance in ohms. Ohm 's Law tells us that lo find the current in amperes in any circuit, we
must divide the e.m.f. in volts by the resistance in ohms. Thus the formula becomes (I)
equals (E) divided by (R). By the same token we can see that (R) equals (E) divided by
(I). Finally, from Figure E.2, we can deduce that (E) equals (I) Limes (R). (2E2-
2.l )(2E2.2)

As an example of how this works, let's find out how much current a light bulb having a
filament resistance of 100 ohms will pass when ic is connected to a source of e.m.f. of
200 volts. The formula says that current (I) in amperes equals voltage (E) divided by re-
sistance. Thus 200 divided by 100 equals 2 amperes. (2E7.3)(3AE2.2)(3AE2.6) (3AE
2.7)(3AE2.8)(3AE2.9)

The voltage relationship is similar. If a meter connected in series with a 50 ohm resistor
shows a current of 2 amperes, how much voltage will develop across the resistor. By
multiplying the current (in amperes) by the resistance (E = I times R), the answer is
found to be 100 volts. (2E7.2)

Here's the sort of puzzle you might run into everyday as an auto mechanic. Consider
this case where the resistance and current are known, and the voltage must be found.
Say we have a parking light bulb which has an operating resistance of 4 ohms. When lit
to full brilliance it draws a current of 1.5 amperes. Can we use this lamp in a circuit
where it will have an e.m.f. of 12 volts placed across it? If we multiply 4 ohms by 1.5
amperes, the answer turns out to be 6 volts. If we insert a 6-volt lamp imo the socket, it
would quickly burn out with 12 volts impressed across it. Thus the answer is no.

Suppose we want to determine the resistance when the voltage and current is known.
For example, what is the resistance of the windings of a 90-volt motor when the current
through it is 3 amperes? Resis-
20,000 .1l.. 5,000 .1l.. 38 .1l.. tance (R) equals voltage (E) di-
vided by current (I). Thus we
2,500 .1\.. divide 90 volts by 3 amperes
for an answer of 30 ohms. (2E
7.4)(3AE2.3)(3AE 2.5)

The way in which the various

GENERATOR circuit components are con-
110 VOLTS
nected is known either as series
or parallel, or some combina-
R- 20,000+6+5,000+2,500+38 tion called series-parallel. In a
=27,544 OHMS series circuit, such as Figure
E 110 E.3 , components are connected
I= R = 27,544 so that all of the electron flow
passes through all of the resis-
= .004 AMPERE APPROXIMATELY
Figure E.3 tors. The total resistance is the

The National Amateur Radio Associat ion Ham Radio Handbook 121
 CHAPTER E
total value of all the resistors in
R1 = 5,000 .n.. series. (3AE1-3.l) (3AE1-3.2)
~~~--NI/'~~~~
_ 10,000 =
2 AMP
5,000
R2 = 10,000 .n.. In the parallel circuit (Figure
• 10,000 = l AMP
10,000 IE.4), all of the resistors are con-
R J = 'i,000 .n..
- 10,000 • 2 5 AMP nected directly to the source of
4,000 . e.m.f. The current has a number
20,000 .n..
• 10,000 - 0 5 AMP of paths through which it can
20,000 '
Rs B,000 .n.. pass. An example might be the
10 000
• •
8,000 • I'25 AMP various headlights, parking and
tail lights on an automobile. They
are all connected in parallel with
GENERATOR the car battery. The total current
10,000 VOLTS - 2+1+2.5+0.5+ 1.25
flowing in and out of the battery
• 7.25 AMP is the total or the current through
Figure E..4
each path. If two resistors of
equal value are connected in parallel, the combined resistance will be one-half of either
value. (3AE1 -4.1)(3AE1-4.2)

To solve Ohm's Law problems, we have to know the total resistance of any given com-
bination of resistors. In the case of series circuits, it's easy. The total resistance is simply
t.he sum of the individual resistances.

As an example, consider Figure E.3 where five resistors are connected in series. The
total resistance is the sum of each resistance, as shown. The current is easily calculated
in conventional Ohm's Law fashion.

Calculation of equivalent resistance in parallel circuits is a little more complex . Con-

sider Figure E.4 in which we see five resistances connected in parallel across a source
e.m.f. of 10,000 volts. If we ignore the resistance of the connecting wire (which is negli-
gible), we see that the same voltage from the 10,000 volt supply appears across each re-
sistor.

The total current from the generator (which also passes through the meter) will split five
ways through the resistance network. The amount through any given resisLOr will de-
pend upon its own ohmic value. Conversely, the branch currents 11 through 15 will add
up to (I) total.

To find each of these branch currents, we use Ohm's Law and divide the applied voltage
by the individual resistance as shown in Figure E.4.

The resistor is one of the most common ly encountered components in elect.ronic cir-
cuits. Its primary use is to convert electrical energy into heat energy. This heat may
serve some useful purpose such as for an electric stove. It may be wasted when the pur-
pose of the resistor is simply to provide a needed voltage drop.

122 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER E

The ability to do work is called energy. If you chop a pi.le of wood, you expend energy.
When a flashlight is illuminaLed, it consumes energy. We say the electrical energy is
converted lo heat and light. The rate of energy consumption is called power. A high
wauage bulb will consume energy fasLer than a flashlight bulb. In other words it will ex-
hibit a greater power consumption. (2E8.1)(2E8.2)(2E9- l. l )(2E9-1.2)

The rate al which heat is produced when current flows through a resistor is expressed in
watts. The watt is the basic unit of electrical power. The formula is (W =I squared R),
where (W) is the power in watts, (I) is the current in amperes, and (R) is the resistance
in ohms. (2E9-2.1)

The watts consumed by a resistor, often called the 1-squared-R loss, appear entirely as
heat. It is obvious that the larger the surface area of the resistor and the freer the circula-
tion of air around it, the more easily the heat can be dissipated. Resistors are made in a
wide varicly of sizes, not only in tenns of resistance, but also in the amount of power
they can safe!y handle without danger of burn-out.
11•11 '·

If there is no current flow between the two terminals of a battery, it is said to be an open
circuit. If there is an excessively high current between the terminals, it is caused by a
short circuit. (2E10.1)(2El 1.1 )

Alternating Current
Up to this point we have discussed direct current (DC) which flows in only one direc-
tion in a conductor. However, you should be fami liar with alternating current (AC).
This is an electron flow which periodically reverses itself and flows in both directions.
Alternating current appears in power lines, audio and radio frequency (RF) generators.
(2E12-l. I)(2E12-2. l )

Current flow is, in m~my ways, like the flow of water. A hydraulic analogy will help in
understanding the basic AC concept. In Figure E.5A we see how a piston, with a back
and forth movement, could cause waler in a closed circuit to reverse direction.

FigureE.SA
6
.,...----------.......~--------------'""5
··.· . - . ·~· ... - .-;-. :=--:;~.-::--:__ ..

2 1
.\
WATER_ . ._ _ _ _ _ _ PISTON
..,.___... -·

-~~.-
. -:..-_~-...----~----
·-· '··--· .... ~ --
_,.·-----
.-~-~.--
. · - - ~----.-..---~-~--.-__-_-.. -.;---~_. -
..

3 4

The National Amateur Rad io Association Ham Radio Handbook 123

 CHAPTER E

When the piston moves from 1 to 2,

water will be pushed ahead of it and will
close in behind it. The flow in the circuit
will move in the direction 3-4-5-6, which
represents the time A-B-C in Figure
E.5B. When the piston reaches the end
of its u-avel (position 2 in Figure E.5A
and point C in Figure E.5B), it will re-
TIME - -:>--.
verse direction. But note that at the in-
stant of reversal, both the piston motion
and the water flow have stopped. Then
FigureE.58
the piston stans moving from 2 to 1, and
the water now flows around 6-5-4-3.
This represents C-D-E in Figure E.5.B.

Alternating current t1ow is very similar. Imagine that "water movement" in Figure E.5B
is really current fl ow. The current starts at zero state of flow (A) and gradually increases
in strength until it reaches a maximum in one direction (B). Then it gradually decreases
until it stops altogether (C). Next, it increases Lo a maximum in the opposite direction
(D), finally decreasing again back to zero (E).

Electricity which behaves in this manner is called alternating current or AC. This
complete series of events is called a cycle and the number of these cycles which occur
during a period of one second is said to be U1e frequency of AC. As mentioned in Chap-
ter One, we honor Herr Heinrich Hertz by calling this complete sequence a Hertz.
(2E 12-3.1)(2El2-3.2)(2El2-3.3)

Until now we have been talking about rate of current flow. But we already know that
any such flo w must have a propelling force. The force behind electron flow is called the
voltage. The way in which an AC voltage changes with time is the same as for current
as shown in Figure E.SB . The result of this action is called an AC sine wave. This
wavefonn is basic Lo virtually every piece of radio equipment.

If the Lime from A Lo Eis 1/60 second, then the freq uency this particular voltage would
be 60 cycles (or Hertz) per second. Ordinary power lines in this country m·e standard-
ized at a frequency of 60 Hertz (Hz) at a voltage of 120. In England it is 240 volts al 50
Hz. But what does this mean? We have seen that tlle voltage is constantly varying. Al
points A, C and E the voltage is zero, a far cry from 120 volts. At points Band D, as we
shall see, the level is actually 170 volts. Where U1en, does the 120 come in? This 120
volt figure is called the effecti ve voltage because that is the amount of DC which would
be required to do the same amount of work or produce the same amount of heat in a
given resistor as 170 peak volts of alternating current.. Mathematically we speak of the
effective voltage as the root-mean-square (RMS) voltage.

An AC voltage which varies between zero and momentary peaks of 170 volts won't get
your toaster any hott.er in t11e morning than 120 volts of steady DC. WiU1 a little simple

124 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER E

arilhmetic you can quickly prove that l11e effective voltage is only 70.7 percent of the
peak. From a reciprocal point of view, the peak is 1.414 times as great as me effective
voltage. IL is important to remember that insLrument calibrations, as well as component
ratings, are normally given in terms of effective values.

AC Generation
An AC generator consists of a con-
ductor moving through a magnetic
field. This movement causes magnetic
lines of force to be cut and a voltage CREST
i s induced within the conductor. In
Figure E.6 we sec the circular path
which would be made by a single
conductor rotating between the two
poles of a permanent magnet. When
ROTATING
the conductor is moving at 90 degrees CO NDUCTOR
with respect to the magnet poles, the
maximum lines of force are cut and Figure E.6
the induced vol tage is maximum.
When the conductor is at A (right angles to the lines or force), the voltage is zero. This
is because at right angles no lines of force are being cut by the conductor.

Reactance - The Resistance to AC

We have already noted that the flow of current through a DC circuit is limited by the
amount of resistance in the circuit. In AC circuits resi stance behavior is the same as
with DC. But in addition there are other effects which retard current in addition Lo the
component called a resistor. One is cal led reactance. There are two types of reactancc.
They arc called inductive and capacitive rcactance.

Unlike resistance, which is detcnnined mostJ y by the physical composition of the con-
ductor, rearnmce is caused by the changing fields of AC. Inductive reactancc is due to a
property of coiled conductors called inductance. T his, in turn, results from the fact that
every current-carrying conducLOr has a magnetic field surrounding it. An inducLOr can
store energy in its magnetic fi eld. (3AE3- l .1)

AC current is constantJy changing in both intensity and direction, as shown in Figure

E.7. The magnetic field around the wire expands and contracts in exactly the same man-
ner. In a straight wire this is not particularly noteworthy. When that wire is twisted into
a coil, strange events take place.

Figure E. 7· A flow of current produces a magnetfc field around the wire that attracts or
repells the point of a compass. This Is how a motor works, but on a much larger scale.

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 125

 CHAPTER E

The magnetic field consists of "lines of force" similar to those found in the generator
mentioned earlier. As they expand and contract around the coil, the lines of force inter-
sect the turns of wire and induce a voltage in them. This induced voltage is called a
"back e.m.f'. Back e.m.f. is always opposite in polarity to the applied voltage and
bucks or opposes it. Since current flow is proportional to voltage which drives it, AC
current, is therefore Jess when an inductance is introduced into the circuit. This voltage
drop result.<; from the second opposing voltage which subtractS from the source voltage.

Inductors - The inductance of a coil is determined by the number of turns as well as

the overall size and shape. If the turns are wound around an iron core (rather than air)
the inductance will increase many times, depending upon permeability of the core ma-
terial in an inductor. The penncability of air is taken as 1, while the permeability of core
materials may be many thousm1ds of times greater. It is therefore a simple matter to in-
crease the inductance of a coil many times simply by providing it with a higb- perme-
ability core.

The unit of inductance is the Henry, defined as the inductance of any circuit in which a
current changing at the rate of one ampere per second will induce an e. m.f. of one volt.
The symbol for inductance is the letter "L." The values of L encountered in electronic
work vary from a few microHenries (millionths or 10-6 Henries) up to perhaps several
Henries. A milliHenry is equal to 10-3 Henry.

The value of inductors in series is the same as for resistors. Inductors in series will add
up in value. If two equal value inductors are connected in parallel, the combined value
will be half the value of either inductor. If unequal value inductors are connected in par-
allel, the combined value will be less than the lowest value inductor. (3AE3-2.1)(3AE3 -
2.2)(3AE3-2.2)(3AE3-2.3)(3AE3-2.4)(3AE3-3.1)(3AE3-3.2)(3AE3-4.1)(3AE3-4.2)

Capacitors - St.ill another reactive device often found in electronic circuits is the ca-
pacitor. Old timers (and a few auto mechanics) call these components "condensers" but
these are found in air conditioners and refrigerators. A capacitor is usually an arrange-
ment of two or more metallic plates, separated from one another by air or some other in-
sulating material known as a dielectric. Just as an inductor can store energy in a
magnetic field, a capacitor can store energy in an electric field. (3AE4-l.J)

When a DC vol tage source is connected across the capacitor, electrons will be drawn
away from one set of plates toward the positive battery terminal, and they will simulta-
neously be forced out of the negative terminal and into the opposite set of plates. This
action will continue until the capacitor is fully charged. TI1e amount of charge it can
take is determined by the number, area, and spacing of its plates contributing to its ca-
pacitance and the type of dielectric separating the plates.

Since there is no such thing as the perfect insulator there will be some leakage through
the dielectric. The excess electrons will try to get back to the opposite plates and fill up
the deficiency. But for the most pait, the capacitor will remain chai·ged until an external
return path is provide.ct for electrons.
126 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association
 CHAPTER E

This can be proved by the experiment il- 0.5 mfd

~-
lustrated with a single dry cell battery, an
earphone, a capacitor and a double-pole
double-throw switch. This is shown in the
circuit of Figure E.8. When the switch is
thrown to the left, electrons from the nega-
tive battery terminal will pile up on plate A
of the capacitor while electrons from plate
EARPHONE
B will drain into the positive terminal of
the cell. The capacitor will be quickly Figure £8
charged. When the switch is thrown to the
right, the charge will be equalized (or discharged) as the excess electrons on plate A
rush through the earphone circuit and back to plate B. At the same time a distinct
"click" will be heard in the earphone. This sound proves there was momentary current
flow.

The unit of capacitance is the Farad. This is the value a capacitor would have if its volt-
age were raised one voil by a current of one ampere for one second. Such a capacitor,
however, would be physically huge. Thus a Farad is almost never encountered in prac-
tice. Electronic circuits use capacitors rated in micro-Farads (10-6 Farads) and in
today's miniaturized world, even pico-Farads (10-1 2 Farads). (3AE4-2.1 )(3AE4-
2.2)(3AE4-2.3)(3AE4-2.4)

Multiple capacitors connected in a circuit are the mathematical opposite of resistors and
inductors. If two equal value capacitors arc connected in series. the total value will be
half the value of either capacitor. If a number of capacitors arc connected in series, the
total value will always be less than the smallest value capacitor. By the same token, if
two equal value capacitors are connected in parallel, the combined value will be twice
the value of either capacitor. If a number of capacitors arc connected in parallel, the
total value will be the sum of all the capacitor values. (3AE4-3.1)(3AE4-3.2) (3AE4-
4.1)(3AE4-4.2)

Current doesn't actually now Lhrough the capacitor but goes around the circuit, back
and forth between the plates. Because of this, AC appears to now through a capacitor
while, at the same time, DC is blocked. The alternating current flow through the capaci-
tor is impeded decreasingly as the frequency is increased. This effect is called the ca-
1>acitive reactance to AC. There is also an equivalent with coils (inductors) cal led
inductive reactance. An inductor connected in series with a source of AC will increas-
ingly impede the flow of current as the frequency is increased. This is exactly the oppo-
site of the capacitor.

Resonance and Tuned Circuits

There are three electronic components for retarding the flow of current in circuits. They
are resistance, inductance and capacitance. Let's see what happens when we use them
all in a single circuit.

The Nationa l Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 127

 CHAPTER E

In Figure E.9, we see each compo- 5100Il.

nent combined in series with an RF
(radio frequency) generator. This AC
source is supplying 2 volts at a fre-
quency of 2.5 megaHertz (2.5 mil- 0.5 mh
8,000Il.
lion times per second). Under these
conditions the inductive reactance of I·0.39ma
the coil is about 8,000 ohms, and the
capacitive reactance of the capacitor
is also about 8,000 ohms. With only Figure E.9
2 volts of signal, it would seem that s,000n
the current in this circuit should be exceedingly small. But when we measure it, we find
the current to be 0.39 milliamperes, or simply the value of current caused by E/R . It
seems that the reactances in the circuit are nonexistent and have no effect whatsoever.

There is a reason for this. The reactance of the capacitor and inductors tends to cancel
each other. Complete cancellation occurs only at one specific frequency where the reac-
tances are equal. This is known as the resonant frequency.

We can understand just what this means simply by shifting the frequency of our genera-
tor. Suppose we reduce the generator frequency down to 2.0 megaHertz. The reactance
of the capacitor will increase, while the inductive reactance decreases. As a result their
reactances no longer completely cancel.

By making the capacitor (C) or inductor (L) variable, the frequency at which the reac-
tances cancel can be moved around. Thus the resonant frequency of the LC combination
can be adjusted to a specific frequency. This circuit of an inductor in parallel with a ca-
pacitor is said to be parallel resonant. The parallel resonant circuit is basic to virtually
every piece of radio communications equipment.

Resonant circuits are used in radio and TV receivers, both for the selection of the de-
sired signal and for the rejection of unwanted signals. The relative ability of a receiver
to perform these functions is called its selectivity. In transmitters, the entire process of
generation and amplification of RF energy is dependent upon tuned circuits. Low pass
and high pass fi lters (mentioned in the pre-
vious chapter) arc simply combinations of
capacitors and inductors. These filters op-
pose certain frequencies, while allowing
others to pass.

Not all tuned circuits arc parallel resonant.

Another type of circuit, called series reso-
nant, is encountered somewhat less fre-
quently. A practical application of both
- - - - PARALLEL types is shown in Figure E.10. The input
RESONANT
Figure E.10 of a receiver, where the primary of the an-
tenna transformer is tuned to series reso-
128 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association
 CHAPTER E

nance, while the secondary is made parallel resonant There is also a parallel resonant
trap circuit in the ground leg of the antenna circuit. This trap could be used to get rid of
an interfering signal. Each circuit is tunable to resonance by means of a variable capaci-
tor. Both windings of the antenna transformer are tuned for the same purpose. When
resonant, the circuits develop maximum voli.age at the desired signal frequency.

Amplitude, Wavelength and Frequency

In the last chapter, we made the analogy that radio signals were somewhat akin lo the
wave action when a pebble was thrown into a quite pool of water. The ripples radiate of
from the point of impact (where the pebble hit) in concentric circles.

Let's apply some of the electrical principals you just learned to more clearly visualize
the action of the waves we created in the last chapter.

As the first wave reaches the shore, the water level rises. Then as the crest passes the
water level drops to its original or normal position. But as the wave continues across the
pond, the crest is followed by a trough. This causes the water level to drop below its
original position. This action repeats until the wave action runs out of energy and the
pond returns to its original stiJI condition. The complete action from normal, crest, nor-
mal, valley, normal is our old friend the sine wave.

If we could view the action from the side at a fixed position, the wave action would look
exactly like the waveform in Figure E.6. There are three chamcteristics of a sine wave
that you should be aware of. They are the: (1) amplitude, (2) wavelength, and (3) fre-
quency.

The vertical distance between the crest and the trough is the amplitude of the wave.
The bigger the rock, the larger the amplitude of the wave. If you toss a Volkswagen in
the quiet pool, larger waves will be created than for a small pebble.

The distance between any two reference points (for example between two crests or two
troughs) is the length of the wave or, more commonly, the wavelength. The number of
times a crest (or a valley) passes a given point in a specific length of time is called the
frequency. These repetitive cycles must be related to time. The most common unit of
time is the second. Thus, frequency is expressed in the number of cycles per second (ac-
tually Hertz per second or simply Hz). (2El3.1)(2El3.2)

Remember, the number of sine wave events which occur each second is referred to as
the frequency. The distance or length between any two identical and repetitive reference
points on a sine wave is called Lhe wavelength

Mathematics and Amateur Radio

By using a water analogy, I may have given you the impression that a cycle was a slow
and ponderous event. Nothing could be further from the truth. Sine wave frequencies arc
usually generated electronically rather than mechanically and the alternations occur very

The National Amateur Radio Associat ion Ham Radio Handbook 129
 CHAPTER E

rapidly. For example, the radio frequencies

generated by a cellular telephone alternate
more than 800 million times per second (800
megaHertz). Think that's fast? Home satellite
receivers operate al frequencies four times as
high!

The Morse Machine from Advanced El ec· The lowest frequencies hams arc involved
tronic Applications Is not only a keyer,with are called audio frequencies. This is the
range between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz (20 kHz)
but It can also send code practice slmula·
lions. (AEA Photo) that our ears can hear. Above 20,000 Hz, the
spectrum is usually referred to as radio fre-
quencies. The various radio frequency sub-definitions were mentioned in Chapter A.
(2El2-4. 1)(2E12-4.2)(2El2-4.3)(2EI2-5.1)(2E12-5.2)

Why is it important to understand mathematics, such as the difference between wave-

length and frequency? Let's say a friend makes a schedule to talk with you on 10 meters
(wavelength), but your receiver is calibrated in Mhz (frequency). How do you make the
conversion?

You also need to understand how to convert metric measurements. What if an antenna
drawing specifics a metal tube 400 centimeters long. How big is this in meters or feet?
Like it or not, Mathematics is an important part of our hobby.

There arc 1,000 Hertz (Hz) in a kiloHertz (kHz). Likewise, there are a million Hertz or a
1,000 kiloHertz in a MegaHcnz (MHz). Ten Limes one hundred kiloHcrtz is also equals
one MHz. The largest unit you will be expected to deal with is the GigaHertz (G Hz).
There arc 1,000 McgaHertz in one GigaHcrtz. Remember, these are the rates of the al-
ternating radio frequency energy - that's 1,000 million times per second!

Let's say there is a code practice station listed as operating on ·1,200 MegaHertz (MHz).
But the dial on your radio is calibrated in GigaHertz. Since there are 1,000 MHz in one
GHz, you can divide 1,000 into 1,200. The answer is 1.2. The station wouJd be found at
1.2 GigaHertz on your diaJ. (2E l -l.1) (2E 1-2.2)

What if your Helping Ham friend called and said there was a rare DX station on 7, 125
kHz. Again, your dial is calibrated in MHz. Where would you find the station? Remem-
ber, LJ1cre are 1,000 kHz in one MHz. But the frequency you arc looking for is more ·
than 7,000 kHz. Thus, the answer must be 7.125 MHz. (2E 1-2.1)

Using the same analysis, determine what 3.525 Mhz wouJd be in kHz. Or convert 3,725
kH7. to Hertz. (The correct answer is 3525 kHz and 3,725,000 Hertz, respectively).
(2EJ-3.1)(2E1-3.2)

130 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Rad io Association

 CHAPTER E

You can use the same technique when convening metric numbers. Remember that
"centi" means hundred. Thus, there are four uni ls of 100 in a something that is 400 cen-
timeters long. The four units is the measurement in meters. (2El-4.1)

If the meter on your transmitter was calibrated in milliamperes, how many amperes
would be llowing if the meter indicated 3,000 milliamperes. Remember, "mi Iii" means
one thousand. Thus, there are 1,000 milliamperes in one ampere. By dividing 1,000 into
3,000 we arrive at the answer of 3 amperes. (2E 1-5.1)

Milli is milli , regardless of how it is used. Another question on metering in the test asks
how many volts there arc in 3,500 millivolts. There arc 1,000 millivolts in a volt so the
correct answer is 3.5 volts. (2El-5.2)

Capacitor values confuse the best or us, even with an Amateur license. We usually wind
up with a pencil and paper movi ng decimal points around with great abandon. The
smallest common unit of capacity is the pico-Farad. There are 1,000 pico's in a nano-
Farad (1,000 pF equals one nF). There are also 1,000 nano-Farads in a micro-Farad (or a
million pico-Farads, at the risk of confusing you further). Finally, there are one-million
micro-Farads in a Farad. Thus, 500,000 micro-Farads would be a half-Farad (0.5 F).
(2El-6.1)(2El-7.1)

Clearly, you are going to have to memorize some of tl1ese equivalences. Read and re-
read Ille above material until you are sure you can answer the conversion questions cor-
rectly. Once you think you've got it, try answering the following questions.

SUB ELEMENT 2E (4 questions)

2El-1.1 Your receiver dial is calibrated in megaHertz and s hows a signal at 1,200
M H z. At what frequency would a dial calibrated in gigaHertz show the signal? (A)
1,200,000 GHz; (B) 12 GHz; (C) 1.2 GHz; (D) 0.0012 GHz.

2El-2.l Your receiver dial is calibrated in kiloHertz a nd shows a signal at 7,125

kHz. At what frequency would a dial calibrated in megaHertz show the signa l? (A)
0.007125 MHz; (B) 7. 125 MHz; (C) 71.25 MHz; (D) 7,1 25,000 MHz.

2El-2.2 Your receiver diaJ is calibrated in gigaHertz a nd shows a signa l a t 1.2

GHz. At what frequency would a dial calibrated in megaHertz show the sam e s ig-
nal? (A) 1.2 MHz; (B) 12 MHz; (C) 120 MHz; (D) 1,200 MHz.

2El-3.1 Your receiver dial is calibrated in megaHertz and shows a s ignal at 3.525
MHz. At what frequ ency would a dial cali brated in kiloHertz show the signal? (A)
0.003525 kHz; (B) 3,525 kHz; (C) 35.25 kHz; (D) 3,525,000 kHz.

2El-3.2 Your receiver dial is calibrated in kiloHer tz a nd shows a signal at 3,725

kHz. At what frequ ency would a dial calibr ated in H ertz show the same signal? (A)
3,7251-lz; (B) 3.725 Hz; (C) 37.25 Hz; (D) 3,725,000 Hz.

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 131

 CHAPTER E

2El-4.l How long (in meters) is an antenna that is 400 centimeters long'? (A) 0.0004
meters; (B) 4 meters; (C) 40 meters; (D) 40,000 meters.

2El -5.1 What reading wiJI be displayed on a meter calibrated in amperes when it is
being used to measure a 3,000-milliampere current? (A) 0.003 amperes; (B) 0.3 am-
peres; (C) 3 amperes; (D) 3,000,000 amperes.

2El-S.2 What reading will be displayed on a meter calibrated in volts when it is

being used to measure a 3,500-millivolt potential? (A) 350 volts; (B) 35 volts; (C) 3.5
volts; (D) 0.35 volts.

2El-6.l How many Farads is 500,000 microFarads? (A) 0.0005 Farads; (B) 0.5 Far-
ads; (C) 500 Farads; (D) 500,000,000 Farads.

2El-7.1 How many microFarads is 1,000,000 picoFarads? (A) 0.00 1 microFarads;

(B) 1 microFara~ (C) 1,000 microFarads; (D) 1,000,000,000 microFarads.

2E2-l.l What is the term used to describe the flow of electrons in an electric cir-
cuit? (A) Voltage; (B) Resistance; (C) Capacitance; (D) Current.

2E2-2.l What is the basic unit of electric current? (A) The volt; (B) The watt; (C)
The ampere; (D) The ohm.

2E3-1.1 What supplies tbe force that will cause electrons to now through a circuit?
(A) Electromotive force, or voltage; (B) Magnetomotive force, or inductance; (C) Farad
force, or capacitance; (D) Thermodynamic force, or entropy.

2E3-1.2 The pressure in a water pipe is comparable to what force in an electrical

circuit? (A) Currem; (B) Resistance; (C) Gravitation; (D) Voltage.

2E3-1.3 An electric circuit must connect to two terminals of a ' 'oltage source. What
are these two terminals called? (A) The north and south poles; (B) The positive and
neutral term inals; (C) The positive and negative terminals; (D) The entrance and exit
terminals.

2E3-2.l What is the basic unit of' voltage? (A) The volt; (B) The watt; (C) The am-
pere; (D) The ohm.

2E4.l List at least three good electrical conductors. (A) Copper, gold, mica; (B)
Gold, silver, wood; (C) Gold, silver, aluminum; (D) Copper, aluminum, paper.

2ES.l List at least four good electrical insulators. (A) Glass, air, plasLic, porcelain;
(B) Glass, wood, copper, porcelain; (C) Paper, glass, air, aluminum; (D) Plastic, rubber,
wood, carbon.

132 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER E

2E6-1.1 There is a limit to the electric current that can pass through any material.
What is this current limiting called? (A) Fusing; (B) Reactance; (C) Saturation; (D)
Resistance.

2E6-l.2 What is an electrical component called tha t opposes electron movement

through a circuit? (A) A resistor; (B) A reactor; (C) A fuse; (D) An oersted.

2E6-2.1 What is the basic unit of r esistance? (A) The volt; (B) The wall; (C) The am-
pere; (D) The ohm .

2E7. 1 What electrical principle relates voltage, current and r esistance in an e lectric
circuit? (A) Ampere's Law; (B) Kirchhoffs Law; (C) Ohm 's Law; (D) Tesla's Law.

2E7.2 Ther e is a 2-amp current through a 50-ohm r esistor . What is the a pplied
voltage? (A) 0.04 volts; (B) 52 volts; (C) 100 volts; (D) 200 volts.

2E7.3 If 200 volts is applied to a 100-ohrn resistor, what is the current through the
resistor? (A) 0.5 amps; (B) 2 amps; (C) 50 amps; (D) 20000 amps.

2E7.4 Ther e is a 3-amp current through a r esistor and we know that the applied
voltage is 90 volts. What is the value of the r esistor? (A) 0.03 ohms; (B) 10 ohms; (C)
30 ohms; (D) 2700 ohms.

2E8.1 What is the term used to describe the a bility to do work? (A) Voltage; (B)
Power; (C) rnertia; (D) Energy.

2E8.2 What is converted to heat and light in an e lectric light bulb? (A) Electrical
energy; (B) Electrical voltnge; (C) Electrical power; (D) Electrical current.

2E9-1.1 W hat term is used to describe the r a te of energy consumption? (A) Energy;
(B) Current; (C) Power; (D) Voltage.

2E9-1.2 You have two lamps with different wattage light bulbs in them. How can
you d etermine which bulb uses electrical energy faster? (A) The bulb that operates
from the higher voltage will consume energy faster; (B) The physically larger bulb will
consume energy faster; (C) The bulb with the higher wallage rating will consume en-
ergy faster; (D) The bulb will1 1.he lower wattage rating wi Uconsume energy faster.

2E9-2.l Wha t is the basic unit of electrical power? (A) Ohm; (B) Wall; (C) Volt; (D)
Ampere.

2EI0.1 What is the term for an electrical circuit in which there can be no current?
(A) A closed circuit; (B) A short circuit; (C) An open circuit; (D) A hyper c ircuit.

The National Amateur Rad io Association Ham Radio Handbook 133

 CHAPTER E

2Ell.1 What is the term for a failure in an electrical circuit that causes excessively
high current? (A) An open circuit; (B) A dead circuit; (C) A closed circuit; (D) A short
circuit.

2E12-1.l What is the term used to describe a current that flows only in one direc-
tion? (A) Alternating current; (B) Direct current; (C) Periodic current; (D) Pulsating
current.

2E12-2.l What is the term used to describe a current that flows first in one direc-
tion, then in the Of)posite direction, over and over? (A) Alternating current; (B) Di-
rect current; (C) Negative current; (D) Positive current.

2E12-3.1 What is the term for the number of complete cycles of an alternating
waveform that occur in one second? (A) Pulse repetition rate; (B) Hertz; (C) Fre-
quency per wavelength; (D) Frequency.

2E12-3.2 A certain AC signal makes 2000 complete cycles in one second. What
property of the signal does this number describe? (A) The frequency of the signal;
(B) The pulse repetition rate of the signal; (C) The wavelength of the signal; (D) The
Hertz per second of the signal.

2E12-3.3 What is the bas ic unit of' frequency'? (A) The HcrLZ; (B) The cycle; (C) The
kiloHenz; (D) The megaHertz.

2E12-4.1 What range of frequencies are usually called audio frequencies? (A) 0 to
20 Hz; (B) 20 to 20,000 Hz; (C) 200 to 200,000 Hz; (D) 10,000 to 30,000 Hz.

2El2-4.2 A signal at 725 Hz is in what frequency range? (A) Audio frequency; (B)
Intermediate frequency; (C) Microwave freque ncy; (D) Radio frequency.

2El2-4.3 Why do we call signals in the range 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz a udio frequen-

cies? (A) Because the human car rejects signals in this frequency range; (B) Because the
human car responds to sounds in this frequency range; (C) Because frequencies in this
range are too low for a radio to detect; (D) Because a radio converts signals in this range
directly to sounds the human ear responds to.

2E12-5.1 Signals above what frequency are usually called radio-freq uency signals?
(A) 20 Hz; (B) 2000 Hz; (C) 20,000 Hz; (D) 1,000,000 Hz.

2E12-S.2 A signal at 7,125 kHz is in what frequency range? (A) Audio frequency;
(B) Radio frequency; (C) Hyper-frequency; (D) Super-high frequency.

2El3.1 What is the term for the d istance an AC signal travels during one complete
cycle? (A) Wave velocity; (B) Velocity factor; (C) Wavelength; (D) Wavelength per
meter.
134 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Rad io Association
 CHAPTER E

2E13.2 In the time it takes a certain radio signal to pass your antenna, the leading
edge of' the wave travels 12 meters. What property of the signal does this number
refer to? (A) The signal frequency; (B) The wave velocity; (C) The velociLy factor; (D)
The signal wavelengLh.

SUBELEMENT 3AE (2 questions).

3AE1-1.l What is meant by the term resistance? (A) The opposition to the flow of
current in an electric circuit containing inductance; (B) The opposition to the flow of
current in an electric circuit containing capacitance; (C) The opposition to the flow of
current in an electric circuiL containing reactance; (D) The opposiLion to the now of cur-
rent in an electric circuit that does not contain reactance.

3AE1-2.l What is an ohm? (A) The basic unit of resis1.ance; (B) The basic unit of ca-
pacitance; (C) The basic uniL of inductance; (D) The basic unit of adrnillance.

3AE1-2.2 What is the unit measurement of r esistance? (A) Volt; (B) Ampere; (C)
Joule; (D) Ohm.

3AE1-3.1 Two equal-value r esistors are connected in series. How does the total re-
sistance of this combination compare with the value of either r esistor by itself? (A)
The total resistance is half the value of e ither resistor; (B) The tota l resistance is twice
the value of either resistor; (C) The total resistance is the same as the value of either re-
sistor; (D) The total resistance is the square of the value of either resistor.

3AE1 -3.2 How does the total resistance of a string of' series-connected resistors
compare to the values of the individual r esistors? (A) The total resistance is the
square of Lhe sum of all Lhe individual resistor values; (B) The LOLal resistance is the
square root of Lhe sum of the individual resistor values; (C) The total resistance is the
sum of the squares of the individual res istor values; (D) The total resistance is the sum
of all the individual resistance values.

3AE1-4.1 Two equal-value resistors a re connected in parallel. How does the total
resista nce of this combin ation compare with the value of' either resistor by itself?
(A) The total resistance is twice the value of e ither resistor; (B) The total resistance is
half the value of eilher resistor; (C) The total resisLance is the square of Lhe value of ei-
ther resistor; (D) The total resistance is the same as the value of either resistor.

3AE1-4.2 How does the total resista nce of a string of parallel-connected resistors
compare to the values of the individual resistors? (A) The total resistance is the
square of the sum of the resistor values; (B) The Lota! resistance is more than the high-
est-value resistor in Lhe combination; (C) The total resistance is less than the srnaJlest-
value resistor in the combination; (D) The total resistance is same as the highest-value
resistor in the combination.

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 135

 CHAPTER E

3AE2.l W ha t is Ohm's Law? (A) A mathematical relationship between resistance,

voltage and power in a circuit; (B) A mathematical relationship between current, resis-
tance and power in a circuit; (C) A mathematical relationship between current, voltage
and power in a circuit; (D) A mathematical relationship between resistance, current and
applied voltage in a circuit.

3AE2.2 How is the curr ent in a DC circuit calculated when tbe voltage and resis-
tance are known ? (A) I= EI R; (B) P = l x E; (C) I= Rx E; (D) I = Ex R.

3AE2.3 What is the input r esistance of a load when a 12-volt batter y supplies 0.25
a mperes to it? (A) 0.02 ohms; (B) 3 ohms; (C) 48 ohms; (D) 480 ohms.

3AE2.4 T he product of the current and what force gives the electrical power in a
circuit'? (A) Magnetomolive force; (B) Centripetal force; (C) Electrochemical force;
(D) Electromotive force.

3AE2.5 W hat is the inp ut r esistance of a load when a 12-volt battery su pplies 0.15
a mper es to it? (A) 8 ohms; (B) 80 ohms; (C) 100 ohms; (D) 800 ohms.

3AE2.6 W hen 120 volts is measured acr oss a 4700-ohm resistor, appr oximately
how much current is flowing through it? (A) 39 amperes; (B) 3.9 amperes; (C) 0.26
ampere; (D) 0.026 ampere.

3AE2.7 When 120 volts is measured across a 47000-ohm r esistor, appr oximately
how much curr ent is flowing t hrough it? (A) 392 A; (B) 39.2 A; (C) 26 mA; (D) 2.6
mA.

3AE2.8 W hen 12 volts is measur ed across a 4700-oh m resistor, a pp r oxima tely how
much cu rrent is flowing t hrough it? (A) 2.6 mA; (B) 26 mA ; (C) 39.2 A; (D) 392 A.

3AE2.9 When 12 volts is measur ed acr oss a 47000-ohm r esistor, approxima tely
how much c urrent is flowing t hrough it? (A) 255 uA; (B) 255 mA; (C) 3917 mA; (D)
3917 A.

3AE3-l.1 W hat is the t erm used to d escribe the a bility of a componen t to stor e en-
er gy in a magnetic field? (A) Admittance; (B) Capacitance; (C) Inductance; (D) Resis-
tance

3AE3-2.l W hat is the basic unit of inductance? (A) Coulomb; (B) Farad; (C) Henry;
(D) Ohm.

3AE3-2.2 What is a Hen ry? (A) The basic unit of admittance; (B) The basic unit of ca-
pacitance; (C) The basic unit of inductance; (D) The basic un il of resistance.

136 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio A ssociation

 CHAPTER E

3AE3-2.3 What is a microHenry? (A) A basic unit of inductance equal Lo 10-12 Hen-
rys; (B) A basic unit of inductance equal to 10-6 Henrys; (C) A basic unit of inductance
equal to 10-3 Henrys; (D) A basic unit of inductance equal to 10-6 Henrys.

3AE3-2.4 What is a milliHenry? (A) A basic unit of inductance equal to 10-12 Hen-
rys; (B) A basic unit of inductance equal to 10-6 Henrys; (C) A basic unit of inductance
equal to 10-3 Henrys; (D) A basic unit of inductance equal Lo 10-6 Henrys.

3AE3-3.l Two equal-value inductors are connected in series. How does the total in-
ductance of this combination compare with the value of either inductor by itself'?
(A) The total inductance is half the value of either inductor; (B) The total inductance is
twice the value of either inductor; (C) The total inductance is equal to the value of either
inductor; (D) No comparison can be made without knowing the exact inductances.

3AE3·3.2 How does the total inductance of a string of series-connected inductors

compare to the values of the individual inductors? (A) The total inductance is equal
lo the average of all the individual inductances; (B) The total inductance is equal to less
than the value of the smallest inductance; (C) The total inductance is equal to the sum of
all the individual inductances; (D) No comparison can be made without knowing the
exact inductances.

3AE3-4.l Two equal-value inductors are connected in parallel. How does the total
inductance of this combination com pare with the value of either inductor by itself?
(A) The total inductance is half the value of either inductor; (B) The total inductance is
twice the value of either inductor; (C) The total inductance is equal to the square of ei-
ther inductance; (D) No comparison can be made without knowing the exact induc-
tances.

3AE3-4.2 How does the total inductance of a string of parallel-connected inductors

compare to the values of the individual inductors? (A) The total inductance is equal
to the sum of the inductances in the combination; (B) The total inductance is less than
the smallest inductance value in the combination; (C) The tot.al inductance is equal to
the average of the inductances in the combination; (D) No comparison can be made
without knowing the exact inductances.

3AE4-1.1 What is the term used to describe the ability of a component to store en-
ergy in an electric field? (A) Capacitance; (B) lnquctance; (C) Resistance; (D) Toler-
ance.

3AE4-2.l What is the basic unit of capacitance? (A) Farad; (B) Ohm; (C) Volt; (D)
Ampere.

3AE4-2.2 Wbat is a microFarad? (A) A basic unit of capacitance equal to 10-12 Far-
ads; (B) A basic unit of capacitance equal to 10-6 Farads; (C) A basic unit of capaci-
tance equal to 10-2 Farads; (D) A basic unit of capacitance equal Lo 10-6 Farads.

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 137

 CHAPTER E

3AE4-2.3 What is a picoFarad? (A) A basic unit of capacitance equal Lo 10-12 Farads;
(B) A basic uniL of capacitance equal to 10-6 Farads; (C) A basic unit of capacitance
equal to 10-2 Farads; (D) A basic unil of capacitance equal LO 10-6 Farads.

3AE4-2.4 What is a Farad? (A) The basic unit of resistance; (B) The basic unit of ca-
pacitance; (C) The basic unit of inductance; (D) The basic uniL of admiuance.

3AE4-3.1 Two equal-value capacitors are connected in series. How does the total
capacitance of this combination compare with the value of either capacitor by it-
self? (A) The LOLal capacitance is Lwice the value of either capacitor; (B) The total ca-
paciLance is equal to Lhe value of either capaciLOr; (C) The Lota! capacitance is half the
value of either capacitor; (D) No comparison can be made without knowing the exact
capacitances.

3AE4-3.2 How does the total capacitance of a string of series-connected capacitors

compare to the values of the individual capacitors? (A) The total capacitance is equal
to the sum of the capacitances in the combination; (B) The total capacitance is less than
the smallesLvalue of capacitance in the combination; (C) The total capacitance is equal
to the average of the capacitances in the combination; (D) No comparison can be made
without knowing the exact capacitances.

3AE4-4. l Two equal-value capacitors are connected in parallel. How does the total
capacitance of this combination compare with the value of either capacitor by it-
self? (A) The total capacitance is twice the value of either capacitor; (B) The total ca-
pacitance is half the value of either capacitor; (C) The total capacitance is equal to the
value of either capacitor; (D) No comparison can be made without knowing the exact
capacitances.

3AE4-4.2 How does the total capacitance of a string of' parallel-connected capaci-
tors compare to the values of the individual capacitors? (A) The total capacitance is
equal to the sum of the capacitances in the combination; (B) The total capacitance is less
than the smallest value of capacitance in the combination; (C) The total capacitance is
equal to the average of the capacitances in the combination; (D) No comparison can be
made without knowing the exact capacitances.

138 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

Cha ter

Circuit Components

I* F~ur
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?f the 55 questions you wiU be asked on. your Technician t~~ come from ~le i
Circuit ComponcntS Subelcmcms of the Novice (2) and Techn1c1an (2) question ~~
fr,E:~~~~;., !~~i~~!~~?.~~,,:L1,,L~~,~~,9, ~,~r,~~,,}?,,,~,;,~2£!,~,~~=-,,~}!,~~"~'~":,\,~~;jJ;g~1];,~r,,,~,~,~l~,,~, , ,J~

M
ost people have seen the "innards" of an electronic product. Older equipment
was a maze of wires m1d mysteri ous colorful shapes. Newer electronic de-
vices contain etched circuit boards with more mys terious and color ful obj ects,
but much smaller and aligned in a much more orderl y manner. These bits and pieces of
electronic trivia are the devices which make the product function. They are called el ec-
tronic components. Their specific names arc resistors, capacitors, inductors, connectors
and so on.

The collection of components is laced together by copper wires in the handmade product
ancl by copper circuit traces on the etched circuit board in the automated production ver-
sion. For each piece of electronic equipment, there is a roadmap of where the parts are
located and how they are connected togetJ1er. This guide is called a circuit or schematic
di agram. It, along wi th other supporting infonnation, tells the manufacturer exactl y how
the product should be assembled.

Each of the electronic components has a schematic symbol which is a standardized rep-
resentation of the device. Anyone skilled in electronics can look at the schematic " pic-
ture" and say " That's a resistor" or " This end of the capacitor is grounded".

Symbols
T he Resistor - Jn the last chapter, we discussed an electronic component which im-
peded the Jlow of electrici ty. The component was called a resistor. The primary purpose
of a resistor is to limit current flow in a circuit. The electronic symbol for a resistor is:
(2Fl.l ) (2Fl.3)(3AF1-2. l )(3AFI-5. l)
 CHAPTER F

In addition Lo Lheir runclion in limiLing current,

resistors also convert electrical energy Lo heal
energy. An example is Lhe heating element in a
stove or toasLcr. (3AFI -4. 1)

There arc four principal types of resistors used in elecLronics. They are carbon-composi-
tion, carbon-film, metal-film and wire-wound. The most common form of resistor is
made from carbon. This is very much like the black material that one finds in the center
ofa pencil. (3AF1-l.l)

Since they do dissipate heat in some cases, it is necessary LO observe the wattage rating
of resistors. Carbon composition resistors vary in size from 1/8 wall up Lo 2 watts. Wire-
wound resistors use nichrome wire and vary in rating from 1 watt up to several hundred
watts. Usually the physical siie is proportional to the power dissipation capability for
both carbon and wire types. (3AF1-4.2)

Resistors are available in stepped val ues from 2.7 ohms up to 22 million ohms (22 meg-
ohms or 22M). It is difficult to accurately make a value smaller than 2.7 ohms from car-
bon, where there is very little use for resistors above 22M in electronic equipment.

The numeric value is not primed on the resisLor. Rather, a coding scheme employing
color bands is used. A typical resistor is shown in the accompanying drawing. The first
three color bands are used to indicate the resistance value. The first two value bands are
numeric indicmors, while the third value band is a multiplier which indicates the num-
ber of zeros. Thus, a resistor marked red-red-orange would have a value of 22,000
ohms. For small values, a black band indicates no zeros (values between 2.7 and 99
ohms). A gold band indicates divide by 10 (for values between 2.7 and 9.9 ohms).
(3AFI-3. 1)(3AF 1-3.2)

To determine the accurate value, another factor must be known. A fourth band indicates
the tolerance of the resistor. For example if the resistor is 10,000 ohms (brown-black-or-
ange-silver), it has a 10% tolerance as indicated by the silver band. The actual value of
the resistor may vary between 9,000 and J 1,000 ohms. This is considered a rather poor
resistor. Five percent tolerance resistors are almost universal in consumer electronics
equipment. Military equipment use 1% resistors. A 1% tolerance resistor has an extra
value indicating band. (3AFI-3.3)(3AF1 -3.4)

10,000 OHMS 5% TOLERANCE First Three !lands Fourth Band

Black -0 Blue -6 (Tolerance)

~~P!l )lLO )- Brown -·1 Violet -7 Gold ± 5%

Red -2 Grey -8 Silver :t 10%
Orange -3 White -9 none ± 20%
Yellow -4 Silver -0.01
OOM
Green -5 Gold -0. l
140 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association
 CHAPTER F

Occasionally we need a version of resistor which is continuously variable. This variable

resistor is called a potentiometer. It is simply a resisLive element with a sliding contact
attached to a shaft. When the shaft position is
moved, the resistance is varied. Attached lo the
shaft is a knob which is used as the resistance
value adjustment. The volume control in a radio
or television is a good example of a potentiome-
ter. The symbol for a potentiometer is: (2Fl .2)
(3AF1-2.2)(3AF1-5.2)

The Inductor- Inductors are a very special component in electronics. Every electronic
product contains inductors since every wire has a small amount of inductance.

If a piece or conducling wire is formed into a

coil, it's inductance value rises drnmatically. Il
Lhen takes on the property of an inductor or
coil. The symbol for an inductor or coil is:
(3AF2-l.2)(3AF2- I.3)

Four parameters will effect the exact value of an inductor, (a) the number of turns in the
coil, (b) the diameter of the coil, (c) the spacing between turns and (d) the core the coil
is wound on. (3AF2-3.1)

If the number of turns are doubled, the inductance value will increase by four times. The
larger the coil, the greater the inductance value. As the spacing between turns is de-
creased, the inductive value is increased. Finally, the core can have a remarkable effect
of the value of an inductor. (3AF2- l .2)

When a current is passed through an inductor, lines of force are created. You can dem-
onsirate this by winding some wire on a steel nail. Connect the two wire ends to a flash-
light battery and the electromagnet you have just created will attract and hold steel
objects like paper clips. The intensity of the field is affected by the same factors that
control inductance.

Picking up paperclips is not a unique property. Any magnet will do this. What is unique
is the ability of an inductor to store energy in its magnetic field. (3A.F2-2.1)

~
A popular use for Inductors is the radio frequency choke from MFJ. It Is useful for supress-
ing RF on wires and cables to prevent TV interference.

The Nationa l Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 141

 CHAPTER F

Another property of inductors is they oppose the now current bul in a very unique man-
ner. When an inductor is connected to a source of DC voltage (a battery, for exan1ple),
the lines-of-force expand from the coil. But in doing so, the expanding lines cul through
the turns of the coil and induce a current flow in them. However, this current flow is ex-
actly opposite from the current caused by the battery. Thus, there is an opposition to
current now.

Eventually, however, the DC current now does reach maximum , the Jines of force stop
expanding and no opposition current is created. Thus, the current flow through the cir-
cuit is limited only by the DC resistance of the inductor. Thus the magnetic field op-
poses the increase or decrease in current flow. (3AF2-2.2)

Previously, it was stated that the core can have a significant effect on the value of an in-
duclOr. Here's why. The core is defined as the central portion of a coil and may consist
of air, iron, brass or other material. So far the discussion has implied a coil of wire
wound wil.h an air core. Usually an air core coil is wound on a paper or plastic tube.
(3AF2-l.l)

The lines of force in the core area can be aided

_(QQQ)__ or opposed if a material other than air is used for
the core material. For example, if a core material
of iron is used, the rnagnel.ic lines of force are
concentrated by the material and the inductance is increased. The symbol used to repre-
sent an iron core inductor is shown in the accompanying drdwing. (3AF2-3.2)(3AF2-
3.3)(3AF2-4.2)

If the core material is brass (usually silver plated to reduce loss), the material impedes
the lines of force and the inductance is decreased below its value with an air core.
(3AF2-3.4)

Note ll1at in the case of either iron or brass, some losses will be introduced when used in
a RF application. An air core coil will exhibit the least amount of loss. (3AF2- l .4)

1f the iron core can be inserted and removed, the

I~
inductor can be made variable. The symbol used
1.0 represent an adj ustable inductor is shown in
the accompanying drawing. (3AF2-4. l)

Most Lunable coils and transfonners used in

111Nll'UI IIOX;TANCE
electronics employ cores of powdered iron.
A cera111ic material called ferrite is also
used to greatly increase the inductance of a
HEOIU1 l!!OU:::TAOCE coil. Virtually every piece of Amateur
Radio receiving or transmitl.ing equipmem
~ !RONCORE- made today uses some form of variable in-
MAXIMUM INDUCTANCE ductor.
142 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association
 CHAPTER F

Another form of core is a donuL cast of powdered

iron or ferrite. The tums are wound on the donuL and
all the lines of force arc contained in the core mate-
rial. There is very little external magnetic energy.
This component is called a toroid inductor. The sche-
matic for a toroid is: (3AF2-4.3)

The Capacitor - One of the most useful compo-..

nents in electronics is called a capaciLor. A capacitor
consists or two or more conducting plates with an in-

1-----j ~ I
sulating material between them. The insulating mate-
rial can be air, paper (with or without saturating
chemicals) and ceramic. The insulating medium is
called the dielectric. The symbol for a capacitor is:
(3AF3-l .1)(3AF3-1 .2)

The characLeristics of a capaciLor are just the opposite of an inducLor. There is no elec-
tromagnetic field associated with a capacitor. This device stores energy, but in an elec-
tric or electrostatic field. Also, unlike an inductor, capacitors oppose a change in
voltage rather than a change in current. (3AF3-2. l )(3AF3-2.2)

CapaciLors are specifi ed by the capacitive value and voltage breakdown rating. The area
of the conducting plates, the number of plates, the spacing between the plates and the
type of dielectric material will determine the value of the capacitor. If the size or num-
ber of plaLes are made larger, the capacitance will increase. If the spacing between the
plates in increased, Lhe capacitive value decreases. The spacing between plates and the
dielectric determines the breakdown voltage of the capacitor. (3AF3-2.3)(3AF3-
2.4)(3AF3-3. I)(3AF3-3 .2)(3AF3-3 .3)

If the insulator is paper, the device is referred to as a paper capacitor. By the same

referrc<I to ao electrolytic capacitor. An electro-

lytic muse be connected in the proper polarity.
Thus it's schematic diagram has a symbol indi-
I ----j ~
I
token, if a chemical is used in the dielectric (to increase its capacitance), the device is

cating the positive terminal. The symbol for an

electrolytic capacitor is: (3AF3-1.3)(3AF3-1.4)

fr
(3AF3-4. I )

If the spacing between plates is adjustable, the

device is called a variable capacitor. The schc-
I I
;~~c diagram of a variable capacitor is: (3AF3-

Switches- If you touch the wire from a motor to a battery terminal, you are acting just
like a switch. When you touch the wire to t.he battery and the motor runs, you have
closed the switch. When you lift the wire and the moLor stops, you have opened the

The Nationa l Amateur Radio A ssociation Ham Radio Handbook 143

 CHAPTER F

swiLch. This is type of switch is called a single pole, single throw (SPST) switch. In
other words, you are only breaking one wire connection. The symbol for a single-pole,
single-throw (SPST) switch is: (2F2.1)(2F2.5)

BATTERY SWITCH MOTOR

('---------"""-G
--1--
~ + _- _ o---o
_ _ [ F
SPST Switch

Let's say you touch the wire first to the negative terminal of battery "A" and then
moved the wire to the positive terminal of banery "B". This will comrol the direction of
motor rotation. In doing this, you break only one connection but you are " throwing the
switch handle" (the wire you hold) in two positions. This type of switch is called a sin-
gle pole, double throw (SPDT) switch. (2F2.2)

MOTOR

SPDT Switch

In this example, you connected the wire to the positive terminal of one battery and the
negative terminal of a second battery. The remaining battery terminals are connected to-
gether and are wired to tJ1e unswitched terminal of the motor.

BATTERY
,-~~~I'll\,~~~~~~~~~~
SWITCH
A MOTOR

DPDT Switch

144 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER F

What if you want to switch both wires? Let's say you have one in each hand. First you
connect the two wires to the positive and negative terminals of battery "A" and the
motor runs in one direction. Then you move the two wires over to the minus and plus
terminals of battery "B". The motor nms in the opposite direction. In this example you
have simulated a double pole, double throw (DPDT) switch. (2F2.3)

Switches need not be one way or the other (double throw). Often you will find rotary
switches in electronic equipment A common example is the selector on your stereo sys-
tem. The knob on the front can select between
AM, FM, phone, compact disk player, tape
one, tape two and so on. This type of switch is
called a rotary. The symbol for a five position
rotary switch (such as might be used in your
stereo) is: (2F2.4)

Fuses - Each of us has probably changed a fuse at one time or another. Most pieces of
electronic equipment contain these tiny protectors of the electronic kingdom. The sym-
bol for a fuse is #1 in Figure 2F-l (see Page 147). (2F3.l)

Batteries - The symbol for a bauery is not a round cylinder with two screw terminals
on top as shown in the previous illustrations. This pictorial was just a representation to
illustrate a familiar object The voltage of a single cell battery is usually around l.5
I
volts. Multiple cell batteries, such as the 9 volt
version that Radio Shack gives away with a I~
I
card, are shown in schematics the following i--
way: (2F4.1)(2F4.2)

Antenna and Ground - One terminal of the battery (or power source) is usually com-
mon to most of the circuits in a piece of electronic equipment. We call this part of a cir-
cuit the common point or common ground. In older equipment, this common point was
usually the metal chassis upon which the circuit was constructed.

Today, few pieces of electronic equipment use a metal chassis for the common ground.
The rransistor radio for example, uses one or more plastic circuit boards all contained
inside a plastic enclosure. Even a large VCR in a metaJ case confines it's "chassis
grounds" to a common length of foil running around each of the many circuit boards in-
side.

BATTERY SWITCH MOTOR

+

Common Ground
The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 145
 CHAPTER F

So the tennis a little misleading. A common ground simply means the end of the circuit
that is common to most of the parts of the circuit. For example, note the battery, motor
and SPST switch could have been drawn as shown in the common ground diagram.

The strange looking symbol is called the ground or, for the purposes of the Technician
test, the chassis ground. Obviously you don't have to go outside and drive three metal
stakes into the earth to make the circuit work. We call the common points in a circuit
the common ground (chassis ground). (2F5.2)(2F5.3)

Occasionally we do need to signify an outside

J_
EARTH ANTENNA
r earth ground, as an example for lightening
protection. We do this with a different ground
symbol. The symbol denoting earth is shown
in the accompanying drawing. (2F5.1) (2F5.4)

One often finds the earth ground symbol in a schematic diagr<un along with an antenna
symbol. The circuit shorthand for an antenna is also shown in the above drawing.
(2F6.1)

Tubes and Transistors- You won't see them

much anymore in schematics but the symbol
for a vacuum tube (in this case a triode, or
three element "valve") is shown in the ac-
companying drawing. (2F8. I)

These days, you are much more likely to see

a transistor symbol than one for a vacuum
tube. Even these are less common with the in-
troduction of the integrated circuit. An TC
can incorporate thousands of transistors all on a tiny chip of silicon.

There are two principal types of transistors and the difference is a function of the manu-
facturing process. Impurities added to the silicon detennine if the transistor is a nega-
tive-positive-negative (NPN) or a positive-negative-positive (PNP) device. The symbol
for each type is shown. The only schematic difference is which way the arrow points on
the element known as the emitter. (2F7 .1 )(2F7 .2)(2F7 .3)(2F7.4)

NPN PNP
146 Ham Rad io Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association
 CHAPTER F

Now that you' ve had a look at some of the symbols used in electronics, let's see how
you do with the portion of the test that asks these questions.

SUBELEMENT 2F (2 questions)
2Fl.l What is the symbol used on schema tic diagrams to represent a r esistor?
(Please r efer to Diagram 2F-1.1 ) (A) Symbol A; (B) Symbol B; (C) Symbol C;
(D)Symbol D.
,,_,
A, ,... 8, -J\N'- A, ...I
I B. ryffi
C. -()--- 0, com C, ~ o. fr
Figure 2F - 1.1 Figure 2F- 1.2
2FI.2 What is t he symbol used on schem atic diagrams to r epresent a variable resis-
tor or potentiom eter ? (Please r efer to Diagram 2F-l.2) (A) Symbol A; (B) Symbol
B; (C) Symbol C; (D)Symbol D.

2Fl.3 In Diagram 2F-I, which component is a resistor? (A) I ; (B) 2; (C) 3; (D)4.

A. CY---6 B.
C, o---; D. ~
Figure 2F-1 Figure 2F-2.1
2F2. l What is the symbol used on schematic diagrams to re present a single-pole,
single-throw switch? (Please r efer to Diagram 2F-2.l) (A) Symbol A; (B) Symbol B;
(C) Symbol C; (D)Symbol D.

2F2.2 What is the symbol used on schematic diagrams to r epresent a single-pole,

double-throw switch? (Please r efer to Dia1:,r ram 2F-2.2) (A) Symbol A; (B) Symbol
B; (C) Symbol C; (D)Symbol D.

A, o---; B. 0-
L_ A, o---; B.
0
0
o-fo
oYo
c. CY---6 0. ______.~ C. o-L_ 0. o----r
Figure 2F-2.2 Figure 2F - 2.3
2F2.3 What is the symbol used on schematic diagrams to represent a double-pole,
double-throw switch? (Please refer to Diagram 2F-2.3) (A) Symbol A; (B) Symbol
B; (C) Symbol C; (D)Symbol D.

The Nationa l Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 147

 CHAPTER F

2F2.4 What is the symbol used on schematic diagrams to represent a single-pole 5-

position rotary switch? (Please refer to Diagram 2F-2.4) (A) Symbol A; (B) Symbol
B; (C) Symbol C; (D)Symbol D.

_L
A. ~~~~
C, <\.~.,.o
er+~
B,
0.
Figure 2F - 2.4
0
I
--
-

o°)=;0 L4J3 Figure 2F-2

2F2.5 In Diagram 2F-2, which compon ent is a switch? (A) 1; (B) 2; (C) 3; (D)4.

2F3.l What is the symbol used on schematic diagrams to represent a fuse? (Please
refer to Diagram 2F-3.1) (A) Symbol A; (B) Symbol B; (C) Symbol C; (D)Symbol D.
- + - +
A. --v- B. -irn- A. -d-~- Bi -D-
C, ~ 0, 9 c. +
-1 f- 0, + -o=:J}-
-

Figur e 2F-3. 1 Fi gure 2F- LJ, 1

2F4.l What is the symbol used on schematic d iagrams to represent a single-cell
battery? (Please refer to Diagram 2F-4.l) (A) Symbol A; (B) Symbol B; (C) Symbol
C; (D)Symbol D.

2F4.2 What is the symbol used on schematic diagrams to re p resent a m ultiple-cell

battery? (Please refer to Diagram 2F-4.2) (A) Symbol A; (B) Symbol B; (C) Symbol
C; (D)Symbol D.
+
A. --0-0-0-- A. B.
+ -
C, ~ llll c. D.
Figure 2F- 4.2 Figur e 2F -5. 1
2FS.1 What is the symbol normally used to represent an earth-ground connection
on schematic d iagrams? (Please refer to Diagram 2F-5.l) (A) Symbol A; (B) Symbol
B; (C) Symbol C; (D)Symbol D.

2FS.2 What is the symbol normally used to represent a chassis-ground connection

on schematic diagrams? (Please refer to Diagram 2F-S.2) (A) Symbol A; (B) Symbol
B; (C) Symbol C; (D)Symbol D.

2FS.3 In Diagram 2F-5, which symbol represents a chassis gr ound connection? (A)
1; (B) 2; (C) 3; (D)4.
148 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association
 CHAPTER F

A.
c.
l
J_
--
B.
D. 8
!h
IQ: -: 4
Figure 2F -5.2 Figure 2F - 5
2F5.4 In Diagram 2F-5, which symbol represents an earth ground connection? (A)
1; (B) 2; (C) 3; (D)4.

2F6.l What is the symbol used to r epresent an antenna on schematic diagrams?

(Please refer to Diagram 2F-6.1) (A) Symbol A; (B) Symbol B; (C) Symbol C;
(D)Symbol D.

A. T B.W7
c. D. f D I
E ~ B2
\!:f-Bl

Figure 2F - 6, 1 Figure 2F - 7, 1
2F7.l What is the symbol used to represent an NPN bipolar transistor on sche-
matic diagrams? (Please refer to Diagram 2F-7.1) (A) Symbol A; (B) Symbol B; (C)
Symbol C; (D)Symbol D.

2F7.2 What is the symbol used to represent a PNP bipolar transistor on schematic
diagrams? (P lease refer to Diagram 2F-7.2) (A) Symbol A; (B) Symbol B; (C) Sym-
bol C; (D)Symbol D.

B. E-©=B2
A. ()
c. () D. E-©=82
Bl

Bl
IQ: -: "l
Ftgure 2F - 7.2 Figure 2F - 7
2F7.3 In Diagram 2F-7, which symbol represents a PNP bipolar transistor? (A) l ;
(B) 2; (C) 3; (D)4.

2F7.4 In Diagram 2F-7, which symbol represents an NPN bipolar transistor? (A) l;
(B) 2; (C) 3; (D)4.
Plate ~Plate
211'8. l What is the symbol used to repre- A'
Grid
Cat hode
B '
= Grid
Cathode
sent a triode vacuum tube on schematic
diagrams? (Please refer to Diagram 2F- C, ~~~~~e cJ,td ~Plate
8.1) (A) Symbol A; (B) Symbol B; (C)
Symbol C; (D)Symbol D.
'--TC cathode '-r<..-cathode
Figure 2F - 8. 1
The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 149
 CHAPTER F

SUB ELEMENT 3AF (2 questions).

3AF1-1.1 What are the four common types of resistor construction? (A) Carbon-
film , metal-film, micro-film and wire-film; (B) Carbon-composition, carbon-film,
metal-film and wire-wound; (C) Carbon-composition, carbon-film , electrolytic and
metal-film; (D)Carbon-film , ferrite, carbon-composition and metal-film.

3AF1-2.1 What is the pt·imary function of a r esistor? (A) To store an electric charge;
(B) To store a magnetic field; (C) To match a high-impedance source to a low-imped-
ance load; (D)To limit the c urrent in an electric circuit

3AF1-2.2 What is a variable r esistor? (A) A resistor that changes value when an AC
voltage is applied to it; (B) A device that can transform a variable voltage into a con-
stant voltage; (C) A resistor with a slide or contact that makes the resistance adjustable;
(D)A resistor that changes value when it is heated.

3AF1-3.l Wha t do the first three color bands on a resL<;tor indicate? (A) The value
of the resistor in ohms; (B) The resistance tolerance in percent; (C) The power rating in
watts; (D)The value of the resistor in henrys.

3AF1-3.2 How can a carbon r esistor's electrical tolerance rating be found? (A) By
using a wavemcter; (B) By us ing the resistor' s color code; (C) By using Thevenin's the-
orem for resistors; (D)By using the Baudot code.

3AF1-3.3 What does the fourth color band on a resistor indicate? (A) The value of
the resistor in ohms; (B) The resistance tolerance in percent; (C) The power rating in
watts; (D)The resistor composition.

3AF1-3.4 When the color bands on a group of resistors indicate that they all have
the same resistance, what further information about each resistor is needed in
order to select those that have nearly equal value? (A) The working voltage rating of
each resistor; (B) The composition of each resistor; (C) The tolerance of each resistor;
(D)The current rating of each resistor.

3AFI-4.1 Why do resistors generate heat? (A) They convert electrical energy to heat
energy; (B) They exhibit reactancc; (C) Because of skin effect; (D)To produce therm-
ionic e mission.

3AF1-4.2 Why would a la rge size resistor be substituted for a smaller one of the
same resistance? (A) To obta in bener response; (B) To obta.in a higher current gain;
(C) To increase power dissipation capabili ty; (D)To produce a greater parallel imped-
ance.

3AF1-5.1 What is the symbol used to represent a fixed resistor on schematic dia-
grams? (Please r efer to Diagr a m 3A F1-5.1) (A) Symbol A; (B) Symbol B; (C) Sym-
bol C; (D)Symbol D.

150 Ham Rad io Handbook The Nationa l Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER F

A. ~ B. fr
c. ~~ 0. -/'(~

Figure 3AF- l-5. l Figure 3AF-1-5.2 ANO 3AF-2- 4. 1

3AF1-5.2 What is the symbol used to represent a variable resistor on schematic di-
agrams. (Please refer to Diagram 3AF1-5.2) (A) Symbol A; (B) Symbol B; (C) Sym-
bol C; (D)Symbol D.

3AF2-1.1 What is an inductor core? (A) The point at which an inductor is tapped to
produce resonance; (B) A tight coil of wire used in a transformer; (C) An insulating ma-
terial placed between the plates of an inductor; (D)The central portion of a coil; may be
made from air, iron, brass or other material.

3AF2-1.2 What are the component parts of' a coil? (A) The wire in the winding and
the core material; (B) Two conductive plates and an insulating material; (C) Two or
more layers of silicon material; (D)A donut-shaped iron core and a layer of insulating
tape.

3AF2-1.3 Describe an inductor. (A) A semiconductor ifi a conducting shield; (B) Two
parallel conducting plates; (C) A straight wire conductor mounted inside a Faraday
shield; (D)A coil of conducting wire.

3AF2-1.4 For radio frequency power applications, which type of inductor has the
least amount of loss? (A) Magnetic wire; (B) Iron core; (C) Air core; (D)Slug tuned.

3AF2-2.1 What is an inductor? (A) An electronic component that stores energy in an

electric field; (B) An electronic component that convertS a high voltage LO a lower volt-
age; (C) An electronic component that opposes DC while allowing AC LO pass; (D)An
electronic component that stores energy in a magnetic field.

3AF2-2.2 What are the electrical properties of an inductor? (A) An inductor stores a
charge electrostatically and opposes a change in voltage; (B) An inductor stores a
charge electrochemically and opposes a change in current; (C) An inductor stores a
charge electromagnetically and opposes a change in current; (D)An inductor stores a
charge electromechanicall y and opposes a change in voltage.

3AF2-3.l What factors determine the amount of inductance in a coil? (A) The type
of material used in the core, the diameter of the core and whether the coil is mounted
horizontally or vertically; (B) The diameter of the core, the number of turns of wire used
to wind the coil and the type of metal used in the wire; (C) The type of material used in
the core, the number of turns used to wind the core and the frequency of the current

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 151

 CHAPTER F

through the coil; (D)The type of material used in the core, the diameter of the core, the
lengt11 of the coi1and the number of turns of wire used to wind the coil.

3AF2-3.2 What can be done to raise the inductance of a 5-micr ohenry a ir-core coil
to a 5-millihenry coiJ with the same physica l d imensions? (A) The coil can be wound
on a non-conducting tube; (B) The coil can be wound on an iron core; (C) Both ends of
the coil can be brought around to form the shape of a donut, or toroid; (D)The coil can
be made of a heavier-gauge wire.

3AF2-3.3 As an ir on core is inserted in a coil, what happens to the inductance? (A)

TL increases; (B) It decreases; (C) It stays the same; (D)It becomes voltage-dependent.

3AF2-3.4 As a brass core is inserted in a coil, what happens to the inductance? (A)
It increases; (B) It decreases; (C) It stays the same; (D)It becomes voltage-dependent.

A. rYn B. -fr A. -NV'- B. (TQOI

c. ~- 0. ¥ c. =Dll D. ~

Figure 3AF- l-5.2 ANO 3AF-2-4.l Figure 3AF-2-4.2

3AF2-4.l What is the symbol used to r epresent an adjusta ble inductor on sche-
matic diagrams? (P lease refer to Diagram 3AF2-4.l) (A) Symbol A; (B) Symbol B;
(C) Symbol C; (D)Symbol D.

3AF2-4.2 W hat is t he sym bol used to

r e1>resent an ir on-core inductor on sche- A. -V-
matic diagrams? (Please refer to Dia -
gram 3AF2-4.2) (A) Symbol A; (B)
Symbol B; (C) Symbol C; (D)Symbol D.
c I
fm') D I
~

Figure JAF-2-4.3
3AF2-4.3 What is the symbol used to
represent an inductor wound over a toroidal cor e on schematic diagrams? (Please
r efer to Diagra m 3AF2-4.3) (A) Symbol A; (B) Symbol B; (C) Symbol C; (D)Symbol
D.

3AF3-1.1 What is a capacitor dielectric'? (A) The insulating material used for the
plates; (B) The conducting material used between Lhe plates; (C) The ferrite material
that the plates are mounted on; (D)The insulating material between t11e plates.

3AF3-1.2 W hat a r e the component parts of a capacitor ? (A) Two or more conduc-
Live plates wiLh an insulating material between them; (D) The wire used in the winding
and the core material; (C) Two or more layers of silicon material; (D)Two insulating
plates with a conductive material between them.
152 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association
 CHAPTER F

3AF3-l.3 What is an electrolytic capacitor? (A) A capacitor whose plates are formed
on a thin ceramic layer; (B) A capacitor whose plates are separated by a thin strip of
mica insulation; (C) A capacitor whose dielectric is formed on one set of plates through
electrochemical action; (D)A capacitor whose value varies with applied voltage.

3AF3-1.4 What is a paper capacitor? (A) A capacitor whose plates are formed on a
thin ceramic layer; (B) A capacitor whose plates are separated by a thin s1rip of mica in-
sulation; (C) A capacitor whose plates are separated by a layer of paper; (D)A capacitor
whose dielectric is formed on one set of plates through electrochemical action.

3AF3·2.l What is a capacitor? (A) An electronic component that stores energy in a

magnetic field; (B) An electronic component that stores energy in an electric field; (C)
An elec1ronic component that converts a high voltage to a lower voltage; (D)An elec-
tronic component that converts power into heat.

3AF3-2.2 What are the electrical properties of a capacitor? (A) A capacitor stores a
charge electrochemically and opposes a change in current; (B) A capacitor stores a
charge electromagnetically and opposes a change in current; (C) A capacitor stores a
charge electromechanically and opposes a change in voltage; (D)A capacitor stores a
charge electrostatically and opposes a change in voltage.

3AF3-2.3 What factors must be considered when selecting a capacitor for a circuit?
(A) Type of capacitor, capacitance and voltage rating; (B) Type of capacitor, capaci-
tance and the kilowatt-hour rating; (C) The amount of capacitance, the temperature co-
efficient and the KV A rating; (D)The type of capacitor, the microscopy coefficient and
the temperature coefficient.

3AF3-2.4 How are the characteristics of a capacitor usually specified? (A) In volts
and amperes; (B) Jn microfarads and volts; (C) In ohms and watts; (D)In millihenrys
and amperes.

3AF3-3.l What factors determine the amount of capacitance in a capacitor? (A)

The dielectric constant of the material between the plates, the area of one side of one
plate, the separation between the plates and the number of plates; (B) The dielectric con-
stant of the material between the plates, the number of plates and the diameter of the
leads connected to the plates; (C) The number of plates, the spacing between the plates
and whether the dielectric material is N type or P type; (D)The dielectric constant of the
material between the plates, the surface area of one side of one plate, the number of
plates and the type of material used for the protective coating.

3AF3-3.2 As the plate area of a capacitor is increased, what happens to its capaci-
tance? (A) Decreases; (B) Increases; (C) Stays the same; (D)Bccomes voltage depen-
dent.

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 153

 CHAPTER F

3AF3-3.3 As the plate spacing of a capacitor is increased, wha t happens to its ca-
pacitance? (A) Increases; (B) Stays the same; (C) Becomes voltage dependent; (D)De-
creac;es.

3AF3-4.1 What is the symbol used to represent an electrolytic capacitor on sche-

matic diagrams? (Please refer to Diagram 3AF3-4.l) (A) Symbol A; (B) Symbol B;
(C) Symbol C; (D)Symbol D.

+
A. B. -101- A.
c. -=1r+- 0. -1f-
+
c.
F1gure 3AF-3-4.1 Figure 3AF-3- 4.2
3AF3-4.2 What is the symbol used to represent a variable capacitor on schematic
diagrams? (Please refer to Diagram 3AF3-4.2) (A) Symbol A; (B) Symbol B; (C)
Symbol C; (D)Symbol D.

154 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 Cha ter

Practical Circuits

I This will be asked

::::::c~:x::::::-::;~:;~!,::::::,:~:_:;:~;:;~~:::;:::::;::~:::!~~~"'"»."«_~:;:;:;:::::::;:;:::::~"--:-~::,..~~~:;~:::;:::::::::~::::~;:;'::$;:~:~X·~~-::•;,;::::;::::<%%,~':X;;::;:::~':};&:;;>~~~1

~ You
c~apter
tests you on rec?gnition of elements in a simplified schemalic. .
two quesllons from tJ1e Novice pool (2G) and one question from
variou~

~ Lhe Technician pool (3AG). In various places, Lhe text references drawings as part of
~ an ex?lanation. These drawings will be found within the 20 and 3AG Subclement I*
/,,,fil}.3,,~,~'~8,~,~,5~J:.:J~~~2~~L.2.~~.JD,~~l,~£~~S,:::,1:, , , , , ,,;~""';'imw...,.. . ~~-''
. ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '~~~~,;,,,:::.;.,, , , , ," ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ~<~w=-~$.~""':,;,)~
n Chapter F you saw how electronic components were connected together to form a

I schematic diagram. It is not always necessary to have such detailed drawings of

elecrronic circuitry to provide useful infonnation, however.

For example, you might want to show how a transmitter, receiver and antenna were re-
lated to a power supply. It is not necessary to show every capacitor and resistor in each
piece of electronic gear to convey the idea.

Rather, the various circuits which make up a transmitter can be illustrated with a rectan-
gle marked "transmiuer". A combination of these boxes and an illustration of the con-
necling paths is called a block diagram.

Block Diagrams
Figure 2G 1-1.1 shows a typical block diagram for a basic Amateur station. The power
supply energizes the transceiver (transmitLLer-receiver). The power delivered by the
transmitter portion is connected to an unmarked block. This block is an antenna switch.
Depending on the posilion of the switch, mepower can be delivered to the antenna or to
a dummy antenna (load). As we discussed in Operating Procedures (Chapter 8), Lune-up
of the transmitter should never be done into an antenna. Tuning should be done into an
dummy amenna to avoid interfering with other Amateurs. (201-1. l)
 CHAPTERG

If the ham station uses a separate receiver and transmitter, a switch could be connected
as shown in Figure 2Gl-1.2). The unmarked block infers a transmitter since the an-
tenna switch is connected to a block marked receiver. (2G 1-1.2)

A similar drawing is shown in Figure 2G l -l.3. In this case, the unmarked block would
represent a receiver. The block labeled key infers the transmitter is a CW type and this
represents a Morse radiotelegraph station. This is also true for the drawing of Figure
2G2.2. The unmarked block in Figure 2G2.2 could also be labeled "electronic keyer." A
keyer is a device that delivers timed "dits" and "dahs" and helps one send good Morse
code characters. If the "key" block were simply relabeled "microphone," the diagram
could infer a voice station. (2G l- l .3)(2G2. l )(2G2.2)(2G2.3)(2G3 .1 )(2G3.2)

So far, the drawings show the use of a single antenna. Many ham stations, however, use
multiple amenna systems even for the same band. A multi-band dipole might be used
for local contacts on various frequenci es and a beam antenna for chasing DX. A dummy
antenna would be included for tune-up, as shown in Figure 20 1-J .4. The unmarked
block in this drawing would be a transceiver since a transmitter would be of no value
without a receiver. (2G 1-1.4)

From the preceding chapter, you should recall the symbol for an antenna. It is again
shown in Figure 2G-l as elemem number 4. (201-1.5)

The drawing shown in Figure 201-2.1 is similar to the configuration in Figure 2G 1-1.4.
In this case, the unmarked block is the device that selects the antenna. This device is
called an antenna switch. (2Gl-2. 1)

The switch shown in drawing 2Gl-2.2 is called a TR or transmit-receive switch. This

device works automatically. When RF output from the transmitter is present, the switch
automatically disconnects the receiver and connects the antenna Lo tJm transmitter. This
is the purpose of the unmarked block in 2G1-2.2. (2G 1-2.2)

An Amateur antenna is not always perfect. It may be used on frequencies where it is not
dimensionaJJy optimum. As mentioned in Chapter D, this causes st.anding waves on the
transmission line (or feed line as it is called in Figure 2Gl-2.3). Standing wave can
cause a number of problems.

In this case a device is required for matching the 50 ohm output of U1e transmitter to the
value of the antenna at any given frequency. The solution lo sta nding waves is to em-
ploy a device called an antenna tuner. This is an impedance matching device which
fools the transmitter into thinking it is connected to a perfect antenna. This is the pur-
pose of the unlabeled block in drawing 2Gl -2.3. This would also be the purpose of
block number 3 in Figure 20-1. The other unmarked blocks in this drawing are trans-
ceiver (I) and SWR meter (2). (2G l -2.3)(2Gl-2.4)(2G I -2.5)

156 Ham Rad io Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER G

The block diagram shown in Figure 3AG4-l.2 illustrates a CW trans mitter . The oper-
aLing frequency is comrolled by a var ia ble frequency oscillator. A similar circuit is
shown in Figure 3AF4- l.3. In this case, however, the frequency determining element is
a q uar tz crystal. This is called a cr ystal controlled transmitter. (3AG4-l.2)(3AG4-
1.3)

The circuit shown in Figure 3AG4-l.4 is for a simple CW-SS B receiver. Signals re-
ceived by Lhe antenna are selected by Lhe oscillator, then amplified and passed to the un-
labeled block. This circuit is a detector whic h converts lhe received radio frequency
energy back to its origina l aud io component. By Lhe way, every receiver incorporates
some form of detector. (3AG4- 1.1)(3AG4-l.4)

Compare Fig ure 3AG4- I .4 to Figure 3AG4-2.1 which is the simplified block diagram
for a frequency m od ulation (FM) receiver . In Lhis case, the freq uency discriminator
is the detector. (3AG4-2. l)

Similar to Figures 3AG4-l.2 and 3AG4-l.3, the block diagram in Figure 3AGt1 -1.5 rep-
resems a simple CW transmitter. (3AG4- 1.5)

A block d iagram for a simple FM transmitter is shown in Fig ure 3AG4-2.2. Audio volt-
age from the microphone is amplified and passed through a clipper/filter. This circuit
acts as a deviation limiter . This energy is used to change the phase of Lhe freq uency de-
termining crystal oscillator. The unmarked circuit which accomplishes this is called a
reactance modulator. (3AG4-2.2)

Digital Configurations
The earliest "digital" stations were called radio teletype (RTTY). A five-bit code of
one's and zero's called Baudot (bah-doe) was used for RTTY. This mode of operation
was very popular with Amateurs since anyone could get on RTTY. The teleprinter ma-
chines (similar to an electronic typewriter) were donated to Amateur groups by Western
Union and RCA. All that was required to make the RITY teleprinter come to life was a
modem (mod uJator-demod ulato r) called a ter m ina l unit or T U. This is the purpose
of the unlabeled block in Figure 204.2. (2G4. 1)(2G4.2)

In the early part of Lhe '80's, the teleprinters were replaced by computers. With the de-
velopment of packet rad io, Lhe Amateur RTTY station was doomed to obsolescence.
Packet permits addressing messages and passing them for long distance Lhrough a sys-
tem of ter minal-node controller s (TNC) or digipeaters. By changing the unmarked
block in Figure 2G4.2 or 2GS.2 LO TNC, you
can bring the block diagram up to date. The \
TNC, which connects between the computer ,
and the transceiver, is very much like an in-
I
telligent modem. For your test remember that
modems are used on RTTY and TNC's are
used for packet communication. (2G5.1) The "PAKRA TT-232" from AEA sends and
(2GS.2)(2GS.3) receives most digital modes, even CW.

The National Amateur Rad io Association Ham Radio Handbook 157

 Filters
The circuits used to ftlter unwanted
signals makes an interesting illus-
tration of the use and characteristics
of inductors and capacitors. This
was discussed in Chapter G.

An inductor has increasing opposi-

tion to AC as the frequency is in-
creased. Capacitors, on the other
This low pass filter connects to the HF transmitter hand, have decreasing opposition to
output and cuts off at 30 MHz. (AEA photo) AC as the frequency is increased.

If we connect an inductor in series and a capacitor in shunt with the signal path (see Fig-
ure G. I), a low-pass filter is created. If we feed this with a source or radio frequency
energy, it will assume the characteristics shown in the response curve included with Fig-
ure G. I. As the frequency of RF is increased, the filter will exhibit increasing opposition
(or increasing attenuation). The corner above which the auenuation increases is called
the cutoff frequency. The low-pass filter passes energy below this frequency but blocks
il above this point. (3AG 1-1.l )(3AG ·1- 1.2)

A low-pass filter similar to the circuit shown in G.l is incorporated in the antenna cir-
cuit of virtually every Amateur transmitter. The cutoff frequency would be near the
transmitter output frequency. Thus it would auenuate or block the output of any har-
monic frequencies. (3AG 1-2. 1)

The low-pass filter included in the transmitter reduces the level of lumnonics below that
mandated by the Federal Communications Commission. In some cases even this tiny
level can still interfere with a nearby television receiver. In this case it is necessary to
add external low-pass filtering to the transmiuer to reduce the harmonic level even fur-
ther. (3AG1-2.2)

MIN
:z
0
........
0 I-
<(
INPUT OUTPUT ~
w
I-
I-
<(

Figure G.1 MAX I FREQUENCY

The reciprocal configuration is called a high-pass filter. In Lhis case, the capacitor is in
series and the inductor is in shunt with the signal path (sec Figure G.2). The capacitor
presents decreasing opposition or auenuation to higher frequencies while the inductor

158 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER G

MIN
0 >--- -----<
z
.....
0

INPUT OUTPUT ~
::::i
z:
w
0--- - 111 • --o
I - - --+-
t-
i-
<(

Figure G.2 MAX -'-==FREQUENCY

=====-----
_____..
has decreasing opposition. The high-pass filter also has a reciprocal application. lt
would be used at the televisio n receiver rather than at the Ammcur transmitter. The cor-
ner or cutoff frequency is chosen to pass television transmissio ns but reject low fre-
quency Amateur transmissions. (3AG2-l .1)(3AG2-2.1)(3AG2-2.2)

MIN
z:
0
,..._.
I-
<(

OUTPUT ::::i
INPUT z:
w
I-
I-
<(

o---1 MAX --t-F_R_E-OU

_E_N_C_Y_ _ ~

Figure G.3
A low-pass and a hig h-pass filter can be combined to form a band-pass filter . The cir-
cuit and characte ristics for this configuration is shown in Figure G.3. Note that energy is
rejected above and below the frequencies the filter is designed to pass. (3AG3-
1.1)(3AG3-1.2)(3AG3-2. l)

Now, le t's take a look at the test questions for this chapter, and refer to the block dia-
g rams previously discussed.

SUBELEMENT 2G (2 questions)
2G1-l.l What is the unlabeled block (?) in this diagram ? (Please refer to Diagram
2G -l-l.l) (A) A term inal-node controller; (B) An antenna switch; (C) A telegraph key;
(D) A TR switch .
ANTENNA ANTENNA

TRAKSCE!-vffi ? RECEJVBI

PO'.IER SUPPLY FOWER SUPPLY

Figure 2G - 1-1. 1 Figure 2G - 1- 1.2

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 159

 CHAPTER G

2Gl-l.2 What is the unlab eled b lock (?) in this diagr am ? (Please refer to Diagram
2G-1-l.2) (A) A microphone; (B) A receiver; (C) A transmitter; (D) An SWR meter.

2G 1-1.3 What is the unlab eled block (?) in this diagram? (P lease r efer to Diagra m
2G-1-1.3) (A) A key c lick filter; (B) An anLenna tuner; (C) A power supply; (D) A re-
ceiver.
ANTENNA

S\JR 8RIOOE

Figure 2G - 1 -1.3 Figure 2G - 1-1.4

201-1.4 W h at is the unlabeled block (?) in th is diagram? (Please r efer to Diagram
2G-1-1.4) (A) A 1ransceiver; (B) A T R switch; (C) An antenna tuner; (D) A modem.

2Gl-l.S In block diagram 2G-1, w hich symbol represents a n antenna? (A) 1; (B) 2;
(C) 3; (D) 4.

S\JR 8RJCCE

Figure 2G - 1 Figure 2G - 1- 2.1

2G l -2.l What is t he u nla beled block in this diagram ? (Please refer to D iagr a m 2G-
l -2.1 ) (A) A pi network; (B) An antenna switch; (C) A key click filler; (D) A mixer.

2Gl-2.2 W ha t is the unlabeled block in th is diagram? (Please r efer to Diag ram 2G-
1-2.2) (A) A TR switch; (B) A variable frequency oscillator; (C) A linear amplifier; (D)
A microphone.

ANTENNA

T~'ISCEIVER 5\01! IJRIDCE

TRANSH!TTER

Figure 2G - 1- 2.2 Figure 2G- 1- 2.3

2Gl-2.3 Wha t is the unlabeled block in this diagram? {Please r efe r to Diagr am 20-
1-2.3) (A) An antenna switch; (B) An impedance-matching network; (C) A key click fil -
ter; (D) A terminal-node controller.

2Gl-2.4 In block diagram 2G-I, if com ponent 1 is a tra nsceiver a nd compon en t 2 is

a n SWR m eter , w hat is com ponent. 3? (A) A power supply; (B) A receiver; (C) A mi-
crophone; (D) An impedance matching device.

160 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER G

2G l -2.S In block diagram 2G-1, if componen t 2 is an SWR meter a nd component 3

is an impedance matching device, what is component 1? (A) A power supply; (B) An
antenna; (C) An antenna switch; (D) A transceiver.

2G2.l In a n Amateur station des igned for Morse radiotelegraph operation, what
s tation a ccessory w ill you need to go with your transmitter? (A) A termina l-node
controller; (B) A telegraph key; (C) An SWR meter; (D) An antenna switch.
ANTENNA

RECE!l/ER

Figure 2G- 1 Figure 2G - 2.2

2G2.2 W hat is the unla beled block (?) in this diagram of a Mor se telegraphy sta-
t ion? (Please refer to Diagram 2G-2.2) (A) A sidetone oscillator; (B) A microphone;
(C) A telegraph key; (D) A DTMF keypad.

2G2.3 W hat stat ion a ccessory d o many Amateurs use to help for m good Morse
code character s? (A) A sidetone oscillator; (B) A key-click filter; (C) An electronic
keyer; (D) A DTMF keypad.

2G3.1 In an Amateur station des igned for ra diotelep hone oper a tion, what station
accessory will you need to go with your tra nsmitter? (A) A splatter filter; (B) A ter-
minal-voice contro ller; (C) A rece iver audio filter; (D) A microphone .

2G3.2 What is the unla beled block (?) in this diagram of a radiotelephone station?
(Please r efer to Diagr am 2G-3.2) (A) A splatter filter; (B) A terminal-voice controller;
(C) A rece iver audio fi l ter; (D) A microphone.
--~~~~~~~~~~~~~-.

ANTENNA ANTENNA

TRAHSCEIVER

Figur e 2G - 3.2 Figure 2G - 4.2

2G4.1 In a n Amateur sta tion d esigned for radiotelety pe operation, what station ac-
cessories will you need to go with your tra nsm itter? (A) A mode m and a teleprinter
or computer system; (B) A computer, a printer and a RTTY refresh unit; (C) A terminal-
node controller; (D) A modem, a monitor ancl a DTivlF keypad.

2G4.2 What is the unlabeled block (?) in this diagr a m? (Please r efer to Diagram
2G-4.2) (A) An RS-232 interface; (8 ) SWR bridge; (C) Modem; (D) Terminal-ne Lwork
controller.

The Nationa l Amateur Rad io A ssociation Ham Radio Handbook 161

 CHAPTER G

2G5.l In a packet-radio station, what device connects between the radio trans-
ceiver and the computer terminal? (A) A terminal-node controller; (B) An RS-232 in-
terface; (C) A terminal refresh unit; (D) A tactical network control system.

2G5.2 What is the unlabeled block (?) in ANTENNA

this diagram of a packet-radio station?
(Please refer to Diagram 2G-5.2) (A) A
terminal-node controller; (B) A RS-232 TRAllSCElVER

interface; (C) A terminal refresh unit; (D)

A tactical neLwork control system. Figure 2G - 5.2
2G5.3 Where does a terminal-node controller connect in an Amateur packet-radio
station? (A) Between the antenna and Lile radio; (B) Between lhe computer and the
monitor; (C) Between the computer or terminal and lhe radio; (D) Between the key-
board and the computer.

SUBELEMENT 3AG (1 question).

3AGl-l.1 Which frequencies are attenuated by a low-pass filter? (A) Those above
its cut-off frequency; (B) Those within iLS cut-off frequency; (C) Those within 50 kHz
on either side of its cut-off freq uency; (D) Those below its cut-off frequency.

3AG1-l.2 Wlrnt circuit passes electrical energy below a certain frequ ency and
blocks electrical energy above that frequency? (A) A band-pass fi ller; (B) A high-
pass filter; (C) An input filter; (D) A low-pass filter.

3AGl-2.1 Why does virtually every modern transmitter have a built-in low-pass
filter connected to itc; output? (A) To attenuate frequencies below its cut-off poim; (B)
To attenuate low frequency interference to other Amateurs; (C) To ancnuatc excess har-
monic radiation; (D) To attenuate excess fundamental radiation.

3AG l-2.2 You believe that excess harmonic radiation from your transmitter is
causing interference to your television receiver. What is one possible solution for
th is problem? (A) Install a low-pass iiller on the television receiver; (B) InstaU a low-
pass fil ter at the transmitter output; (C) lnstall a high-pass fil ter on the transmitter out-
put; (D) lnstall a band-pass filter on the television receiver.

3AG2-1.l What circuit passes electrical energy above a certain frequ ency and at-
tenuates electrical energy below that frequency? (A) A band-pass filter; (B) A high-
pass fi lter; (C) An input filter; (D) A low-pass filcer.

3AG2-2.l Where is the proper place to install a high-pass filter? (A) At the antenna
terminals of a television receiver; (B) Between a transmitter and a Transmmch; (C) Be-
tween a Transmatch and the transmission line; (D) On a transmitting antenna.

162 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER G

3AG2-2.2 Your Amateur Radio transmissions cause interfer ence to your television
r eceiver even though you have installed a low-pass filter at the transmitter output.
What is one possible solution for this problem? (A) Install a high-pass filter at the
Lransmitler terminals; (B) Install a high-pass filter at the television antenna terminals;
(C) Install a low-pass filter at the television anLenna terminals also; (D) Inst.all a band-
pass filter at lhe television a ntenna tenninals.

3AG3-1.1 Wha t circuit attenuates electrical energy above a certain frequency and
below a lower frequency? (A) A band-pass filter; (B) A high-pass filter; (C) An input
filter; (D) A low-pass filter.

3AG3-l.2 W ha t general range of RF energy does a band-pass filter r ej ect? (A) All
frequencies above a specified frequency; (B) All frequencies below a specified fre-
quency; (C) All frequencies above the upper limit of lhe band in question; (D) All fre-
quencies above a specified frequency and below a lower specified frequency.

3AG3-2.1 The IF stage of a communications receiver uses a filter with a peak re-
sponse at t.he intermediate frequency. What term describes this filter r esponse? (A)
A band-pass filter; (B) A high-pass filter; (C) An input filter; (D) A low-pass filter.

3AG4-l.l What circuit is likely to be fo und in a ll types of receivers? (A) An audio

fi lter; (B) A beat frequency oscillator; (C) A detector; (D) An RF amplifier.

3AG4-l.2 Wha t type of transmitter does this block diag ram represent? (Please
refer to Diagram 3AG4-1.2) (A) A simple packet-radio transmitter; (B) A simple crys-
tal-controlled transmitter; (C) A single-sideband transmitter; (D) A VFO-controlled
trnnsmitter.
ANTEHKA
A.~ TEHNA

XTAl. osc H CJUVSI --.rI

Hr---P-A
TELECRAl'li
l:EY 4 tfY ~
Figure 3AG-4- l.2 Fi gure 3AG-4- 1.3
3AG4-1.3 What type of transmitter does this block diagram represent? (Please
refer to Diagr a m 3AG4-1.3) (A) A simple packet-radio transmitter; (B) A simple crys-
tal-controlled transmitter; (C) A single-sideband transmiuer; (D) A VFO-controlled
transmitter.

3AG4-l.4 What is the unla beled block (?) in this diagr am ? (Please r efer to Dia-
gram 3AG4- l.4) (A) An AGC circuit; (B) A detector; (C) A power supply; (D) A VFO
circuiL

The National Amateur Rad io Association Ham Radio Handbook 163

 CHAPTER G

TELEGRAPH
KEY

Figure 3AG-4-1.4 Figure 3AG-4- l.5

3AG4-1.S What type of device docs t his block diagram r epr esent? (Please refer to
Diagram 3AG4- l.S) (A) A double-conversion receiver; (B) A variable-frequency oscil-
laLor; (C) A simple superheterodyne receiver; (D) A simple CW transmitter.

3AG4-2.l What type of device does this block diagram r epresent? (Please refer to
Diagram 3AG4-2. l ) (A) A double-conversion receiver; (B) A variable-frequency oscil-
lator; (C) A simple superheterodyne receiver; (D) A simple FM receiver.

Figure 3AG-4-2. l Figure 3AG-4-2.2

3AG4-2.2 What is t he unla beled block (?) in this diagram? (Please refer to Dia-
gram 3AG4-2.2) (A) A band-pass fil ter; (B) A cryscal oscillator; (C) A reactancc modu-
lator; (D) A rectifier modulator.

164 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 Cha ter

Signals and Emissions

~:::::::::~~-===:::::::::::.:.:=:=:.=:::::::::::::::::::x«="«=:.:::::::::.:.::~::::::::;.._«,:<<-:::::::::=:<::::=:<-%.~::;:.::::::::::::::::::::::~m,<::::::::::::::::::::xxm::::;:~::~>lK-;::;;~~~

j In order Lo i nsure that you undcrst.and the concept and characLcristics of signals, you n
i will be asked two quesLions from Subelement 2H and 3AH.
~:::::=:=·~::::~::::::::.:::::~=:~"'>."<:-::=:=:=:=::::::::·;:.~·:·:·:-...~~-~-~-:.""='~~::Y.Y~='.=·~='.~':::·~:::-::z~f·..f: :-:-:-:-:::;:~~;:::~~-:-:.-:-:.<xa~x·~~:~:::::::z::'!!*'~
....
!!!!

C
hapter A mentioned that some of the testing terminology had changed as a result
of revision s to Part 97. As you recall, Part 97 is the section of the FCC Rules
and Regulations which pertain to Amateurs.

A couple of terms have never changed since the beginning days of our service. The
terms are telegraphy and tel ephony. Remember telegraphy means telegraph. Picture the
old timer, with a transparent green brim shielding his eyes, hunched over the sounder
and telegraph k ey sending messages down the line. To remember that telephony means
voice, simply picture the telephone that you talk into each day.

Modulation - Now that you arc an expert in understanding kiloHertz, standing waves,
Q-signals and so on, you should have no trouble understanding the concept of modula-
tion. Modulation is defined as the process of varying the carrier wave in order to convey
information. If there is no modulation present on the carrier, the wave is said to be un-
modulated. (3AH l .1)(3AH2- l . l)

What is a carrier and where docs it come

from? Figure H.1 shows Lhc basic ingredi-
ents of a typical transmiucr. A crystal os-
cillator generates a radio frequency of
high accuracy and stability. The energy is
very weak and must be amplified in order
lo supply useful power to the antenna sys-
Lem. Thus the oscillator is used LO drive a
 CHAPTER H

radio frequency power amplifier to ilS maximum power rating. This RF energy pro-
duced by the power amplifier is reforred to as Lhe carrier.

The modulator is an audio frequency amplifier which increases the tiny voltage from the
microphone and applies this voice energy to Uie RF power amplifier. By connecting the
modulator in series with the RF power amplifier, the voltage applied to the stage (either
a tube or transistor) is made Lo increase or decrease. In this manner, the amplified carrier
energy can be amplitude modulated by the tiny voltage original produced by the micro-
phone.

Figure f-1. l shows the result. The carrier provides a cominuous "stream" of RF energy
which is sent to tJ1e antenna. The modulation applied to the RF power amplifier causes
the RF output level to increase or decrease in exact proportion to the tiny microphone
voltage.

From the drawing, you might conclude that the modulation causes the carrier to increase
and decrease. Don' t concluded this, however, because you would be 100% wrong. In
actual fact, the carrier doesn' t move up and down at all! The modulation voltage actu-
ally produces additional energy cal led sidebands. If there is no modulation , no side-
bands arc created and this is referred to as a test signal. (3AH2-l .2)(3AH3.1)(3AH3.2)

Anything that adds inteUigence to the carrier is referred to as modulation. For example,
if we tum the carrier on an off with a telegraph key, this is a form of amplitude modula-
tion. Since the signal varies from nothing to maximum, it certainly represents a change
in amplitude. By using a standard symbol like Morse code, we add intelligence to the
carrier.

It is not necessary to change the ampli tude of the carrier to add intelligence. It can be
modified in a number of other ways. For example the frequency of the carrier wave can
be modified slightly. This is called freq uency modulation. Frequency modulated tele-
phony is almost universally used on the VHF bands where Technicians operate. It is the
favorite mode since it provides good audio fidelity and a strong signal relative 10 back-
ground noise. (3AH4.1)(3AH2-7.1)(3AH2-7.2)

The amount the frequency varies with modulation is referred to as the deviation of the
transmi tter. The louder one speaks, t11e greater the deviation. Obviously if someone gets
excited and the amplitude of the audio modulating signal is too high, the excursions or
deviation of the carrier frequency can become excessive. When th is happens, the signal
can cause splaner and interference with adjacent channels. This is why all FM transmit-
ters incorporate a deviation limiter circuit. (3AH7-1.1)(3AH7-2. l )(3AH7-2.2)

It is also possible to vary the phase of the radio frequency energy. IL may take a bit of
head-scratching to visualize the concept of phase modulation. You will recall that RF
energy is a series of sine waves going up to positive, passing through zero and down to
negative and back to zero. Picture if you will, the voice being able to vary the position
of the sine wave at any given instant. In other words, in phase modulated equipment, the
166 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio A ssociation
 CHAPTER H

energy can take more or less Lime LO reach a peak depending on the voice information
impressed on the carrier by the modulator. This is what phase modulation docs and the
modulator to accomplish this is called a reactance modulator. Phase modulation is quite
similar to frequency modulation and can be detected by the same type of receivers.
(3AH2-8.2)(3AHS.1)(3AH5.2)

Bandwidth - From the preceding explanations you can correctly conclude that some
emissions take up more speccrum space (bandwidth) than others, A CW transmitter, for
example requires the least spectrum of any signal. An RTIY signal requires less space
than a voice signal like single sideband. Frequency mopulation requires more bandwidth
than any of the preceding modes. On the scale of bandwidth, from least to most, you
find CW, RITY, SSB and FM. Since various emissions occupy a wider frequency range
(bandwidth) than others, professional communications receivers have selectable filters
to optimize reception. Essemially the filter lcl's though just enough width to hold the
particular emission type and chops off the frequencies beyond that. (3AH6.1)(3AH6.2)

Emission Designators
One of the revised areas in Part 97 relates to "S ignals and Emissions". If you have study
or testing material which refers to A1A, A3J or FIB and so on, they are out-of-date.
These symbols are emission designators used by the International Telecommunications
Union (ITU). They were eliminated from Amateur tests when Part 97 was simplified in
1989.

The FCC no longer uses the TTU emission designations in the Amateur Service. How-
ever, there are still two questions relative to these ITU designators in the question pool.
The first symbol in the designator describes the type of information LO be Lransmitted,
while the second is the nature of the modulating signal. (3AH2-5.2)(3AH2-6. l)

Emission designators are simply a means of identifying what son or signal you are
transmitting. The Lenn AJA was used Lo identify turning the radio frequency signal from
your transmitter on and off with a telegraph key. In the Technician test, it is simply
called CW (continuous wave) keying. This is considered a form of amplitude modula-
tion since the signal amplitude varies between zero and maximum. CW is the interna-
tionally accepted means of sending Morse code telegraphy messages. (2H l-1.1)
(2Hl- l .2)(3AH2-2.1 )(3AH2-2.2)

When FM radiotelephone equipmem is used for Morse code work, it. is not practical to
key the transmiuer. Rather, the microphone is replaced by an audio keyer. A Lone is
Lumecl off and on with a telegraph key. This is called modulated CW or simply the emis-
sion designator MCW. (3AH2-4.1)(3AH2-4.2)3AH2-5.1)(3AH2-5.3)

Morse is not the only form of intelligence that can be impressed on a FM Liansmitter
using tones. Many handheld radios incorporate a Touch-Tone pad for controlling repeat-
ers and making telephone calls. RTIY and packet information can be transmitted using
two audio tones to represent ones and zeros. (3AH2-6.2)

The National Amateur Rad io Association Ham Radio Handbook 167

 CHAPTER H

Radio teletype, or RTIY, was discussed in Chapter B (see Digital Procedures). ln the
Technician test, radio teletype is defined as a narrow band, direct printing telegraphy
mode. It's a lot easier to simply say "RTTY" and that is also the correct emission desig-
nator. (2H1 -2.1 )

Even though RTTY is considered a fonn of telegraphy, "signal-no signal" is not used to
represent the digital one's and zero's. A scheme like this might work, but it would be
prone Lo error. Noise and static could be received in the no signal period.

Rather than tum the RTTY signal on and off, a keying method involving two alternate
frequencies is used. Thus a carrier output is always present The steady carrier output
frequency represents a "one". By shifting the frequency a few hundred Hertz during a
1,ero period, we can send digital information with a continuous carrier. Noise and inter-
ference does not create errors since there is never a "no-signal" period. This scheme is
called freque ncy shift keying (or FSK) and is the standard method of transmitting digi-
tal information (either RITY or packet) via radio. (2Hl -2.2)(3AH2-3. 1)(3 AH2-3.2)

On the VI-IF bands it is not so easy to detect the change of a few hundred Hz. Above 30
MHz, voice emissions are usually frequency modulation (and the emission designator is
FM phone), one-zero data is transmitted by using two audio tones rather than two radio
frequencies. This scheme is called audio frequency shift keying (AFSK). (2H 1-3.l)

Another popular emission is called single sideband, suppressed carrier. This is a voice
mode and is usually abbreviated as SSB. If you operate voice on JO meters, after receiv-
ing your Novice license or "Tech-Plus" CSCE, you will use SSB equipment. A techni-
cal explanation of sideband is beyond Lhe scope of this book bul will be the subjecl of a
fulure NARA publicalion. (2Hl -4.l)

Purity of Emissions
Sometimes one hears rather "raunchy" signals on the Amateur bands. Using t11e RST
scale, they mighl be graded as 5-9-0. In other words, the tone of the CW signal is terri-
ble.

Key clicks don't count in the tone scale but they can be a problem, panicularly with
"home-brew" transminers. Key clicks arc caused by the sudden application or removal
of power when Lhe telegraph key is pressed and released. This creates RF emissions
with an excessively square wave. In otJ1er words, the rise and fa ll times of tJ1e keying
wavefonn arc ex tremely fast. (2H2. 1)

Key clicks can be completely climinaLed by inserting a key click filter in the telegraph
key circuitry (see Chapter G - Filters). This is nothing more than a low pass filter. Re-
member, a low pass filter opposes a change in current. Thus it slows the rise and fall of
the RF waveform. This eliminates the energy that causes spurious key clicks. (2H2.2)

168 Ham Rad lo Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER H

Modem transmitters and transceivers all have built in keying filters Lo shape and soften
the transmiued signal. Today key clicks are seldom heard except from the occasional
"home-brewed" transmitter where the designer has forgotten to add a suitable fi lter.

Another keying problem, which is still heard, is called a chirp. This happens when an
unwanted frequency shift occurs while sending Morse. If the transmitter frequency
changes even a few Hz during the "dit" or "dah", it is heard at the receiving end as a
"tweet" and not a pure tone.

This usually occurs due to an inadequately rated power supply. For example, let's say
the transceiver draws 20 amperes during key-down periods. If the power supply can
only deliver 15 amperes, the output voltage will sag during the period the key .i s held
down. This reduced or unregulated voltage may affect the frequency determining cir-
cuit. If so, the transmitter may shift frequency slightly and the received signal will have
a chirping sound to it. The cure is LO have an adequately rated regulated vol1.age power
supply connected Lo the transmitter. (2H3.1)(2H3.2)

Power supplies can cause another problem on both the CW and voice modes. If the
power supply has a defective or inadequate electrolytic filter capacitor, it may cause a
hum or buzzing sound to be superimposccl on the transmilted signal. In this case the
cure is to either repair or replace the power supply. (2H4.1)(2H4.2)

Spurious Emi ssions

Spurious emissions are created when a transmitter radiates signals outside the Amateur
band during 1.ransrnissions. One form of spurious signal is the harmonic. (2H7.2)

Harmonics - What is a harmonic? It is defined as the multiple of a fundamental fre-

quency. The harmonic is considered to be a spurious or unwanted emission. The fourth
harmonic of an emission at 7160 KHz is 28,640 KHz. The second harmonic of a 222
MHz signal is 444 MHz. (2H5. l)

At one time, all the high frequency (HF) Amateur bands were harmonically rel~lled. The
bands were 1.8, 3.5, 7, 14, 21 and 28 MHz. Thus, if your 7 Mhz transmi11er radiated a
strong second harmonic signal, it would still fall in a ham band and not cause trouble to
other services. Harmonic radiation was quite common with vacuum tube powered
equipment since manual tuning adjustments were used to "tweak" the amplifier circuits.
It was not at all unusual to have the amplifier misadjusted to a harmonic, rather than
correctly tuned to the fundamenta l frequency.

Modem solid-state equipment does not have this problem since there arc no adjust-
ments. Harmonics are eliminated by low pass filters as described in Chapter G.

On the other hand, harmonic em ission is more serious today with the various classes of
operation in use. For example, let's say a Novice or "Tech-Plus" station operating on
7,125 KHz radiates an excessive third harmonic on 21,375 Klli. The Novice is legally

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 169

 CHAPTER H

permitted to operate on the 7 Mhz frequency, but not in that portion of the 21 MHz
band. The excessive harmonic signals will be noticed by an FCC monjtoring station and
a citation will result (2H5.2)

Parasitics - Spurious emissions are not always harmonic multiples of the fundamen-
tal. Transmiuer circuits which are supposed to only amplify can become unstable and
oscillate. This can cause spurious signals, called parasitics, at numerous unrelated fre-
quencies. Parasitics can be a problem in vacuum tube linear power amplifiers. If the
shielding is poor and the circuits were not properly neutralized, parasitics can occur.
Improper neuLralization means the high power output energy can reach the sensitive
input circuitry. This can cause parasitic oscillations that create significant radiated spuri-
ous emissions. (2H7 .1)

Incidentally, spurious emissions don 't always radiate from your antenna system. If you
were to operate a transmitter or high power linear amplifier with the covers and shields
removed, the internal circuitry can directly radiate spurious emissions which interfere
with nearby television sets. The direct radiation energy bypasses and avoids the spurious
emission elimination filters. (2H7.3)

Splatter - Turning up the microphone gain on a transmiuer can cause a problem called
overmodulation. Overmodulation can cause a transmiued voice to spread out or splat-
ter and interfere with stations operating on nearby frequencies. The same effect can
occur if you turn on speech processing circuits when the microphone volume is too
high. (2H7.4)(2H7.5)(2H7.6)

Safety
You will recall that you were admonished in Chapter D to be cautious regarding the ef-
fects and dangers of radio frequency energy. You may be asked a question or two on
safety in this part of the Technician test.

"'·,
·"' Steve
Spealking of safety, be sure to wear your helmet when operating bicycle moble." Meet
Roberts, KVBOVA, and his Winnebiko II. Steve describs himself and a "high-tech nomad. "

170 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER H

Remember the microwave oven example. Radio frequency energy can elevate tempera-
tures sufficiently to cook meat (your meal!) so never allow yourself (or anyone else) to
be exposed to concentrated radio energy fields near antennas of all types. (2H6.l)

Never stand in front of a parabolic dish microwave antenna. The RF energy radiated by
the antenna is focused by the shape or the dish. If you are near the focal point of the en-
ergy it can also cause bodily harm. Ir it is necessary to make adjustmenLS to any an-
tenna, make sure the transmitter power is off and cannot be accidentally activated.
(2H6.2)

To fo llow th is warning when installing a mobile antenna, where is the best place for
whip antenna on t11e car body? In the middle of the roof, of course. The high intensity
radio energy from tile mobile transmitter wou ld not penetrate the roof nor enter the win-
dows from this location. (2H6.3)

You have been reminded, in various sections of tllis book, tllat a strong electrical field
exists around a transmitting antenna. There is also a significant voltage on the antenna
cond uctor itself. If you doubt this, take a standard 40 watt fl uorescent lamp and touch
one of the two end-pins to the tip of your mobile or base station antenna. $uprise! It
lights brightly near the antenna. Remember this if you ever mount an antenna in the attic
of your home. It should be well insulated to prevent a fire and to keep anyone from
touching it. (3AH2-8. I )

With this background , see how you do answering che fo llowing questions.

SUBELEMENT 2H (2 questions)
2Hl -1.l What keying method is used to transmit CW? (A) Frequency-shift keying of
a radio-frequency signal; (B) On/off keying of a radio-frequency signal; (C) Audio-fre-
quency-shift keying of an oscillator tone; (D) On/off keying of an audio-frequency sig-
nal.

2Hl-1.2 What emission type describes international Morse code telegraphy mes-
sages? (A) RTTY; (B) Image; (C) CW; (D) Phone.

2Hl-2.l What emission type describes narrow-band direct-printing telegraphy

emissions? (A) RITY; (B) Image; (C) CW; (D) Phone.

2Hl-2.2 What keying method is used to transmit RTTY messages? (A) Frequency-
shifl keying of a radio-frequency signal; (B) On/off keying of a radio-frequency signal;
(C) Digital pulse-code keying of an unmodulated carrier; (D) On/off keying of an audio-
frequcncy signal.

2Hl-3.1 What emission type descr ibes frequency-modulated voice transmissions?

(A) FM phone; (B) Image; (C) CW; (D) Single sideband phone.

The National Amateur Rad io Association Ham Radio Handbook 171

 CHAPTER H

2Hl-4.1 What emission type describes single sideband suppressed-carrier (SSB)

voice transmissions? (A) FM phone; (B) Image; (C) CW; (D) Sideband phone.

2H2.l What does the term key click mean? (A) The mechanical noise caused by clos-
ing a straight key too hard; (B) The clicking noise from an excessively square CW
keyed waveform; (C) The sound produced in a receiver from a CW signal faster than 20
WPM; (D) The sound of a CW signal being copied on an AM receiver.

2H2.2 How ca n key clicks be eliminated? (A) By reducing your keying speed to less
than 20 WPM; (B) By increasing power to the maximum allowable level; (C) By using
a power supply with better regulation; (D) By using a key-click filter.

2H3. l What does the term chirp mean? (A) A distortion in the receiver audio circuits;
(B) A high-pitched audio tone transmitted with a CW signal; (C) A slight shift in oscil-
lator frequency each time a CW transmi tter is keyed; (D) A slow change in transmitter
frequency as the circuit wanns up.

2H3.2 What can be done to the power supply of a CW transmitter to avoid chirp?
(A) Resonate the power supply filters; (B) Regulate the power suppl y outplll voltages;
(C) Use a buffer amplifier between the transmitter output and the feed line; (D) Hold the
power supply current to a fixed value.

2H4. l What is a common cause of superimposed hum ? (A) Using a non-resonant

random-wire antenna; (B) Sympathetic vibrations from a nearby transmitter; (C) Im-
proper neuiralization of the transmitter output stage; (D) A defective filter capacitor in
the power supply.

2H4.2 What type of problem can a bad power-supply filter capacitor cause in a
transmitter or recejver? (A) Sympathetic vibrations in nearby receivers; (B) A super-
imposed hum or buzzing sound ; (C) Extreme changes in antenna resonance; (D) Imbal-
ance in the mixers.

2HS.l What is the 4th harmonic of a 7,160 kHz signal? (A) 28,640 kHz; (B) 35,800
kHz; (C) 28,160 kHz; (D) 1,790 kHz.

2HS.2 You receive an FCC Notice of Violation stating that your station was beard
on 21,375 kHz. At the time listed on the notice, you were operating on 7,125 kHz.
What is a possible cause of tbis violation? (A) Your transmiuer has a defective power-
supply filter capacitor; (B) Your CW keying speed was excessively fast; (C) Your trans-
mitter was radiating excess harmonic signals; (D) Your transmitter has a defective
power-supply filter choke.

2H6.1 What may bappen to body tissues that are exposed to large amounts of UHF
or microwave RF energy? (A) The tissue may be damaged because of the heat pro-
duced; (B) The tissue may suddenly be frozen; (C) The tissue may be immediately de-

172 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER H

stroyed because of the Maxwell Effect; (D) The tissue may become less resist.ant to cos-
mic radiation.

2H6.2 What preca ution should you take before working near a high-gain UHF or
microwave a ntenn a (such as a parabolic, or dish antenna)? (A) Be certain the an-
tenna is FCC type accepted ; (B) Be certain the antenna and transmitter are properly
grounded; (C) Be certain the transmiller cannot be operated; (D) Be certain the antenna
safety interlocks are in place.

2H6.3 You are installing a VHF or UHF mobile radio in your vehicle. What is the
best location to mount the antenna on the vehicle to minimize a ny d a nger from RF
expos ure to the driver or passengers? (A) In the middle of the roof; (B) Along the top
of the windshield; (C) On either front fender; (D) On the trunk lid.

2H7.1 You discover that your tube-type transmitter power amplifier is radiating
spurious emissions. What is the most likely cause of this problem? (A) Excessive ly
fast keying speed; (B) Undermodulation; (C) Improper neutralization; (D) Tank-circuit
current dip at resonance.

2H7.2 Your transm itter radiates signals outside the Amateur band where you are
transmitting. What term d escribes this radiation? (A) Off-frequency emissions; (B)
Transminer chirp; (C) Incidental radiation; (D) Spurious emissions.

2H7.3 What problem can occur if you oper ate your transmitter with out the cover
and other shielding in place? (A) Your transmiuer can radiate spurious emissions; (B)
Your transmitter may radiate a "chirpy" signal; (C) The final amplifier e fficiency of
your transmitter may decrease; (D) You may cause splatte r interference to other stations
operating on nearby frequencies.

2H7.4 W hat type of interference will you cause if you operate you r SSB transmit-
ter with the microphone gain adjusted too h igh? (A) You may cause digital interfer-
ence to computer equipment in your neighborhood; (B) You may cause splatter
interference to other stations operating on nearby frequenc ies; (C) You may cause atmo-
spheric interference in the air around your antenna; (D) You may cause processor inter-
ference to the microprocessor in your rig .

2H7.S Wh at may ha ppen if you adjust the microphone gain or deviation control on
your FM transmitter too hig h? (A) You may cause dlgilal interference to computer
equipment in your neighborhood; (B) You may cause interference to other stations oper-
ating on nearby frequencies; (C) You may cause mmospheric interference in the air
aro und your antenna; (D) You may cause processor interference to the microprocessor
in your rig .

2H7.6 What type of interference can excessive amoun ts of sp eech p rocessing in

your SSB transmitter cause? (A) You may cause digital interference to computer

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 173

 CHAPTER H

equipment in your neighborhood; (B) You may cause splatter interference to other sta-
tions operating on nearby frequencies; (C) You may cause auuospheric interference in
the air around your antenna; (D) You may cause processor interference Lo the micropro-
cessor in your rig.

SUB ELEMENT 3AH (2 questions).

3AH1.1 What is the meaning of the term moduJation? (A) The process of varying
some characteristic of a canier wave for the purpose of conveying information; (B) The
process or recovering audio inf'ormation from a received signal; (C) The process of in-
creasing the average power of a single sideband transmission; (D) The process of sup-
pressing the carrier in a single sideband transmitter.

3AH 2-l.1 If the modulator circuit of your FM transmitter fail s, what emission type
would likely result? (A) An unmodulated carrier wave; (B) A phase modulated carrier
wave; (C) An amplitude modulated carrier wave; (D) A frequency modulated carrier
wave.

3AH2-1.2 What emission does not have sidebands resulting from modulation? (A)
AM phone; (B) Test; (C) FM phone; (D) RITY.

3AH2-2. l What is the FCC emission designator for a Morse code telegraphy signal
produced by switching the transmitter output on and off? (A) Test; (B) AM phone;
(C) CW; (D) RTTY.

3AH2-2.2 What is CW'? (A) Morse code telegraphy using amplitude modulation; (B)
Morse code telegraphy using freq uency modulation; (C) Morse code telegraphy using
phase modulation; (D) Morse code telegraphy using pulse modulation.

3A H2-3.l What is RTTY? (A) Amplitude-keyed telegraphy; (B) Frequency- shift-

keyed telegraphy; (C) Frequency-modulated telephony; (D) Phase-modulated telephony.

3AH2-3.2 What is the emission designation for telegraphy by freq uency shift key-
ing without the use of a modulating tone? (A) RTTY; (B) MCW; (C) CW; (D) Single
sideband phone.

3AH2-4.l What emiss ion type results when an on/off keyed audio tone is applied to
the microphone input of an FM transmitter? (A) RTIY; (B) MCW; (C) CW; (D)
Single sideband phone.

3AH 2-4.2 What is tone-modulated international Morse code telegraphy? (A) Tele-
phony produced by audio fed into a FM transmitter; (B) Telegraphy produced by on/off
keyed audio tone fed inlo a CW transminer; (C) Telegraphy produced by on/off keying
of the carrier amplitude; (D) Telegraphy produced by an on/off keyed audio tone fed
imo a FM transmitter.
,,
174 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association
 CHAPTER H

3AH2-5.1 What is the emission designated as "MCW"? (A) Frequency-modulated ce-

legraphy using audio cones; (B) Frequency-modulated telephony; (C) Frequency-modu-
lated facsimile using audio Lones; (D) Phase-modulated television.

3AH2-5.2 In an ITU emission designator like AI A, what does the first symbol de-
scribe? (A) The nature of the signal modulating Lhe main carrier; (B) The type of the in-
formation to be transmitted; (C) The speed of a raQ.iotelegraph transmission; (D) The
type of modulation of the main carrier.

3AH2-5.3 What emission type results when an AF shift keyer is connected to t he

microphone jack of an FM phone transmitter? (A) SS; (B) RTIY; (C) MCW; (D)
Image.

3AH2-6.1 In an ITU emission designator like F3B, what does the second symbol de-
scribe? (A) The nature of the signal modulating Lhe main carrier; (B) The type of modu-
lation of the main carrier; (C) The type of information to be transmitted; (D) The
frequency modulation index of a carrier.

3AH2-6.2 How would you transmit packet using an FM 2-meter transceiver ? (A)
Use your telegraph key to interrupt the carrier wave; (B) Modulate your FM transmitter
wit11 audio tones from a terminal node controller; (C) Use your microphone for tele-
phony; (D) Use your touch-tone (DTMF) key pad to signal in Morse code.

3AH2-7.1 What type of emission results when speaking into the microphone of a 2-
meter FM handheld transceiver? (A) Amplitude modulated phone; (B) Code telegra-
phy; (C) An unmodulated carrier wave; (D) Frequency modulated phone.

3AH2-7.2 What emission type do most 2-meter FM transmitters transmit? (A) In-
terrupted pure carrier wave; (B) Frequency modulated phone; (C) Single sideband voice
emissions; (D) Amplitude modulated carrier waves.

3AH2-8.1 What is the most important consideration when installing a 10-meter di-
pole inside an attic? (A) It will exhibit a low angle of radiation; (B) The dipole must al-
ways be run horizontally polarized; (C) IL will be covered by an insulation to prevent
fire and high enough to prevent being accidenta.lly touched during transmission; (D) Di-
poles usually don ' l work in attics.

3AH2-8.2 Which type of tr ansmitter will produce a frequency modu lated carrier
wave? (A) A CW transmitter; (B) An amplitude modulated transmitter; (C) A single-
sideband transmiuer; (D) A phase modulated transmitter.

3AH3.l What is the term used to describe a constant-amplitude radio-frequency

signal? (A) An RF carrier; (B) An AF carrier; (C) A sideband carrier; (D) A subcarrier.

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Rad io Handbook 175

 CHAPTER H

3AH3.2 What is another name for a n unmodulated radio-frequency signal? (A) An

AF carrier; (B) An RF carrier; (C) A sideband carrier; (D) A subcarrier.

3AH4.l What characteristic makes FM telephony especially well-suited for local

VHF/ UHF radio communications? (A) Good audio fidelity and intelligibility under
weak-signal conditions; (B) Better rejecLion of multipath distortion than the AM modes;
(C) Good aud io fide lity and high signal-to-noise ratio above a certain signal amplitude
threshold; (D) Better carrier freq uency stability than the AM modes.

3A HS.l W hat emission is produced by a transmitter using a reactance modulator ?

(A) CW; (B) Unmodulated carrier; (C) Single sideband, suppressed-carrier phone; (D)
Phase modulated phone.

3A HS.2 Wha t other emission d oes phase modulation most r esemble? (A) Amplitude
modulation; (B) Pulse modulation; (C) Frequency modulation; (D) Single sideband
modulation.

3AH6.1 Many communications receivers have several I F filters that can be selected
by the operator. Why do these filters have different bandwidths? (A) Because some
ham bands arc wider than others; (B) Because different bandwidths help increase the re-
ceiver sensitivity; (C) Because different bandwidths improve S-meter readings; (D) Be-
cause some emission types occupy a wider frequency range lhan others.

3AH6.2 List the foll owing signals in order of increasing bandwidth (narrowest sig-
nal first): CW, FM voice, RTIY, SSB voice. (A) RTTY, CW, SSB voice, FM voice;
(B) CW, FM voice, RTTY, SSB voice; (C) CW, RTTY, SSB voice, FM voice; (D) CW,
SSB voice, RTTY, FM voice.

3AH7-1.1 To what is the deviation of a FM transmission proportidhal? (A) Only the

frequency of the audio rnodulaLing signal; (B) The frequency and the amplitude of the
audio modulating signal; (C) The duty cycle of the audio modulating signal; (D) Only
the amplitude of tl1e audio modulating signal.

3AH7-2.l What is the result of overdevia tion in a FM transmitter? (A) Increased

transmitter power consumption; (B) Out-of-channel emissions (splatter); (C) Increased
transmitter range; (D) Inadequate carrier suppression.

3AH7-2.2 What is splatter '! (A) Interference Lo adjacent signals caused by excessive
transmitter keying speeds; (B) Interference to adjacent signals caused by improper trans-
mitter neutralization; (C) Interference to adjacent signals caused by overmodulation of a
transmitter; (D) Interference to adjacent signals caused by parasitic oscillations at the
antenna.

176 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Rad io Association

 Cha ter

Antennas and Feedlines

f';:::::::.-=:~::::::::::::*:::::::::s::::f.~-:::::::~~::~:::::::::::..-:.-:.-::::::.::::.-=:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::;;::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::.::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::*::t.:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~;.::::x:::::::~::::::::x::::::~~

j:~ This final section of 1.he Technician test will present three questions each from Sub- :::!
I element 21 and 3Al.
;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;~::::.:-:;:;~:::::::;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:~~::::;:-;;;;>;:;:;:;::;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:::::::::~::::::;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:::::;:;:;::~:::::~;:::::::::::;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:::;~';:;:; ;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;:;::~::»:::-:~~::::::::::::::;:::: ;:::::::;::::::.:.-::~::~::~::::::::;::·
!fl
ntennas are one of the most fascinating subjects in the field of Amateur radio.

A Amateurs have many opinions as to the relative merits of various types of an-
tenna. Some claim the beam is better while others swear by the cubical quad.
Some rugged individualists insist that a single vertical is best of all for working distant
stations.

An Amateur antenna need not be complicated. It can be as simple as stringing up a ran-

dom length of wire such as that shown in Figure 1. 1. For transmitting, a random length
antenna must be used with an impedance matching device. More about that later.

Antennas come in all shapes and sizes. A number of years ago, it was popular to design
vertical antennas using socla cans soldered together. The operating frequency was de-

l>'SUL\TOft

t"lO'JHl:;Sl..LN I:: l'()U'L

l'FU~f: . Nt::XT MOUSE:,
21'C•• fJUT NOT
A ?O•ER on
Tt:U:PllOW·: POLE

Figure 1.1
T11£ LONG W!ll1' ANTC:N'.'IA
 CHAPTER I

signed by varying the number of cans used in order to make the correct length. Unfortu-
nately, with aluminum cans, this is no longer a practical way to make a vertical antenna.

Resonant Frequency
The correct length? Yes - the length of an antenna is crucially important to its' perfor-
mance. As you might expect, reducing the length reduces the antenna performance. Sur-
prisingly, the same thing happens if you increase the length of the antenna! There is a
critical length where the antenna works the best. Maximum voltage is induced in the an-
tenna when the length of the antenna is the same as the wavelength of the radio signal
reaching it. This is ca!Jcd the resonant freq uency of the antenna.

The simplest and best performing antenna is called the half wave dipole. The length,
from tip-to-tip is exactly one-half' the wavelength of a specific frequency. Imagine for a
moment that you could tape measure the distance between the peaks and valley's of the
signal. lf you measured from one positive peak to an adjacent positive peak, the distance
would be the wavelength for that frequency. The distance from a positive peak to a neg-
ative peak (or the other way around) would be the half wavelength.

Antenna Directivity
The dipole has a directi~e characteristic. Figure I.2 shows the radiation (and reception
sensitivity) characteristics of a dipole antenna looking down on it from above. Note that
the signal (and reception sensitivity) is maximum broadside to tJ1e dipole element. There
is a very deep null off the ends of the antenna. This, by the way, is the basis for direction
finding cquipmenl. The dipole is rotated until
the null is indicated. The end of the dipole
poims in the direction of the station you are
trying lo locate by direction finding.

You can also see that if the dipole is posi-

DIPOLE DIRECTIONALITY tioned vertically i t will radiate equally well in
the vertical plane. There will still be a null
Figure 1.2· A dipole is directional broad- above Ille antenna. The null below the an-
side to its length, with very low pickup
from the ends. Arrows Indicate sensitivity tenna doesn't matter since a vertical antenna
In given directions. is usually a quarter wave and is mounted on
Lhe ground or a car top. The conductive sur-
face tlle antenna is mounted on provides the oLhcr quarter wave to make up the optimum
quarter wavelength.

Antenna Calculations
How do we know how long to make the antenna for a specific frequency? We use a
" magic number" called a constant. In the case of a half wave dipole antenna, the
"magic number" is 468. Remember that number - it's important and you will almost
certajnly be asked a test question related to antenna lengtll.

You can detennine the length of the half wave dipole by dividing the desired frequency
(in megaHertz) into 468. Let's say you want to calculate t11e length of a dipole for 3,725
178 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio A ssociation
 CHAPTER I

kHz in the 80 meter Novice band. First, we must convert kiloHertz Lo megaHertz. As
I'm sure you remember from Chapter E, 3,725 kHz is the same as 3.725 MHz. You can
round off this off to 3.7 and divide that number into 468. The answer is that a dipole for
3.7 MHz is 126.5 feet or 126 feet, six inches. (2Tl .1)(211.2)(211 .3)(211.4)(211.5)

Incidentally, determining the answer Lo this sort of test question will be much easier if
you have a calculator. You are permitted to bring a calculator to your testing session.

How do you calculate the length of a quarter wave antenna such as a vertical that you
might install on your car? Easy. Simply calculate it as a half wave dipole as shown
above and then divide by two. Thus, if you were making a quarter wave vertical for
3,725 kHz out of soda cans, how call would it be? Divide the number you calculated
above and the answer is 63 feet, 3 inches. Now, if you like, you can measure a soda can
and see how many if will require to make the antenna. This question is not on your test,
however! But, always read a test question carefully to see if the length for a quarter or
half wave antenna is required and if the frequency is in kHz or MHz. The formula, once
again is 468 divided by the frequency in MHz. (212.1)(212.2)(212.3)(212.4)

TO
SUPPOR1'
TO
SU P PORT
INSVLATO!t IN SU LATORS

> - - S P ACER IN SULATO RS

OPt:K ll'IRE LINt:.

on TV RIDOON

Figure 1.3
TO TRAN SCEIVER VIA
1.1r.HTF.N ING ARR":;.-ri;:a

From the formula you can see t.hat as the frequency is lowered, the antenna becomes
longer. By the same token, if an antenna length is shortened, itS' resonant frequency in-
creases. If the antenna is lengthened or shortened, the resonant frequency is decreased or
increased respectively. (212.5)

So far we have spoken of half and quarter wave antenna. With special designs, it is pos-
sible to make antennas which arc resonant and radiate properly but are not a multiple of
a quarter wavelength. A 5/8 wave antenna radiates a stronger signaJ than a 1/4 wave and
is said to have somewhat more gain over a quarter wave reference. This type of antenna
is also favored because it has a lower angle of radiation. In other words, like the vertical
antenna discussed above, the 5/8 wavelength antenna radiates equally in all compass di-
recLions with most of the radiation going close to the horizon. For this reason, the 5/8
wavelength antenna is very popular for mobile installations. (213.1)(213.2)

This may be confusing since it was stated earlier that an antenna works best when it is a
multiple of a quarter wave. By using special networks at the base of the antenna, it is
possible to make an antenna other than a quarter or half wavelength extremely efficient.

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 179

 CHAPTER I

The Beam Antenna

The radiation pattern of an amenna can be modified by placing other element(s) near the
radiator. This technique has been used for years in broadcasting to squirt the radio
station's signal in a given direction. For example, consider a radio station broadcasting
in Santa Barbara, California. The major listening audience is not to the west of the sta-
tion. That's the Pacific Ocean. By adding additional elements to their antenna system ,
the "wasted" energy to the west can be redirected toward the land.

Strictly speaking an antenna which redirects the beam of a normally non-directional ra-
diator is called a beam antenna . It produces a radiation pattern with most of the trans-
mitted signal concentrated in a particular direction an attenuated in other directions.
(2I4-1.1)(3A1 I - I .1)(3All-1.2)

When the term "beam" is mentioned, an Amateur usually thinks of a series of rods fas-
tened to a central support called a boom. In actual fact, this describes beam antenna for
concentrating radiation in one direction, called a Yagi. The Yagi is actually a series of
formulas, developed by a Japanese engineer, Dr. Yagi, which describes the optimum
spacing and length of the elements of this type of beam antenna. (214-1.2)(3AI1-1 .3)

He started with a half wavelength dipole. This is referred to as the directly driven ele-
mem in a Yagi antenna. The good Dr. found that if an undrivcn element (a metal rod or
wire) was placed parallel to the driven element and made about 5% longer, it would re-
flect or redirect the radiation. He further found that another clement placed forward of
the radiating clement and made 5% shorter, would reinforce the forward strength of the
radiation. (214- l .3)(3All -1.4)(3Al1-1 .5)(3All -1.6)

Figure I.4 shows the drawing of a simple parasitic beam Yagi antenna. Note that the rel-
ative lengths of the elements arc exaggerated to show that the reflector (A) is longer and
the director (C) is shorter than the radiating element (B). If you imagine that it is an
arrow head, the direction of maximum radiation is from the "point" at the Icfl side of the
drawing. (214-2.1)(2I4-2.2)(214-2.3)(2!4-2.4)(3AI1 -1 .7)

As more and more directors arc added to the Yagi antenna, the radiation that is normally
lost to the side of the antenna is redirected to the forward radiation lobe. As directors are
added, the antenna is said to be more directive.

If the beam or Yagi antenna is mounted with its elements parallel to the earth, the an-
tenna is said to be horizontally polarized. If the antenna is perpendicular with respect to
the ground, it radiates a vertically polarized wave. (2II0-1.1)(2l L1-1.1)
A KAXllU1 S!OW. l'.oott..H S!OO!.
c B

FEED ~ _,:P
Figure I.4(a)
LltE
!al HOOIZ{)ITN. I Figure I.4(b) lb> V8lnCAL

180 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER I

T he Cubical Quad - One of the favorite antennas among Amateurs is Lhe cubical
quad. You can easily recognize one when driving Lhrough a neighborhood. The antenna
uses Lwo or more x-shaped spreaders wiLh a wire stretched between the four tips in a
cube shape. Each side of the wire cube is approximately one quarter wavelength long.
Thus the total wire length of each loop is one wavelength at the design frequency.
(3Al'l-2. 1)(3Al1-2.3)(3AJI-2.4)

The driven array is mounted at one end of a boom . At the other end is a similar looking
strucLUre. This is the parasitic element which usually functions like the reflector in the
Yagi type antenna. There may be more parasitic elements on a huge quad but the major-
ity employ a driven element and a reflector. Some quads have as many as three wire
loops on each array. These are quads which operate on more than one band. (3AI1-2.2)

T he Delta Loop - An antenna similar to the quad, but with only three sides like a tri-
angle, is the delta loop. Each side of the triangle is a quarter wavelength. A special
matching network is required to feed the delta loop with coax. In theory the antenna
should not perform as well as the quad but it has a number of supporters of its perfor-
mance. (3All-3.l )

Polarization - Antenna polarization was discussed in Chapter B - Propagation. You

may wish to review the comments and theory before proceeding. At the risk of confus-
ing you, some comments on the cubical quad are in order. Many fans of the cubical
quad antenna believe it radiates electromagnetic wave with both vertical and horizontal
components. However, don't pick a fight with your Volunteer Examiner over this point.
JusL remember the following explains the accepted answers.

How an anLenna is mounted determines on which plane its radiated energy will travel. If
the clements of the dipole arc mounted horizontally, the electric lines of force iLemits
will travel parallel to the earth's surface. This is also true for a cubical quad if I.he fed
point is at Ll1e center or corner of a horizontal element. The radiation will be horizontally
polarized. This is true even if the array is rotated 45 degrees so the comers are at the top
and bottom of the antenna. (3AI2-1.1 )(3AI2-1.2)(3AI2-1.3)

If the feed point is at the center or comer of a vertical wire of the quad, the electromag-
netic waves will be vertically polarized with respect to the earth's surface. (3AI2-
2.4)(3AI12-2.5)

If a dipole is mounted so that it is perpendicular to the earth's surface, the antenna will
radiate electromagnetic waves Lhat are vertically polarized, that is, perpendicular to the
earth's surface. This is Lhe polarity mosL commonly used in VHF work since many of
the stations are mobile. Automobiles do not lend themselves to the installation of hori-
zontally polarized antenna systems. This is somewhat unfortunate since most man-made
electTical noise and interference is also vcrLically polarized. There would be some inter-
ference rejection on VHF if it were of the opposite polarization. (3AI2-2.1 )(3AI2-
2.2)(3AI2-2.3)

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Rad io Handbook 181

 CHAPTER I

Transmission Lines PLASTIC INSULATION

With the exception of hand-helds, anten-
nas are seldom located near the Amateur
radio station equipmenL It is necessary to
route the radio frequency from the trans-
mitter to the antenna and the energy inter-
cepted by the antenna to the receiver. The
medium to accomplish this is called the \ BRAIDED SHLELO CONDUCTOR
transmission line.

The most popular form of transmission line is called coaxial cable. IL is characterized as
round and is usually covered with black plastic weatherproof insulation, as shown in the
accompanying drawing. Since it is weatherproof, it can be buried in the ground. It's 50
ohm impedance rating matches that of Amateur receiving and transmitting equipment.

Inside the coax cable, there is a central conductor, either solid or stranded. This is sur-
rounded by a high quality, high frequency insulation, usually polystyrene. On top of this
is a braided shield of copper or tin plated copper wire. (216.1 )(2!6.2)(2[6.3)(216.4)

Physically coax is like a wooden pencil. The lead is the central conductor, the wood is
the insulation and the yellow paint is the shield braid and the outer insulation. By main-
taining a constant wise size and spacing, the coaxial cable exhibits a characteristic im-
pedance, usually 50 or 75 ohms. The 50 ohm type is the most common for Amateur
radio work since most receivers and transmitter are designed to match this impedance.
Seventy five ohm cable is used for cable television systems and other applications re-
quiring a higher impedance. The advantage of coaxial cable is that all the radiation is
carried inside the shielded "pipe." It is unaffecLed by nearby metall ic objects and Lhe
cable closely matches the impedance of most common amateur antennas. (216.5)

Balanced Feeds - So far we have discussed only unbalanced sysLems using coaxial
cable. Unbalanced means a transmission line with one conductor carrying the RF energy
and the other connected to ground. (3AI4- l .2)

Twin lead transmission lines are popular when used with an antenna coupler or other
devices intended to match the 50 ohm impedance of the transmitter/recei ver to the un-
known impedance of an antenna. Twin lead or parallel conducLOr transmission l ine has
two wires held apart a speci fic distance by an insulating material. The insulator can be
continuous like the chocolate brown television wire or it can utilize individual insulator
or spreaders spaced along the length of the line. This type of transmission line is some-
times called ladder line because of the similarity in appearance to that of a ladder (see
Figure 1.3). (217. 1)(217.5)

A mismatch siLuation might occur if one tried to use a 40 meter antenna on the 15 or 20
meter band. It would not be the right length and would exhibit a high SWR (standing
wave ratio). An antenna that is not rcsonam (the wrong length) simply won't work with
a coaxial cable transmission line. The open wire lead can be used, however, since it will
182 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association
 CHAPTER I

withstand a much higher SWR than coaxial cable. The anLenna coupler can be used to
match the high impedance of the antenna to the fixed SO ohm output impedance of the
transmitter and receiver. (217.2)(2I7.3)(217.4)(3Al3-3.2)

A typical open wire transmission line such as TV Lwin-lead, is used with the antenna in
Figure I.3. This type of transmission line is characterized as Lwo parallel wires held
apart at constant spacing by an insulating material (usually polystyrene).

There are disadvantages Lo this type of transmission line. It must be spaced well away
from nearby metal object or they can absorb some pf the transmitter power. For exam-
ple, if the open wire transmission line is run near the telephone wires coming into your
home, yo4 might actually hear your voice. It can be strong enough to interfere with the
Lelephone conversation. Another disadvantage is open wire transmission line must be
used with an antenna coupler.

SWR - Once again the subject of standing waves rears it electromagnetic head in our
discussions. The subject has been previously discussed. You may wish to review this
material before proceeding.

Standing waves on a transmission line results when there is an impedance mismatch,

usually beLwcen the anLenna and the line. The term ratio describes the level of the maxi-
mum to minimum voltage on the transmission line. (3Al3-l.1)(3AI3-l.2)

Let's see if we can acutally visuali'l.:e what happens. I'm going to feed one watt or RF LO
a piece of 50 ohm coax. At the other end I've connected a 50 ohm, 2 watt carbon com-
position resistor. If we could put a meter on the center conductor or the coax, we would
find it measures 7 volts at any point. This shows tJ1ere arc no standing waves.

Now, if I replace the resistor with one measuring 100 ohms, the voltage will now mea-
sure above and below 7 volts at various points along the cable. This indicates the pres-
ence of standing waves.

The stancling waves will confuse tJ1e reading of a directional wattmeter. This instrument
measures the power in the forward and reverse or renccted direction. The standing
waves also cause power to be lost. The loss will increase with increasing SWR. This lost
power is dissipated as heat in the coax cable, transmitter and even the antenna.(3AI3-
2. l )(3AI3-2.2)(3M3.-3.1)(3A13-3.3)

Impedance Matching
Figure LS shows the schematic diagram for a simple antenna coupler. It is suitable for
maLchin~ the antenna system in Figure I.I. Capacitor Cl and C2 are 140 pF variables
and SW is a five-position rotary switch. Coil L is 100 turns of #26 enamel wire
closewound on a l .2S inch cardboard tube, tapped at 5, 12, 36 and 50 turns.

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 183

 CHAPTER I

An antenna coupler is a great matching device when located near the transmiLLer/re-
ceiver. BUL what aboul the case where you want to provide a match between a 35 ohm
antenna and the 50 ohm transmission line. An impedance matching device is required al
the antenna. (218.1)(218.2)

Some intelLigent, computer controlled couplers like the SGC, rnc. "Smartuner" can be
mounted right at the dipole feed-poinL It uses a CPU lo calculate the correct tuning ad-
jusLmems and can retune itself in a fraction of a second.

The Balun - There is another device that provides a limited amoum of impedance
matching capability. More important, it can also be used to connect the unbalanced co-
axial cable Lo the balanced feed-point of Lhe clipole antenna. The device is called a
balun. This stands for ba1anced-to-unbalanced. (219 .1 )(219 .3)(3AI4-3. I)(3Al4-3.2)

Let's say you want Lo feed your balanced dipole with unbalanced 50 ohm coaxial cable.
You could make a perfect match, by connecting a balun at the antenna.

The balun can also be used at the lransmitter/rcceiver end of the transmission line. Con-
sider the case where you want to connect an open wire 200 ohm parallel conductor line
to your transmilter receiver. IL can be connected between the parallel wire transmission
line an the 50 ohm unbalanced output of your equipment. (219.2)

The dipole and quad mentioned earlier are balanced antenna systems. This means the
antenna (or driven elemem in a beam) is balanced or equal on each side of the feed
point. (3AI4-2.1)

A whip antenna on 1J1e roof of an automobile is certainly not balanced. The wire whip is
one-half of the dipole, while the metal roof replaces the other half. This is an unbal-
anced antenna and is always fed with coax An unbalanced antenna (or driven clement in
an array) is not symmetrical or iden-
tical on each side of the feed point.
AN'!'t:NNA (3Al4-2.2)
CJ
A balanced Line is one in which nei-
ther conductor is connected to
SW ground. An example of a balanced
line is the television cable mentioned
- - --<>ANT
earlier. (3AI4-1.1)
TO
CZ TRANSCEIVE R
Some claim that the signal pattern of
- - --<> cNo an antenna is skewed to one side
when an unbalanced coax is used to
drive a balanced amenna. A balun
Figure 1.5- This antenna coupler can mstch almost can be used to correct the situation, if
any length antenna and feedllne on ham bands be- desired.
tween 3 and 30 MHz.

184 Ham Radio Handbook The Nationa l Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER I

Cable Loss - As we know all too well,

nothing is perfect in this world. The adage
ceri.ainly holds true for transmission lines car-
rying radio frequency energy. If we drive one
end of a coax with one watt of RF, something
less than one watl will emerge from the other
end due Lo inherent loss in any transmission
line.
The MFJ Noise Bridge can be used to sd-
Open wire line will have less loss than coax- Just an antenna for optimum performance.
ial cable below 30 MHz. As a general rule,
cable loss is proportional Lo size. RG-8 is about 5/8" in diameter and some of the special
foam dielectric versions have exceptionally low loss. RG -58 is about the diameter of a
pencil and has noticeably more loss per I 00 feet. The smallest common coax is RG-174
(about the size of a soda straw) has even more loss. Thus, on a scale of loss, you would
list (least to most) parallel, RG-8, RG-58 and RG-174. (3AI5-1. l)

From the preceding explanation you can see that for feed ing long runs to VHF antenna,
you would select RG-8 coax for the lowest loss characteristic. (3AI5-1 .2)

Cable loss is proportional to length and frequency. The longer the run and the higher the
frequency, the greater the loss. To minimize loss, you should cut off any excess cable
after it had been routed from the antenna to the ham station. (3AIS-2. I)(3AI5-
2.2)(3AI5-3.1)(3Al5-3.2)(3AI5-3.3)

Antenna Radiation and Safety

Even though it was mentioned in previous chapters, it is not repetitious to mention that
radio frequency radiation can be harmful particularly if it is prolonged and/or a high in-
tensity. Remember, when using a hand-held radio, position the antenna away from your
head as far as possible. (215.1)

If you purchase or upgrade a hand-held radio, you have the choice of antenna styles. It
is generally believed that a 1/2 wavelength whip antenna causes the least amount of ra-
diation near the head. The short, helically wound, flexible antenna's are the worst since
the energy is concentrated just a few inches above the top of the hand-held. (215.3)

The precaution is also valid for an antenrw ~hat you erect It should be high and out-of-
reach. This will prevent anyone from touching the antenna and getting an RF burn or re-
ceiving excessive exposure to RF radiation. Observe the same precaution with parallel
transmission lines since they also have dangerously high RF voltage on the exposed
open wires.(215.2)(3AJ6- I. l )(3AI6-2. l)

Now let's tackle the questions on antenna's and transmission lines associated with this
final chapter.

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Rad io Handbook 185

 CHAPTER I

SUBELEMENT 21 (3 questions)
211.1 What is the approximate length (in feet) of a half wavelength dipole antenna
for 3,725 kHz? (A) 126 ft; (B) 81 ft; (C) 63 ft; (D) 40 ft.

211.2 What is the approximate length (in feet) of a half wavelength dipole antenna
for 7,125 kHz? (A) 84 ft; (B) 42 ft; (C) 33 ft; (D) 66 ft.

2Il.3 What is the app roximate length (in feet) of a half wavelength dipole antenna
for 21,125 kHz? (A) 44 ft; (B) 28 ft; (C) 22 ft; (D) 14 ft.

211.4 What is the approximate length (in feet) of a half wavelength dipole antenna
for 28,150 kHz? (A) 22 ft; (B) 11 ft; (C) 17 ft; (D) 34 ft.

211.5 How is the approximate length (in fee t) of a half wavelength dipole antenna
calculated? (A) By substituting the desired operating frequency for f in the formula:
150 I f (in MHz); (B) By substicuting the desired operating frequency for f in the for-
mula: 234 If (in MHz); (C) By substituting the desired operating frequency for fin the
formula: 300 If (in MHz); (D) By substituting the desired operating frequency for fin
the fonnula: 468 If (in MHz).

212.l What is the approximate length (in feet) of a quarter wavelength vertical an-
tenna for 3,725 kHz? (A) 20 ft; (B) 32 ft; (C) 40 ft; (D) 63 ft.

212.2 What is the approxim ate length (in feet) of a quarter wavelength vertical an-
tenna for 7,125 kHz? (A) 11 ft; (B) 16 ft; (C) 21 ft; (D) 33 ft

212.3 What is the approxim ate length (in feet) of a quarter wavelength vertical an-
tenna for 21,125 kHz? (A) 7 ft; (B) 11 ft; (C) 14 ft; (D) 22 ft.

212.4 What is the approximate length (in feet) of a quarter wavelength vertical an-
tenna for 28,150 kHz? (A) 5 ft; (B) 8 ft; (C) 11 ft; (D) 17 ft.

212.5 When a vertical antenna is lengthened, what happens to its resonant fre-
quency? (A) rt decreases; (B) rt increases; (C) It stays the same; (D) It doubles.

213.l Why do many Amateurs use a 5/8 wavelength vertical antenna rather than a
1/4 wavelength ver tical antenna for their VHF or UHF mobile stations? (A) A 5/8
wavelength antenna can handle more power Lhan a 1/4 wavelength antenna; (B) A 5/8
wavelength antenna has more gain than a 1/4 wavelength antenna; (C) A 5/8 wave-
lenglh antenna exhibits less corona loss than a 1/4 wavelength antenna; (D) A 5/8 wave-
length antenna looks more like a CB antenna, so it does not aLLract as much attention as
a 1/4-wavelcngth antenna.

186 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER I

213.2 What type of radiation pattern is produced by a 5/8 wavelength vertical an-
tenna? (A) A pauem with most of the transmiued signaJ concentrated in two opposite
directions; (B) A pattern with the transmitted signal going equally in all compass direc-
tions, with most of the radiation going high above the horizon; (C) A pauern with the
transmitted signal going equally in all compass directions, with most or the radiation
going close to the horizon; (D) A pattern with more of the transm itted signal concen-
trated in one direction than in other directions.

214-1.l What type of a ntenna produces a radiation pattern with more of the trans-
mitted s ignal concentrated in a partic ular direction than in other directions? (A) A
dipole antenna; (B) A vertical antenna; (C) An isotropic anLenna; (D) A beam antenna.

214-1.2 What type of radiation pattern is produced by a Yagi antenna? (A) A pat-
tern with the transmitted signal spread out equally in all compass directions; (B) A pat-
tern with more of the transmillcd signal concenttated in one direction than in other
directions; (C) A pattern with most of the transmitted signal concentrated in two oppo-
site directions; (D) A pauem with most of the transmitted signal concentrated at high ra-
diation angles.

214-1.3 Approximately how long (in wavelengths) is the driven elem ent of a Yagi
antenna? (A) 1/4 wavelength; (B) 1/3 wavelength; (C) 1/2 wavelength; (D) ·1 wave-
length. (See Figure 21.4 on page 180)

214-2.1 On the Yagi antenna s hown in Figure 21-4, what is the name of section B?
(A) Director; (B) Reflector; (C) Boom; (D) Driven element.

214-2.2 On the Yagi antenna shown in Figure 21-4, what is the name of section C?
(A) Director; (B) Reflector; (C) Boom; (D) Driven element.

214-2.3 On the Yagi antenna s hown in Figure 21-4, what is the name of section A?
(A) Director; (B) Reflector; (C) Boom; (D) Driven e lement.

214-2.4 What arc the names of the e lements in a 3-element Yagi antenna? (A) Re-
flector, driven element and director; (B) Boom, mast and reflector; (C) Reflector, base
and radiat0r; (D) Driven elemenL, trap and feed line.

215.1 How should the a ntenna on a hand-held transceiver be positioned while you
are transmitting? (A) Away from your head and away from others standing nearby;
(B) Pointed in the general direction of the repeater or other station you are ttansmitting
to; (C) Pointed in a general direction 90 degrees away from the repeater or other station
you are transmiuing to; (D) With the top of the antenna angled down slightly to take the
most advantage of ground reflections.

215.2 Why should you a lways locate your antennas so that no one can come in con-
tact with them while you are tra nsmitting'! (A) Such contact can detune the antenna,

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 187

 CHAPTER I

causing television interference; (B) To prevent RF bums and excessive exposure to RF

energy; (C) The antenna is more likely to radiate harmonics when it is touched; (D)
Such contact may ren cct the transmitted signal back to the transmiuer, damaging the
final amplifier.

215.3 You are going to purchase a new a ntenna for your VHF or UHF hand-held
radio. Which type of antenna is the best choice to produce a radia tion pattern that
will be least hazardous to your fa ce and eyes? (A) A 1/8 wavelength whip; (B) A 7/8
wavelength whip; (C) A 1/2 wavelength whip; (D) A short., he lically wound, flexible an-
tenna.

216.1 What is a coaxial cable? (A) Two parallel conductors encased along the edges of
a flat plastic ribbon; (B) Two paraJlel conductors held at a fixed distance fro m each
other by insulating rods; (C) Two conductors twisted around each other in a double spi-
ral; (D) A center conductor encased in insulating material which is covered by a con-
ducting sleeve or shield.

216.2 What kind of a ntenna feed line is constr ucted of a center conductor encased
in insulation which is then covered by an outer conducting shield a nd weather-
proof jacket? (A) Twin lead; (B) CoaxiaJ cable; (C) Open-wire feed line; (D) Wave
guide.

216.3 What a r e some advantages of using coaxial cable as an antenna feed line? (A)
It is easy to make at home, and it has a characteristic impedance in the range of most
common Amateur antennas; (B) It is weatherproof, and it has a characteristic impedance
in the range of most common Amateur antennas; (C) IL can be operated at a higher SWR
than twin lead, and it is weatherproof; (D) It is unaffected by nearby metallic objects,
and has a characteristic impedance that is higher than twin lead.

216.4 What commonly available antenna feed line ca n be buried directly in the
ground for some distan ce without ad ver se effects? (A) Twin lead; (B) Coaxial cable;
(C) Parallel conductor; (D) Twisted pair.

216.5 When an antenna feed line must be located near grounded metal objects,
which commonly availa ble feed line s hould be used ? (A) Twisted pair; (B) Twin
lead; (C) Coaxial cable; (D) Ladder-line.

217.1 What is parallel-conductor feed line? (A) Two conductors twisLed around each
other in a double spiral; (B) Two parallel conducwrs held a uniform distance apart by
insulating material; (C) A conductor encased in insulating material which is I.hen cov-
ered by a conducting shield and a weatherproof jacket; (D) A metallic pipe whose d iam-
eter is equa l to or slightly greater than the wave length of the signal being carried.

217.2 How can TV-type tw in lead be used as a feed line? (A) By care fully running the
feed line parallel to a metal post to ensure self resonance; (B) TV-type twin lead ca nnot

188 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER I

be used in an Amateur statio n; (C) By instarnng an impedance-matching network be-

tween the transmitter and feed line; (D) By using a high-power ampli fier and insta lling a
power attenuator between tl1e transmitter ~md feed line.

217.3 Wha t are some a d vantages of using pa r a Uel-conductor feed line? (A) It has a
lower characteristic impedance than coaxial cable, and will operate at a higher SWR
than coaxia l cable; (B) It will operate at a higher SWR than coaxial cable, and it is unaf-
fected by nearby metal objects; (C) It has a lower characceristic impedance than coaxial
cable, and has less loss than coaxial cable; (D) It will operate at higher SWR tllan coax-
ial cable and it has less loss than coaxial cable.

217.4 What are som e disadvantages of using parallel-conductor feed line? (A) It is
affected by nearby metallic objecis, and it has a characteristic impedance that is too hig h
for direct conneclion to most Amateur transmitters; (B) It is more difficult to make at
home than coaxial cable and it cannot be operated at a high SWR; (C) It is affected by
nearby metallic objects, and it cannot handle the po wer output of a typical Amateur
transmitter; (D) It has a characteristic impedance that is too high for direct connection to
most Amate ur transmiLters, and it will operate at a high SWR.

217.5 What kind of antenna feed line is constructed of two conductors maintained a
uniform d istance a part by insula ted spreaders? (A) Coaxial cable; (B) Ladder-line
open conductor line; (C) Twin lead in a plastic ribbon; (D) Twisted pair.

218.1 A certain a ntenna has a fe ed-point impedance of35 ohms. You want to use a
50-obm-impedance coaxial cable to feed this antenna. What type of device will you
need to connect between the antenna a nd the teed line? (A) A balun; (B) A SWR
bridge; (C) An impedance matching device; (D) A low-pa5s fi lter.

218.2 A certain a ntenna system has a n impedance of 1,000 ohms on one band.
What must you use lo connect this antenna system to the 50 o hm output on your
transmitter ? (A) A balun; (B) A SWR bridge; (C) An impedance matching device; (D)
A low-pass filler.

219.1 The word balun is a contraction for what phrase? (A) Balanced-antenna-lobe
use network; (B) Broadband-amplifier linearly unregulated; (C) Balanced unmodulator;
(D) Balanced to unbalanced.

219.2 W here would you install a balun if you wanted to feed your dipole antenna
with 450 ohm par allel-conductor feed line? (A) At the transmitter end of the feed
line; (B) At the ante nna feed point; (C) In only one conductor of the feed line; (D) From
one conductor of the feed line to ground.

219.3 W here might you insta lJ a balun if you wanted to feed your dipole antenna
with 50 ohm coaxia l cable? (A) You might install a balun at the antenna feed point;
(B) You might install a balun at the transmitter output; (C) You might install a balun 1(2

The National Amateur Rad io Association Ham Radio Handbook 189

 CHAPTER I

wavelength from Lhe transmitter; (D) You might inst.all baluns in the middle of each side
of the dipole.

2Il0-1. 1 A four-element Yagi antenna is mounted with its elements parallel to the
ground. A signal produced by this antenna will have what type of polarization? (A)
Broadside polarization; (B) Circular polarization; (C) Horizontal polarization; (D) Ver-
tical polarization.

2111-1.1 A four- element Yagi antenna is mounted with its elements perpendicular
to the ground. A signal produced by this antenna will have what type of polariza-
tion? (A) Broadside polarization; (B) Circular polarizmion; (C) Horizontal polarization;
(D) Vertical polarization.

SUB ELEMENT 3AI (3 questions).

3All-1.1 What antenna type best strengthens signals from a particular direction
while attenuating those from other directions? (A) A beam anLenna; (B) An isotropic
antenna; (C) A monopole antenna; (D) A vertical antenna.

3A11-l.2 What is a directional antenna? (A) An antenna whose parasitic elements are 0

all constructed to be directors; (B) An antenna thaL radiates in direct line-of-sight propa-
gaLion, but not skywave or skip propagation; (C) An antenna permanently mounted so
as to radiate in only one direction; (D) An antenna that radiates more strongly in some
directions than others.

3All-1.3 What is a Yagi antenna? (A) Half wavelength clements stacked vertically
and excited in phase; (B) Quarter wavelength clements arranged horizontally and ex-
cited out of phase; (C) Half wavelength linear driven element(s) with parasitically ex-
cited parallel linear elements; (D) Quancr wavelength, triangular loop clements.

3All-1.4 What is the general configuration of the radiating elements of a horizon-

tally polarized Yagi? (A) Two or more straight, parallel elements arranged in the same
horizontal plane; (B) Vertically stacked square or circular loops arranged in parallel hor-
izontal planes; (C) Two or more wire loops arranged in parallel vertical planes; (D) A
vertical radiator arnmged in the center of an effective RF ground plane.

3All-1.S What type of parasitic beam antenna uses two or more straight metal-
tubing elements arranged physically parallel to each other? (A) A delta loop an-
tenna; (B) A quad antenna; (C) A Yagi antenna; (D) A Zepp antenna.

3A11-1.6 How many directly driven elements does a Yagi antenna have? (A) None;
they are all parasitic; (B) One; (C) Two; (D) All clements are directly driven .

3AI1-1.7 What is a parasitic beam antenna? (A) An antenna where Lhe director and
reflector elements receive their RF excitation by induction or radiation from the driven
element; (B) An antenna where wave traps are used to assure magnetic coupling among

190 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Rad io Association

 CHAPTER I

I.he elemenLS; (C) An anlenna where all elements are driven by direcl connecLion to the
feed line; (D) An antenna where the driven element receives its RF exciLation by induc-
tion or rad iation from the directors.

3All-2.1 What is a cubical quad antenna? (A) Four parallel metal tubes, each approx-
imately 1/2 electrical wavelength long; (B) Two or more paral lel four-sided wire loops,
each approximately-one electrical wavelength long; (C) A vertical conductor 1/4 electri-
cal wavelength high, fed at the bottom ; (D) A center-fed wire 1/2 electrical wavelength
long.

3All-2.2 What kind of antenna ar ray is composed of a square full wave closed loop
dr iven element with parallel parasitic element(s)? (A) Della loop; (B) Cubical quad;
(C) Dual rhombic; (D) Stacked Yagi.

3All-2.3 Approximately how long is one side of the driven element of a cubical
q uad antenna? (A) 2 electrical wavelengths; (B) 1 electrical wavelength; (C) 1/2 elec-
trical wavelength; (D) 1/4 electrical wavelength.

3All-2.4 Approximately how long is the wire in the driven element of a cubical
quad antenna? (A) 1/4 electrical wavelength; (B) 1/2 electrical wavelength; (C) 1 elec-
trical wavelength; (D) 2 electrical wavelengths.

3All-3.l What is a delta loop antenna? (A) A variation of Lhe cubical quad antenna,
with triangular elements; (B) A large copper ring, used in direction finding; (C) An an-
tenna system composed of three vertical antennas, arranged in a triangular shape; (D)
An antenna made from several coils of wire on an insulating form .

3AI 2-I .1 To what does the term horizontal as applied to wave polar ization refer?
(A) The magnetic lines of force in the radio wave are parallel to the earth's surface; (B)
The electric lines of force in the radio wave are parallel to the earth's surface; (C) The
electric lines of force in the radio wave are perpendicular to the earth's surface; (D) The
radio wave will leave the antenna and radiate horizontally to the destination.

3Al 2-1.2 What electromagnetic wave polarization does a cubical quad antenna
have when the feed point is in the center of' a horizontal side? (A) Circular; (B) Heli-
cal; (C) Horizontal; (D) Vertical.

3AI2-l.3 What electromagnetic wave polarization does a cubical q uad antenna

have when all sides are at 45 degrees to the earth 's surface and the feed point is at
the bottom corner? (A) Circular; (B) Helical; (C) Horizontal; (D) Vertical.

3A12-2.1 Wh at is the polarization of electromagnetic waves radiated from a halt'-

wavelength antenna perpendicular to the earth' s surface? (A) Circularly polarized
waves; (B) Horizontally polarized waves; (C) Parabolically polarized waves; (D) Verti-
cally polarized waves.

The National Amateur Rad io Association Ham Radio Handbook 191

 CHAPTER I

3Al2-2.2 What is the electromagnetic wave polarization of most man-made electri-

cal noise radiation in tfJe HF-VHF spectrum ? (A) Horizon Lal; (B) Left-hand c ircular;
(C).Right-hand circular; (D) Vertical.

3Al2-2.3 To what does the term vertical as applied to wave polarization refer? (A)
The electric lines of force in the radio wave are parallel Lo the earth's surface; (B) The
magnetic lines of force in the radio wave arc perpendicular to the earth 's surface; (C)
The electric Lines of force in the radio wave are perpendicular to the earth's surface; (D)
The radio wave will leave the antenna and radiate vertically into the ionosphere.

3AI2-2.4 What electromagnetic wave polarization docs a cu bical quad antenna

have when the feed point is in the center of a vertical side? (A) Circular; (B) Helical;
(C) Horizontal; (D) Vertical.

3AI2-2.5 What electromagnetic wave polarization does a cubical quad antenna

have when all sides are at 45 degrees to the earth's surface and the feed point is at
a side corner? (A) Circular; (B) Helical; (C) Horizontal; (D) Vertical.

3Al3-1.l What is meant by the term standing wave ratio? (A) The ratio of maximum
to minimum inductances on a feed line; (B) The ratio of maximum to minimum resist-
ances on a feed line; (C) The ratio of maximum to minimum impedances on a feed line;
(D) The ratio of maximum LO minimum voltages on a feed line.

3A13-1.2 What is standing wave r atio a measure of? (A) The ratio of maximum to
minimum voltage on a feed line; (B) The ratio of maximum to minimum reactance on a
feed line; (C) The ratio of maximum to minimum resistance on a feed line; (D) The ratio
of maxjmum to minimum sidebands on a feed line.

3AI3-2.1 What is meant by the term forward power? (A) The power traveling from
the Lransmitter to the anLenna; (B) The power radiated from the fronL of a directional an-
tenna; (C) The power produced during the positive half of the RF cycle; (D) The power
used to drive a linear amplifier.

3AI3-2.2 What is meant by the term reflected power? (A) The power radiated from
the back of a directional antenna; (B) The power returned to the transmiuer from the an-
tenna; (C) The power produced during the negative half of the RF cycle; (D) Power re-
flected to the transmitter site by buildings and trees.

3AI3-3.1 What happens to the power loss in an unbalanced feed line as the stand-
ing wave ratio increases? (A) It is unpredictable; (B) It becomes nonexistent; (C) It de-
creases; (D) It increases.

3AI3-3.2 What type of' feed line is best suited to operating at a high standing wave
ratio? (A) Coaxial cable; (B) Flat ribbon "twin lead"; (C) Parallel open-wire line; (D)
Twisted pair.

192 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 CHAPTER I

3Al3-3.3 What happens to RF ener gy not delivered to the antenna by a lossy coax-
ial cable? (A) It is radialed by the feed line; (B) IL is relurned to the transmiLLer's chassis
ground; (C) Some of it is dissipated as heal in the conductors and dielectric; (D) IL is
canceled because of the voltage ratio o f forward power Lo reflected power in the feed
line.

3Al4-1.1 What is a balanced line? (A) Feed line with one conductor connected to
ground; (B) Feed line with both conductors connected to ground to balance out harmon-
ics; (C) Feed line with the outer conductor connecLed to ground at even intervals; (D)
Feed line with neither conductor connected to ground.

3Al4-1.2 What is an unbalanced line? (A) Feed line with neither conductor connected
to ground; (B) Feed line with both conductors connected to ground to suppress harmon-
ics; (C) Feed line with one conductor connected to ground; (D) Feed line with the outer
conductor connected LO ground at uneven in~ervals.

3Al4-2.1 What is a balanced antenna? (A) A symmetrical antenna with one side of
the feed point connected to ground; (B) An antenna (or a driven element in an array)
that is symmetrical about the feed point; (C) A symmetrical antenna with both sides of
the feed point connected to ground, to balance out harmonics; (D) An amenna designed
to be mounted in the center.

3Al4-2.2 What is a n unbalanced antenna? (A) An antenna (or a driven element in an

array) that is not symmetrical about tl1c feed point; (B) A symmetrical anlenna, having
neither half connected to ground; (C) An antenna (or a driven clement in an array) that
is symmetrical about the feed point; (D) A symmetrical antenna with both halves cou-
pled to ground at uneven intervals.

3A14-3.l What d evice can be installed on a balanced a ntenna so that it can b e fed
through a coaxial cable'? (A) A balun; (B) A loading coil; (C) A triaxial transformer;
(D) A wavetrap.

3Al4-3.2 W hat is a balun ? (A) A device thaL can be used to convert an antenna de-
signed to be fed at the center so that it may be fed at one end; (B) A device that may be
installed on a balanced anLenna so that it may be fed with unbalanced feed line; (C) A
device that can be installed on an antenna to produce horizontally polarized or vertically
polarized waves; (D) A device used to allow an antenna to operate on more than one
band.

3ALS-1.1 List the following types of feed line in order of increasing attenuation per
100 feet of line (list the line with the lowest attenuation first): RG-8, RG-58, RG-
174 and open-wire line. (A) RG-174, RG-58, RG-8, open-wire line; (B) RG-8, open-
wire line, RG-58, RG-174; (C) Open-wire line, RG-8, RG-58, RG-174; (D) Open-wire
line, RG-174, RG-58, RG-8.

The Nationa l Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 193

 CHAPTER I

3AI5-1.2 You have installed a tower 150 feet from your radio shack, and have a 6-
meter Yagi antenna on top. Which of the following feed lines should you choose to
feed this antenna: RG-8, RG-58, RG-59 or RG-174? (A) RG-8; (B) RG-58; (C) RG-
59; (D) RG-174.

3A15-2.l You have a 200-foot coil of RG-58 coaxial cable attached to your antenna,
but the antenna is only 50 feet from your radio. To minimize feed-line loss, what
should you do with the excess cable? (A) Cut off the excess cable to an even number
of wavelengths long; (B) Cut off the excess cable to an odd number of wavelengths
long; (C) Cut off the excess cable; (D) Roll the excess cable into a coi l a tenth of a
wavelength in diameter.

3Al5-2.2 How does feed line length affect signal loss? (A) The length has no effect on
signal loss; (B) As length increases, signal loss increases; (C) As length decreases, sig-
nal loss increases; (D) The length is inversely proportional to signal loss.

3AI5-3.l What is the general relationship between frequencies passing through a

feed line and the losses in the feed line? (A) Loss is independent of frequency; (B)
Loss increases with increasing frequency; (C) Loss decreases with increasing frequency;
(D) There is no predictable relationstiip.

3AIS-3.2 As the operating frequency decreases, what happens to conductor losses

in a feed line? (A) Tpe losses decrease; (B) The losses increase; (C) The losses remain
the same; (D) The losses become infinite.

3AJS-3.3 As the operati!lg freq uency increases, what happens to conductor losses in
a feed line? (A) The losses decrease; (B) The losses increase; (C) The losses remain the
same; (D) The losses decrease to zero.

3AI6-l.1 You are qsing open-wire feed line in your Amateur station. Why should
you ensure that no one can come in contact with the feed line while you are trans-
mitting? (A) Because contact with the feed line while transmitting will cause a short
circuit, probably damaging your transmitter; (B) Because the wire is so small they may
break it; (C) Bec<1µse contact with the feed line while transmitting will cause parasitic
radiation; (D) Because high RF voltages can be present on open-wire feed line.

3AJ6-2.l How c~n you minimize exposure to radio frequency energy from your
transmitting antiinnas? (A) Use vertical polarization; (B) Use horizontal polarization;
(C) Mount the antennas where no one can come near them; (D) Mount the antenna close
to the ground.

194 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

Answers
Element 2 (Novi ce)

2A-l.1 (A) 2A-l5.3 (A) 2A-24.l (B) 2A-40.3 (D) 2B4-l.1 (B)
2A- l.2 (D) 2A-15.4 (B) 2A-25. 'I (C) 2B-l-1.l (A) 2 B4-2.l (B)
2A-l.3 (D) 2A-15.5 (D) 2A-26.l (D) 2B-1-l.2 (C) 2B-S-l.l (C)
2A-l.4 (B) 2A-16.1 (A) 2A-27.1 (C) 2B-1-1.2 (C) 2B-S-l.2 (D)
2A-2.l (C) 2A-17.1 (A) 2A-27.2 (B) 2B- l-2.I (0) 2B-5-2.1 (A)
2A-2.2 tA) 2A-17.2 (A) 2A-27.3 (B) 2B-2- l.l (A) 28-5-2.2 (B)
2A-3.1 (A) 2A-17.3 (A) 2A-27.4 (A) 2B-2- l.2 (B) 2B-6-1.l (C)
2A-3.2 (D) 2A-17.4 (A) 2A-27.5 (B) 2B-2-2.l (C) 2B-6-2.1 (0)
2A4.1 (B) 2A-17.5 (D) 2A-27.6 (C) 2B-2-3.l (C) 2B-6-3.l (A)
2A-4.2 (0 ) 2A-17.6 (0) 2A-27.7 (B) 2B-2-3.2 (D) 2B-6-4.l (B)
2A-5.J (C) 2A-17.7 (D) 2A-28.1 (D) 2B-2-3.3 ... (A) 2B-6-5.l (C)
2A-5.2 (B) 2A- 17.8 (C) 2A-28.2 (C) 28-2-3.4 (B) 28-6-5.2 (D)
2A-6.l (B) 2A- 17.9 (C) 2A-29. 1 (B) 2B-2-3.5 (C) 2C-1. l (A)
2A-6.2 (C) 2A-17.10 (D) 2A-29.2 (0) 2B-2-4. l (0) 2C-1.2 (B)
2A-7. l (D) 2A-l7.l l (D) 2A-30.1 (A) 2B-2-4.2 (A) 2C-2.l (0)
2A-8.l (A) 2A- 17.12 (D) 2A-30.2 (B) 2B-2-4.3 (A) 2C-2.2 (B)
2A-8.2 (D) 2A-17.13 (C) 2A-30.3 (D) 2B-2-5.1 (D) 2C-2.3 (B)
2A-9.1 (D) 2A-18.l (D) 2A-31.3 (D) 2B-2-5.2 (B) 2C-2.4 (A)
2A-9.3 (B) 2A-18.2 (C) 2A-32.l (A) 2B-2-5.3 (A) 2C-3. l (A)
2A-10.2 (C) 2A-18.3 (C) 2A-32.2 (D) 2B-2-6.l (B) 2C-3.2 (B)
2A-10.3 (A) 2A018.4 (C) 2A-33.1 (A) 2B-2-6.2 (C) 2C-3.3 (D)
2A-10.4 (C) 2A-18.5 (C) 2A-34.1 (A) 2B-2-6.3 (D) 2C-3.4 (A)
2A-10.5 (B) 2 A-J9.l (C) 2A-34.2 (B) 2B-2-6.4 (A) 2C-3.5 (C)
2A-10.6 (C) 2A-19.2 (B) 2A-34.3 (D) 2B-2-6.5 (B) 2C-3.6 (D)
2A-10.7 (A) 2A-l9.3 (C) 2A-35.1 (A) 2B-3- l.l (C) 2C4.l (C)
2A-10.8 (B) 2A-l9.4 (D) 2A-36.1 (C) 28-3-1.2 (D) 2C4.2 (D)
2A-10.9 (C) 2A-19.5 (B) 2A-36.2 (0) 28-3-2.1 (A) 2C-5.1 (A)
2A-10.10 (D) 2A-20.1 (C) 2A-37.1 (A) 2B-3-2.2 (C) 2 C-5.2 (B)
2A-ll.l (A 2A-20.2 (C) 2A-37.2 (C) 2B -3-2.3 (A) 2C-6.l (C)
2A-ll.2 (B) 2A-20.3 (D) 2A-38.l (C) 2B-3-2.4 (0) 2C-6.2 (C)
2A-12. l (C) 2A-21.l (C) 2A-38.2 (D) 2B-3-2.5 (A) 20 -1.l (B)
2A- 12.2 (A) 2A-21.2 (A) 2A-38.3 (A) 2B-3-2.6 (C) 20-1.2 (A)
2A-12.3 (D) 2A-21.3 (D) 2A-39.1 (C) 2B-3-2.7 (A) 20-2.1 (D)
2A-13 .l (A) 2A-21.4 (B) 2A-39.2 (8) 28-3-2.8 (0) 2D-2.2 (C)
2A-14.l (B) 2A-22.l (C) 2A-39.3 (B) 28-3-2.9 (B) 2D-2.3 (D)
2A-15.l (C) 2A-22.2 (A) 2A-40.l (C) 2B-3-2.l0 (A) 20-2.4 (B)
2A-15.2 (D) 2A-23.l (8) 2A-40.2 (D) 2B-3-2. t l (C) 2D-3.1 (A)

The National Amateur Radio Associat ion Ham Rad io Handbook 195
20-3.2 (C) 20-8-3.2 (B) 2E-12-3.3 (A) 2G-l-2.4 (D) 21-1.3 (C)
20-3.3 (B) 2E-l-1.1 (C) 2E-12-4.l (B) 2G-l -2.5 (0) 21-1.4 (C)
20-3.4 (C) 2E-l-2.l (B) 2E-12-4.2 (A) 2G-2.I (B) 21-1.5 (0)
20-4.1 (B) 2E-l-2.2 (0) 2E-12-4.3 (B) 20-2.2 (C) 21-2. l (0)
20-4.2 (A) 2E-1-3.l (B) 2E-12-5.l (C) 2G-2.3 (C) 21-2.2 (D)
20-4.3 (C) 2E-l-3.2 (0) 2E-12-5.2 (B) 20-3.l (D) 21-2.3 (B)
20-4.4 (A) 2E-l-4.l (B) 23-13.1 (C) 2G-3.2 (D) 21-2.4 (B)
2D-4.5 (B) 2E- l-5.1 (C) 2E-13.l (0) 2G-4.l (A) 21-2.5 (A)
20-4.6 (B) 2E- l-5.2 (C) 2F-1.1 (B) 20-4.2 (C) 21-3.1 (B)
2D-5.l (D) 2E-l -6.l (B) 2F-1.2 (C) 20-5. l (A) 21-3.2 (C)
20-5.2 (A) 2E-1-7.1 (B) 2F-1.3 (C) 20-5.2 (A) 21-4-1.1 (D)
20-6.1 (D) 2E-2-l.l (0 ) 2F-2.1 (A) 20-5.3 (C) 21-4-1.2 (B)
20-6.2 (D) 2E-2-2. 1 (C) 2F-2.2 (A) 2H-l-l.1 (B) 21-4-1.2 (C)
20-6.3 (A) 2E-3-l.1 (A) 2F-2.3 (B) 20-1-1.2 (C) 21-4-2.1 (0)
20-6.4 (D) 2E-3-l.2 (D) 2F-2.4 (D) 2H-l-2.I (A) 21-4-2.2 (A)
2D-6.5 (A) 2E-3-l.3 (C) 2F-2.5 (A) 20-1-2.2 (A) 21-4-2.3 (B)
20-7-1.l (C) 2E-3-2.l (A) 2F-3.1 (C) 2H-1-3.I (A) 21-4-2.4 (A)
2D-7-l.2 (D) 2E-4.l (C) 2F-4. I (A) 20-1-4.1 (D) 21-5.1 (A)
20-7-2.1 (B) 2E-5.1 (A) 2F-4.2 (B) 20-2. l (B) 21-5.2 (B)
20-7-2.2 (C) 2E-6-1.1 (0) 2F-5. l (0) 2H-2.2 (D) 2I-5.3 (C)
20-7-2.3 (D) 2E-6-l.2 (A) 2F-5.2 (B) 2H-3.l (C) 21-6.l (0)
20-7-2.4 (C) 2E-6-2.l (D) 2F-5.3 (A) 2H-3.2 (B) 21-6.2 (B)
20-7-3. l (A) 2E-7.l (C) 2F-5.4 (D) 2H-4.1 (D) 21-6.3 (B)
20-7-3.2 (A) 2E-7.2 (C) 2G-6.1 (D) 2H-4.2 (B) 21-6.4 (B)
20-7-3.3 (B) 2E-7.3 (B) 2F-7.l (C) 2H-5. l (A) 21-6.5 (C)
20-7-3.4 (C) 2E-7.4 (C) 2F-7.2 (A) 2H-5.2 (C) 21-7.l (B)
20-8-1.1 (C) 2E-8.l (0) 2F-7.3 (C) 2H-6.1 (A) 21-7.2 (C)
20-8-1.2 (B) 2E-8.2 (A) 2F-7.4 (B) 2H-6.2 (C) 21-7.3 (D)
20-8-1.3 (C) 2E-9-l.1 (C) 2F-8.I (A) 2H-6.3 (A) 21-7.4 (A)
20-8-1.4 (B) 2E-9-l.2 (C) 2G-1-1.2 (B) 2H-7.l (C) 21-7.5 (B)
20-8-2.J (A) 2E-9-2.l (B) 20-1-1.2 (C) 2H-7.2 (0) 21-8.l (C)
20-8-2.2 (A) 2E-10.1 (C) 20-1-l.3 (D) 2H-7.3 (A) 21-8.2 (C)
20-8-2.3 (A) 2E-1 l.l (0) 2G- l-l.4 (A) 2H-7.4 (B) 21-9.l (D)
2D-8-2.4 (C) 2E-12- l.l (B) 20-1-1.5 (D) 2H-7.5 (B) 21-9.2 (A)
20-8-2.5 (D) 2E-12-2.1 (A) 20-1-2.l (B) 2H-7.6 (B) 21-9.3 (A)
20-8-2.6 (B) 2E-12-3.l (D) 20-1-2.2 (A) 21-1.1 (A) 21-10-1.l (C)
20-8-3.1 (A) 2E-12-3.2 (A) 2G-1-2.3 (B) 21-1.2 (0) 2!-11 - 1.1 (D)

196 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 Element 3A (Technician)
3AA-l.l (A) 3AA-12.4 (D) 3AB-6-3.2 (C) 3AD-5-1.3 (B) 3AE-3-2.l (C)
3AA-l.2 (B) 3AA-12.5 (C) 3AC-1-1.1 (A) 3AD-5-l.4 (A) 3AE-3-2.2 (C)
3AA-2.2 (C) 3AA-13.l (B) 3AC-l- l.2 (D) 3AD-5-2.l (8 ) 3AE-3-2.3 (B)
3AA-2.3 (B) 3AA- 13.2 (D) 3AC-l -l .3 (C) 3AD-5-2.2 (C) 3AE-3-2.4 (C)
3AA-2.4 (A) 3AA-13.3 (D) 3AC-l-2.l (A) 3AD-6. l (A) 3AE-3-3.1 (B)
3AA-2.5 (B) 3AA-13.4 (C) 3AC-l-2.2 (B) 3AD-6.2 (D) 3AE-3-3.2 (C)
3AA-3. l (A) 3AA-14. l (D) 3AC- l -3.1 (B) 3AD-6.3 (A) 3AE-3-4.l (A)
3AA-3.2 (A) 3AA-14.2 (C) 3AC-l-4.1 (D) 3AD-7.1 (C) 3AE-3-4.2 (B)
3AA-3.3 (A) 3AA-14.3 (D) 3AC-l-4.2 (B) 3AD-7.2 (B) 3AE-4-l.1 (A)
3AA-4.l (B) 3AA-1S.l (A) 3AC-l-4.3 (C) 3AD-8- l.l (D) 3AE-4-2. l (A)
3AA-4.2 (A) 3AA-15.2 (C) 3AC-2.l (D) 3AD-8- l.2 (D) 3AE-4-2.2 (B)
3AA-4.3 (A) 3AA-15.3 (D) 3AC-2.2 (B) 3AD-8-2.l (A) 3AE-4-2.3 (A)
3AA-5.l (D) 3AA-15.4 (B) 3AC-2.3 (A) 3AD-8-2.2 (C) 3AE-4-2.4 (B)
3AA-5.2 (C) 3AA-16.l (B) 3AC-2.4 (B) 3AD-9.l (D) 3AE-4-3. l (C)
3AA-6- l.I (C) 3AA-16.2 (D) 3AC-3.l (D) 3AD-9.2 (B) 3AE-4-3.2 (B)
3AA-6- l.2 (D) 3AA-16.3 (C) 3AC-3.2 (C) 3AD-9.3 (C) 3AE-4-4.l (A)
3AA-6-2. l (C) 3AA-17.l (A) 3AC-3.3 (A) 3AD-9.4 (B) 3AE-4-4.2 (A)
3AA-6-3.l (D) 3AB-l.1 (A) 3AC-3.4 (B) 3AD-9.5 (A) 3AF-1-1.1 (B)
3AA-6-4. l (B) 3AB-l.2 (C) 3AC-4.l (D) 3AD-9.6 (A) 3AF-1-2.l (D)
3AA-7-1.1 (C) 3AB-1.3 (D) 3AC-4.2 (C) 3AD-10.l (C) 3AF-l-2.2 (C)
3AA-7-l.2 (B) 3AB-2-l.l (B) 3AC-4.3 (A) 3AD- l0.2 (A) 3AF-l-3.1 (A)
3AA-7- 1.3 (D) 3AB-2-l.2 (C) 3AC-5.l (C) 3AD-ll-1.I (B) 3AF-l-3.2 (B)
3AA-7-2.l (C) 3AB-2-l.3 (A) 3AC-5.2 (C) 3AD-11-1.2(A) 3AF-1-3.3 (B)
3AA-7-2.2 (C) 3AB-2-l .4 (D) 3AC-6.l (A) 3AD-l l-2. l (D) 3AF-1-3.4 (C)
3AA-7-3. l (A) 3AB -2-1.S (B) 3AC-6.2 (B) 3AD- l l-2.2 (B) 3AF-l-4.l (A)
3AA-7-3.2 (D) 3AB-2- l .6 (B) 3AC-7.l (C) 3AD- l l -2.3 (B) 3AF-l-4.2 (C)
3AA-7-3.3 (D) 3AB-2- l.7 (D) 3AC-7.2 (A) 3AD-ll-2.4 (D) 3AF- l-5. l (B)
3AA-8-l.l (B) 3AB-2-2. l (C) 3AC-7.3 (D) 3AD- ll-2.5 (B) 3AJ"-1-5.2 (C)
3AA-8-2.l (B) 3AB-2-2.2 (C) 3AC-7.4 (A) 3AD-ll-3.1 (C) 3AF-2-l.l (D)
3AA-8-3.l (C) 3AB-2-3.l (D) 3AC-7.S (B) 3AE-1-l.1 (0 ) 3AF-2-l.2 (A)
3AA-9-1.1 (A) 3AB-2-3.2 (B) 3AC-7.6 (D) 3AE-l-2.1 (A) 3AF-2-l.3 (D)
3AA-9-2. l (A) 3AB-2-3.3 (A) 3AD-1-1.1 (C) 3AE-l-2.2 (D) 3AF-2- l.4 (C)
3AA-10.l (A) 3AB-2-3.4 (C) 3AD-l-l.2 (D) 3AE-l-3.l (B) 3AF-2-2. l (D)
3AA-10.2 (C) 3AB-2-4.l (D) 3AD-l-1.3 (B) 3AE-l-3.2 (D) 3AF-2-2.2 (C)
3AA-I0.3 (D) 3AB-3.l (A) 3AD-I-l.4 (B) 3AE-l-4.l (B) 3AF-2-3. l (D)
3AA-10.4 (B) 3AB-3.2 (B) 3AD-1-2.l (A) 3AE-l-4.2 (C) 3AF-2-3.2 (B)
3AA- '11 -1.l (A) 3AB-3.3 (C) 3AD-1-2.2 (A) 3AE-2.l (D) 3AF-2-3.3 (A)
3AA-11-l.2 (B) 3AB-4.l (A) 3AD-l-2.3 (A) 3AE-2.2 (A) 3AF-2-3.4 (B)
3AA-Jl-l.3 (A) 3AB-4.2 (D) 3AD-l-3.l (C) 3AE-2.3 (C) 3AF-2-4.1 (A)
3AA-'ll-2.l(D) 3AB-5-l.1 (C) 3AD-2-l.l (B) 3AE-2.4 (D) 3AF-2-4.2 (B)
3AA- l l -2.2 (A) 3AB-5-1.2 (B) 3AD-2-2.1 (C) 3AE-2.S (B) 3AF-2-4.3 (C)
3AA-11-2.3(C) 3AB-S-2.l (D) 3AD-3- l.1 (A) 3AE-2.6 (D) 3AF-3- l.l (D)
3AA- l l-2.4 (A) 3AB-6- l.1 (A) 3AD-3-2.l (D) 3AE-2.7 (D) 3AF-3-l.2 (A)
3AA-l2.l (A) 3AB-6-1.2 (B) 3AD-4.l (D) 3AE-2.8 (A) 3AF-3-l.3 (C)
3AA-12.2 (C) 3AB-6-2.1 (D) 3AD-5- l.l (A) 3AE-2.9 (A) 3AF-3-l.4 (C)
3AA-12.3 (B) 3AB-6-3 .1 (B) 3AD-S-l.2 (C) 3AE-3-l.l (C) 3AF-3-2.l (B)

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 197

3AF-3-2.2 (D) 3AG-4- l .2 (D) 3AH-2-6.2 (B) 3AI-1-l.5 (C) 3AI-3-2.2 (B)
3AF-3-2.3 (A) 3AG-4-l.3 (B) 3AH-2-7.J (D) 3AI-l-l.6 (B) 3AI-3-3.J (D)
3AF-3-2.4 (B) 3AG-4-l.4 (B) 3AH-2-7.2 (B) 3AI-1-l.7 (A) 3AI-3-3.2 (C)
3AF-3-3.l (A) 3AG-4-1.5 (D) 3AH-2-8.l (C) 3AI-1-2.l (B) 3AI-3-3 .3 (C)
3AF-3-3.2 (B) 3AG-4-2.l (D) 3AH-2-8.2 (D) 3AI-1-2.2 (B) 3AI-4-1.l (D)
3AF-3-3.3 (D) 3AG-4-2.2 (C) 3AH-3.1 (A) 3AJ-1-2.3 (D) 3AI-4-1.2 (C)
3AF-3-4.1 (D) 3AH-l.l (A) 3AH-3.2 (B) 3A1-1-2.4 (C) 3Al-4-2. l (B)
3AF-3-4.2 (A) 3AH-2-1. l (A) 3AH-4.1 (C) 3AI-1-3. 1 (A) 3AI-4-2.2 (A)
3AG-1-1.1 (A) 3AH-2- l.2 (B) 3AH-5.l (D) 3AI-2-1.1 (B) 3Al-4-3.l (A)
3AG-1- l.2 (D) 3AH-2-2.1 (C) 3AH-5.2 (C) 3AI-2-1.2 (C) 3AI-4-3.2 (B)
3AG-1-2.I (C) 3AH-2-2.2 (A) 3AH-6.l (D) 3AJ-2- l.3 (C) 3A1-5-l.l (C)
3AG-1-2.2 (B) 3AH-2-3.1 (B) 3AH-6- l .2 (C) 3AI-2-2.l (D) 3AI-5-1 .2 (A)
3AG-2-1. 1 (B) 3AH-2-3.2 (A) 3AH-7-1.1 (D) 3AI-2-2.2 (D) 3Al-5-2. l (C)
3AG-2-2. l (A) 3AH-2-4.l (B) 3AH-7-2.l (B) 3AJ-2-2.3 (C) 3AI-S-2.2 (B)
3AG-2-2.2 (B) 3AH-2-4.2 (D) 3AH-7-2.2 (C) 3AI-2-2.4 (D) 3AI-5-3.l (B)
3AG-3-1.L (A) 3AH-2-5.l (A) 3AI-1-1.1 (A) 3AJ-2-2.S (D) 3AI-5-3.2 (A)
3AG-3- l.2 (D) 3AH-2-5.2 (D) 3AI-1-l.2 (D) 3AI-3- I.I (D) 3A1-S-3.3 (B)
3AG-3-2.I (A) 3AH-2-5.3 (C) 3Al-l-l.3 (C) 3AI-3-I.2 (A) 3AI-6-1.l (D)
3AG-4- l.I (C) 3AH-2-6.1 (A) 3AI-1-l.4 (A) 3Al-3-2.l (A) 3AI-6-2.1 (C)

198 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Rad io Association

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Amateur Radio · The The educational programs of The National
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King Of Hobbies. Your memberships will help us to exhibit at
'Thinking about becoming a ham? Even if you educational conferences such as those held by
are not yet licensed, you should be a member The National Science Teachers Association.
of this fast growing, prestigious organization.
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Your financial support will allow NARA to change that they hold in their fingertips.
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With no advertising revenue. our only support
comes from your memberships and donations. plish all these things!

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You alone will detennine the future of our or- .
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Memberships will pay for a Washington pres-
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Radio Association and join right over the telephone. The toll-free number is 1-800-
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personal machine. You can give either one your name, address, credit card type and
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The Amateur Radio Communicator.

Even if you are not yet ready to pan with the $10.00 membership fee, you can wait until
inflation and the high cost of success result in an increase. We still want to hear from
you. Call the NARA number and announce that you would like to be an Associate
Member. We'll send you a FREE sample copy of The Amateur Radio Corrununicator
and occasional mailings on items of interest to Amateurs. Don't forget to give us your
mailing address.

Most important, when you have read this book and are ready to take your test, call and
let us know. We'll send you a listing of Helping Hams so you can select the one who
lives nearest you. He or she may not be able to assist you direclly, but they will know
who is conducting the testing sessions in your area and when and where they are held. If
you call after normal business hours, simply leave your name and address and tell the
"silicon secretary" that you want the list of Helping Hams. It will be forwarded to you
promptly.

Careful readers will note that thjs is the second printing of The Ham Radio Handbook.
The response in the marketplace has been awesome. The first printing sold out in about
two months and the phone at NARA has not quit ringing with calls from new members.

73, DE Don Stoner, W6TNS

200 Ham Rad io Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

Index
AC sine wave, 124 Block diagram, 156
Advanced Class hams, 26 Broadcasting, 35
Allen, Dr. Van, 89 Business communications, 36
Alternating current, 123
AM, 6, 20-21, 89
Amateur license, 24
Amateur radio, 1-2, 27, 31, 42 Call letters, 19, 25
American Radio Capacitor, 143
Relay League, 11, 18, 51 Circuits, 156
Amateur Radio Service, 1-2, 23, 41 Chassis ground, 146
Amateur Satellite Corp. Citizen's band, 6
(AMSTAT), 12, 22 Class licenses, 7-10, 24, 26
Amateur Television Communications
Transmissions (ATV), 31 business, 36
Ambassadors, 4 emergency, 34, 37
Antenna Computer communication
beam, 180 emissions, 48
directivity, 178 Computers, 27
polarization, 86 Conductor, 119
radiation, 185 Continuous wave (CW), 33
switch, 155, 156 Control operator, 34-35
tuner, 156 Control point, 34
Amplification, 19 CQ,64
Amplitude, 129 Critical frequency, 88
AR,65 Crystal controlled transmitter, 157
Armstrong, Major Edwin, 20
Atom, 117
Audion, 19
Autopatch, 70 DE,64
Deceptive signals, 38
DeForest, Dr. Lee, 19
Dielectric, 126
Back e.m.f.. 126 Digipeater, 68
Band propagation, 65 Digital procedures, 68
Bands, 29-33, 65 Digital radio transmissions, 38
Bandwidth emission, 38, 166 DN,65
Batteries, 145 Double pole, double throw, 145
Baud rate, 68 Dummy antenna,
Beacon station, 34, 40 dUllllllyl~ad,65, 106

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 201

 D -Jayer, 89 Godly, Paul F., 19
DX. 2, 91 Griswold, Butch, 20

E-layer, 85 Ham radio, I , 11

Effective voltage, 124 Harmonic radiation. 104
Electric charge, 118 Harmonics, 169
Electric current, 119 Health and welfare traffic, 71
Electrical energy, 123 Hertz, Heinrich, 15, 124, 130
Electrical shock. 98-99 High Frequency (HF), 33, 69, 83
Electromagnetic
waves, 15-16, 20, 120
Electronic ambassadors, 4
Electronic mirror, 85 Inductive reactance, 127
Electronics, 118 Inductors, 126, 140
Elcclrostatic, 143 Integrated circuit, 146
Emergency Interference, 40, 63-64, 111
communications, 34, 37, 71 Interlock. 98
Emission. 26, 38 International Telecommunications
Emfasion bandwidth, 38 Union (ITV), 33, 40
Emission designators, 167 Ionization, 83, 88
Ionosphere, 84-89

F-layer, 85
Farad, 127 Key clicks, 168
FCC, 23-24, 37, 40, 70 KN,65
Fessenden, Aubrey, 17
Filters, 104, 158- 159
Fleming. Sir Ambrose. 19
FM,5,20,38 LeMay, Curtis, 20
Frequency, 29-33, 70, 129 License
Frequency discrimination, 157 amateur, 24, 63
novice, 7
operator, 24
station. 24
General Class hams, 26 technician, 7-8, 24-26, 82
Generators, 105 Lid, 69

202 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Associat ion
 Lightning, 99 Phonetic alphabet, 67
Line-of-sight band, 65, 83 Potentiometer, 141
Lines of force, 141 Powell, Cecil, 6
Power output, 39
Marconi, Guglielmo, 16 Procedural signals, 65
Maxim, Hiram Percy, 6, 18
Maximum usable frequency. 88
MAYDAY, 53, 38, 7 1
megaHertz, 28, 70 Q signals, 66
Mercado, Dr. John, 22 QRM,64
Meter bands, 31 QRS, 64
Meters, 66 QSLR's, 4
Mobile operation, 3
Modem, 157
Modulation, 165
Morse, 7, 10, 16 R-S-T reporting system. 65
RACES, 71
Radio control, 30
Radio signals, 82
National Amateur Radio te letype, 68
Radio Association, 11, 21 Radiotelephone
transmission, 17
Rag chewing, 2
Reactance, 124-127
Obscene language, 39 Receiver, 156
Official Notice of Violation, 40 Receive.r overload, 104
Ohm's Law, 120 Reciprocal license
OM, 66 agreements, 38
Open circuit, l 23 Relative power, 103
Operator license, 24 Repeaters, 5, 40, 69
OSCAR, 21 Resistance, 82, 139
Resonant frequency, 128

Pacitive reactance, 127 Safety belt, 97

Packet radio, 22 Scatter, 90
Parallel resonant, 128 Schematic diagram, 139, 156
Parasitics, 170 Schematic symbol, 139
Peak envelope power, 31, 39 Selectivity, 128

The National Amateur Radio Association Ham Radio Handbook 203

 Series resonant, 128 UHF, 9, 82
Short circuit, 123
Simplex frequency, 69
Single pole, single throw, 144
Single sideband (SSB), 20-21, 89 Variable frequency oscillator, 157
SK, 65 VHF,9,20,29,82,91
Skip transmissions, 85 Volunteer Examiner (VE), 7-8
Skip zone, 85
Skywave communications, 84
Splatter, 170
Sporaclic-E, 85, 90 Wat1s, 123
Station Wavelength. 129
identification, 25 Wireless Act of 1912, 18
license, 24
location, 38
Sunspots, 86-87
Super Morse, 10, 13 YL's,5
Superheterodyne receiver, 20
Switches, 143-144
SWR meter, 102

Tactical communications, 71
Tech Plus operators, 9, 26, 33, 34, 40
Telecommand, 48
Telegraphy, 165
Telephony, 165
Teletype, 27
Terminal Node Controller, 22, 68
Third party' 36, 52
Time-out device, 70
Traffic, 71
Trru1sceiver, 156
Transistor, 146
Transmission line, 81, 182
Transmitter, 156
Transmitting power, 47, 82
TRF receivers, 20
Tropospheric propagation, 91

204 Ham Radio Handbook The National Amateur Radio Association

 The Ham Radio
HANDBOOK
Written In Clear, Concise, Easy-To-Understand Language

No Prior Knowledge Of Electronics Is Needed To Be

A Ham Radio Operator
Tire Ham Radio Handbook is your personal guide to entering the fasc ina1ing world of
Amateur Radio, 1he "King of Hobbies." II contains every1hing you need 10 know io:
Pass The New Code-Free Technician Amateur Radio Class Test
The book opens wi1h an overview of ham radio and i1s tradi1ions. This is followed by
nine addi1ional chap1ers which cover lhc subjecls you will be lcslcd on in order 10:
Receive Your FCC Amateur Operator/Station License

Chapter Topics
• FCC Rules for the Amateur Radio Service
• Amateur station operating procedures
• Radio wove characteristics of Amateur frequency bonds
• Amateur Radio practices
• Electrical principles as applied to Amateur Radio
• Amateur station equipment circuit components
• Practical circuits employed in Amateur station equipment
• Signals transmitted by Amateur stations
• Amateur station antenna systems

About the A 11tlior.•.

Don Stoner, W6TNS, has been a licensed ham radio openuor for
almost forty years. His early ham activity provided the foundation
for a successful career in Electronic Engineering. He recently retired
as Vice President of Digital Systems International. Inc. in order to
devote full time to promoting ham radio.
His background include teaching school. communications
equipment design and extensive technical writing. Stoner has
wrillen almost 400 magazine articles and a dozen textbooks on the subject of communica-
ti on~. Don has the remarkable ability to explain technical subjects in non-ti:chnical terms.
Stoner's engineering accomplishments include the design of marine and portable single-
sidi:hand radios for use in under-developed countries. It was his original concept that led to
the creation of the Amateur OSCAR
satellites. Stoner is now president of the
National Amateur Radio Association.
ISBN 0-9629999-0-3

9 780962 999901 >