PRESENTATION OF DATA

1. Diagrams-types are:
bar charts
 pie charts
pictograms
2. Graphs
Time series graphs
Scatter graphs
Graphs of frequency distribution
Time series graph
In time series, values of a variable are given at different periods of time.
When a graph of such a series is drawn it would give changes in the
value of a variable with passage of time.
Examples
Time series
Example2 : Monthly sales of AB stores for the year 2010 were as
follows:-

Month Jan Feb Mar April

Sales(sh 000’s) 50 40 60 70
Scatter diagram
A scatter graphs are those graphs which are used to indicate the
relationship between two variables.
The x- axis is used to represent the data of one variable and the y-axis to
represent the data of other variable.
Example
Sales and advertising expenditure of RST Ltd are given below for a
period of seven months:
Expendit 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
ure(sh
000’s)
Sales (sh 650 550 700 800 750 900 850
000)
Scatter diagram
Scatter graph
1000

900

800

700
Sales (000’s)

600

500

400

300

200

100

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Advertising expenditure
Graphs of Frequency Distribution
a) Ogive curve
b) Histogram
c) Frequency polygon
d) Frequency curve
Graphs of Frequency Distribution
a) Ogive curve
b) Histogram
c) Frequency polygon
d) Frequency curve
Ogive curve

Ogive curve
Histogram
example 1
Histogram
example 2
Frequency polygon
Frequency curve
Frequency curve
Description of data
In order to obtain a concise and complete picture of large data, it is
essential to obtain a figure which should represent the whole data. A
figure which represents the whole data is known as an average or
measure of central tendency.
Qualities of a good average.
i. Should be rigidly defined.
ii. Based on all values
iii. Easily understood and calculated.
iv. Least affected by the fluctuations of sampling.
v. Should be least affected by extreme values.
Types of averages
i. Arithmetic Mean
ii. Median
iii. Mode
iv. Geometric Mean
v. Harmonic mean
Arithmetic Mean
Also called mean or simple average.
It is obtained by summing up the values of all items of a series and
dividing this sum by the number of items.
𝑥
𝐴. 𝑀 =
𝑛
Virginia obtained the following marks in 5 subjects: 75, 55, 48, 72, 60,
Find her average marks.
Solution
Total marks =75 + 55 + 48 + 72 + 60 = 310
Number of subjects, n =5
𝑥 310
𝐴. 𝑀 = =
𝑛 5
= 62
Discrete series
The value of each of individual item is multiplied by the corresponding
frequency and the total of products is divided by the number of items.
𝑓𝑥
𝐴. 𝑀 =
𝑛
Calculate the arithmetic mean from the following data:

Value 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
s
Frequ 20 43 75 67 72 45 39 9 8 6
ency
solution
Values (x) Frequency (f) Product (fx)
5 20 100
10 43 430

15 75 1125
20 67 1340
25 72 1800
30 45 1350
35 39 1365

40 9 360
45 8 360
50 6 300
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 384 8530
SOLUTION
𝑓𝑥
𝐴. 𝑀 =
𝑛
8530
=
384
= 22.2
Continuous series
Calculate the arithmetic mean
Example
Marks Number of students
0 − 20 5

20 − 40 7
40 − 60 13
60 − 80 8
80 − 100 7
Solution
Marks Middle Value (x) Frequency (f) 𝐟𝐱
0 − 20 10 5 50

20 − 40 30 7 210

40 − 60 50 13 650

60 − 80 70 8 560

80 − 100 90 7 630

40 2100
Cont….
𝑓𝑥 2100
𝐴. 𝑀 = = = 52.5
𝑛 40
Advantages of arithmetic mean
Disadvantages of arithmetic mean
Properties of arithmetic mean
Median
Is the value of the middle item of a series when these items are
arranged in ascending or descending order
Computation of median from individual series
𝑛+1
When the number of items is odd, th item
2
Example in a factory there are 5 workers whose ages are
20, 15, 19, 21, 17 years. Find the median age.
Solution
15, 17, 19, 20, 21
Cont…
When the data is an even number
1 𝑛 𝑛+2
𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚 + 𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚
2 2 2
Solution
60, 70, 75, 80, 80, 85
1 6 6+2
𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚 = 𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚 + 𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚
2 2 2
1
Median= 3𝑟𝑑 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚 + 4𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚
2
1
= 75 + 80 = 77.5
2
Discrete series

Size of shoes 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0

No. of pairs 1 2 5 15
 Cont….

Size of shoes No. of pairs Cumulative frequency

4.5 1 1

5.0 2 3
5.5 5 8
6.0 15 23
Cont…
𝑛+1
Median = size of item
2
23+1
=size of item
2
=size of 12𝑡ℎ item
12th item lies in 23 cumulative frequency so
Median=6
Computation of median in a continuous series
The formula is
𝑖
Median=L + 𝑚−𝑐
𝑓
𝐿- lower class boundary of the median group
𝑖- Class interval of the median group
𝑓-Frequency of the median group
𝑚 − The middle item
𝑐-Cumulative frequency of the group preceding the median group.
Cont..
Find the median from the following table
Marks 𝟎 − 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎 − 𝟐𝟎 𝟐𝟎 − 𝟑𝟎 𝟑𝟎 − 𝟒𝟎
Students 2 18 30 45
Solution
Marks (x) Students (f) Cumulative Frequency (c.f)
0 − 10 2 2
10 − 20 18 20

20 − 30 30 50

30 − 40 45 95
Cont…
𝑛+1
𝑚= 𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚
2
95+1
= 𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚
2
= 48 𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚
48th item lies in c. f of 50, so the median group is 20-30 marks group
10
𝑚 = 20 + 48 − 20 = 29.33
30
Advantages of median
Disadvantages of median
Properties of median
Quartiles, deciles and percentiles
Quartiles
Discrete series
𝑖𝑛
𝑄𝑖 = 𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 th item
4
Example
𝑛
𝑄1 = 𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 th item
4
3𝑛
𝑄3 = 𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 th item
4

Continuous series
𝑖 𝑖𝑛
𝑄𝑖 = L + −𝑐
𝑓 4
𝐿- lower class boundary of the quartile group
𝑖- Class interval of the quartile group
𝑓-Frequency of the quartile group
𝑐-Cumulative frequency of the group preceding the quartile group.
Cont…
Deciles Percentiles
Discrete series Discrete series
𝑖𝑛
𝐷𝑖 = 𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 th item 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓
𝑖𝑛
th item
10 100
Example Example
7𝑛
𝐷7 = 𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 th item 𝑃10 = 𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓
10𝑛
th item
10 100
3𝑛
𝐷3 = 𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 th item 𝑃3 = 𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓
3𝑛
th item
10 100

Continuous series Continuous series

𝑖 𝑖𝑛
𝐷𝑖 = L + −𝑐 𝑃𝑖 = L + 𝑓
𝑖 𝑖𝑛
− 𝑐
𝑓 10 100
𝐿- lower class boundary of the decile group 𝐿- lower class boundary of the percentile group
𝑖- Class interval of the decile group 𝑖- Class interval of the percentile group
𝑓-Frequency of the decile group 𝑓-Frequency of the percentile group
𝑐-Cumulative frequency of the group preceding the 𝑐-Cumulative frequency of the group preceding the
decile group. percentile group.
Example 1
Calculate 𝑄1 , 𝑄3 , 𝐷7 , 𝑃85 from the following data;
Earnings (sh 000’s) 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Employee’s 3 6 10 15 24 42 75 90 79
Solution 𝑛
𝑄1 =size of 4 𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚
Earnings (sh Employee’s , f Cumulative 344
000’s) frequency, c.f =size of 𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚
4
= 86th item
11 3 3 =16 earnings
12 6 9
7𝑛
13 10 19 𝐷7 =size of 10 𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚
7×344
=size of 𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚
14 15 34 10
= 240.8th item
15 24 58 =18 earnings
16 42 100
85𝑛
17 75 175 𝑃85 =size of 100 𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚
85×344
=size of 𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚
18 90 265 100
= 292.4th item
19 79 344
=19 earnings
EXAMPLE 2
Calculate 𝑄1 , 𝑄3 , 𝐷3 , 𝑃40 from the following data;
Marks 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80
No. of students 2 7 21 25 30 35 28 12
Solution 𝑖 3𝑛
𝑄3 = L + −𝑐
Marks No. of c.f 𝑓 4
10
students,f = 50 + 120 − 85
35
0-10 2 2 =60
10-20 7 9 𝑖 3𝑛
𝐷3 = L + −𝑐
20-30 21 30 𝑓 10
10
= 30 + 48 − 30
30-40 25 55 25
=37.2
40-50 30 85
50-60 35 120 𝑖 40𝑛
𝑃40 = L + −𝑐
𝑓 100
60-70 28 148 10
= 40 + 64 − 55
30
70-80 12 160
=43
MODE
Mode is the value of the item which occurs most frequently in a series
Calculation of mode from individual series.
Mode is obtained through observation
The value of that item which occurs maximum number of items.
Example; find mode from 30, 99, 100, 40, 30, 99, 60, 30, 50
Mode from continuous series
𝑓𝑚 −𝑓1
a). Mode=𝐿 + 𝑖
(𝑓𝑚 −𝑓1 )+(𝑓𝑚 −𝑓2
𝑓2
b). Mode=𝐿 + 𝑖
𝑓1 +𝑓2
c). Mode=3median-2 A.M
L-lower class boundary of the modal group.
𝑓𝑚 - frequency of the modal group.
𝑓1 -frequency of the group preceding the modal group.
𝑓2 -frequency of the group after the modal group.
i-magnitude of the class interval of the modal group.
Example
Calculate mode from the following data;
Marks 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50
No. of students 2 7 11 6 4
𝑓𝑚 −𝑓1 11−7
Mode=𝐿 + 𝑖 = 20 + 10 = 24.44
(𝑓𝑚 −𝑓1 )+(𝑓𝑚 −𝑓2 11−7 + 11−6
𝑓2 6
b). Mode=𝐿 + 𝑖 = 20 + 10 = 24.651
𝑓1 +𝑓2 7+6
c). Mode=3median-2 A.M=3 × 25.455 − 2 × 26 = 24.365
Cont..
Advantages of mode
Disadvantages of mode
Properties of mode
How do we find median, quartiles, deciles, percentiles and mode
graphically?
Measures of dispersion
Also called measures of scatteredness or variability, they include;
i. Range
It is the difference between the largest and smallest observation in a set;𝑅 =
𝐿−𝑆
Find the range given the data 77, 95, 73, 83, 121, 74, 46
𝑅 = 𝐿 − 𝑆 = 121 − 46 = 75

ii. Interquartile range(I.R)

Is the difference between the third quartile and the first quartile.
𝐼. 𝑅 = 𝑄3 − 𝑄1
iii. Quartile deviation
Is half of the interquartile range
1
𝑄. 𝐷 = (𝑄3 − 𝑄1 )
2
The coefficient of quartile deviation is given by
𝑄3 −𝑄1
Coeff. of Q.D=
𝑄3 +𝑄1

iv. Mean deviation (M.D)

Is the average of the absolute deviation taken from a central value
1
For single observation M.D = 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥
𝑁
1
For a discrete and continuous data M.D= 𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥
𝑁
 2 2
v. Variance(𝜎 𝑜𝑟 𝑠 )
Is the average of the squares of the deviations taken from mean.
Let 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , … … , 𝑥𝑁 be a measurement of N population units, the
population variance is
1
For single observations 𝜎2 = 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥 2
𝑁
1
For a discrete and continuous data 𝜎2 = 𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥 2 where mid-
𝑁
1
values are considered as 𝑥𝑖 , where N = 𝑓𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖 is the
𝑁
population mean.
Cont…
The sample variance of the set 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , … … , 𝑥𝑛 of n observations is
given by the formula
1 1
𝑠2 = 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥 2, where 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑖
𝑛−1 𝑛
If the observation 𝑥𝑖 occurs 𝑓𝑖 times for i=1,2, …, k then the sample
variance is
1
𝑠2 = 𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥 2 where n = 𝑓𝑖
𝑛−1
vi. Standard deviation
It is the square root of variance
Example
Example: Calculate variance and standard deviation of the height of
soldiers
Height(x): 69, 66, 67, 69, 64, 63, 65, 68, 72
69+ 66+ 67+ 69+ 64+ 63+ 65+ 68+ 72
𝑥= = 67
9
𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥 2 = 4 + 1 + 0 + 4 + 9 + 16 + 4 + 1 + 25 = 64

2 64
𝑠 = =8
9
𝑠 = 8=2.8284
Example 2
The prices of wheat at different centers were found to be
Price of wheat 1.75 1.72 1.73 1.76 1.71 1.80 1.87 2.34
No. of centers 3 2 4 5 6 2 7 1
Find variance and standard deviation of the data
solution
Prices of wheat N0. of centers , f fx 𝒙−𝒙 𝒇((𝒙 − 𝒙)𝟐
(x)
1.75 3 5.25 -0.04 0.0048
1.72 2 3.44 -.0.07 0.0098
1.73 4 6.92 -0.06 0.0144
1.76 5 8.80 -0.03 0.0045
1.71 6 10.26 -0.08 0.0384
1.80 2 3.60 0.01 0.0002
1.87 7 13.09 0.08 0.0448
2.34 1 2.34 0.55 0.3025

30 53.70 0.4194
Cont…
1 53.70
𝑥= 𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖 = = 1.79
𝑁 30
2 1 2 0.4194
𝜎 = 𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥 = = 0.01398
𝑁 30
𝜎 = 0.01398 = 0.118237
Monthly wages of employees in a factory are distributed as given below
Wages 300-400 400-500 500-600 600-700 700-800
No. of employees 15 22 18 14 9
Wages 800-900 900-1000 1000-11000
No. of employees 7 5 4
Find the variance and standard deviation.
Solution
𝑊𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑀𝑖𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡, 𝒙 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑦𝑒𝑒, 𝒇 𝑓𝑥 𝒙−𝒙 𝒇(𝒙 − 𝒙) 𝟐
300 − 400 350 15 5250 -244 893040
400 − 500 450 22 9900 -144 456192
500 − 600 550 18 9900 -44 34848
600 − 700 650 14 9100 56 43904
700 − 800 750 9 6750 156 219024
800 − 900 850 7 5950 256 458752
900 − 1000 950 5 4750 356 633680
1000 − 1100 1050 4 4200 456 831744
94 55800 3571184
Cont…
𝑓𝑥 55800
Mean, 𝑥 = = = 593.647 = 594
𝑁 94
1
𝜎2 = 𝑓𝑖 𝑥𝑖 −𝑥 2
𝑁
3571184
= = 37991.319
94
𝜎 = 37991.319 = 194.9136
Coefficient of variation (C. V)
Is the ratio of standard deviation to the mean multiplied by 100

𝜎
𝐶. 𝑉 = × 100.
𝑥