FORM THREE BIOLOGY UPDATED

NOTES

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 CLASSIFICATION
- It’s the process of placing and arranging organisms into groups according to their similarities
and differences.
- General principles of classification
- Organisms are placed in seven major taxonomic units (taxa) i.e.

- Kingdom
- Phylum or Division
- Class
- Order
- Family
- Genus
- Species

- Kingdom is the 1st and the largest rank and species is the last and smallest.
- A species is a group of organisms that can freely and naturally interbreed to give rise to a fertile
(viable) offspring,
- All human beings belong to the same species and interbreed to give rise to a fertile offspring.
- The difference in skin colour or facial structures places human beings in different races. In
animals ( except human beings the term breed is used while in plants the term variety is used.

Binomial nomenclature
- Binomial comes from the word binomen which means two names while nomenclature means
system of naming
- In this system individual species bear both generic (genus) and specific (species) names.

Procedures followed in Binomial nomenclature

- Examples of scientific names
- The 5 kingdoms of classification
- These are

Kingdom; Monera
- Comprises of bacteriaeg Salmonella typhi, Vibrio cholera, Azotobacter

General characteristics
- They are prokaryotic(nucleus is not enclosed in a nuclear membrane
- They have a cell wall but not made of cellulose
- Have few organelles
- They are not membrane bound
- Mitochondria absent
- Most of them are heterotrophic, saprophytic or parasitic. A few are autotrophic

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- Reproduction is mostly asexual through binary fission and occasionally by conjugation.
- Most of them are anaerobes but some respire aerobically
- Most of them move by use of flagella
- They are unicellular and microscopic

Economic importance of bacteria

- Kingdom; Protoctista
- They include; amoeba, paramecium, euglena, Plasmodium, spirogyra, Chlamydomonas, Volvox,
Trypanosoma.

- General characteristics
- They are eukaryotic(nucleus is membrane -bound)
- They are mostly unicellular but a few are multicellular
- Some are microscopic(amoeba, paramecium) but some can be seen without use of
microscope(spirogyra)
- Some exist as single cells(amoeba, Trypanosoma) others exist in groups called colonies(volvox)
- Some are composed of many cells arranged in the form of a filament( spirogyra) in others the
many cells are arranged in a flat sheet-like structure(fucus)
- Some are autotrophic (spirogyra, euglena, Chlamydomonas and volvox.
- Some are heterotrophic and some like paramecium take in food substances through their gullets,
others like amoeba engulf tiny food particles into their cytoplasm forming food vacuoles. This
process is known as phagocytosis.
- They are mostly mobile, moving by cilia(paramecium), flagella(Trypanosoma) and
pseudopodia(amoeba)
- Some have contractile vacuoles for osmoregulation e.g. amoeba.

Economic importance of Protoctista

- Some cause animal diseases eg Trypanosoma cause nagana in cattle and sleeping sickness in
man.
- Plasmodium causes malaria
- Spirogyra is food for the fish.

Kingdom; Fungi
- Consists of ; toadstools, mushrooms, moulds, yeast, rust, smut and penicillium.

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General characteristics
- They are eukaryotic
- Some are unicellular(yeast) and aCandida albicans and others are multicellular(mould,
toadstools and mushrooms)

- They are multicellular consisting of filamentous structures called hyphae. The whole structure is
called mycelium.
- The hyphae is lined by a cell wall enclosing the cytoplasm.
- In most cases the cell wall is made of chitin and in a few cases its made of fungal cellulose
- Hyphae that lie on the surface are called stolons.
- Hyphae that anchor the mycelium to the substrate are called rhizoids. Their tips produce
enzymes which digest organic materials in the substrate into soluble substances that are
absorbed.
- Parasitic fungi have hyphae called haustoria which penetrate host cells to absorb nutrients.
- Some hyphae called sporangiophores grow vertically and form reproductive structures called
sporangia in which the spores are formed.
- They store carbohydrates in the form of glycogen and lipid in the form of oil droplets.
- They reproduce asexually by spores or budding and sexually by conjugation.

Economic importance of Fungi

- Saprophytic fungi help in decomposition of dead plants and animals.
- Cause plant diseases e.g. phytophthora causes blight in potatoes and tomatoes.

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- Cause animal diseases e.g. ringworms, thrush, athletes’ foot.
- Some like aspergillus cause food spoilage and produce aflatoxins which cause cancer or death.
- Yeast is used in brewing and bread baking industries.
- Some like mushrooms are used as food.
- Some like penicillium are used to make antibiotics.
- Dry rot fungi destroy timber.
- Fungi can be used by the military to prepare biological warfare.
- Some fungi form symbiotic relationships with the roots of certain forest trees. The complex so
formed is called mycorrhiza. The fungus absorbs mineral salts some of which are absorbed by
the tree.the fungus in turn get organic materials from the plant

Kingdom; Plantae
General characteristics
- Multicellular and eukaryotic.
- Most of them are differentiated into stems, leaves and roots.
- Have cellulose cell walls.
- They have chlorophyll hence carry out photosynthesis.
- They reproduce asexually and sexually
- Its grouped into 3 main divisions i.e.

Division; Bryophyta
- General characteristics
- They are thalloid(liverworts) or differentiated into leaf-like or stem-like structures(Mosses)

- They have chlorophyll hence carry out photosynthesis.

- They have rhizoids for anchorage and feeding.
- They show alternation of generation where the gametophyte (gamete production phase)is
dominant over sporophyte(spore production phase)
- Male gametes are produced by antheridia and female gametes by archegonia.
- They are terrestrial growing on damp substratum e.g. rocks, walls
- No vascular transport system hence rely on diffusion for transport
- Lack supportive tissues. This together with absence of vascular tissues means they cannot grow large

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Division; Pteridophyta
They include ferns and horse tails.
General characteristics
- Have large compound leaves (fronds), a leaf stalk called rachis with leaflets called pinna.
- They show alternation of generation where the sporophyte is dominant while gametophyte is
short-lived.
- Well developed vascular bundles
- They have chlorophyll hence carry out photosynthesis.
- They have roots stems, and leaves but no flowers.
- Mature leaves (fronds) bear sporangia (spore bearing structures) which exist in groups known as
sori on the lower side.

- When the spores land on moist soil they germinate to form prothallus.
- Some ferns grow on trees as epiphytes i.e. a plant that grows upon another but is not a parasite
on the host plant.

Division; Spermatophyta
- Comes from the word spermae which means seed hence are seed producing plants.

General characteristics
- They are seed producing plants
- Well developed vascular bundles with xylem vessels, tracheids and phloem.
- They have roots, stems and leaves
- They reproduce asexually and sexually
- Its divided into two main sub-divisions i.e.

- Sub-Division; Gymnospermaphyta/Gymnospermae
- Gymno means ‘naked’ hence they are the plants that produce exposed seeds in structures called
cones.

General characteristics
- They do not flower.
- Found in high altitude areas thus show xerophytic characteristics e.g. needle-like leaves, thick
waxy cuticle and sunken stomata to reduce rate of transpiration.eg pine, cedar, cypress, podo,
junipers

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- They bear naked seeds on male(small) and female (large)cones
- Xylem consists of tracheids and the phloem has no companion cells.
Its divided into 3 main classes i.e.

Class; Coniferales
- Coniferous trees are naturally found in areas of little water.
- They have small needle-like leaves with a thick waxy cuticle
- They have cones and most of them are evergreen.
- The top is conical for ice to slide off.
- In the pinus, the male cones are usually small and form clusters around the base of the terminal
buds while the female cones appear on lateral buds on young shoots.
- Mature naked seeds occur at bases of the female cones some months after pollination.

(ii) Class; Cycadales

- Have long compound leaves at the apex of short and unbranched stems
- They have cones which are borne at the apex of the trunk among the leaves. They resemble palm

(iii) Class; Ginkgoales

- They are rare
- They are deciduous with fan-like leaves e.g. Ginkgo biloba whose native land is china

Economic importance
- Major source of soft wood timber used in construction of houses, making chipboard and making
paper
- Source of turpentine for making paint thinner and removing paint from surfaces.

o (ii) Sub-Division; Angiosperme/Angiospermaphyta

- Angio means enclosed

General characteristics
- Seeds are enclosed in an ovary which develops into a fruit
- Exhibit double fertilization
- They are flower bearing and usually bisexual

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- Its divided into two main classes i.e.

Class; Monocotyledonae
- They are mainly from the grass family e.g. wheat, maize, rice

(i) Class; Dicotyledonae

- They include;
- Herbs – non-woody plants with small stems e.g. beans, tomatoes, cabbages
- Shrubs- have fairly thick stems e.g. coffee, tea, cocoa.
- Trees – have large stems e.g. mangoes, lemons, jacaranda
o Differences between Monocotyledonae and Dicotyledonae

Dicotyledonae Monocotyledonae
Have 2 cotyledons in the seed Have one cotyledon in the seed
Floral parts are in four’s or in five’s or in their Floral parts are in three’s or in multiples
multiples of three
Have tap root system Have fibrous root system
Have network of veins in the leaves/reticulate Have parallel veins in the leaves
venation
Vascular bundles in the stem are arranged in a Vascular bundles in the stem are
ring scattered
Have vascular cambium which bring about Have no vascular cambium hence no
secondary growth secondary growth
Leaves have a petiole Leaves form a sheath around the stem

Leaves are generally broad Leaves are generally narrow

Kingdom; Animalia
-General characteristics
-They are multicellular
-They are eukaryotic
-Their cells have no cell walls hence have irregular shapes.
-All animals are heterotrophic.
-Most of them show locomotion but a few are sessile
-They reproduce sexually although a few reproduce asexually
-This kingdom has nine phyla i.e.
-Phylum; Porifera e.g. sponges
-(ii) Phylum; Coelenterata e.g. Sea anemone, jelly fish
-(ii) Phylum; Platyhelminthes e.g. Tapeworms
-(iv) Phylum; Nematoda e.g. Roundworms
-(v) Phylum; Annelida e.g. Earthworm
-(vi) Phylum; Mollusca e.g. Octopus, snail

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-(vii) Phylum; Echinodermata e.g. Star fish
-(viii) Phylum; Arthropoda e.g. Insects
-(ix) Phylum; Chordata e.g. man

Phylum; Arthropoda
-It’s the largest phylum in the animal kingdom.
-The animals in this group inhabit land, water and soil
-Some are ectoparasites living on other animals
-Some are useful e.g.
-Butterflies and bees act as pollinators of flowering plants
-Bees make honey
-Lobsters are used as food
-Some arthropods are harmful to other living organisms e.g.
-Ticks transmit diseases in animals
-Mosquitoes transmit malaria
-Tsetse flies transmit trypanosomiasis
-Aphids destroy crops

Kingdom; Animalia
-General characteristics
-They are multicellular
-They are eukaryotic
-Their cells have no cell walls hence have irregular shapes.
-All animals are heterotrophic.
-Most of them show locomotion but a few are sessile
-They reproduce sexually although a few reproduce asexually
-This kingdom has nine phyla i.e.
-Phylum; Porifera e.g. sponges
-(ii) Phylum; Coelenterata e.g. Sea anemone, jelly fish
-(ii) Phylum; Platyhelminthes e.g. Tapeworms
-(iv) Phylum; Nematoda e.g. Roundworms
-(v) Phylum; Annelida e.g. Earthworm
-(vi) Phylum; Mollusca e.g. Octopus, snail
-(vii) Phylum; Echinodermata e.g. Star fish
-(viii) Phylum; Arthropoda e.g. Insects
-(ix) Phylum; Chordata e.g. man

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Phylum; Arthropoda
-It’s the largest phylum in the animal kingdom.
-The animals in this group inhabit land, water and soil
-Some are ectoparasites living on other animals
-Some are useful e.g.
-Butterflies and bees act as pollinators of flowering plants
-Bees make honey
-Lobsters are used as food
-Some arthropods are harmful to other living organisms e.g.
-Ticks transmit diseases in animals
-Mosquitoes transmit malaria
-Tsetse flies transmit trypanosomiasis
-Aphids destroy crops

General characteristics
-Arthros means jointed while poda means leg or foot hence they have jointed legs
-They have a tough coat made of chitin known as exoskeleton

Functions of exoskeleton
 Its waterproof hence prevents an animal from losing too much water.
 Protects internal organs against damage
 Internal muscles are attached to the exoskeleton
 Exoskeleton does not grow but its shed in a process called moulting/ecdysis to allow for growth

-They have bilateral symmetry i.e. they can be cut into two similar halves in only one way. Each half
is a mirror image of the other
-Have an open circulatory system
-Gaseous exchange is through the tracheal system
-Reproduction is mainly sexual with internal fertilisation
-Its divided into 5 classes i.e.

Class; Crustacea
-Crustacean is derived from” crusta” which means shiny coat
-They include; lobsters, crayfish, shrimps, crabs, water fleas
General characteristics
-Body is divided into 2 parts i.e. cephalothorax (formed by fusion of head and thorax) and abdomen

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-Cephalothorax is covered by a shiny coat known as carapace
-Have appendages modified to form legs for walking, pincers for feeding and protection and for
swimming.
-Have two pairs of antennae
-Have a pair of compound eyes at the end of stalks
-Have ten or more legs. Walking legs are usually located on the cephalothorax while swimming legs
are located in the abdomen
-Gaseous exchange is through the gills
-Some are used as human food e.g. lobsters, crayfish, shrimps, crabs

(ii) Class; Chilopoda

-Its composed of centipedes

General characteristics
-Have flat bodies
-Have a pair of legs in each segment
-Body divided into a head and segmented trunk
-Have up to 15 or more segments.
-They are carnivorous and they use their poison claws to kill the prey
-They may have compound eyes, simple eyes or no eyes
-Gaseous exchange is through the tracheal system
-Have a pair of antennae
-Centipedes are found under stones and logs where they feed on earthworms and insects

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 (iii) Class; Diplopoda
-Its composed of millipedes

General characteristics
-Have two pairs of legs in each segment except the first thoracic segments that have one pair of legs
each
-Have elongated, cylindrical bodies
-Body divided into a head and segmented trunk
-Have up to 25 -100 segments.
-Have a pair of antennae
-They may have compound eyes, simple eyes or no eyes
-They breath through spiracles
-Millipedes roll their bodies when disturbed. After coiling they produce a stinking substance from
their stink glands. This is self-protective behavior against enemies and predators
-Millipedes are herbivorous as they feed on dead plant material
-

(iv) Class; Arachnida

-Its composed of spiders, scorpions, ticks, mites

General characteristics
-Body is divided into 2 parts i.e. cephalothorax and abdomen
-Have 4 pairs of jointed legs attached to the cephalothorax
-They may have 8 simple eyes on cephalothorax
-Have no antennae instead they have a pair of pedipalps which are short, jointed and look like legs
-In some arachnids pedipalps squeeze and chew food
-In mites tips of pedipalps become specialized container for the transfer of sperms
-The ventral side of cephalothorax has two chelicerae each having a claw-like structure which
produces poison that paralyses the prey
-Gaseous exchange is through the lung books
-Members of arachnida are carnivorous

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 (v) Class; Insecta
-Comes from the word incised which means ‘cut’
-Insects form half the population of animals on earth .
-They occupy all habitats i.e. air, water and land in all the climatic regions of the earth

General characteristics
-Body is divided into 3 parts i.e. Head, thorax and abdomen
-They may have a pair of large compound eyes and several simple eyes
-Some have one or two pairs of wings attached to the thorax
-Gaseous exchange is through the tracheal system
-Mouth parts consist of mandibles, maxillae and labium
-Abdomen made up of 11 or fewer segments with the terminal parts modified for reproduction
-Excretion is through malphigian tubules which remove uric acid

-Phylum; Chordata
-Chordate comes from the latin word “chorda” which means chord. Organisms in this phylum at one
time in their life have a chord –like structure called notochord.

Characteristics
-They have a vertebral column which forms part of the internal skeleton.
-Have a nervous system with a brain which is connected to a hollow nerve tube.
-They have a bilateral symmetry
-This phylum is divided into 5 classes i.e.
-Pisces
-Ampibia
-Reptilia
-Aves
-Mammalia

Class; Pisces
-Pisces is derived from the word Pisces which means fish.
-Some fishes have skeleton made up of cartilage (cartilaginous fish) e.g. sharks, rays, dogfish, skates
-Others have skeleton made up of bones (bony fish) e.g. tilapia.

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 Characteristics
-Live in water habitats e.g. lakes, oceans, seas
-Skin covered with scales.
-Gaseous exchange is through the gills.
-Have fins for movement
-They are poikilothermic
-They exhibit internal fertilization where the eggs are laid by the females and the male sheds sperms
over them.
-Have streamlined body.
-Heart consists of two main chambers i.e. auricle and ventricle

(ii) Class; Amphibia

-Ampibia comes from the amphi which means dual or two hence they live on both land and in water
e.g. newts, toads, frogs and salamanders.

Characteristics
-Have 4 limbs where hind limbs are longer and more muscular than the forelimbs.
-They breed in water and fertilization is external.
-Have a 3- chambered heart with 2 atria and one ventricle.
-Gaseous exchange is through skin, gills and lungs.
-Have 2 eyes and an ear drum behind the eyes.
-They are poikilothermic

(iii ) Class; Reptilia

-Reptilia comes from the latin word reptilis which means crawl, hence organisms in this class move
by creeping or crawling eg snakes, turtles, tortoises, crocodiles, lizards and chameleons.

Characteristics
-They have a dry scaly skin. Some like tortoises have scales which have been hardened to form a
shell.
-They are mostly terrestrial.
-Lay eggs covered with shells and have internal fertilisation
-NB Some snakes and chameleons give birth to live young ones.
-Most of them have two pairs of legs except snake.
-Use lungs for gaseous exchange.
-They are poikilothermic

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 (iv) Class; Aves
-Aves comes from the latin word avis which means bird

Characteristics
-Their bodies are covered with feathers for insulation.
-Their legs are covered with scales.
-Their front limbs are modified to form wings. The hind legs are used for walking, running,
swimming etc.
-They have hollow bones that make them light for flight.
-They use beaks for feeding and have no teeth.
-They lay legs with a hard shell made of calcium.
-They carry out internal fertilisation
-They are endothermic /homoeothermic and show parental care.

(v ) Class; Mammalia
-Mammalia comes from the latin word mammalis which means mammal or mamma which means
milk secreting organ of female animals.
-They occur various habitats e.g. some are arboreal e.g. tree squirrel and some monkeys, some are
terrestrial where some live on the surface of the land and others live on tunnels, some are aquatic e.g.
dolphins and whales.

Characteristics
-All have mammary glands which produce milk hence care for their young ones.
-Their bodies are covered with fur, wool and hair.
-They give birth to young ones except the duck-billed platypus and spiny-ant eater which lays eggs.
-It’s the only class of animals with external ear.
-They exhibit internal fertilisation and are endothermic /homoeothermic.
-The teeth have differentiated into 4 different types (heterodont)

o Dichotomous key
o Dichotomous key
-Dichotomous comes from the word dichotomy which means divided into 2 parts.
-Dichotomous key is a biological tool for identifying unknown organisms up to some taxonomic
level.

Rules used in the construction of a dichotomous key

-Use morphological characteristics as much as possible e.g. type of leaf(simple or compound)
-Start with the major characteristics that divide the organisms into two large groups, and then proceed
to lesser variations.
-Select a single characteristic at a time and identify it using a number
-Use similar forms of words for the two contrasting statements.
-The first statement should always be written in the positive form

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-Avoid generalizations or overlapping variations, be specific e.g.
-Plant I metre and above
-Plant 15 cm to 60cm tall

Some common features used for identification

Animals
-Locomotory structures such as legs, wings and fins
-Antennae (presence and number)
-Presence of type of eyes
-Number of body parts
-Body segmentation
-Body structures such as hair, fur or scales
-Feeding structures
-Type of skeleton present
-Plants
Part of plant Characteristics
Phylotaxy
Leaf type
Leaf venation
Margin
Lamina
Colour
Inflorescence type
Flower shape
Number of floral types
Type of stem(woody, herbaceous or fleshy)
Shape (Rectangular or cylindrical)
Texture of stem(smooth or spiny/thorny)
Root system(tap root or fibrous)
Storage roots

o Simple leaf

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o Compound leaves

o Phylotaxy (leaf arrangement)

o Types of leaf margins

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 ECOLOGY
-This term ecology is derived from the Greek word oikos which means a house or a place to live
hence ecology is a branch of biology that deals with the study of relationships between organisms
and their environment.

Concepts of ecology
-Autecology – it’s the study which involves a single species.
-Synecology – it’s the study of many species.
-Biosphere – it’s the part of earth and atmosphere inhabited by living organisms. Also called ecosphere.
-Habitat – this is the particular place in the environment where an organism is found. Habitats are
categorized into terrestrial (land) habitats, aquatic (water) habitats.
-Ecological niche- it’s the position that an organism occupies in a habitat.
-Population – refers to all members of a given species in a particular time e.g. population of lions in
Tsavo national park., in 2007
-Community – refers to all organisms belonging to different species that interact in the same habitat
e.g. pond, forest communities.
-Ecosystem- it’s a natural unit composed of living and non- living components whose interactions
result in a self sustaining system hence ecosystem is made up of communities.
-Biomass- it’s the total dry weight of living organisms at a particular trophic level (feeding level) or
per unit area e.g. total weight of maize crop per hectare.
-Carrying capacity- it’s the maximum number of organisms an area can comfortably support
without depletion of the available resources.

Factors in an ecosystem
o They are divided into biotic and abiotic factors

Abiotic factors
-They are non living environmental factors which affect the distribution of organisms e.g.
o Light
-Affect living organisms in terms of intensity, quality (wave length/ colour) and duration.
-Light intensity and quality affect the rate of photosynthesis, flowering and germination in plants.
-In animals affects migration, hibernation and reproduction e.g. lion hunts at dawn or dusk to avoid
being seen by their prey.
-A photographic light meter is used to measure intensity
-Seechi disc measures light penetration in water.
o N.B (i) at the top of the forest the trees form a continuous thick cover of leaves and branches called
canopy. This canopy filters the light allowing only little light to pass through to the bottom of the
forest. Some plants such as ferns, mosses and liverworts are found at the bottom of the forest.
o (ii) Some types of plants grow on trees where they get enough light for photosynthesis. They are
called epiphytes e.g. orchids.

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 Temperature
-Biochemical processes of most animals function efficiently within a narrow range of temperatures.
-Very low temperatures may inactivate enzymes
-Very high temperature denatures enzymes.

 Atmospheric pressure
-It’s the mass exerted by air on the surface of earth.
-Atmospheric pressure affects the amount of oxygen in the air.
-At sea level the air pressure is high hence more oxygen available.
-In high attitude areas the air pressure is low hence less oxygen available.

 Humidity
-This is the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere
-At low humidity plants and animals lose a lot of water through transpiration and sweating
respectively and the opposite is true at high humidity.

Wind
-It increases the rate of water loss from organism.
-In desert areas winds aid in formation of sand dunes which becomes the habitats for growth of desert
plants.
-Wind causes wave formation in lakes, ocean which enhances aeration of water.
-It also disperses spores, seeds and influences dispersal and migration of flying animals.

Salinity
-It’s the degree of salt concentration in water. Aquatic habitats are divided into three i.e.
- -Fresh water habitat- has very little or almost no salt e.g. fresh rivers, lakes etc
--Marine- have high salt concentration e.g. ocean, seas etc
--Estuarine- found at the point where fresh water rivers join salt water lakes. Salt concentration
depends on tides.
-Salinity determines the type of organisms found in an ecosystem e.g. tilapia fish is found in fresh
water habitats only while shark is found in salty water habitat like oceans.

PH
-This is the degree of acidity or alkalinity. It influences the distribution of plants and animals in soil
and fresh water ponds
-Some plants thrive well in acidic conditions while others in alkaline or neutral conditions

Biotic factors
-They are all the living organisms in an environment and their effects on each other.
Biotic interrelationships

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Competition
-This is where two different species require a common resource whose availability is limited. These
resources include nutrients, space, light or mates
-Competition between individuals of the same species is known as intraspecific while that between
individuals of different species is known as interspecific competition.
-In such competition for a limited resource, organisms with suitable structural and behavioural
adaptations survive while others without such adaptations may die or migrate.
-Competition is only found in organisms in the same ecological niche e.g. there may not be any
competition between an elephant and a rabbit because they don’t depend on the same food.

Predation
-This is the food relationship in which one organism kills another for food and feeds on it either
wholly or in part.
-Organism that kills another for food is a predator while the one killed is the prey.

Adaptations of predators
Structural adaptations
-Rattle snakes locate their prey with special heat sensitive organs located near their eyes and they kill
small birds and mammals by injecting them with toxins through their fangs.
-Praying mantis has enlarged forelimbs with spikes for capturing its prey. It feeds on small insects
such as grasshoppers.
-Birds e.g. eagles, hawks, kites have sharp eyesight, fast flight, modified beaks and talons.
-Lion which preys on the antelopes has strong jaws with carnassial teeth, large claws on strong
forelimbs and it is fast in movement.

-Behavioural adaptations
-Lion moves against the wind while stalking the prey.

o Colour Camouflage
-This involves the body colour of the organism blending well with the background environment to
conceal the organism to a great extent e.g. the spotted pattern of the leopard blends well with the
background colour of the bushes and trees concealing the leopard from the prey.

Adaptations of prey
Structural adaptations
-Herbivores e.g. zebra have large eyes on the sides of the head which gives them a wide field of
vision. This enables them to keep track of their enemies from far and therefore take precautions.
-Antelopes and gazelles have swift movement to escape from predators Behavioural adaptations
-A stick insect mimics a dry stick.
-Confrontational display in porcupine. Colour Camouflage
-The stripes of zebra and the spotted pattern of giraffe.

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-Predation brings about biological control e.g. if there were too many locusts destroying crops then
several bird species that prey on them can be introduced into the habitat to reduce the locusts.

Parasitism
-It’s the relationship in which an organism obtains nutrients from another live organism without
killing it.
-This organism which lives on or in another organism is called a parasite while the one from which
nutrients are obtained is called the host.
-When a parasite lives inside the body of the host it is called endoparasite e.g. tapeworms.
-When the parasite lives on the outside of the host it is called ecto-parasite e.g. ticks
-Parasites weaken their hosts, cause or transmit diseases which may kill their host.

Symbiosis
-This is association between organisms of different species in which both organisms benefit. e.g.
o -Rhizobium bacteria which lives in the root nodules of leguminous plants.
-The plants benefit from the nitrates fixed by rhizobium bacteria while bacteria benefit from shelter
and carbohydrates provided by the plants.
--A lichen is an association between blue -green algae and a fungus. The algae carries out
photosynthesis which provides the fungus with carbohydrates. The fungus provides the moisture and
a place for attachment to the algae.

Saprophytism
-This is a type of nutrition where organisms obtain nutrients from dead organic matter hence causing
decomposition e.g. fungi and bacteria.
-Decomposition releases nutrients into the ecosystem which are then made available to other living
organisms.

Nitrogen cycle
-It refers to the cycling of nitrogen and its compounds in nature.
-Nitrogen is essential in the manufacture of proteins by organisms. Plants absorb nitrogen in the form
of nitrates and assimilate it into plant proteins either by eating plants or other animals.
-Nitrogen fixation is the process by which atmospheric nitrogen is converted into a form that can be
utilized by plant by:

Biological nitrogen – fixation

It’s done by nitrogen fixing micro- organisms. These are ;
(i) Symbiotic nitrogen fixing- bacteria known as Rhizobium bacteria found in the root nodules of the
leguminous plants.
(ii) Non- symbiotic (free living) bacteria found in the soil such as Azotobacter and Clostridium
(iii) Some algae e.g. Anabaena chlorella and Nostoc. These organisms fix nitrogen into ammonia
which is then converted to nitrates.

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Non- biological nitrogen fixation – it’s achieved by lightening.
-During thunder storms lightning energy combines atmospheric nitrogen with O2 to form
nitrous acid and nitric acid. These are later converted to nitrates.

Nitrification
-It’s the process of oxidizing ammonia formed from nitrogenous wastes contained in the decaying
tissues. This is done by several nitrifying bacteria e.g.
-Nitrosomonas and Nitrococcus – oxidize ammonia to nitrites (NO2)
-Nitrobacter bacteria which converts Nitrites (NO2) into Nitrates (NO3)

Denitrification
-It’s the chemical process in which the nitrate in the soil are reduced to free nitrogen and released to
the atmosphere. The organisms involved are Bacteria such as Thiobacillus, Pseudomonas and fungi.

Energy flow in an ecosystem

-The energy from the sun is trapped by green plants for photosynthesis. Green plants are known as
producers in an ecosystem.
-Green plants are eaten by animals (herbivores) called primary consumers because they obtain
chemical energy directly from the plants.
-Herbivores are in turn eaten by carnivores (secondary consumers) e.g. dog.
-The secondary consumers are eaten by tertiary consumers e.g. leopard.
-When the leopard dies it is eaten by the vulture (quaternary consumer). These feeding levels i.e.
producers and consumer levels are referred to as trophic levels.
-When living organisms die, they are decomposed by bacteria and fungi which are referred to as
decomposers.

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Food chains
-It’s the flow of energy from producers to consumers in an ecosystem. It’s a linear representation of
energy flow from a producer to other organisms.
-There are three main levels that the energy must pass through in a food chain. They are referred to as
trophic levels.
-Trophic means nourishment hence they are also called nutritional levels. They are:

Producers – they are capable of making their own food by trapping energy from the sun.

Consumers – they depend on the producers for their food directly or indirectly e.g.
-Primary consumer – these are plant eating organisms e.g. filter feeders in water, herbivores and
omnivores.
--Secondary consumers – small carnivores e.g. insects, spiders, lizards e.t.c.
--Tertiary consumers – large carnivores like lions, leopards, sharks e.t.c

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Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes
 REPRODUCTION
- It’s the process by which mature individuals produce viable offspring.

Types of reproduction
Sexual reproduction
- It involves the fusion of the male and female gametes to form a zygote-fertilisation e.g.

Asexual reproduction
- This is where some parts of a mature organism develop into new individuals e.g.

Importance of reproduction
- Procreation – reproduction sustains the species so that it does not become extinct.
o Quality improvement –it improves the quality of the species. Reproduction allows for the mixing of
genetic materials which leads to variations among individuals in a species.
o Cell division
- The cell division starts with division of the nucleus i.e. chromosomes then the cytoplasm.
o Chromosomes
- They are long thread-like structures in the nucleus of plant and animal cells.

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- Each cell normally has a fixed number of chromosomes.
- Each chromosome is made of two parallel strands called chromatids.
- Each pair of chromatid is connected at one point by a structure called centromere. e.g.

- Chromosomes are present in the nucleus all the time but they only appear or become visible under a
microscope during cell division.
- In body cells, chromosomes occur in pairs. Each pair of chromosomes has a characteristic length.
- The member of each pair is called a homologous chromosome i.e. the chromosomes are alike in
appearance although their genetic composition may be different.
- During sexual reproduction each parent contributes one of the chromosomes from a homologous pair.
- Along the length of the chromosome is a series of structures called genes. They determine the
characteristics of the cell and its progeny.
- Genes are made of a protein chemical substance called DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) which contains
coded information of instructions that dictate the characteristics of the offspring e.g. whether male or
female.
- The ability of cells to divide is located in specific areas e.g. meristematic cambium cells, meristematic
apical cells in woody plants and in malphigian layer in the mammalian skin.

Types of cell division

 (a)Mitosis
- This is a type of cell division in which a cell divides into two daughter cells each having the same
number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
- Mitosis takes place in somatic (body) cells.

o Stages of mitosis
o Interphase
- The cell undergoes intense internal activities in preparation for the division. These activities include;
- Multiplication of genetic material so that daughter cells will have the same number of chromosomes as
the parent cell.
- Synthesis of new cell organelles e.g. golgi apparatus, centrioles, mitochondria and ribosomes.
- Build-up of enough energy stores in the form of ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) to drive the cell
through the entire process of cell division.

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o Prophase
- Duplicated centrioles (in animal cells) separate and move to the opposite poles of the cell and spindle
fibres begin to form.
- Nuclear membrane begins to break down while nucleolus disappears.
- *The chromosomes thicken and shorten and can take up stains easily hence become visible.
- Each chromosome now consists of a pair of chromatids joined at the centromere.

o Metaphase
- The nuclear membrane disappears.
- Spindle fibres lengthen. In animal cells they attach to the centrioles at both poles.
- The chromosomes align themselves at the equator of the spindle.

o Anaphase
- The chromatids separate at the centromere and migrate to the opposite poles. This is brought about by
the shortening of spindle fibres.

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- The spindle apparatus begin to disappear
- In animal cells, the cell membrane begins to constrict towards the end of anaphase.

Telophase
- The chromatids collect together at the two opposite ends of the spindle.
- A nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromatids and are now referred to as chromosomes.
- #The cytoplasm divides into two leading to the formation of two daughter cells.
- Chromosomes become less distinct
- NB In animal cells, the division of cytoplasm is by constriction of cell membrane. But in plant cells, a
cell plate forms within the cytoplasm and grows to separate the cell into two e.g.

Significance of mitosis
- Occurs in asexual reproduction where gametes are not involved.
- Mitosis ensures that chromosomal constitution and hence the genetic constitution of the offspring is the
same as the parents. E.g.
o -Man - 23 pairs
o -Drosophila melanogaster -4 pairs
- Growth due to an increase in the number of cells within an organism.
- Regeneration of body parts which have been cut off e.g. tail of a lizard.

Meoisis
- It involves two divisions (Meoisis 1 and 11) of the parental cells resulting into 4 daughter cells. Each
daughter cell has half the number of chromosomes (haploid, n) as the parent cell.

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- Meoisis takes place in the reproductive organs (testes and ovaries) of animals and ovaries and anthers
in plants.

Principle underlying Meiosis

- Meoisis consists of two successive divisions i.e.
o -First meiotic division where the homologous get separated from each other and go into different cells.
o -2nd meiotic division where the chromosome separates giving a total of 4 daughter cells.

First meiotic division (Meoisis1)

Interphase 1
- It involves;
- Replication of chromosomes
- Synthesis of organelles
- Build-up of energy to be used during the meiotic division e.g.

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 Prophase 1
- Nucleolus disappears
- Centrioles become arranged at opposite sides of nucleus.
- Chromosomes condense by shortening and thickening hence become more visible.
- Homologous chromosomes lie side by side in the process of synapsis forming pairs called bivalents .
- #Chromatids of homologous chromosomes may then wrap around each other and become joined at
certain points called chiasmata (singular chiasma). Important genetic exchanges usually take place at
these points.eg
oX

o Metaphase1
- Cell membrane disappears.
- Spindle fibres are fully formed.
- The bivalents move and lie along the equator of the spindle.eg
oX

o Anaphase1
- Homologous chromosomes of the bivalent separate and move to the opposite poles of the cell, due to
the shortening of the spindle fibres hence pulling the chromosomes e.g.
oX

o Telophase 1
- Spindle fibres disappear
- In animal cell, the cell constricts across the middle and cytoplasm finally divides resulting in two cells
e.g.
- NB At the end of meiosis 1, separation of homologous chromosomes has been achieved.

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 Second meiotic division
- Purpose of this phase is to separate the chromatids from one another.

o Interphase 11
- The resultant cells of meiosis 1 usually go into a short interphase e.g.
-X

Prophase 11
- New spindle fibres are formed e.g.
-X

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 Metaphase11
- Chromosomes move to the equator of the spindle and attach to the spindle fibres at the cetromere.
- The chromosomes orientate themselves towards the opposite poles.
-X

Anaphase11
- The sister chromatids separate from each other and move to the opposite poles pulled by the shortening
of the spindle fibres e.g.
-X

Telophase 11
- The spindle apparatus disappears.
- Nucleolus reappears and a nuclear membrane is formed around each set of chromatids.
- The cytoplasm constricts resulting in the formation of 4 daughter cells. Each daughter cell has the
haploid number of chromosomes e.g.
- NB the 1st meiotic division is responsible for separating the homologous chromosomes and halving the
chromosome number, hence described as reduction division.
- The function of the 2nd meiotic division is to separate the chromatids from each other.

Significance of meiosis
- Gamete formation- gametes have he haploid number of chromosomes. The diploid number of
chromosomes is retained when the male and female gametes fuse.
- A source of variation in individuals of the same species. Genetic variation is brought about by the
combination of genes.

Similarities between mitosis and meiosis

- Both take place in plant and animal ells
- Both involve the division (multiplication) of cells
- Differences between meiosis and mitosis

Meiosis Mitosis
Homologous chromosomes associate Homologous chromosomes’ do not
with one another associate with one another
Takes place in two nuclear divisions (2 Takes place in one nuclear division
phases) each having 4 stages having 4 stages
Produces 4 daughter cells, each haploid Produces 2 daughter cells each diploid
Occurs in reproductive organs Occurs in somatic cells leading to growth
Chiasmaformation takes place and may No chiasma formation therefore no
lead to crossing over hence variation crossing over hence no variation

o Asexual reproduction

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- It is the production of offspring from a single organism without the fusion of gametes. The offspring
are identical to parents.

- Types of asexual reproduction

o Binary fission
- The word binary means two and fission mean splitting
- It is the simplest form of asexual reproduction. It involves the splitting of the original cell into two
similar daughter cells. The fission occurs when the organism attains a maximum size.
- Binary fission involves division of nucleus (karyogamy) and cytoplasmic division (cytogamy) e.g.
Amoeba, Plasmodium and bacteria

Binary fission in Amoeba

- The amoeba reproduces mainly through binary fission. The nucleus divides into two through mitosis
and is soon followed by division of the cytoplasm.
- A cell membrane is finally formed around each of the cells. The two cells are identical and have the
same number of chromosomes as the parent amoeba.
- X
- Amoeba is capable of dividing once every 30 minutes.
- The rapid cell division leads to a rapid increase in the population of amoeba

o Spore formation (sporulation)

- Spores are small single celled reproductive cells capable of giving rise to an individual. They are
produced by fungi, bacteria and protozoa.

Spore formation in Rhizopus

- Rhizopus is a saprophytic fungus which grows on substrate like bread, rotting fruits and other decaying
organic matter.
- The vegetative body is called mycelium which consists of many branched threads called hyphae.

- Horizontal hyphae are called stolons

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- Hyphae which grow vertically are called the sporangiophores. The tips of these upright hyphae swell
up to form the sporangia (spore bearing structures)
- The hyphae are anchored in a substratum by delicate outgrowths known as rhizoids
- Inside the sporangium the nuclei divide meiotically producing daughter nuclei that contain a haploid
number of chromosomes (n)
- The daughter nuclei develop into spores by the incorporation of cytoplasm around each nucleus and a
wall around the cytoplasm
- The sporangium contains very many spores as it matures and ripens, it turns black in colour
- When fully mature the sporangium wall burst and release the spores which are dispersed to restart a
fresh generation of growth and development.
- Spore dispersal may be by wind, insect or mechanically by being scattered by animals

Budding in yeast
- It’s a form of asexual reproduction in which a new individual is produced as an outgrowth (bud) of the
parent and is later released as a self supporting identical copy of the parent.
- Yeast is a single celled organism in the kingdom fungi. The cell is made up of a thin cell wall which
encloses the cytoplasm containing a vacuole

-
- The yeast cell under favorable conditions i.e. plenty of sugar, moisture, and oxygen etc, reproduces
asexually by budding.
- In budding a small area of the cell wall of a parent cell softens and forms a projection of bud which
bulges outwardly. This is followed by the division of the nucleus into two. One of the nuclei moves
into the new bud.

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- The bud then grows in size and forms new cell organelles. At this stage the bud separates off but since
the budding process is so fast the first bud starts to form another before it separates off from the parent
thus forming a short chain of cells.

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 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
- Growth- it is the quantitative permanent increase in body size. For growth to take place the
following aspects occur;
- Cells of organisms assimilate nutrient hence increase in mass.
- Cell division (mitosis) which leads to the increase in the number of cells.
- Cell expansion- leads to enlargement, increase in volume and size of organism.
- Development- it is the qualitative aspect of growth which involves differentiation of cells in order
to perform specific functions.
- During sexual reproduction in mammals, an ovum fuses with a sperm to form a zygote. The zygote
divides rapidly without increasing in size i.e. 2, 4, 8, 16 etc till it forms a mass of called morula.
This first cell division is called cleavage.
- The morula develops a hollow part, resulting into a structure called blastula (blastocyst). Later the
blastocyst cells differentiate into an inner layer (endoderm) and outer layer (ectoderm).

- The 2 layered embryo implants into the uterine wall and starts to grow and develop. As the embryo
grows and develops, changes occur in cell sizes (growth) and cell types (development). These
processes lead to morphological and physiological changes in the developing young organism
resulting into an adult that is more complex and efficient.
- In animals, growth takes place all over the body but the rates differ in the various parts of the body
and at different times.
- In plants, the growth mostly takes place at the root tip just behind the root cap and stem apex.
- This is referred to as apical growth which leads to the lengthening of the plant.
- Plants also grow sideways and this leads to an increase in width (girth) by the activity of cambium
cells. This increase in girth is termed as secondary growth.

o Measurement of growth
- The pattern of growth in most living organisms is similar. For most organisms when measurements
are plotted they give an S- shaped graph called a sigmoid curve e.g.

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- This pattern is due to the fact that growth tends to be slow at first and then speeds up and finally
slows down as adult size is reached.
- A sigmoid curve may be divided into 4 parts i.e.

Lag phase (slow growth)

-This is the initial phase during which little growth occurs. The growth rate is slow due to;
o -Number of cells dividing is few.
o -The cells have not yet adjusted to the surrounding environmental factors.

o Exponential phase
- This is the 2nd phase during which growth is rapid. The high growth rate is due to;
o -Number of cells dividing is many.
o -The cells have adjusted to the surrounding environmental factors.
o -Food and other factors are not limiting hence cells are not competing for resources.
o -Rate of cell increase is higher than the rate of cell death.

Decelerating phase
- This is the 3rd phase during which there is limited growth. The growth rate is slow due to;
o -Few cells still dividing.
o -Most cells are fully differentiated.
o -Limiting environmental factors (External and (Internal) such as;
- Shortage of oxygen and nutrients due to the high demand by the increased number of cells.
- Accumulation of metabolic waste products inhibits growth.
- Limited acquisition of CO2 as in the case of plants.

Plateau (Stationary) phase

- This is the 4th phase which marks the period when there is no further change in the size of the
organism. The organism has attained maturity. This is due to;
- The rate of cell division equals the rate of cell death.
- Nearly all cells and tissues are fully differentiated hence no further increase in the number of cells.

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- The nature of the curve during this phase may vary e.g.
- In some cases the curve may continue to increase slightly until the organism dies. e.g. in
monocotyledonous plants, many invertebrates, fish and certain reptiles. This indicates positive
growth.
- In other cases the growth curve flattens out indicating no change in growth.
- In other cases the growth curve may tail off indicating a period of negative growth rate e.g. many
mammals. This is a sign of physical senescence associated with increasing age.
o NB the sigmoid curve does not apply to all organisms e.g. Arthropods.
- In insects, growth takes place at intervals, resulting into intermittent growth curve. The intermittent
growth curve in insects is due to the fact that, they have an exo-skeleton which must be shed for the
insect to grow. This shedding process is known as ecdysis or moulting e.g.

- Cell division continues to take place during inter-moult phase but the expansion of tissues is limited
by the unshed skeleton.
- Growth can be measured by investigating various factors e.g.

Length
- Increase in length denotes growth. The parts of a plant which can be used to measure growth are;
o -Leaves
o -Stems
o -Internodes on stems

Advantages
- Change in length is easy to work out.
- The same organism is used through out the investigation.
- Organisms are not harmed.
o Disadvantages
- The change in length is interpreted as the only growth occurring in the organism.

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 Width
- The width of parts of a plant can be measured over a period of time.

Advantages
- Width is easily measured.
- The same organism is used to monitor growth.

Disadvantages
- The increase in width is interpreted as the only growth occurring in the organism.

Area
- Used as measurement of growth of parts of plants such as leaves. Increase in the area of the leaf
lamina can be worked out by tracing the leaf outline on a graph paper. The area of outline is then
calculated. Measurement can be made at intervals over duration of time.

Advantages
- Area is easy to work out.
- Data on growth can be collected from one particular leaf.

Disadvantages
- Area does not take into consideration other parameters of growth such as increase in the thickness
of leaves.

Fresh mass
Advantages
- Weighing is easy
- Growth pattern of the same plant is obtained
- Weight gain due to actual growth is obtained
- Organisms are not harmed

Disadvantages
- Fresh mass is influenced by the amount of water in the tissues.
- Weight gain due to actual growth is lower than the fresh mass.

Dry mass
- It’s used to measure growth of small organisms such as germinating wheat. A batch of seedlings is
weighed and placed in oven at 110° to desiccate the seedlings. The seedlings are cooled in a
desiccator and weighed again. The procedure is repeated until a constant weight is obtained.

Advantages
- Collection of data is easy.
- The data colleted is an accurate measure of irreversible increase in weight.

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 Disadvantages
- The method involves killing the organisms. And thus has limited usage.
- A large number of organisms are used hence the method is wasteful.

Growth and Development in Plants

Structure of the seed
- It consists of a seed coat enclosing an embryo.

Seed coat
- It is the outer covering which is made up of two layers;
o -Outer testa- it’s thick
o -Tegmen- it’s the inner layer and it’s a transparent membraneous tissue
- The two layers protect the seed from bacteria, fungi and other organisms which may damage it.
- Hilum- it’s a scar on one part of the seed. This is the point where the seed had been attached to the
seed stalk or funicle.
- Micropyle- it’s a tiny pore that allows water and air into the embryo.

The embryo
- Its made up of;
o -One or two seed leaves (cotyledons)
o -Plumule (Embryonic shoot)
o -Radicle (Embryonic root)
- The tip of the radicle is opposite the Micropyle.
- In some seeds the cotyledons are swollen as they contain stored food for the growing plumule and
radicle. Such seeds are called non- endospermic seeds.
- In other cases, the seeds have their food stored in the endosperm and are called endospermic seeds.
- Seeds with one cotyledon are referred to as monocotyledonous while those with two are referred to
as dicotyledonous.

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 Dormancy in Seeds
- Dormancy is a state of relative inactivity during which growth slows down or stops completely. A
seed undergoing dormancy will not germinate even if it is provided with the necessary conditions.

Importance of dormancy
- Provide the seeds with enough time for dispersal so that they can germinate in a suitable
environment.
- Enables seeds to survive during adverse environmental conditions without depleting their food
reserves.
- The embryo has time to develop until favourable conditions are available e.g. availability of water.

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 Factors that cause dormancy

Immature embryo
- It may have components which are not well developed e.g. radicle, Plumule and endosperm.

Presence of germination inhibitors

- These are substances which prevent germination e.g. abscisic acid.

Low concentrations of hormones

- E.g. Gibberellins and enzymes which reduce the ability of seeds to germinate.

Tough seed coat

- Prevents the entrance of water and oxygen into the seed e.g. wattle seeds.

Low temperatures
- Freezing of seeds during water lowers the enzymatic activities rendering them dormant.
- In some seeds, the absence of certain wavelengths of light make them remain dormant e.g. in some
lettuce plants.

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 Page 44 of 44
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