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Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

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 SPORTS AND ATHLETICS PREPARATION, PERFORMANCE AND PSYCHOLOGY

WORLD BOOK OF SWIMMING: FROM

SCIENCE TO PERFORMANCE

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 SPORTS AND ATHLETICS PREPARATION, PERFORMANCE AND PSYCHOLOGY

WORLD BOOK OF SWIMMING: FROM

SCIENCE TO PERFORMANCE

LUDOVIC SEIFERT
DIDIER CHOLLET
AND
INIGO MUJIKA
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

EDITORS

Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

New York

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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA

World book of swimming : from science to performance / editors, Ludovic

Seifert and Didier Chollet.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-1-61728-229-4 (eBook)
1. Swimming--Training. 2. Swimming--Physiological aspects. 3. Human
mechanics. I. Seifert, Ludovic. II. Chollet, Didier.
GV838.67.T73W67 2009
797.2'1--dc22
2010016079

Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. † New York

World Book of Swimming : From Science to Performance, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 CONTENTS

Preface vii
Section I Biomechanics 1
Chapter 1 Biomechanics of Drag and Propulsion in Front Crawl Swimming 3
Huub M. Toussaint
Chapter 2 Hydrodynamics in Swimming 21
Bodo Ungerechts and Raul Arellano
Chapter 3 The Swimming Muscle: History, Methodology,
and Applications of Electromyography in Swimming 43
Jan Pieter Clarys and Annie Rouard
Chapter 4 Biomechanical Evaluation of Freestyle Swimming 69
Annie Rouard
Chapter 5 Intra-Cycle Velocity Variations, Swimming Economy,
Performance, and Training in Swimming 119
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

João Paulo Vilas-Boas; Ricardo J. Fernandes

and Tiago M. Barbosa
Chapter 6 Breaststroke Kinematics 135
L. Seifert, H. Leblanc, D. Chollet, R. Sanders and U. Persyn
Chapter 7 Inter-Limb Coordination in the Four Competitive Strokes 153
Didier Chollet and Ludovic Seifert
Chapter 8 Bodyroll in Front Crawl Swimming 173
Carl J. Payton and Ross H. Sanders
Chapter 9 Rhythms in Butterfly Swimming 191
Ross H. Sanders
Chapter 10 Morphology and Swimming Performance 203
Per-Ludvik Kjendlie and Robert Stallman
Section II Energetics and Training 223
Chapter 11 Energy Systems in Swimming 225
Ferran A. Rodríguez and Alois Mader

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 vi Contents

Chapter 12 Training Energy Systems 241

Futoshi Ogita
Chapter 13 Lactate Production and Metabolism in Swimming 255
Jan Olbrecht
Chapter 14 Assessing Aerobic Endurance in Swimming 277
Jeanne Dekerle and Patrick Pelayo
Chapter 15 Swimming Economy (EnergyCost) and Efficiency 297
Pietro Enrico di Prampero, David Pendergast
and Paola Zamparo
Chapter 16 Strength and Power Training in Swimming 313
Andrei Vorontsov
Chapter 17 The Taper: Physiology,Performance, and Planning 345
David B. Pyne and Iñigo Mujika
Chapter 18 Training Load and Performance in Swimming 359
Jean-Claude Chatard and Andrew M. Stewart
Chapter 19 Overreaching, the Overtraining Syndrome and Recovery 375
Shona Halson
Chapter 20 Altitude and Hypoxic Training in Swimming 393
Martin J. Truijens and Ferran A. Rodríguez
Section III Performance and Testing 409
Chapter 21 Competition Analysis 411
Bruce R.Mason and Danielle P. Formosa
Chapter 22 A Review of Swimming Dive Starting and Turning Performance 425
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Andrew Lyttle and Brian Blanksby

Chapter 23 Stroking Parameters During Competition 443
Michel Sidney, Morgan Albert, Hugues Leblanc and Didier Chollet
Chapter 24 Competitive Swimming and Disabilities 459
Daniel Daly and Jonas Martens
Chapter 25 Triathlon Specificity 481
Gregoire P. Millet and Veronica E. Vleck
Section IV Medical Aspects and Nutrition 497
Chapter 26 Preserving and Promoting Health in the Aquatic Athlete 499
Margo L. Mountjoy and David Gerrard
Chapter 27 Nutrition for Swimming 513
Louise M Burke
Index 527

World Book of Swimming : From Science to Performance, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 PREFACE

Before 1970, scientific research in swimming was poor and anecdotal, and the
improvements of performance were linked firstly to the swimmer‘s experience and, secondly,
as a result of permanent research for speed. Before and after the Second World War, scientific
studies were conducted by pioneers and marked the beginning of research in stroke
mechanics and swimming physiology exercise. This book reviews research on the body of
knowledge available for the improvement of sports coaching and training practice in
swimming, which seems to be relevant, numerous, and diversified enough to help swimming
coaches bridge the gap between theory and practice.
Chapter 1 - Swimming performance depends on the interaction of propulsive and
resistive forces. A swimmer can improve by reducing resistive forces, or drag, that act on the
swimming body at a given velocity or by increasing the propulsive forces. It is thus
interesting to have knowledge of the backgrounds of both propulsion and drag. Especially
when improvement of performance is at stake, it is interesting for the coach to know in what
way it is possible to evaluate a swimmer's ability to minimize resistance and maximize
propulsion. Therefore, measurement tools will be discussed that are currently used to evaluate
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

for example the effect of suits on resistance followed by a discussion of propulsion of arms
and legs in front crawl swimming.
Chapter 2 - A swimmer needs solutions of propulsive actions to cover a given distance in
least amount of time in aquatic space which is referred to as self-produced propulsion. In
aquatic space - in contrast to locomotion on land - the cyclic interaction between the body
(and its parts) and water mass is essential to achieve propulsion. The water mass is displaced
―irregularly‖ creating unsteady flow conditions. Since water mass is accelerated and
decelerated, unsteady flow conditions are coming onto play, e.g. another force, called
Acceleration-Reaction (AR) and vortex induced momentum. Momentum is propelling the
body while forces are changing the propelling effects. AR can slow either down the swimmer
or thrust the swimmer depending on the timing of body motion and motion of water. Vortex
induced momentum in unsteady flow is based on fast turning actions of the body parts. This is
best explained referring to aquatic animals: the trunk is displacing water and the tail and fin
are accelerating the water mass resulting in vortex forms. Some vortex forms when
accompanied by a jet-flow may result in additional thrust effects. PIV-methods [16, 22] or
CFD-methods [9, 21, 24] allow for unsteady flow visualization and calculation of the
momentum and forces due to self-propelling actions.

World Book of Swimming : From Science to Performance, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 viii Ludovic Seifert and Didier Chollet

Chapter 3 - “The swimming muscle‖ refers to a collection of papers and ad hoc research
projects dealing with the electromyographic (EMG) data acquisition in an aquatic
environment. The detection of the electricity potentials in human muscle, is probably amongst
the oldest, if not ―the oldest‖ scientific experiments. This chapter will inform the reader about
the essential knowledge of historical facts in order to understand the evolution of EMG and
its methodological development. The basic methodological description combined with
neuromuscular basics is specified and is related to the complexity of measuring human
dynamic muscle activity in an aquatic environment and to the complexity of stroke
techniques, training aids and systems e.g. data acquisition approaches, signal processing and
EMG force relations. The EMG allows for the description of motion of swimming techniques
in terms of muscle participations, synchronisation and intensity. Muscular activity
descriptions permit the development of applied and related aspects e.g. training, technique
improvement and performance enhancement. Remodelling the front crawl with EMG is
considered in combination with a selective approach of shoulder problems and solutions.
Many studies of swimming and EMG are known since many decennia but back-, breast stroke
and butterfly research and related feedback remain limited.
Chapter 4 - The swimming velocity resulted from the combination of the propulsive and
drag forces. The biomechanics evaluation was strongly improved during the 30 last years.
Results underlined the main contribution of the hand in the swimming propulsion. The in-
sweep-pull phase appeared the most important phase of the stroke either for kinematics (hand,
elbow paths, velocity and acceleration) or kinetics (forces) and muscular activations. Fatigue
state lead to a decrease of the in-sweep efficiency, the swimmer not be able to maintain the
forces, muscles contributions and path during this constraining phase. The strength capacity
seems to be a necessary but not sufficient parameter of the performance which is more related
to the swimming force and power. Kinematics, kinetics and electromygraphic measurements
confirmed the complementarity of the dry land and the water training process, the first
allowing control of different parameters (muscles, imbalance, velocity, load), the second one
more reproducing the race condition.
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Large individual variations were observed either in fresh or fatigue states, either for local
or international swimmers. Consequently, biomechanical approaches could be useful tool in
the swimmer evaluation to adapt specifically the training process.
Future researches will increase the knowledge on swimming propulsion and their
applications in the improvement of performance.
Chapter 5 - This chapter deals with intra-cyclic velocity variations within a swimming
stroke cycle (dv), and its variation with technique, exercise intensity, energy expenditure and
fatigue, as a relevant parameter to assess biomechanical and coordinative development of
swimming technique. The text starts through the theoretical foundations of the assumption,
relating variable movement with increased energy demands and biomechanical proficiency.
Then it progresses to the definition of the actual state of the art of the practical solutions
available for its assessment, with special emphasis on the discussion about the convenience of
centre of mass or a fixed anatomical point assessment. The relationships between dv and
other performance related/determinant factors, both biomechanical and coordinative or
physiologic and energetic, will be also addressed. Finally, the chapter concludes with
considerations related to the applications of the study of dv to performance and training
evaluation and advice.

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 Preface ix

Chapter 6 - This chapter on breaststroke kinematics mostly presents the works of the
Leuven Research and Evaluation Centre, under the direction of Professor Ulrik Persyn since
1970, and is dedicated to one of his pioneering researchers in breaststroke Dr Veronique
Colman. The breaststroke has the greatest variation in intra-cyclic velocity of the four strokes
and has the most variants in style. This chapter is therefore composed of four parts: the phases
of a stroke cycle, the intra-cyclic velocity variations, the styles (undulating vs. flat), and the
influence of body characteristics.
Chapter 7 - In swimming, as in several sports, the performance optimization relates to
capacity of swimmers to coordinate their motor actions. In alternates strokes (front crawl and
backstroke), the inter-arm coordination is evaluated. The method uses the Index of
Coordination (IdC) to measure the coordination of arm stroking with precise quantification
of the lag time between the start of propulsion by one arm and the end of propulsion by the
other, and secondly to describe how this index varies as a function of the stroking
parameters (speed, stroke rate, stroke length). In simultaneous strokes the assessment of
arm-leg coordination, both in butterfly stroke and in breaststroke, consists to analyse the
spatial-temporal relationships between the key points defining the start and the end of the arm
and the leg stroke phases. Coordination changes are function of skill level, gender, and speed.
The major objective of this chapter was to present the studies about the coordination, firstly
of arm stroking in alternates strokes, secondly arm to leg coordination in simultaneous
strokes, thirdly the effect of skill, gender and speed on inter-limb coordination and fourthly
the coordination between propulsion and breathing: effect of preferential side of breathing,
coordination asymmetry, force asymmetry and handedness.
Chapter 8 - The rolling actions of the shoulders and hips (bodyroll) in front-crawl and
backstroke reflect the rhythmical contributions of the lower limbs, the actions of the upper
limbs, and gravitational effects. The timing of the shoulder and hip rotations varies between
and within swimmers, depending on speed, the stage of the race, and the nature of the kick
(e.g. depth and frequency). A number of performance benefits have been attributed to
bodyroll including reduced drag, increased stroke length, reduction in shoulder injury and
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

increased propulsion.
Chapter 9 - This chapter addresses the role of rhythm in butterfly swimming. The
underlying rhythms of the vertical undulations of the body parts and the motion of a ‗body
wave‘ have been quantified using Fourier analysis. In combination with advanced three
dimensional analysis of kinematics, kinetics, and energetics, the analysis of rhythms and body
wave motion provide insights into how skilled butterfly swimmers are able to re-use energy in
the process of rotating and raising the trunk to swim economically. Three main conclusions
can be drawn from the evidence and rationale provided. First skilled butterfly swimming is
characterised by wave-like undulations of shoulders, hips, knees, and ankles with the vertical
undulations consisting almost entirely of a waveform corresponding to the stroke frequency
(H1) and a waveform of twice that frequency (H2). Second, the undulations are coordinated
to yield travelling 'body waves' to optimise performance from both hydrodynamic and energy
transmission and re-use perspectives. Third, the phase relationship between the one-beat H1
frequency and two-beat H2 is important to performance.
Chapter 10 - This chapter deals with the way morphology influences performance and
mechanics of swimming. Performance in swimming is influenced by size. A taller swimmer
will generally swim faster. Larger propelling sizes better the propelling efficiency and lower
the stroke rate – creating a more energy efficient mode of swimming. Drag is influenced by

World Book of Swimming : From Science to Performance, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 x Ludovic Seifert and Didier Chollet

size: a taller swimmer will create less wave resistance at the same speed, and the tall
swimmer will have a greater potential for maximal velocity due to a higher hull speed.
Pressure drag is directly influenced by the projected cross sectional area which increases drag.
During a swimming race, a taller swimmer will have a shorter true race distance due to
turning and finishing actions with their center of mass further away from the pool wall.
Sprinters are larger than long distance specialists, freestyle specialists are often larger
than breaststrokers and the best swimmers are often taller and bigger that the rest. There is
little to do with the genetics of one individual, however coaches should guide the young
athletes to make the most out of ones pre determined morphology. The guiding towards
specialization of strokes or distances should have the scientific evidences presented in this
chapter in mind.
Chapter 11 - Swimming performance can be described as the result of the transformation
of the swimmer‘s metabolic power into mechanical power with a given energetic efficiency.
Most of the energy produced by the swimmer is utilized to overcome water resistance or drag,
and the rate of energy expenditure theoretically increases with the cube of the velocity. This
energy is generated by the sum of the immediate (phosphagen), short-term (anaerobic
glycolysis) and long-term (oxidative phosphorilation or aerobic) energy delivery systems. The
relative contribution of each system has been frequently determined on research developed in
other types of exercise activities or from linear calculations. The modeling of the energy
metabolism behavior using computer simulation, combined with physiological field
measurements, offers new insights and improved estimations on the relative contribution of
the energy delivery systems.
Chapter 12 - The primary purpose for training energy systems is to improve swimming
performance by enhancing the ability to produce energy from anaerobic and aerobic
processes. Endurance training which is performed at sub-maximal intensities, i.e. from around
．
lactate threshold to VO2max, enhances lactate removal, and improves cardio-respiratory
functions for oxygen delivery, as well as muscular oxidative capacity for oxygen utilization.
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Anaerobic training which produces a significant amount of lactic acid induces an increase in
the enzymatic activity of the glycolytic system as well as the muscle‘s buffering capacity.
Finally, sprint training lasting less than 10 seconds enhances the ATP-PCr system and
glycolytic system, but could decrease some resting metabolites stores, such as ATP and PCr.
Since the effect of training on each energy system depends strongly on training intensities, it
is of major importance to understand why training intensities have to be carefully set to
optimally stress and maximally potentiate each energy system.
Chapter 13 - In competitive swimming, as in other competitive sports, lactate tests are
commonly applied not only to describe the current metabolic performance of the swimmer
but also to define appropriate training goals, intensity and volume, to monitor metabolic
adaptations to training and to adjust the training periodisation in order to increase the training
efficiency. Mader ([42], [44]) argued in a mathematical model of metabolic energy supply
that beside the aerobic activity the lactate production also strongly affects the lactate-speed
relation. This finding can explain a lot of contradictory interpretations ([28]) and paradoxes
between the evaluation of lactate tests and the performances in competition and/or in training,
but it also stresses the importance of examining and considering both the aerobic and
anaerobic metabolic components together in order to ensure a reliable implementation of
lactate test results ([56]). In the last 20 years, more basic studies support this rather theoretical

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 Preface xi

approach and provide better insight in different factors, other than O2-limitation for
contraction, that affect blood lactate concentrations during exercise ([19], [20]).
Beside its metabolic metamorphosis, being upgraded from a glycolitic waste product to
an important intermediate that helps regulating the metabolic activity, lactate has newly been
described as a signalling molecule ([62]) between respectively the metabolic and nervous
system and the metabolic and gene expression system. However these finding certainly need
more research before any evidence based application in training.
Chapter 14 - Lactate threshold, Maximal Lactate Steady State (MLSS), and Critical
Swimming Speed (CSS) represent distinct measures of endurance fitness. Each parameter can
be used to assess a discrete aspect of swimming endurance. The lactate threshold can be
identified from changes in the capillary blood lactate concentrations during an incremental
step test. Alternative and non-invasive methods using open indirect calorimetry have recently
been applied in swimming. Several 30-min sub-maximal constant speed tests need to be
performed to determine MLSS, seen by some physiologists as the criterion measure of
aerobic endurance. However, CSS is perceived in swimming as a more practical method for
assessing aerobic endurance as it only requires the performance of several shorter maximal
efforts to exhaustion. For coaching purposes, the 60-min and 30-min time trial tests could be
effective for estimating MLSS and CSS. For any of these methods, both validity and
reliability have to be established before being applied in research or practical settings. Given
the narrow spectrum of sub-maximal speeds in swimming, good precision in the estimation of
endurance speeds is a priority.
Chapter 15 - The energy cost per unit distance (i. e. the economy of swimming, C) is
given by the ratio E / v where E is the net (above resting) metabolic power and v is the
swimming speed. The contribution of the aerobic and anaerobic energy sources to E in
swimming competitions differs according to the distance covered; it is independent of
swimming style, gender or skill and depends essentially upon the duration of the exercise. In
swimming, C increases with the speed with a non linear function; for a given speed, C is the
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

lowest for the front crawl, followed by the backstroke, the butterfly and the breaststroke. C is
essentially determined by the hydrodynamic resistance (Wd): the higher Wd, the higher C; and
by the propelling efficiency (P): the higher P the lower C. Hence, all factors influencing Wd
and/or P will result in proportional changes in C. The concepts of economy and efficiency
are strictly related; hence, this chapter is also devoted to an analysis of the efficiencies in
swimming; a summary of the values reported in the literature is also presented from a
―historical point of view‖. Last but not least, the factors setting performance ( E max and C) are
briefly reviewed in view of a proper planning of swim training.
Chapter 16 - The primary goal of this chapter is to familiarize the readers with areas and
results of research on strength training in swimming. Analysis of modern studies on
relationship between different manifestations of strength and swimming performance
demonstrates a high specificity of strength application in aquatic locomotion. This specificity
requires adequate methods of strength training, which focus on utilization of strength
developed in dry-land training in swimming motor patterns. Authors propose to use the
values of pulling force and power recorded in tethered, semi-tethered swimming or acquired
with the MAD-system as criteria of specific strength and reliable predictors of swimming
performance. Materials of the chapter suggest that despite the growing value of aquatic
strength training, dry-land training will remain an important form of supplementary

World Book of Swimming : From Science to Performance, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 xii Ludovic Seifert and Didier Chollet

preparation. At the same time the content and objectives of dry-land training are changing in
accordance with demands of swimming sport. In this respect, contribution into competitive
performance of the strength of stabilizing muscles and core body as well as efficiency of
injury preventing strength training require further investigation. The chapter also contains
recommendations on strength training for age group swimmers, methods of testing of strength
and organization of research.
Chapter 17 - The taper forms the final part of the swimming training program prior to a
major competition. The aim of the taper is to enhance competitive performance by reducing
the degree of residual fatigue and optimizing physiological and psychological capacities.
Various studies have reported cardiorespiratory, metabolic, hormonal, and neuromuscular
changes during the taper. The expected mean improvement in competitive swimming
performance with an effective taper is ~0.3-5% although individuals will respond differently.
The three primary types of taper are the linear taper (systematic reduction in training volume
and load), exponential taper (with either a fast or slow decay), and the step taper (substantial
standardized reduction in training volume and load). Training frequency is maintained or only
a modest reduction of one or two training sessions per week should be made by the end of the
taper. The intensity of training in main sets is held relatively constant. The typical reduction
in training volume is ~50-75% of the peak volume achieved during the training season.
Tapers should be individualized according to the specific circumstances of swimmers (e.g.
time required for elimination of residual fatigue and optimization of adaptations).
Chapter 18 - More than three quarters of all competitive swimming events are completed
in less than two and a half minutes by athletes of at least national class. To prepare for these
events, coaches manipulate training load (usually described as a combination of volume,
intensity, frequency, and dry-land training) at various times of the season in an attempt to
prepare their swimmers to peak just at the right time. Leading into competition, there is
usually a phase of high load training followed by some kind of tapering (reduced load)
program. Scientific data support bigger performance gains through a program based on high
intensity and low volume prior to a high-load phase and taper phase leading into competition.
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Individual athletes will respond differently to such fluctuations in training load and will
depend on parameters such as training status at the time and performance level. Individual
responses can be monitored using simple observational or monitoring techniques, regression
analysis, or with the help of a systems model. These analytical processes may be useful tools
to establish individualized training programs.
Chapter 19 - The high volume nature of elite swim training can result in an increased
susceptibility to overreaching and the overtraining syndrome. Appropriate use of recovery
strategies during training and competition may result in reduced fatigue, enhanced adaptation
to training and reduced risk of developing the overtraining syndrome. Appropriate monitoring
of performance and mood state may provide early indications of excessive fatigue.
Biochemical, hormonal and immune system indicators appear to be less promising as markers
of overreaching and the overtraining syndrome. Both active and passive recovery can be
beneficial to repeat performance when considering the duration of the effort and the amount
of recovery time. Further, evidence regarding the effectiveness of various recovery strategies,
including hydrotherapy and sleep quality and quantity, is increasing. Research is supporting
the role of recovery in minimising fatigue associated with high intensity training. A careful
balance of appropriate high volume training and recovery can ensure maximum performance
gains are achieved by elite swimmers. Monitoring of the swimmers‘ performance and mood

World Book of Swimming : From Science to Performance, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 Preface xiii

state and incorporating recovery strategies can play a role in ensuring this balance is
maintained.
Chapter 20 - Altitude/hypoxic training is today a common practice among swimmers
although its benefits are still controversial in scientific literature. Traditional altitude training
(―live high-train high‖) is still the most frequently used method in swimming, even though
from a physiological perspective the ―live high-train low‖ strategy appears to be a more
promising alternative. While acute hypoxia deteriorates swimming performance, chronic
hypoxia may induce acclimatization effects, mainly through the acceleration of red blood cell
production, which could improve aerobic capacity and therewith performance upon return to
sea level. Other potential benefits such as improved exercise economy, enhanced muscle
buffer capacity and pH regulation, and improved mitochondrial function have also been
postulated. In order to get a better picture of the potential usefulness of altitude and hypoxic
training in swimming this chapter will (i) briefly review the acute and chronic effects of
hypoxia, (ii) describe traditional and current methods of altitude/hypoxic training, (iii) discuss
the scientific evidence on the effects of altitude/hypoxic training on sea level swimming
performance, and (iv) give some practical guidelines for altitude/hypoxic training.
Chapter 21 - Competition race analysis in swimming has evolved significantly over the
past two decades. In the early 2000s FINA (swimming‘s international governing body) passed
a resolution to make competition race analysis obligatory in all FINA International
competitions. This was potentially a very progressive initiative; however it was not
successfully implemented due to a lack of financial support from FINA. The following
chapter investigates the history of international competition race analysis in swimming. It
describes the function of race analysis and what it attempts to achieve. The chapter provides a
description of how race analysis is performed and how race analysis results are presented to
the swimmer and coach. Finally, it illustrates what the swimmer will gain from utilizing race
analysis, as well as it investigated the possible future directions of competition race analysis
in the sport.
Chapter 22 - Dive starts generate the fastest velocities in swimming races. With 50m
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

events lasting for just over 20s, a starting gain of 0.1s could very likely mean the difference
between winning and losing. As the length of races increases, any proportionate gain from the
start diminishes, but remains important. Research remains ambivalent regarding the complex
manoeuvres required for an effective start and, despite the introduction of several new
techniques; none have demonstrated superiority.
Turning generates the second fastest velocities in swimming and can represent up to 30%
of distance covered. Efficient turns increase in importance with the race distance; especially
in short course pools. Changes have occurred with turn techniques but superiority is again
equivocal. However, rules no longer requiring hand touches have altered freestyle and
backstroke turns; and underwater kicking has altered turns for all four competitive strokes.
This chapter reviews sport science research of swim starts and turns to provide evidence
based information that coaches could use with swimmers.
Chapter 23 - In cyclical activities, where the same motor structure is repeated, speed is
the result of a contradictory relationship between the amplitude or stroke length (distance per
cycle) and the frequency or stroke rate (a number of cycles per unit of time). In swimming,
the swimmer must find the optimal combination of stroke rate and stroke length parameters to
reach and maintain the highest possible speed according to the constraints of the task. The
swimmers swim more and more quickly, using different combinations of stroke length and

World Book of Swimming : From Science to Performance, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 xiv Ludovic Seifert and Didier Chollet

stroke rate, which relate to the type of race, the stroke, the gender, the training program and
the anthropometric characteristics of the swimmer.
Chapter 24 - Classification is the distinguishing factor of Paralympic sports and a
majority of the research done here on swimming has had this in mind. Competition for
persons with loco-motor disabilities is organized under a functional classification system in
which persons with various impairments compete against one another in several classes.
Swimmers with visual impairment (3 classes) and intellectual disability are also discussed
here. Mathematical comparisons of 100m freestyle world records for loco-motor disability
digress over the 10 classes in a predicable manner. This is not the case in other events
however. Paralympic 100m freestyle swimmers demonstrate on the mean similar stroking
parameter changes to able-bodied Olympic swimmers between and within races. Paralympic
swimmers with visual impairment do not differ in this respect in freestyle races. The greater
variation in stroking models is reduced when specific impairment groups are isolated.
Experienced and trained swimmers with intellectual disability are, however, not able to
maintain stable race speed and stroking models over several freestyle races. In breaststroke
both visually impaired and intellectually disabled have much more trouble turning than in
their freestyle races with relatively slow breaststroke turns and more than 8% losses in
swimming speed in the subsequent race sections. The physical capacity of Paralympic
swimmers has seldom been examined. As expected passive drag increases with decreased
function at a fixed towing speed. World championship participants with intellectual disability
are smaller (38th percentile) and show extremely poor hand grip strength when compared to
European national level able- bodied swimmers (M percentile score = 1.1 +3.2).
Chapter 25 - The purpose of the present chapter is to present five main specific
characteristics of the swimming part of a triathlon event; i.e. different technical skills
(coordination, efficiency); wearing a wetsuit; drafting another triathlete; specific pacing and
preparing the subsequent parts (swim-to-cycle transition). Triathletes are obviously of a lower
performance level in swimming-only than elite swimmers but are also less technically skilled:
their stroke length, propelling efficiency, inter-limb coordination and economy are lower. The
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

metabolic responses in swimming are influenced by the thermoregulatory responses (i.e.

water and air temperature, type of wetsuit). Wearing a neoprene wetsuit has been shown to
improve buoyancy and consequently swimming performance but the extent to which
improvement occurs is influenced by the anthropometrical and technical features of the
subject. Similarly, drafting another swimmer is commonly reported as an efficient way of
reducing drag, decreasing energy cost and therefore improving swimming performance.
However, drafting induces some technical and pacing adaptations and its advantages are
influenced by many factors (position of and distance to the draftee, body composition and
performance level of the drafter…). Olympic-distance (OD) and Ironman (IR) triathlons
require different pacing strategies during their swimming portions. A very fast start during the
1500 m of an OD triathlon has been reported to be paramount for the overall final
performance whereas in IR competition, an even pace is recommended for energy sparing.
Finally, the swim section strongly influences the subsequent cycling and running sections.
Each of the factors mentioned above (technical skills, wetsuit use, drafting, pacing) leads to
modification of the metabolic responses to swimming that then influences the physiological
responses underlying efficiency/economy, and, consequently, performance (power output/
velocity) within the subsequent cycle and run.

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 Preface xv

Chapter 26 - Attention to the preservation and promotion of health in the aquatic athlete
maximizes performance. Knowledge of the common injuries directs attention towards injury
prevention and minimizes time lost from training. Early identification of and appropriate
intervention for medical issues is essential for the well being of the swimmer. The promotion
of healthy nutritional habits serves to maintain health and enhance performance. As with all
sports, attention should be paid to the ethics of fair play; an understanding of the doping
control requirements as they pertain to aquatic athletes is important for all members of the
athletes‘ entourage. Each of the five aquatic disciplines has unique health concerns common
to that particular aquatic sport. Understanding the unique demands of the aquatic discipline
and the specific injuries and illnesses is important for the development of a training program.
Maximizing performance through the application of sport science and attention to medical
issues is essential in the development of the aquatic athlete.
Chapter 27 - The nutritional concerns of swimmers involve an amalgam of challenges.
During the training phase, swimmers share the priorities of endurance athletes, whereas issues
in the competition setting are more related to brief duration events. Swimmers often begin a
competitive career at a young age, adding their sports nutrition needs to the dietary challenge
of adolescence and early adulthood. Achieving the ideal physique is a key challenge for many
swimmers. Issues include meeting the high energy needs for growth and training in young
male swimmers, adapting energy intake to the reduced energy requirements of the taper or
off-season, or dealing with the gain of body fat in female swimmers as they progress through
puberty. Strategic eating around key workouts and races is important to enhance training
outcomes and competition performance. Swimmers are fascinated by the array of sports foods
and supplements that promise improved performances. Among the many products on the
market, a few offer legitimate benefits – either helping the swimmer meet their daily
nutritional goals (e.g. sports drinks, liquid meal supplements, and sports bars), or by directly
enhancing performance and recovery (e.g. creatine, bicarbonate, caffeine). The decision to
use such products needs to be balanced against the expense and the risk that they may cause
an inadvertent doping outcome.
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 SECTION I
BIOMECHANICS
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 In: World Book of Swimming: From Science to Performance ISBN: 978-1-61668-202-6
Editors: L. Seifert, D. Chollet and I.Mujika ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 1

BIOMECHANICS OF DRAG AND PROPULSION

IN FRONT CRAWL SWIMMING

Huub M. Toussaint
Move Institute, Faculty of Human Movement Sciences,
VU University, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Academy for Physical Education,
Technical University of Applied Sciences Amsterdam
InnoSport.NL Fieldlab Swimming, Eindhoven, The Netherlands

ABSTRACT
Swimming performance depends on the interaction of propulsive and resistive
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forces. A swimmer can improve by reducing resistive forces, or drag, that act on the
swimming body at a given velocity or by increasing the propulsive forces. It is thus
interesting to have knowledge of the backgrounds of both propulsion and drag.
Especially when improvement of performance is at stake, it is interesting for the
coach to know in what way it is possible to evaluate a swimmer's ability to minimize
resistance and maximize propulsion. Therefore, measurement tools will be discussed
that are currently used to evaluate for example the effect of suits on resistance
followed by a discussion of propulsion of arms and legs in front crawl swimming.

Keywords: Drag reduction, competitive suit, propulsive efficiency, kick, pumped-up

propulsion.

1. INTRODUCTION
Peak performance in swimming requires years of training. Especially when high levels of
performance are reached, the law of diminishing return on investment of training time will be
operative. It was and is therefore very interesting to use legal aids that instantaneously
improve race pace. Swimming suits that reduce drag are an example of such aids that provide

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 4 Huub M. Toussaint

immediate performance improvement. Although it is now well known that swimming suits
can be effective in enhancing performance, the reason why that is so is maybe less well
understood. Therefore in the following section the biomechanics of the resistive forces (drag)
acting on the swimmer are discussed. The question can be raised whether one specific suit has
an equal effect on each swimmer (assuming perfect fit) or that it may enhance performance
for one but not for another.

2. DRAG
Drag is the force resisting movement through water. The total drag (Fd) swimming at a
constant speed consists of frictional (Ff), pressure (Fp), and wave drag (Fw) components,
namely [25]:

Fd = Ff + Fp + Fw (1)

Frictional or viscous drag originates from fluid viscosity, and produces shear stresses in
the boundary layer (a layer of water extending out from the body to the point at which it is
moving at 99% of free stream speed; [18]). The magnitude of frictional drag will depend on
the wetted surface area of the body and flow conditions within the boundary layer [42].
Boundary flow can be laminar, turbulent or transitional. A boundary layer with turbulent flow
produces the highest frictional drag. At what speed and where on the body turbulence first
becomes apparent depends on the size and speed of the swimmer and on the density and
viscosity of water. The onset of turbulence is often abrupt and occurs at a critical value of the
so-called Reynolds number, Re (a dimensionless scaling number) that represents the
interaction of the mentioned parameters:
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vL
Re  (2)


where  and  are the density and viscosity of water, v is the swimming velocity, and L is a
characteristic length of the swimmer. Depending on the shape of the object, the critical value
of Re will be in the order of 500,000. For a competitive swimmer, with v = 2 m•s-1, L = 2 m, 
= 1000 kg•m-3, and  = 0.897•10-3 N•s•m-2, Re will be about 4.5x106 for the swimmer body.
This implies that in competitive swimming turbulence will always play a role.
When swimming near the surface, the pressure field around the swimmer sets up a wave
system similar to what occurs for ships (Figure 1). Both the wave-length () and the wave
amplitude increase with increasing swimming speed.
The wave system that is created by the ship, or for that matter by the swimmer, will travel
with the same speed as of the ship on the surface. The crest-to-crest distance of the wave
system () depends on this speed (v) according to:

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 Biomechanics of Drag and Propulsion in Front Crawl Swimming 5

Figure 1. Wave formation: the positive pressure at bow and stern create ‗positive‘ waves, while
negative pressure point induce ‗negative‘ waves around the ship. Dependent on the velocity of the ship,
the created waves will have a certain wavelength ([after: 17].

2  v 2
 (where g is the gravitational acceleration = 9.8 m•s-2) (3)
g

Hence, the crest-to-crest distance will increase when the speed increases. This is
illustrated in the left panel of Figure 2, where the wave system surrounding the ship will
 lengthen when the ship is sailing at higher speeds. At a certain speed the wavelength will
equal the ―water-line length‖ of the ship. At that velocity the ship is trapped in a self-created
hollow between crests of the bow wave and the stern wave. More effort will lead to a higher
wave amplitude leading to a deeper hollow and thus further attempts to increase speed will be
extremely costly as most energy is used to ―climb out of the hollow‖.
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Figure 2. Left panel: increase of speed of the ship (v) leads to a longer wave length l. Finally the wave
length equals waterline length and the ship has reached hull speed. Right panel: interference of bow and
stern wave depends on wavelength and thus on ship speed. In the top panel the bow wave is in
synchrony with the stern wave inducing reinforcement of wave formation; in the bottom panel the bow
wave cancels the stern wave [after: 17].

The dependence of wavelength on speed induces another effect given the fixed waterline
length of the ship. Especially the bow wave can interfere with the stern wave inducing either
reinforcement of the stern wave or cancellation of the bow wave. This is illustrated in Figure
2 (right panel) and Figure 3 (left panel). Apart from the effect of speed this interference has

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 6 Huub M. Toussaint

an additional effect on wave amplitude and thus on wave drag illustrated in the right panel of
Figure 3. Wave formation in swimming the front crawl seems to some extent similar to wave
formation in ships. As can be seen in Figure 4, a clear ‗bow‘ and ‗stern‘ wave are formed
when swimming at higher speeds.

Figure 3. Left panel: interference of bow and stern wave depends on wavelength and thus on ship speed
and leads to reinforcement of cancellation of the stern wave. Right panel: both speed and interference
will influence the amplitude of the created waves and therefore the wave making resistance [after: 17].
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Figure 4. Wave length () of wave system created by the swimmer.

Similar to ships, Figure 4 suggests that at a certain speed swimmers can be trapped
between bow and stern wave and hence that also for swimming a "hull speed", occurs [1, 15,
41]. For ships the hull speed (vh) is a function of the square root of the waterline length of the
hull or body [19], assuming  equal to the waterline length recasting equation 3 into:
g  lw
vh  (4)
2

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 Biomechanics of Drag and Propulsion in Front Crawl Swimming 7

where lw is the waterline length along the longitudinal axis of the body (in m). With an
arbitrary height of 2 m, a hull speed of 1.77 m•s-1 is found (Eq. 4). Since real maximum swim
speed is about 2 m•s-1 this suggests that 1) humans seem to be able to swim faster than the
hull speed and 2) wave making resistance matters at competitive swimming speed. In the
section on propulsion the possible role of the leg kick in reducing the wave resistance
especially by reducing the stern wave will be discussed.

3. MEASUREMENT OF DRAG
The measurement of drag while swimming front crawl (i.e. ‗active‘ drag) is a challenge.
Unlike activities on land (like running) the swimmer is not using a fixed point to generate
propulsion. If there would be a fixed point, it would be the ideal spot to put a force transducer
to measure the forces involved in swimming. In the past 20 years several solutions for this
problem of measurement have been developed and two approaches will be discussed here: the
Measuring Active Drag-system (MAD-system) and the ‗Kolmogorov‘ approach [13].
Measurement of drag of a swimmer in a passive, stretched position (i.e. ‗passive‘ drag) is
relatively easy. An example of such a contraption to do so is given in Figure 5 (right panel).
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Figure 5. Schematic drawing of the MAD-system (left panel) mounted in a 25 meter pool. The MAD-
system allows the swimmer to push off from fixed pads with each stroke. These push-off pads are
attached to a 22 meter long rod. The distance between the push-off pads can be adjusted (normally 1.35
m). The rod is mounted ± 0.8 m below the water surface. The rod is connected to a force transducer
enabling direct measurement of push-off forces for each stroke (see lower panel). Swimming one lap on
the system yields one data-point for the speed-drag-curve. (note: the cord leading to the calibration
device is detached during drag-measurement) Towing device for passive drag measurement (right
panel). A force transducer is mounted in the yellow buoy.

The MAD-system provides the swimmer with a series of fixed push-off points mounted
below the water surface, such that a front-crawl like ‗swimming‘ movement can be made
(Figure 5). The push-off forces from the hands are measured with a force transducer. If the
swimmer ‗swims‘ at constant speed the average drag will equal the average propulsion. Thus

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 8 Huub M. Toussaint

the MAD-system approach relies on a balance of resistive and propulsive forces. Propulsive
forces of the leg action can not be measured using this approach, so the legs are tied together
with a rubber strap and supported by a pull buoy to keep the body in a horizontal position
similar to that during actual swimming. The swimmer swims a series of laps on the system
whereby each lap is swum at a constant speed. Each lap results in one speed-drag data point.
For a range of lap-speeds, drag is measured and the relation between speed and drag is
calculated using a least squares fitting approach [see also: 28, 29, 32].
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Figure 6. Results of passive drag testing using towing device (see Figure 5 right panel). Each swimmer
was towed three times at each speed and the average recorded drag value for each lap is plotted. The
relation ship between speed and drag was least square fitted to give Drag = A•velocityn. The testing
speed was between 1.8 and 3 m•s-1. The high speeds were set to evaluate the effect of the suit after start
and turns were the swimmer is gliding through the water.

As an example of the use of both the MAD-system and the towing system, results are
presented for a test of 4 Olympic swimmers (each winner of a gold medal) that were
preparing for the Beijing Olympic Games. Tests were conducted at the end of May 2008. For
each swimmer 2 suits were evaluated to decide what to wear during the finals in the Olympic
Games. It should be noted that for subject ‗Maarten‘ the ‗LZR racer legskin‘ was tested and
that this suit only covered the legs. All other suits were ‗full‘ suits covering both legs and
torso. ‗Old‘ indicates the Fastskin FS-Pro that was launched by Speedo in 2007. Blue
indicates the blue 70 swimsuit.

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 Biomechanics of Drag and Propulsion in Front Crawl Swimming 9

During passive drag measurements swimmers kept the head between the outstretched
arms (see Figure 5 right panel). The towing depth was set at 1 m below the water surface to
evade the effect of wave drag.
For the passive tests (Figure 6), the LZR gives lower drag values for one male swimmer
in comparison to the Nike suit, but the LZR legskin is not as good as a full blue 70 suit for the
other male swimmer (upper 2 panels). For the two female swimmers the LZR gives a drag
reduction especially at higher speeds.
Differences in active drag were non-existent for 2 swimmers (left panels of Figure 7). For
the swimmers presented in the right panels the effect is relevant with a 5% lower drag value
for the ‗old‘ Fastskin FS-Pro compared to the LZR suit (lower right panel) and a huge drag
reducing effect of 16% for the blue 70 suit when compared to the LZR legskin. The
magnitude of the effect of the neoprene blue 70 suit is similar to the drag reducing effects
reported for triathlon wetsuits [27]. The difference in results of the two swimmers in the 2
lower panels suggests that a drag reducing effect of a suit may be subject-specific. Although
both swimmers were testing similar suits (both fitting each swimmer well), for one of them
the older Fastskin provided a drag reduction while swimming, while for the other no drag
differences were found.
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Figure 7. Results for active drag using the MAD-system (see Figure 5 left panel). Each swimmer was
swimming 10-11 laps in a range of speeds, but each lap was swum at a constant speed. The average
recorded drag per lap is plotted dependent on the recorded swimming speed. The relation ship between
speed and drag was least square fitted to give Drag = A•velocityn. The testing speeds were between 1.0
and 2 m•s-1.

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 10 Huub M. Toussaint

Another approach to measure the active drag was developed by Kolmogorov and
Duplisheva [13]. In their so-called velocity perturbation method subjects are asked to swim a
30 m lap twice at maximal effort: once swimming free, and once swimming with a
hydrodynamic body attached that creates a known additional resistance. For both trials the
average speed is calculated. Under the assumption that in both swims the power output is
maximal and constant, active drag can be calculated. Under the assumption that in both swims
the power output to overcome drag is maximal and constant, active drag can be calculated
since power to drag equals drag force times speed:

D f  v f  Dt  vt (5)

where the subscripts refer to the swims in the ‗free‘ and towing trials. Given hat drag relates
to K•v2 the equation can be cast into:

K  v3f  K  vt3  Fb  vt (6)

where Fb represents the added drag due to the hydrodynamic body. Since the hydrodynamic
properties of this added body were calibrated previously, it was possible to compute Fb at any
speed. Then, K can be solved, and Df will equal:

Fb  vt  v 2f
D f  K  v 2f 
v 
(7)
3
f  vt3

The interesting aspect of this approach is that it can be applied to measure active drag in
all four competitive strokes, while the MAD-system is applicable to front crawl only.
However, the Kolmogorov-approach will yield just a single drag estimate at maximal speed.
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Figure 8. Drag data dependent on swimming speed for two swimmers. Each filled dot represents the
speed - drag combination of swimming one lap on the MAD-system. Fitted curves are presented as
well. The results for the Kolmogorov test are indicated with a buoy icon.

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 Biomechanics of Drag and Propulsion in Front Crawl Swimming 11

A comparison of both methods (see Figure 8) suggests that similar drag results are found
provided that the equal power output assumption in the velocity perturbation test is not
violated [33].

Practical Application

At present the Kolmogorov method is applied in a modified form in the Australian

Institute of Sport (AIS dr Bruce Mason, personal communication, 2009), whereby a towing
device is used. The swimmer is towed while actively swimming a lap of 30 m at about 110%
of the maximal free swimming speed, and the towing force (Ft) is measured. Again, assuming
that power output to drag is maximal and equal in the two conditions (equation 5), K in
equation 7 can be solved. The added value of this approach is that the force variation in Ft
reflects the propulsive forces generated by the swimmer. Hence, if during the all out swim the
propulsive movements are recorded on video, the kinematics of the stroke can be compared to
the generated propulsive forces. In Figure 9 an impression of this approach in action at the
AIS is given.
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Figure 9. Active drag measurement using a towing device (left panel). During the test the kinematics
are recorded (right panel).

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 12 Huub M. Toussaint

4. PROPELLING EFFICIENCY
It is tempting to think that human swimming performance depends solely on the
interaction of propulsive and resistive forces [20]. Given this‗force-balance-approach‘, a
swimmer can only improve performance by reducing resistive forces, or drag, that act on the
swimming body at a given velocity or by increasing the propulsive forces. However, this
approach neglects the fact that some of the mechanical power generated by a swimmer is
necessarily expended in giving water a kinetic energy change, since the propelling thrust is
made against masses of water that acquire a backward momentum [2, 26, 31]. This implies
that part of the mechanical work the swimmer delivers during the push-off is spent on moving
water. Hence, only a proportion of the total mechanical energy the swimmer delivers is used
beneficially to overcome body drag. Since in competition swimming velocity is to be
optimized, it is more relevant to look at the time derivative of the work produced by the
swimmer, i.e. the mechanical power production. Thus in competitive swimming two
important mechanical power terms of the total power (Po) can be discerned: power used
beneficially to overcome drag (Pd) and power lost in giving water a kinetic energy change
(Pk). The ratio between the useful mechanical power spent to overcome drag (Pd) and the total
mechanical power output (Po) is defined as the propulsive efficiency ep [2]:

Pd Pd
ep   (8)
Po Pd  Pk

Swimming fast will therefore depend on 1.) the ability to produce a high mechanical
power output enabling the generation of high propulsive forces, 2.) the ability to reduce drag,
while 3.) keeping power losses to pushed away water (Pk) low, i.e. swimming with a high
propulsive efficiency.
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Practical Application

The MAD-system was shown to be a specific water based strength training device
significantly enhancing sprint performance through increased power output [38]. Using the
MAD-system a series of test were developed to quickly assess these performance factors [35,
37]. Repeated testing of the magnitude of the power output (Po), drag and the propelling
efficiency in a group of high level swimmers preparing for the 2004 Olympic Games,
revealed that both drag and propelling efficiency seem to be fairly constant in highly trained
swimmers. Po was found to be rather ‗volatile‘ showing changes in magnitude up to 10-15%
over a period of only 2 to 3 weeks with changes in training and taper [35]. This suggests that
planned evaluation of power output of swimmers on a regular basis may vastly expand
relevant feedback regarding training effects to the coach such that fine tuning of individual
training volume and training intensity will be less an art and more a science.

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 Biomechanics of Drag and Propulsion in Front Crawl Swimming 13

5. PROPULSION
Propulsion is one of the key factors determining performance in human competitive front
crawl swimming. It is therefore no surprise that the fluid dynamic mechanism of propulsion
has been the subject of scientific inquiry. To calculate the magnitude of propulsion the action
of the propelling surfaces can be studied or the reaction of the pushed away water masses can
be computed [see for the latter approach for example: 3, 39]. These are two sides of one coin.
Regarding the action of the propulsive surface, the dominant view is that the hand acts as a
hydrofoil, generating both lift L and drag D [8]. The fluid dynamic forces acting on an object
are usually described as a function of its velocity relative to the fluid (u, m•s-1), its surface
area (plan area S, m2) and the density of the fluid ( kg•m-3) according to

1
L= 2
 u2 Cl S (9)

1
D= 2
 u2 Cd S (10)

where Cl and Cd are the lift and drag coefficients. The values of these coefficients are
characteristic for the object tested and are a function of the angle of attack, , and the sweep
back angle,  (see Fig 10).
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Figure 10. Relevant parameters describing the hand as hydrofoil (top). A hydrofoil subjected to flow
(lower left) experiences a lift and drag force. The same is true for the human hand (lower right). The
magnitude of the lift and drag forces depend on the angle of attack lower right and on the sweep
back angle upper left.

Schleihauf [22] investigated the hydrofoil characteristics of the human hand in a flow
channel. In this manner, he calculated Cl and Cd as a function of u,  and , (with maximum

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 14 Huub M. Toussaint

values of about 1 and 1.2, respectively) showing that lift forces might indeed play a
significant role in propulsion. By combining these data with hand velocity data collected from
film analysis of swimmers, the magnitude and direction of the net propulsive force throughout
the stroke cycle could be calculated with equations 9 and 10 [23, 24]. This approach is known
as quasi-steady analysis, which crucially depends on the assumption that the flow under
steady conditions (constant velocity, angle of attack and sweep back angle) is comparable to
the flow during the actual swimming stroke.
If so, the average propulsive force calculated using this approach when swimming at
constant speed should equal the average drag force. In a replication of Schleihauf‘s work,
Berger et al. [4] found similar values of Cl and Cd of a model hand, but the calculated
propulsive forces were 17% lower than the measured active drag using the MAD-system [26]
swimming at the same speed. Thus, the calculated propulsive forces are too low to account
for the observed active drag forces. To make matters even worse, Sanders [21] reported much
(about 50%) lower coefficients of lift and drag for the hand. He suggests that it is likely that
towing the hand near the water surface resulted in an overestimation of Berger‘s and
Schleihauf‘s drag and lift coefficients, i.e. using equations 9 and 10.
Apparently, the conventional, steady-state laws of hydrodynamics do not apply to the
sculling hands of swimmers. Given this situation, it is suggested that unsteady lift-enhancing
mechanisms must play a crucial role in generating propulsion similar to mechanisms
proposed to explain the generation of forces in insect flight [11]. To better understand such
mechanisms, some more fluid dynamic background will be given here.
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Figure 11. Streamlines around a hand-hydrofoil in a flow from right to left. The flow past the hand can
be decomposed in a uniform flow field with velocity u and a circulating flow around the hydrofoil with
velocity v.The circulating flow is known as the bound vortex (dashed line).

One way to look at the total fluid flow around a (hydro)foil is to decompose it in a
circulating flow around the hydrofoil with velocity v and an uniform flow field at velocity u.
Note that the fluid particles do not actually circle around the hydrofoil; rather, the flow-
pattern can be thought off as a superposition of translation and circulation as indicated in
Figure 11. The circulating flow component is known as the bound vortex. The strength or
circulation  of the bound vortex is proportional to v (see fluid dynamic textbooks such as
Prandtl & Tietjens [18] for a formal definition of circulation). The higher the circulation, the
greater the velocity differential above and below the hand with, according to Bernoulli‘s
equation, a concomitant greater pressure differential. When a hydrofoil is accelerated
impulsively to a constant velocity, the bound vortex needs time to develop to its final, steady-
state strength. This gradual build-up of the bound vortex is called the Wagner effect [for an

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 Biomechanics of Drag and Propulsion in Front Crawl Swimming 15

excellent description see 10]; when a hydrofoil is accelerated impulsively to a constant

velocity, the flow around the foil, responsible for the generation of lift, needs time to develop
to its final, steady-state strength. It may take 6 chord lengths of travel for the lift force to
reach only 90% of its steady state value. Now, even though the hand is by no means a
perfectly shaped hydrofoil, it must by definition create a bound vortex in order to create lift.
The principle of a gradual build-up of the bound vortex is likely to apply to the hand as much
as to a perfect hydrofoil. Therefore, it may be expected that about 0.6 m of travel of the hand
(chord of hand ≈ 0.1 m, see Figure 10) is required before lift reaches 90% of its steady state
value, which makes it unlikely that steady-state circulation is reached at all during the front
crawl stroke given that velocity and orientation of the hand are never constant. Consequently,
the quasi-steady analysis overestimates the lift force, making the discrepancy between
calculated and measured forces [4] more poignant. Translation of the arm through a fluid
results in a high pressure at the leading-side and a low pressure at the trailing-side; this
pressure difference is the basis of propulsion by paddling. Rotation of the limb will induce an
axial pressure gradient on both leading- and trailing-side. The interaction between the
circumferential pressure gradient (due to translation) and axial pressure gradient (due to
rotation) is not immediately clear. However, at the instantaneous centre of rotation, the
velocity of the limb relative to the water is zero and thus the pressure difference between
trailing- and leading-sides is zero. Therefore, it seems probable that the axial pressure
gradient at the trailing-side is steeper than at the leading-side. The resulting pressure
differential across the propelling surface (the hand) would increase the propulsive force.

Pumped-Up Propulsion

The combination of translation and rotation of the arm and hand thus results in an
enhanced pressure differential across the propelling surface (the hand). Consequently the
propulsive force will increase. This hypothetical propulsion-enhancing mechanism, which
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

was dubbed ‗pumped-up propulsion‘ [36], may be summarized as follows: the rapidly
rotating arm during the out-sweep acts as a rotational displacement pump, transporting water
along the trailing side of the arm towards the hand, thus boosting the suction (low pressure) of
the wake of the arm, which aids propulsion. Experiments revealed a proximo-distal pressure
gradient together with the occurrence of a high angle of attack of the hand through the out-
sweep. The effective propulsive forces calculated using the pressure difference times the hand
surface and accounting for the correct forward direction was 89% of the required propulsion
as measured with the MAD-system (whereas the quasi-steady calculations could explain only
41%) [40].

6. CONTRIBUTION OF THE KICK TO PROPULSION

IN THE FRONT CRAWL

In sprint swimming, all swimmers use their legs simply because it is faster than
swimming arms only. On average the action of the legs leads to a 10% increase in maximal
speed relative to that attained when sprinting with arms only [8, 9, 22, 30]. There are,

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 16 Huub M. Toussaint

however, different views on the propulsive role of the kick. Some trainers believe that the
kick is very important for the propulsive power. They base their view on the fact that on land
the legs can provide more power than the arms. Others believe that the only role of the kick is
to increase the stability of the body while sprinting and that it does not account for much
propulsion [5, 14]. In line with this view, research of Counsilman [7] showed that the kick
does not contribute to propulsion at speeds higher than 1.5 m·s-1. By contrast, other research
indicated that the kick contribution to propulsion in front-crawl swimming couldn‘t be
ignored, albeit that 70-85% of total propulsion is generated by the arms [12, 16, 30].
To overcome those contrasting views, several authors have put forward the hypothesis
that the leg action will have an enhancing effect on the propulsion produced by the arms [22].
This hypothesis was supported by findings of Deschodt, et al. [9] who showed that during the
sprint the kick enabled the swimmer to cover a larger distance per arm stroke. In addition to
that, Chollet, et al. [6] showed that the leg kick ensures ongoing propulsion in those phases of
the stroke where the propulsive effect of the arms is interrupted [14].
It should however be noted that the speed gain when adding the kick to swimming with
arms only, shows wide variation when swimmers are compared [5, 9]. The speed of
swimming with arms only ranges from 83% to 97% of the speed obtained when swimming
whole stroke [5, 9]. The question is whether the rather wide range in kick contribution to
speed is due to a concomitant range in kicking ability (hence, a simple additive effect of the
kick) or due to variation in ‗coordination ability‘, where a strong kick will not necessarily
imply a large speed gain when the kick is integrated in the whole stroke or yet another effect.
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Figure 12. For 25 swimmers sprint speed swimming whole stroke, swimming arms only, kicking and
kick contribution (left panel). Effect of kick on whole stroke sprinting speed relative the speed
developed during kicking (r = 0.32, right panel).

A study on 25 swimmers revealed that the average contribution to whole stroke sprinting
speed was 13.1 ± 3.9% (Figure 12). The relative large standard deviation indicates a wide
range in individual benefit of the kick. The kick contribution to sprint speed did not correlate
with the kicking ability either expressed in absolute kicking speed (r = 0.27) or in relative
terms (r = 0.32; Figure 12 right panel). Apparently, adding the kick does not lead to a simple
additive effect to total sprinting speed and it casts doubt on the opinion of some coaches that a

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 Biomechanics of Drag and Propulsion in Front Crawl Swimming 17

better kicking ability directly translates into an enhanced speed when the kick is integrated in
the whole stroke.

Figure 13. Average hull speed was significantly slower than stroking speed (left panel). The estimated
power contribution of the kick Ckick correlated significantly with the Froude number (r =0.59, P=0.004;
right panel).

Further analysis of the results revealed that the average sprinting speed was faster than
the calculated hull speed (P = 0.039; Figure 13), and that the estimated power contribution of
the kick Ckick correlated significantly with the Froude number (Fr) which is a number
describing the relative speed that, together with the ‗form of the swimmer‘ determines the
magnitude of the wave-drag. The subjects who swam above their vhull had a significantly
larger Ckick (p < 0.05). Also, subjects who swam above the average Fr had a significantly
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

larger Ckick (p < 0.05). These results suggest that swimmers who can swim above vhull and at a
higher Fr have a significant larger kick contribution. The significant but still weak
coefficients of correlation suggest that this holds for some but not all swimmers, in line with
the observation of Toussaint and Truijens [34]. Hence, some swimmers have developed a
coordination ability enabling them to use the kick to induce lower wave drag, probably by
reducing the stern wave by disrupting the pressure field at the rear of the swimmer.
Practical Application: The presented data suggest that it may be informative to find out
for each swimmer if the kick ads to propulsion. Time trials on 25 m kicking, swimming arms
only and swimming whole stroke will reveal those swimmers that do benefit from the kick
and those who don‘t. For the latter group special attention may be given to kick drills for
example by using small bladed fins.

CONCLUSION
In this chapter, an attempt was made to show that some biomechanical aspects of
performance in front crawl swimming are important and can be quantified. For example, the
effect of a specific suit on drag for a specific swimmer can be measured. This opens up the

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 18 Huub M. Toussaint

possibility to select optimal swimming attire for the individual swimmer. The chapter also
shows that at present some questions regarding for example the true nature of the generation
of propulsion are yet unresolved. This holds for the contribution of the arms and for the
contribution to performance of the kick. Yet, the overview demonstrates that (biomechanical)
tests of performance factors, in which for example power output is measured, will give
relevant feedback to the coach enabling fine-tuning of training volume and training intensity.
The challenge for scientists and coaches alike is to integrate the results of such measurements
in a meaningful way in the work-flow of training. If so, individual optimization of training is
more possible.

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187). Baltimore, ST: University Park Press.

[6] Chollet, D., Pelayo, P., Delaplace, C., Tourny, C., & Sidney, M. (1997). Stroking
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[13] Kolmogorov, S. V. & Duplisheva, A. (1992). Active drag, useful mechanical power
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[19] Prange, H. D. & Schmidt-Nielsen, K. (1970). The metabolic cost of swimming in
ducks. Journal of Experimental Biology, 53, 763-777.
[20] Rackham, G. W. (1975). An analysis of arm propulsion in swimming. In J. P. Clarys
and L. Lewillie (Eds.): Swimming II (pp. 174-179). Baltimore, ST: University Park
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[21] Sanders, R. (1999). Hydrodynamic characteristics of a swimmer's hand. Journal of
Applied Biomechanics, 15, 3-26.
[22] Schleihauf, R. E. (1979). A hydrodynamic analysis of swimming propulsion. In J.
Terauds and E. W. Bedingfield (Eds.): Swimming III (pp. 70-109). Baltimore, ST:
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[23] Schleihauf, R. E. (1986). Swimming skill: a review of basic theory. Journal of
Swimming Research, 2, 11-20.
[24] Schleihauf, R. E., Higgins, J. R., Hinrichs, R., Luedtke, D., Maglischo, C., Maglischo,
E. W., & Thayer, A. (1988). Propulsive techniques: front crawl stroke, butterfly,
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backstroke, and breaststroke. In B. E. Ungerechts, K. Wilke, and K. Reischle (Eds.):

Swimming Science V (pp. 53-59). Champaign, Ill, ST: Human Kinetics Books.
[25] Toussaint, H. M. & Beek, P. J. (1992). Biomechanics of competitive front crawl
swimming. Sports Medicine, 13, 8-24.
[26] Toussaint, H. M., Beelen, A., Rodenburg, A., Sargeant, A. J., de Groot, G., Hollander,
A. P., & van Ingen Schenau, G. J. (1988). Propelling efficiency of front crawl
swimming. Journal of Applied Physiology, 65, 2506-2512.
[27] Toussaint, H. M., Bruinink, L., Coster, R., de Looze, M., van Rossem, B., van Veenen,
R., & de Groot, G. (1989). Effect of a triathlon wet suit on drag during swimming.
Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 21, 325-328.
[28] Toussaint, H. M., de Groot, G., Savelberg, H. H. C. M., Vervoorn, K., Hollander, A. P.,
& van Ingen Schenau, G. J. (1988). Active drag related to velocity in male and female
swimmers. Journal of Biomechanics, 21, 435-438.
[29] Toussaint, H. M., de Looze, M., van Rossem, B., Leijdekkers, M., & Dignum, H.
(1990). The effect of growth on drag in young swimmers. International Journal of
Sport Biomechanics, 6, 18-28.
[30] Toussaint, H. M., Hollander, A. P., de Groot, G., Kahman, R., & van Ingen Schenau, G.
J. (1990). Power of leg kicking in front crawl swimming. In N. Berme and A. Capozzo

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(Eds.): Biomechanics of Human Movement (pp. 456-459). Worthington, Ohio, ST:

Bertec Corporation.
[31] Toussaint, H. M., Janssen, T., & Kluft, M. (1991). Effect of propelling surface size on
the mechanics and energetics of front crawl swimming. Journal of Biomechanics, 24,
205-211.
[32] Toussaint, H. M., Knops, W., de Groot, G., & Hollander, A. P. (1990). The mechanical
efficiency of front crawl swimming. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 22,
402-408.
[33] Toussaint, H. M., Roos, P. E., & Kolmogorov, S. (2004). The determination of drag in
front crawl swimming. Journal of Biomechanics, 37, 1655-1663.
[34] Toussaint, H. M. & Truijens, M. J. (2005). Biomechanical aspects of peak performance
in human swimming. Animal Biology, 55, 17-40.
[35] Toussaint, H. M. & Truijens, M. J. (2006). Power requirements for swimming a world-
record 50-m front crawl. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance,
1, 61-64.
[36] Toussaint, H. M., van den Berg, C., & Beek, W. J. (2002). Pumped-up propulsion
during front crawl swimming. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 34, 314-
319.
[37] Toussaint, H. M., van der Meer, S., de Niet, M., & Truijens, M. J. (2006). Propelling
efficiency in sprint front crawl swimming. Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming X,
6; Supplement 2, 279-282.
[38] Toussaint, H. M. & Vervoorn, K. (1990). Effects of specific high resistance training in
the water on competitive swimmers. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 11, 228-
233.
[39] Ungerechts, B. E., Persyn, U., & Colman, V. (1999). Application of vortex flow
formation to self-propulsion in water. In K. L. Keskinen, P. V. Komi, and A. P.
Hollander (Eds.): Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming VIII (pp. 95-100).
Jyväskylä, Finland, ST: University of Jyväskylä.
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[40] van der Meer, S. & de Niet, M. New propulsion mechanism in swimming. Master of
Science Thesis. VU University of Amsterdam, Human Movement Science, Amsterdam,
2003.
[41] Vorontsov, A. R. & Rumyantsev, V. A. (2000). Resistive forces in swimming. In V. M.
Zatsiorsky (Ed.): Biomechanics in Sport: Performance Enhancement and Injury
Prevention (pp. 184-204). Oxford, ST: Blackwell Science.
[42] Webb, P. W. (1975). Hydrodynamics and energetics of fish propulsion. Bulletin of the
Fisheries Research Board of Canada, 190, 1-158.

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 In: World Book of Swimming: From Science to Performance ISBN: 978-1-61668-202-6
Editors: L. Seifert, D. Chollet and I.Mujika ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 2

HYDRODYNAMICS IN SWIMMING

Bodo Ungerechts1 and Raul Arellano2

1
University of Bielefield, Germany
2
University of Granada, Spain

ABSTRACT
A swimmer needs solutions of propulsive actions to cover a given distance in least
amount of time in aquatic space which is referred to as self-produced propulsion. In
aquatic space - in contrast to locomotion on land - the cyclic interaction between the body
(and its parts) and water mass is essential to achieve propulsion. The water mass is
displaced ―irregularly‖ creating unsteady flow conditions. Since water mass is
accelerated and decelerated, unsteady flow conditions are coming onto play, e.g. another
force, called Acceleration-Reaction (AR) and vortex induced momentum. Momentum is
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propelling the body while forces are changing the propelling effects. AR can slow either
down the swimmer or thrust the swimmer depending on the timing of body motion and
motion of water. Vortex induced momentum in unsteady flow is based on fast turning
actions of the body parts. This is best explained referring to aquatic animals: the trunk is
displacing water and the tail and fin are accelerating the water mass resulting in vortex
forms. Some vortex forms when accompanied by a jet-flow may result in additional
thrust effects. PIV-methods [16, 22] or CFD-methods [9, 21, 24] allow for unsteady flow
visualization and calculation of the momentum and forces due to self-propelling actions.

Key words: Propulsion, vortex, induced momentum, unsteady motion, wake

1. INTRODUCTION
When a body enters aquatic space there will be an immediate interaction between
displaced water mass and body due to specific properties of the liquid fluid. The reaction
depends whether the body is rigid or changing its form. Human swimming is characterized by
cyclic actions creating unsteady flow effects. In this chapter, emphasis is placed on the

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 22 Bodo Ungerechts and Raul Arellano

unsteady flow physics relevant for self-propelling bodies which is also common in studies of
fast swimming vertebrates (irrespective that most swimming textbooks do not mention this
unsteady feature). In detail the effects of the interaction of motion of body mass and water
mass are presented starting with some facts concerning the properties of water mass:
hydrostatic pressure, buoyancy, hydrodynamic lift and total drag [13]. Next, basic theoretical
aspects of unsteady flow physics will be presented: Laws of unsteady flow physics,
Acceleration-reaction, Drag factor, Hydrodynamic pressure and Vortex-induced flow effects,
Momentum-induced thrust [19] and finally, very briefly some human swimming studies are
referred too: Rear-driven bodies, front-driven bodies, Wake structures based on PIV-method
[25] which enable mapping the flow field and calculating the effects of unsteady flow. Some
practical hints will close the chapter [26].

2. PROPERTIES OF WATER
Water (H2O) is a clear liquid, enriched by many chemical elements. The density of
drinking water (), the ratio of body‘s mass [kg] and its volume [m3], is:  = 1,00 kg/m3 at 0°
C (784,9 more dense than air). It takes over the shape of its container, can be displaced,
however, cannot be compressed. Under gravity condition on earth one liter (l) of water equals
the mass (m) of 1 kg which coincides with a weight-force of approximately 10 Newton (N).
Due to high conductance of heat and an immense capacity to store heat the transfer of
heat from the body to the water is 250 x times higher than in air. The capacity to store heat is
4,81 kJ/kg*K(elvin). Located in water, man needs to spend nearly 90 % of his energy
turnover for the body temperature regulation; consequently only 10% of total energy is
available for propulsion.
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3. HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
Each submerged body has to resist hydrostatic pressure (the relation of force of a non-
moving (static) fluid acting on a surface to the area of the surface), which increases with
increasing depth perceptibly (each 10 m water column the pressure augments by 9,810 N per
m²  10 bar or 106 PASCAL). For a fluid at rest, the difference in pressure between two
points in it depends only upon the density of the fluid and the difference in depth between the
two points. The pressure due to the liquid alone (i.e. the gauge pressure) at a given depth
depends only upon the density of the liquid (r) and the distance below the surface of the liquid
(h).

P=gh (1)

Water pressure, acting with equal magnitude in all directions provoke some physiological
consequences concerning the thorax, the eardrum or the venous blood pressure on which the
heart reacts by lowering its frequency, called bradycardia.

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 Hydrodynamics in Swimming 23

4. BUOYANCY
Bodies may float next to the surface without any swimming actions. A force causes the
virtual loss of weight, it is called buoyancy. Archimedes demonstrated that buoyant force
experienced by a submerged body equals the weight of the displaced mass of water
(buoyancy and weight are measured in unit of force). In order to float, a person weighting 750
N (m ≈ 75 kg) needs to displace approximately 75 l of water. The depth of inhalation affects
the buoyancy, changing the circumference of the chest.
The position of the center of mass (CM), the point at which the gravity acts, depends on
the mass distribution of the body. The position of the center of volume (CV), the point at
which the buoyancy acts against gravity, depends on the distribution of the displaced volume
of water. Due to the distance between CM and CV and the opposite direction of action of both
forces, the body rotates as far as the force is placed on a mutual line of action. In
consequence, legs are sinking and the total body arrives at an oblique position.
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Figure 1. Points of attack of a floating body are placed on a mutual line of action (W: weight, B:
Buoyancy)

5. HYDRODYNAMIC LIFT AND TOTAL DRAG OF BODY AT

CONSTANT SPEED
Each body in motion, either in a swimming flume or in resting water, will displace
(plenty of) water mass. Water particles, unable to ―penetrate‖ a swimmer, start to move ―in
relation to each other‖ (with small changes of its location) and a flow occurs. Flow causes
some effects, which are basically oriented in all directions. Due to steady flow physics these
effects depend predominately from the (relative) speed between body and water and are
commonly related to the reactions they have on the body; they are distinguished as follows:

 Drag: acts against the direction incoming relative velocity

 Hydrodynamic lift: acts perpendicular to the direction incoming relative velocity
 Thrust: acts in the direction of (body) motion.

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 24 Bodo Ungerechts and Raul Arellano

Whereas drag is always existing, hydrodynamic lift occurs under particular conditions
[27]. For a better understanding effects are presented separately, although they belong to the
same parallelogram of flow forces.

5.1. Hydrodynamic Lift

The hydrodynamic lift (L) is one component of the flow effects and is orientated
perpendicular to the direction of the total drag. This effect occurs with different rigid body
shapes, like wings or screws. Lift exists when the inclination between body length and
incoming relative flow velocity (resultant of all velocities involved) is leading to different
flow velocities on either side of the body. Since velocity is inversely proportional to
hydrodynamic pressure as follows [7]: on the side with faster/slower flow‘s velocity a relative
suction/higher pressure is created (Law of Bernouilli).
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Figure 2. Flow around an inclined wing

The pressure difference determines the magnitude of lift and is depending on the angle of
attack, the relative flow speed (u), and the body shape (e.g. foil shaped). The notion ―lift‖ is
somewhat misleading [6] since this effect is not necessarily directed upwards (see screws of
ships), therefore sometimes the notion ―transverse force― is preferred in fluid dynamics.

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 Hydrodynamics in Swimming 25

5.2. Total Drag

In steady flow situation total drag is the sum of various simultaneously created drag
components: induced drag (due to flow around the edge in combination when hydrodynamic
lift is created simultaneously), friction drag, pressure drag, wave drag. Some ―internal‖ speed
governed aquatic features like ―kinematic viscosity‖ and ―dynamic viscosity‖ as well as the
―behavior‖ of the water particles ahead, along and behind the body resist changes in existing
conditions and are determining total drag. Kinematic viscosity is acting in opposition to the
displacement of the water particles and dynamic viscosity acts between submerged body
surface and wet surrounding (the effect of viscosity).
In human swimming total drag is determined during tests towing a ―rigid‖ swimmer at
constant relative speed (the coefficient of drag, cw, represents the drag of bodies which are
studied at constant speed). Depending on towing speed up to realistic gliding speed (u) total
drag is about 50 - 60 N at u = 1.00 m/s and about 110 - 120 N at u = 2.00 m/s. The saying that
drag increases by the 2nd power of speed is scarcely verified and applies when swimmers are
fully submerged, towed at constant speed which allow laminar flow. The reason why
swimming is exhaustive has obviously little to do with the total drag.

5.3. Friction Drag

Friction drag is bound to the boundary layer flow and determined by viscosity effects
(internal friction) between water particles which are carried away in the vicinity of the body
in direction of the swimmer. The boundary layer flow is distinguished into ―laminar‖ and
―turbulent‖. In laminar boundary layer there is no exchange between the flowing layers. A
turbulent boundary layer is created when an exchange of particles between the layers starts
and the layers tend to rotate (in a pigtail manner). A turbulent boundary layer means higher
friction drag under steady conditions. This is why in recent years the low friction swimwear
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became more and more popular. The boundary layer flow is finishing in the wake behind the
body is also determined by the structure of the surface (fish slime lower internal friction).

5.4. Form Drag

In fact, form drag is the most dominating component of total drag in human swimming
depending on the flow conditions outside of the boundary layer. The displaced water
separates at frontal stagnation point is moving in the potential flow along the body according
to its shape and reunites behind the body in a wake. The water particles are moving against
the direction of the swimmer and the braking effect on the body can be determined by the
amount of water mass, which is still in motion in the wake. The smaller the footprints of the
flow in the wake, the smaller is the total drag as was demonstrated by the following
experiment (which was essential to change the concept of swimming breaststroke).
In swimming textbooks, the ―frontal drag‖ was introduced as a concept giving coaches
some troubles to accept the undulation variant of breaststroke. The drag of three objects
―Circled plate‖, ―Cylinder‖ and ―longer cylinder‖, all objects with the same cross section, was

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 26 Bodo Ungerechts and Raul Arellano

examined at the same flow speed. It was shown that the "longer cylinder" processes the least
drag [33].

Figure 3. Flow forms along and behind three objects of the same cross section but different length.

Flow visualization revealed the close connection of eddies in the wake and total drag.
The wake behind the longest object shows less amount of eddies in comparison to the circled
plate and it demonstrates that cross- or frontal area is of lesser importance for the total drag.
The notion ―frontal drag‖, which is quoted, is misleading since body drag more attributed to
its wake form than to its frontal area.

5.5. Wave Drag

Swimming next to the surface will displace and raise water mass against gravity and
waves are created. A swimmer gliding directly below surface will waste energy. Modern
swimming pools and race equipment provide wave damping mechanisms, which however do
not prevent the swimmer from creating huge waves. Wave drag depends on depth of diving
and thus the total drag does.
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Figure 4. Effect of diving depth on the total drag

Gliding far away from the surface means higher gliding speed in relation to condition
next to surface (effective depth: 0,8 - 0,9 m or > 3 x body cross section). Again, the majority
of studies referred to above, use steady flow situation, mostly confined to lab conditions

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 Hydrodynamics in Swimming 27

where the relative velocity is constant and no self-produced propulsion is involved. However,
the speed of a swimmer is never constant even not while gliding.

6. UNSTEADY SWIMMING CONDITIONS

Self-propulsion in swimming means a succession of cyclic actions executed in aquatic
space. Cyclic action never causes constant speed (u) or steady flow conditions. Consequently
unsteady flow conditions are dominating [29]. The intra-cyclic velocity (v) of the swimmer
can be measured in a flume using a three component device [36].
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Figure 5. Intra-cyclic change of the velocity (v) of a breaststroke swimmer [if the velocity (v) increases
an acceleration in swimming direction exist before]

For unsteady flow conditions some laws of hydrodynamics are relevant which consider
the variety of flow effects (e.g. inertial, viscous, drag, lift forces, and acceleration reaction)
determining the momentum transfer mechanism.

Re = L * U / υ (2)

Σ= f*L/U (3)

Fr = U² / (g*h)(4) (4)

η = 2 U1 / (U2 + U1) (5)

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 28 Bodo Ungerechts and Raul Arellano

L = characteristic length [m], U = U1 = mean swimming velocity [m/s] , U2 = jet stream

velocity [m/s], υ = kinematic viscosity [m²/s] = 1.533 * 10 –6 m²/s, f = frequency [1/s], g =
gravitation acceleration [m/s²] and h = characteristic height [m].
The Reynolds number Re is the ratio of inertial over viscous forces; Re of typical of sport
swimmers (L = body length) is about 10³ < Re < 5 * 106) and inertial forces are dominant.
The Strouhal number σ or Reduced Frequency Σ is the ratio of non-linear to inertial
forces comparing the frequency (e.g. of kicking) and the specific swimming speed; σ of sport
swimmers range from 0.5 to σ > 1 dolphin kicks, while acceleration reaction becomes more
and more dominant. Strouhal number σ is used to infer if staggered vortices are of any
influence on the forces. For 0.1 < σ < 0.4 all three thrust-generation mechanisms (momentum
transfer) are important.
The Froude number Fr reminds that swimming next to the waterline produces wave
effects (subject to gravitational forces); Fr of swimmers is 0.02 < Fr < 0.04 and the energy
required to form these waves greatly exceeds the energy associated with viscous forces.
The Froude efficiency η, the ratio of mechanical power (converted to thrust) to total
power required (to move water with the limbs); η of sport swimmers is 0.6 < η < 0.8 and
closly related to the way of structuring the flow in the wake.

7. ACCELERATION REACTION AND DRAG FACTOR

Acceleration reaction (AR) is a (new) flow effect in connection with non-constant body
speed. In unsteady flow situation (AR) is required to accelerate mass of water as it moves past
the body depends on the inertial effects of water mass. (AR) is estimated as follows [36]:

AR = ρ V cA a [kg/m³ m³ m/s² = N] (6)

The term (ρ V cA), called ―added mass‖, is the mass of fluid accelerated simultaneously
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

with the body and cA is the added mass coefficient, depending of shape (0.5 < cA < 1.0 likely
for swimmers).
Body and water masses move separately, e.g. when a swimmer stops at the end of a race.
After a short period of time the swimmer at rest will be hit by the sloshing water mass.

Figure 6. Sloshing water effect; left: swimmer just finished the race, right: 0,2 sec later

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 Hydrodynamics in Swimming 29

Breaststroke swimmers may recognize the effect of sloshing water, when during the
feet/leg recovery the body is less markedly slowing down because ―added mass‖ inertia [26]
pushes the swimmer still ahead although there is no propelling action (called ―rucksack
effect‖). The energy spend to accelerate the water mass can be recuperated partly due to
sufficient timing of body and water mass motions. If it is not recuperated the total drag is
higher.
Thus, in unsteady swimming three components of forces are involved:

 Drag D
 Force to accelerate the mass of the body forward (m*a)
 Acceleration-reaction AR (putting mass of the body and added mass together the
notion virtual mass is applied).

AR has the same effect as if the mass of the body itself is augmented (virtual added
mass). AR may act in swimming direction when the body is decelerated (virtual thrust) and
may act opposite to swimming direction when the body is accelerated. AR is already acting
on a gliding form-rigid swimmer who just pushed off from the wall. Besides the permanent
acting total drag, the inertial flow effects makes the swimmer gliding a longer distance
compared to the predictions based on steady flow equations.
Each swimmer possesses an individual drag factor (A) which may replace the widely
used coefficient of drag (Cd) which does not reflect the effect due to acceleration of water
mass. In un-steady swimming the drag factor (A) indicates, how many mass of water the
swimmer per meter carries. The unit of [A] = kg/m. The drag factor (A) can be measured via
Klauck‘s Gliding Test [17]. A swimmer, who carries mass of water (A = 25 kg/m) gain less
resistive effects than a swimmer with a drag factor of A = 45 kg/m.
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Figure 7. Pressure distribution due to the motion of body; there are positive and negative pressure
gradients gaining momentum and according to action-reaction principle, their total effect becomes
propulsive.

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 30 Bodo Ungerechts and Raul Arellano

8. HYDRODYNAMIC PRESSURE
Water mass displaced by a moving body creates dynamic effects, which results
simultaneously in changes of flow velocity and hydrodynamic pressure [39]. Changes of flow
velocity and hydrodynamic pressure are inversely proportional. In steady flow, the pressure is
highest at cranial stagnation point, then decreases until the large circumference and finally
increases again (just inverse to the velocity outside the boundary layer); the pressure in the
caudal stagnation point is different from the cranial one. This requires some energy which can
be imagined to come from the static pressure provoked by the water column acting on the
moving body [40] and consequently the pressure is changed due to velocity changes of
displaced water mass.
In unsteady flow, the predictable development of the hydrodynamic pressure is
completely different and can be characterized by alternation of pressure gradients depending
on time and location [30].
The effect of pressure gradient created by accelerating movements of the body is one
cause of the momentum-induced propulsion (no push on from water, just creating pressure
differences).

9. VORTEX-INDUCED FLOW EFFECTS

Flow visualization of fast-swimming vertebrates revealed that due to pressure differences
mass of water moves quickly from the higher pressure to the lower pressure zone starting to
rotate around an axis in the wake, called vortex.
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Figure 8. Vortex creation on the trailing side of the tip of the fluke during down-stroke action

Vortex is a form of kinetic energy, which made visible around a body, at an ―edge‖ of a
body and in its wake in different forms e.g. bound vortex, tip vortex, vortex ring [2].

 Bound vortex is generated during each movement providing (unsteady) lift-effects.

 Tip vortices are generated as water flows from leading to rear side due to difference
in pressure between both sides.
 A vortex ring occurs when the bound vortex is shed into the wake due to a change of
the direction of the body. The shed vortex keeps rotating in the water and a new
bound vortex is created –rotating in opposite direction-.
 A vortex chain may be formed in the wake due to cyclic repetition of shedding
vortex-rings, each with an opposite sense of rotation leading to a jet stream.

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 Hydrodynamics in Swimming 31

Figure 9. Unsteady flow situation of an undulating body with different zones of hydrodynamic pressure,
alternating in magnitude indicating (small) zones of rotating water.

Figure 10. Rotating vortex cores in the wake of fin; left: part of the fin and boundary layer rolled into
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

the vortex core, middle: shed vortices with parts of ancient boundary layer, the arrows are indicating the
direction of jet-flow [8].

According to unsteady flow physics ―vortex‖ characterize a region of fluid bounded by

the so-called vortex lines, whose tangents at all points are parallel to the local directions of
vorticity. Vortex lines, as axes of rotation, have to be either closed lines, or begin and end on
the boundaries of the fluid or on the points in regions of infinite vorticity.
When a vortex (or equivalent rotating body) of a circulation ( GAMMA moves in
a uniform fluid of density rho with the velocity v, it produces a force r G v, called xxxx rho
GAMMA per unit length, perpendicular to the direction of v and to the axis of the vortex:

L=r G v rho GAMMA [4].

A vortex-induced flow possesses some remarkable features:

 Creation of momentum and the irrespective transfer of impulse to the body;

 Carrying a fairly high momentum in relation to the energy needed to create vortex
accompanied by higher propelling efficiency (ratio of power transferred in swimming
direction and total power);

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 32 Bodo Ungerechts and Raul Arellano

 Less energy consuming (more rewarding to give large water mass a small change in
velocity than vice versa [conservation of energy]).
 When is visualized in the wake, it represents the energy produced by the swimmer
and ―given‖ to the water and allow for a look at the swimmer‘s propulsion
 Accelerates the boundary layer flow backwards bettering the balance between cranial
and caudal hydrodynamic pressure (according a theory in flow physics the total drag
of a body is lower [or even vanish] when the relative flow velocity in the wake is
similar to the flow velocity in front of the body).

Several vortices will occur along the form changing body and perform the flow. These
vortices will merge into the ―visible‖ vortex in the wake while its energy could be recuperated
[8].

10. MOMENTUM-INDUCED SELF-PROPULSION IN WATER

Due to the reciprocal interaction between body motion and water mass set in motion,
body motion changes the velocity of mass of water creating a change in momentum (the
impetus gained by movement) which in reaction creates simultaneously an impulse (force
applied in short period of time) which moves the body. The thrusting magnitude or
effectiveness is depending on the momentum‘s direction; its final effect on the swimmer
depends on the difference of the flow speed before the body and in its wake ( the speed in the
wake is modulated by body action like undulation).
The effect of momentum-induced propulsion, viewed at from the body, is (virtually)
separated into propulsive and resistive momentum: propulsive momentum is directed in
swimming direction and resistive momentum against swimming direction (in unsteady flow
the effects cannot be measured separately). In unsteady flow drag and thrust are like
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(Siamese) twins [34], they are based on the same flow effects, their laws (equations) resemble
very much and the dominating factors: area and speed are the same.
Vortex induced thrust can be made on two ―ways‖ and will be exemplified by fish
swimming:

 Annihilation of the rotation: The rotation of the water can be annihilated by the next
action of the fluke, by the reversal action an impulse is created. This applies
especially for starting vortex [1].
 Jet-flow: undulatory body movements create a chain of vortex-rings at a certain
angle. Vortex-rings are shed when tip of body is changing direction (oscillating). The
sense of rotation of each vortex-ring is opposite to the former one. Due to the rotation
water mass is accelerated against backwards and a momentum is created. In reaction
to that momentum, a momentum in opposite direction is thrusting the body (the
amount of momentum is depending on its component in swimming direction).
According to Gray [14]: ―when a flexible undulating body acquires forward
momentum, a corresponding amount of backward momentum must be acquired by
the water; this backward momentum is concentrated in a vortex wake and appears in
the form of a jet of fluid expelled from the wake‖.

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 Hydrodynamics in Swimming 33

Figure 11. Jet-flow in the wake of the fish [18]; above: chain of vortex-rings (lateral view), below:
chain of vortex-rings at a certain angle (viewed from below).

In fast swimming vertebrates the ‗carangiform‘ locomotion which has been reached also
along some quite different lines of evolution, e.g. sharks and dolphins, is characterized
according to Daniel and Web [12] by:

 The amplitude of the undulation grows steeply from almost zero over the first half or
even two-thirds of a fish's length to a large value at the caudal fin;
 Coupling heaving motion of the tail and pitching motion of the fin (resembling a
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

whip-lash like action);

 Well-timed movements of the tail and the fluke (e.g. a dolphin) will lead to: 1. Pre-
forming of water by the increasing amplitude of the tail movement; 2. Increasing
rotation of the fluke while the tail moves it; 3. Well organized flow pattern on the
trailing side of the fluke, called vortex [31];
 ‗Recoil‘ action of the cranial body part, stemming from the fact that an arbitrary
displacement wave will not in general give rise to instantaneous forces and couples
that exactly balance the fish‘s transverse and angular momentum fluctuations [20].
These extra movements cannot be omitted due to requirement for overall
conservation of momentum and angular momentum. To minimize the losses of thrust
and efficiency, the body mass in fast swimming vertebrates is concentrated in the
trunk region (leading to a substantial moment of total inertia).

Due to the interaction, when well timed like in fishes, the energy transferred to the flow
while disturbed by the body may recuperated by the pitching and heaving fins which
enhances the propelling efficiency [8].

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 34 Bodo Ungerechts and Raul Arellano

11. VORTEX-ORIENTED CONCEPT IN SPORT SWIMMING

The use of rotating water mass is, according to latest research, a promising principle for
self-produced propulsion in sport swimming. It is an ―art‖ to create a huge amount of
momentum (action) and to transfer an impulse back in reaction [2, 34]. The flow hitting the
feet was pre-formed by the action of the body while the hand meets ―still‖ water. Pre-formed
flow results in rear-driven propulsion and non-pre-formed flow result in front-driven
propulsion.

11.1. Rear-Driven Propulsion

Rear-driven propulsion in human swimming resembles the principles explained for the
carangiform‘ locomotion of fishes where vortices carry a high amount of impulse (related to
the energy invested). Energy is transferred from to the water while being displaced laterally,
more and more, by the kicking leg and behind the feet it is set into rotation (rotation in
direction of the soles). The core of the vortex carries momentum [19]. The core of the vortex
is not the virtual support [15]. After the tip of the toes has changed direction in a whiplash-
like action, vortices are shed and impulse is transferred in reaction to the body [10].
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Figure 12. Organized vortex patterns after the turning of the tip of the toes [5]

Principally the rear-driven propulsion due to vortex provides double use. Whilst the
boundary layer is rolled into the vortex the total drag is lowered and the energy spend to
empower the boundary layer flow is recuperated [8,11, 28] which also applies for leg action
in breaststroke [32].

11.2. Front-Driven Propulsion

Although actions of the hands are executed in non pre-formed water rotating water is
observed behind the hands due to the unsteady nature. Water, displaced by fingers and hand
creates micro-vortex forming a loop vortex [35]. In addition, the continuous change of hand

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 Hydrodynamics in Swimming 35

path, which exists in all four strokes, may cause beneficial flow effects. Flow visualisation
studies, using PIV-method (Particle Image Velocimetry), reveals that continuous change of
hand path is accompanied by shedding of vortex and an immediate creation of another bound
vortex rotating in opposite direction. Due to the change of direction of the hand the sense of
circulation and the direction of resultant forces is adapted as well. The crawl-stroke is just one
example.
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Figure 13. Continuous change of hand path in crawl stroke; in the encircled area, viewed from the
bottom, the thumb side of the hand is turned around the small finger side while the elbow is extended

The following vector-maps are created by using the PIV-method during crawl (hand)
action [23]. The colors of the maps represent the velocity changes in the wake of a hand:
green indicates no changes, red means rotating velocity anti clockwise direction and blue
meaning rotating velocity in clockwise direction. The intensity of red or blue indicates the
strength of rotation, hence the strength of vortex. Since a change of momentum produce force
the turning motion of the hand, called transition phase, contributes largely to thrusting forces
(depending on the component in swimming direction).

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 36 Bodo Ungerechts and Raul Arellano

Figure 14. 2D -Velocity-vector-maps based on PIV-studies demonstating the unsteady flow effects of
the hand of a crawl swimmer (the demonstration of a vortex ring requires a multiple layer PIV
application).


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k = 42: Bound vortex in clockwise direction;

 k = 43: New bound vortex (anti clockwise] and shed vortex (clockwise) plus a jet-
stream in between (after the start of hand‘s turning action);
 k = 43+: Further into the hand‘s turning action the distance between bound vortex
and shed vortex is enlarged creating stronger jet-stream;
 k = 44: Local vortex in clockwise direction is merging into vortex-loop.

Between shed and bound vortices, a jet-stream is created providing in reaction an

additional thrust acting on the swimmer‘s motion. It may be considered acting like a turbo by
increasing the swimmer‘s speed considerably. Thus, continuous change of the hand is an
important action creating a thrusting effect via some intermediate steps. The thrusting effect
vortex-ring is a reaction to the water mass, which change its velocity induced by the rotational
velocity. This then can be called vortex-momentum-induced-propulsion. It ―might possible
augment force production during the last portion of each stroke‖ [13].

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 Hydrodynamics in Swimming 37

12. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

Unsteady flow approach in swimming does provoke some practical implications [37, 38].
The basic of propulsion is: motion generates momentum and forces change the motion in
concordance with the energy rate of the muscle cells. The undulatory locomotion of the whole
body e.g. in breaststroke or after starts and turn under water is a very effective means to
propel. The change of body form will pre-form the water, which later is set in rotation
providing thrust. The kicking leg action is more effective when the tip of the feet is moved
like a whiplash like action. This may need another mental representation compared to
downwards kick and upwards kick.

Figure 15. Leg / feet are moving downwards and partly upwards: after the turning action of the toes a
pair of vortex is shed into the wake behind the swimmer [10].

The cyclic action of hands in all strokes is inevitably accompanied by changes of hand
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path [3]. Unsteady flow approach emphasizes the change of direction during hand
motion must not be executed briskly but fluent without stop and start actions to
provide jet-propulsion and resume high elbow in a functional manner [37]. In
contrast to the existing myths of swimming which emphasizing a pull and push from the
water resistance, the focus here is concentrated on production and effects due to vortex
structures. The myths based on plausibility, ignore the unsteady flow effects. There is no
support given by the water (even not a virtual one) where e.g. the hand can be (more or less)
fixed and the body propelled past this fixed hand [38]. In order to swim fast, the orientation of
vortex-rings created per cycle with direction of swimming is essential [41] and it seems not so
important to execute swimming actions forcefully, it is better to use energy economically:

 Organized vortex in the wake behind the body lower the wasted energy remarkably;
 Keep the fluctuation of the intra-cyclic velocity small;
 Moving large mass of water at small change in velocity (contradicts the saying, high
resistance needs high speeds of motion);

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 38 Bodo Ungerechts and Raul Arellano

 Virtual added mass (of water) store energy and are acting on decelerating bodies as
sloshing inertial mass on the body; even if there are no more thrusting forces the
swimmer is pushed ahead [26].

Judging individual swimming strokes is a daily task of coaches/teachers [3]. The fact that
several variants per swimming stroke are existing and likewise successful, a sound basis for
an appropriate judgment is helpful. Inevitably the motion of water has to be considered while
judging [23]. Until recently the drag force seemed to be the only relevant effects of water in
motion. After it became obvious that the flow physics applied to rigid bodies at nearly
constant velocity is not applicable for self-propelling vertebrates new facets of flow physics
are advised to consider. In particular the ―vortex-induced‖ or ―momentum-induced‖ force
production became essential [19]. This approach is considering the flow created along the
self-propelling body until the flow is shunt into the wake behind the body. Since the wake is
telling the history of the self-propelling effects [18] it is strongly advertised to take the wake
development into consideration when judging the actions of the body and its limbs.

CONCLUSION
Swimming is an activity in aquatic space. Compared to terrestrial locomotion aquatic
space activities provide some conflicting, sometimes paradoxical features which hampers
sufficient explanation of cause and effect of swimming actions. During several decades of
intensive research of sport swimming the conviction was that self-propulsion can be treated
by steady flow physics. In parallel researchers of swimming animals started to look for
alternatives to rigid body analogy and in cooperation with those experts of hydrodynamics
being able to transcend disciplinary boundaries they were applying unsteady flow physics
step by step. Coaches and researchers, interested in swimming mechanics at low energy
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expenditure [14], may appreciate the presentation of elementary new hydrodynamic trends
since research findings in and themselves can not result in advice for practice without some
knowledge. Means to measure the pressure distribution around the fish [41] or using flow
visualization [23] are considered to be most relevant to detect the cause of self-propulsion
since they can be coupled to momentum transfer due to interaction of body and water mass
and bio-energetic aspects. Self-produced locomotion in water is inseparably linked to the
existence and dynamics of fluid vortices. Vortices occur microscopic small along the form
changing body and enlarged in the wake, interacting with the animal and with each other [5].
Vortex wakes can either be periodic or can become chaotic. The control of creating and
shedding vortices and extracting energy from the upstream flow by tuning their body
kinematics to vortex dynamics is an ―art‖. Periodic rather than chaotic vortex wake
interactions are a prerequisite to exploit the dynamics of vortices to maximize performance.

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[2] Arellano R (1999). Vortices and propulsion. In: R. Sanders & J. Linsten (eds.),
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[12] Daniel, T. L. & Webb, P. W. (1987). Physics, design and locomotor performance. In P.
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[18] Lauder, G.V., & Drucker, E.G. (2002). Forces, fishes, and fluids: Hydrodynamic
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(Suppl. 2), 233-235.
[22] Matsuuchi K., Miwa T., Nomura T., Sakakibara J., Shintani H. & Ungerechts B. E.
(2004). Unsteady flow measurement around a human hand in swimming using PIV. 9th
Annual Congress of the European College of Sport Science, (pp. 274), Clermont-
Ferrand, France.
[23] Matsuuchi K., Miwa T., Nomura T., Sakakibara J., Shintani H., B.E. & Ungerechts B.E.
(2009). Unsteady flow field around a human hand and propulsive force in swimming.
Journal of Biomechanics, 42, 42-47.
[24] Marinho, D., Leal, L., Sousa, L., Reis, V., Alves, F., Vilas-Boas J.P., Rouboa, A., &
Silva, A. (2007). The Study Of Swimmers‘s Hand And Forearm Using Computational
Fluid Dynamics. In Menzel & Chagas (eds), XXV International Symposium on
Biomechanics in Sports, (pp. 200-203).
[25] Miwa, T., Matsuuchi, K., Shintani, H., Kamata, E. & Nomura, T. (2006). Unsteady
flow measurement of dolphin kicking wake in sagittal plane using 2c-PIV. Portuguese
Journal of Sport Sciences, 6.(Supl.2), 64 – 67.
[26] Persyn, U., Colman, V., & Ungerechts, B.E. (2000). Diagnosis and advice in the
undulating strokes requires information on global body flexibility and upper limb
strength. In R. Sanders, & Y. Hong (eds.) Applications of Biomechanical Study in
Swimming, (pp. 88-95), The Chinese University Press, Hong Kong.
[27] Schleihauf, R.E., Higgins, J.R., Hindrichs, R., Luedtke, D., Maglischo, C., Maglischo,
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

E.W., & Thayer, A. (1988). Propulsive techniques: front crawl stroke, butterfly,
backstroke, and breaststroke. In B.E. Ungerechts, K. Reischle & K. Wilke (eds),
Swimming Science V, (pp. 53-59), Human Kinetics, Champaign, IL.
[28] Sugimoto S., Nakashima, M., & Nomura, T. (2008). Simulation Analysis of the Effects
of Undulation Amplitude Change on the Performance During the Underwater Dolphin
Kicking . In T Nomura, & B.E. Ungerechts (eds) Proceedings of the 1st International
Scientific Conference of Aquatic Space Activities (pp. 333-338), Tsukuba, University of
Tsukuba, Japan.
[29] Ungerechts, B., (1983). The validity of the Reynolds-numbers for swimming bodies,
which change their form periodically. In A.P. Hollander, P. Huijing & G. de Groot
(eds.), Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming V, (pp. 81-88), Human Kinetics
Publishers, Champaign, IL.
[30] Ungerechts, B., (1985). A description of the reactions of the flow acceleration by an
ocsillating flexible shark model. In K. Winter (ed.), Biomechanics IX, (pp. 492-498),
Human Kinetics Publishers, Champaign, IL.
[31] Ungerechts, B., (1985). Considerations of the butterfly kick based on hydrodynamical
experiments. In S.M. Perren & E. Schneider (eds.), Biomechanics: Current
Interdisciplinary Research, (pp. 705-710), M. Nijhoff Publishers, Dordrecht, NL.

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[32] Ungerechts, B.E., (1988). The relation of peak body acceleration and phases of
movements in swimming. In B.E. Ungerechts, K. Wilke & K. Reischle (eds.),
Swimming Science V, (pp. 61-66), Human Kinetics Publishers, Champaign, IL.
[33] Ungerechts, B.E., & Niklas, A. (1994). Factors of active drag estimated by flume
swimming. In M. Miyashita, Y. Mutoh, & AB. Richardson (eds.), Medicine and
Science in Aquatic Sports, (pp. 137-142), Karger Verlag, Basel.
[34] Ungerechts, B.E., Daly, D., & Zhu, J.P. (1998). What Dolphins tell us about
hydrodynamics? The Journal of Swimming Research, 13, 1-7.
[35] Ungerechts, B.E., Persyn, U., & Colman, V. (2000). Analysis of swimming techniques
using vortex traces. In R. Sanders, Y. Hong (eds.) Applications of Biomechanical Study
in Swimming, (pp. 95-105), The Chinese University Press, Hong Kong.
[36] Ungerechts, B. E., Buckwitz, R. & Bähr H. (2003). Principles of non-stationary
swimming – a preliminary attempt. In J. C. Chartard (ed) Biomechanics and Medicine
in Swimming IX, (pp. 45-50), University of St. Etienne, France.
[37] Ungerechts, B. E. (2004). Teaching strokes based on bio-fluiddynamics. In K. Zaton &
M. Rejman (eds), II International Symposium Factors determining the efficiency of
swimming training and the learning – teaching process (pp. 35-43).
[38] Ungerechts, B. E., & Klauck, J. (2006). Consequences of non-stationary flow effects for
functional attribution of swimming strokes. Portuguese Journal of Sport Sciences, 6,
(Suppl. 2), 109-111.
[39] Takagi, H., & Sanders, R. (1998). Calculating hydrodynamic force by using pressure
differences in swimming, In K. Keskinen, P. Komi & A.P. Hollander (eds),
Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming VIII, (pp. 101-106), University of Jyvaskyla,
Jyvaskyla, Finland.
[40] Toussaint, H.M., Berg, C., & Beek, W.J. (2002). ―Pumped-up propulsion‖ during front
crawl swimming. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 34, 314-319.
[41] Triantafyllou, M.S., & Triantafyllou, G.S. (1995). An efficient swimming machine.
Scientific American, 64-70.
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 In: World Book of Swimming: From Science to Performance ISBN: 978-1-61668-202-6
Editors: L. Seifert, D. Chollet and I.Mujika ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 3

THE SWIMMING MUSCLE: HISTORY,

METHODOLOGY, AND APPLICATIONS
OF ELECTROMYOGRAPHY IN SWIMMING

Jan Pieter Clarys1 and Annie Rouard2

1
Experimental Anatomy, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
2
Laboratory of Exercise Physiology, University of Savoie, Chambéry, France

ABSTRACT
“The swimming muscle‖ refers to a collection of papers and ad hoc research projects
dealing with the electromyographic (EMG) data acquisition in an aquatic environment.
The detection of the electricity potentials in human muscle, is probably amongst the
oldest, if not ―the oldest‖ scientific experiments. This chapter will inform the reader
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about the essential knowledge of historical facts in order to understand the evolution of
EMG and its methodological development. The basic methodological description
combined with neuromuscular basics is specified and is related to the complexity of
measuring human dynamic muscle activity in an aquatic environment and to the
complexity of stroke techniques, training aids and systems e.g. data acquisition
approaches, signal processing and EMG force relations. The EMG allows for the
description of motion of swimming techniques in terms of muscle participations,
synchronisation and intensity. Muscular activity descriptions permit the development of
applied and related aspects e.g. training, technique improvement and performance
enhancement. Remodelling the front crawl with EMG is considered in combination with
a selective approach of shoulder problems and solutions. Many studies of swimming and
EMG are known since many decennia but back-, breast stroke and butterfly research and
related feedback remain limited.

Key words: Electromyography (EMG), neuromuscular control, stroke

modifications, alternative training.

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 44 Jan Pieter Clarys and Annie Rouard

1. INTRODUCTION
Electromyography (EMG) is the study of muscle function through the inquiry of the
electrical signal the muscle generates [3]. In other words, EMG signals are the electrical
concomitants of the mechanical activity of skeletal muscles. The central nervous system
activates muscle fibers by sending electrical signals along nerve fibers, the axons of alpha-
motoneurons. Upon arriving at the muscle fibre, the signals cause a local depolarization of the
muscle fibre membrane, approximately in the middle of the fibers (Figure 1). From there,
regenerative depolarisation waves start propagating along the muscle fibre membrane towards
both ends of the muscle fibre causing the muscle fibre to contract.
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Figure 1. Depolarization and propagation along the muscle fibre membrane causing the contraction.

Due to the electrical conductivity of the surrounding tissue an electrical signal, usually
referred to as an EMG signal, can be recorded at an electrode at some distance from the
muscle fibers e.g. on the skin surface (Figure 2).
The study of EMG started in 17th century with Francesco Redi (1666) who was the first
scientist to make the logical deduction that muscles generate electricity since he suspected
that the shock of an electric-ray fish was muscular in origin [3,10]. But the best finding was
the giant size book (approx. 60/40 cm) on the biological experiments of Jan Swammerdam
written by Boerhaave et al. [5] in old Dutch and Latin related the various experiments of
Swammerdam on the irritation of nerves, on the contraction mechanism of muscles and on the
relation of stimulation and contraction [5]. He showed the results of these experiments to the
Duke of Tuscany in 1658... approximately 130 years and plus, earlier than the works of
Galvani [22] and von Humboldt [54] who appeared as one of the pioneer suggesting that soft
animal tissue irritated muscle [10].Their work was the basis of the Galvani experiments. For a
good understanding of the developments of EMG a series of historical landmarks in clinical,
kinesiological and fundamental EMG are selected in Table 1.

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 The Swimming Muscle: History, Methodology and Applications … 45

Figure 2. Electrical conductivity can be recorded at some distance from the muscle fibers e.g. on the
skin surface [17].

Table 1. Historical landmarks in EMG

Author(s) Contribution Source

Swammerdam (1658) Described different experiments on muscle and Boerhaave et al. [5]
nerve irritation, depolarization and contraction. Clarys [10]
Redi (1666) Made deduction that muscles generate electricity Biederman (1898) in
since he suspected the shock of a ray-fish was Basmajian and De Luca
muscular in origin. [3]
Jallabert (1750) Described electrical stimulation of muscles for the Duchenne de Boulogne
purposes of medical re-education. [20]
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Galvani (1792) Published De Viribus Electricitatis in Morta Galvani [22]

Musculari.
von Humboldt (1795) Made primitive electrodes and experimented with von Humboldt [54]
many forms of stimulation.
Du Bois Reymond (1849) Redesigned and improved the electricity machines Du Bois Reymond [19]
and detected voluntary contraction in vivo.
Duchenne de Boulogne Described techniques and developed equipment Duchenne de Boulogne
(1855, 1867) for both registration and stimulation; described [20,21]
mapping of motor points in all segments and
made the first myoelectric powered orthosis.
Author of the first EMG bestseller
Marey (1890) Introduced the word 'electromyography'; made the Marey [35]
first myograph and may be considered as the
pioneer of biomechanics.
Ikai et al. (1961) First data acquisition of EMG in swimming and in Ikai et al. [26]
an aquatic medium.
Lewillie (1967) Developed specific hardware for the detection of Lewillie [30]
EMG in swimming.

Nevertheless, it has taken about 300 years for EMG to emerge as an independent
discriminating research methodology. Recent developments in Electromyographic signal

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 46 Jan Pieter Clarys and Annie Rouard

processing; acquisition- and analysis systems upgraded electromyography (EMG) in

particular surface electromyography (SEMG) into a problem solving, problem detecting and
problem discriminating scientific discipline. The reason why EMG needed so long to obtain
this status is assumed to be found into the fact that EMG took 3 distinct different directions in
the course of its development, each with various approaches and analytic techniques: 1-the
clinical EMG is principally a diagnostic tool, 2- the (fundamental) EMG itself, deals with
single fibre, single motor unit action potentials while 3-the kinesiological EMG (including
SEMG) is merely a mean to study function and co-ordination in different movements and
postures, in healthy subjects as well as in the disabled, in skilled actions as well as during
training, in humans as well as in animals, under laboratory conditions as well as during daily
or vocational activities. More precisely, kinesiological EMG focused on the studies of
isometric contraction with increasing tension up to the (relative) maximal voluntary
contraction; evaluation of functional anatomical muscle activity (validation of classical
anatomical functions); co-ordination and synchronization studies (kinematic chain),
specificity and efficiency studies of training methods, fatigue studies, the relationship
between EMG and force, the man-machine interaction, studies on the influence of equipment
on muscle-activity, and so on.
Sport science appeared as one of the great number of applications of EMG (neurology,
neurophysiology, neurosurgery, bioengineering, Functional Electro Stimulation (FES),
orthopaedics, Zoology, ergonomics, occupational biomechanics and -medicine, rehabilitation
and physical therapy...). A state of the art is to be found in Merletti et al. [36].
The first study of myoelectric signals during swimming was published by Ikai et al. [26].
Few years later, Lewillie [31] has set the standards for the telemetric EMG analyses and for
the quantitative and graphic comparison of the electromyogram of the swimmer. Using the
methodological investigations of Lewillie and based on preliminary research material, the
Brussels Swimming EMG project [9] made an attempt to produce a total experimental image
of all superficial muscles presumed to be active during the front crawl movement.
Swimming and EMG became a role model for other sports for the study of muscular
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function and coordination.

2. METHODOLOGY
The difficulty in swimming because of the water conditions and because of the
complexity of the movement is superior to the majority of other activities in sport and
occupation. In this chapter, we will quickly describe the different steps of data acquisition and
treatment while underlining the specific problems and solutions of complex movements in
swimming.

2.1. EMG Acquisition

Because of the limits of the recording system, most SEMG studies investigate the activity
of few muscles ranging from one to twelve. The choice of the studied muscles is either
arbitrary (based on practical knowledge of the skill) or based on the basic anatomy literature

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 The Swimming Muscle: History, Methodology and Applications … 47

or on the previous EMG studies. The data acquisition present different steps from the
―swimming muscle‖ to the storage of the signal and its processing (Figure 3).
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Figure 3. Steps from the neuromuscular to the data acquisition system adapted from Clays and Cabri
[12]; recent systems will digitise the signal without the tape recorder step.

The muscle activity can be recorded with electrodes fixed on the surface of the skin.
Needle electrodes are placed inside the muscle allowing it to obtain the activation of a few
motor units. Wire electrodes can also be used to limit the impedance of the skin (i.e. the skin
limit the propagation of the electrical activity). Okamoto and Wolf [40] introduced fine-wire
electrodes originally for therapeutic purposes. Measurements were made simultaneously with
surface electrodes and excellent temporal correlations were found. In swimming, the wire
electrode has been propagated by the Centinela Hospital, California [39,43].
Most of the studies in swimming ware realised with surface electrodes even if possible
cross talk of neighbouring muscles is part of the data acquisition. For example, Yoshizawa et
al. [56] selected the M. extensor carpi radialis brevis. This muscle has a very small superficial

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 48 Jan Pieter Clarys and Annie Rouard

'strip' accessible under the skin. Consequently, the EMGs recorded with the surface electrodes
gave more information than expected of the M. extensor digitorum alone.
In localizing the site of detection of the electrode on the skin, a variety of approaches is
applied. As in the majority of sport and occupation situations, the placement of the electrodes
in swimming cannot be realized over the motor point because muscles do not always stay in
the same place during complex dynamic or ballistic movements. The entire muscle belly may
disappear under the electrode and other belly‘s and tendons may take its place. For this
reason, Clarys and Cabri [12] suggested to place the electrodes at the midpoint of the visual
detectable contracted muscle belly.
In addition to localizing the electrode in the proper place on the skin on top of a muscle,
it is also important to pay attention to the orientation of the electrode with respect to the
muscle fibers. Bipolar surface electrodes have two detection surfaces which should be
oriented so that the line between them is parallel to the muscle [8].
Amplification is essential because the muscle electricity is too low. Most of the systems
have pre-amplification within the electrode.
Two approaches can be used to measure muscle activity in swimming e.g. conventional
online registrations and telemetric (radio-wave or multiplex systems) data acquisition.
Variants of different portable systems are now a day‘s commercialized.

2.2. Signal Processing

An electromyogram (or its derivatives) is the expression of the dynamic involvement of

specific muscles within a determined range of that movement. EMG signals could be treated
either in amplitude or in frequency to obtain quantitative informations.
The amplitude process starts with full-wave rectification of the signal (i.e. to obtain the
absolute values of the signal) followed by averaging an graphical linear representation (linear
envelop) all signals need o be filtered an verified against artefacts (e.g. noise, baseline
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deviations, heart-beat, etc) (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Basic signal processing of EMG within swimming and sports in general.

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 The Swimming Muscle: History, Methodology and Applications … 49

Swimming is a cyclic motion. The reproducibility of stroke cycle signals and the pattern
of a one or more swimming cycles need to be evaluated qualitatively e.g. to verify
synchronisation and specificity. Clarys [8] developed a quantified quality evaluation system
based on simple criteria. The technique was called ―IDANCO system‖ (IDentical, ANalogue,
and Conform), and allowed for the comparison of specificity of swimming techniques, dry
and wet training both inter- and intra individual (Figure 5). The whole system is based on
time amplitude similarities and differences of the linear envelop.

Figure 5. The IDANCO-system with four criteria for EMG pattern similarity
[8,13].
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The integral of the EMG signal can be calculated in different ways but for the purpose of
sport and occupational movements, the surface area under the linear envelop curve. In other
words, the integrated EMG (iEMG) is the expression of the muscular intensity related to the
number of recruited motor units and their synchronisation. However, the muscle intensity
measured as the integrated EMG is not de facto linearly related to the strength. Whatever,
different studies used the iEMG in order to quantify the stroke muscular patterns and their
synchronisation both in water or dry land conditions (Figure 6).
Different factors affect the EMG signal such as the size of the muscle, the type of fibers,
the nature of the interface between the skin and electrodes, placement of the electrodes and
the adipose tissue patterning [48,17, and 24]. In addition each and every individual has a
different basic electric tonus and for all these reasons, the signal has to be normalized to allow
comparison between swimmers (e.g. elite versus beginners) as well as to compare same
subjects in different situations (e.g. non-fatigued versus fatigued). Generally, the EMG of a
maximum effort or the highest EMG value is selected as the normalizing factor allowing inter
individual comparison. The subject is asked to perform a maximal voluntary contraction
(MVC) of the muscle (groups) under study. The iEMG of the MVC is then used as a
reference value (e.g. 100%). The use of the MVC reference is perfect in all static, e.g.
isometric applications. For all dynamic activities such as swimming, the use of an isometric

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 50 Jan Pieter Clarys and Annie Rouard

reference is debatable [11 and 13]. Several investigators found dynamic activities that
exceeded the maximal isometric effort of the muscle during dynamic activities (Table 2). For
example Lewillie [31] and Clarys [8] found dynamic percentages in swimming up to 160%.

Figure 6. Conventional online and telemetric EMG are decreased by the water element in a different
level [11,13].

Table 2. Four swimming techniques, two muscles, three velocities, one swimmer, and a
group average normalized against 100% MVC.
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 The Swimming Muscle: History, Methodology and Applications … 51

Clearly individuals are able to exceed a static 100% during a dynamic motion. This
amongst other reasons is not correct or at least doubtful. Therefore, other normalization
techniques have been developed specifically for kinesiological EMG, e.g. normalization to
the highest peak activity in dynamic conditions, to mean integrated EMG (ensemble average)
and to EMG per unit of measured force (net moment) [13].
Signal is decomposed in short time windows (10ms), the maximum iEMG on all the
10ms windows was then used as 100% of activation reference. Simplified: passive effort is
normalised against MVC; a dynamic effort is normalised against the highest peak of the
muscle activity in motion.
To complete the quantification of the EMG signal, frequency process could be applied to
the raw signal. The frequency process is based upon Fourier transform which decomposed the
raw signal in a sum of the different frequencies which composed the signal. From the
frequency decomposition, different parameters could be calculated such as the power
spectrum, the mean frequency (MPF) and the median frequency (MF). This approach is used
in all kind of fatigue studies and reliable only in isometric situations applying the frequency
domain in swimming would not be biological correct. Many researchers are actually working
on this problem [36].
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Figure 7. Four examples of the variable relation between EMG and force.

2.3. iEMG/Muscular Intensity against Strength/Force Velocity Output

There exists a general misunderstanding and frequent misinterpretation of the EMG

intensity – force relationship under some conditions there can be a good relation up to a linear

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 52 Jan Pieter Clarys and Annie Rouard

relation between EMG activity levels and force production as force levels increase, EMG
intensity increases as well. Unfortunately the EMG force relationship is subject to inter- and
intra variation. Joined angles muscle fibers length, contraction type, training and fatigue will
influence the above mentioned relationship.
Part a) of Figure 7 indicates that the joint angle will influence the EMG force relation
[48]; part b) shows a decrease of force due to fatigue but the same decrease is not observed in
the EMG [3]; part c) is the integrated EMG quantification of concentric, isometric and
eccentric work and part d) is a review of 31 references indicating the amount of linear, non-
linear and mixed relations within the EMG force relation [11].

3. EMG OF SWIMMING STROKES AND TRAINING SYSTEMS

Reading between the lines of the early publications in the beginning of the 20th century
we can assume that ± 45 different muscles are active in front crawl swimming.
Muscular participation, however, was the result of basic kinesiological assumptions. If
one includes the concentric-, the eccentric-, the agonist-, the antagonist-, the spurt- and the
shunt-muscle actions over the different joints of a swimming body, it probably would be very
close to reality to assume that all skeletal muscles of the body are active in swimming, in the
front crawl in particular. In other words ± 170 single muscles may be active [8]. Muscle
participation is one element. The muscle patterns within a complex rhythmic swimming
motion is another far more important element. This information cannot be obtained by
functional anatomical deductions alone. The first study of myoelectric signals during
swimming was published by [26] (Table 1).
This study described 15 muscle patterns in 14 subjects, comparing the EMG results of
university and Olympic swimmers and stressing the importance of the M. triceps brachii, M.
latissimus dorsi, M. deltoideus and M. teres major in top-level swimming as prime movers.
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Based on the EMG recordings, Ikai et al [26] concluded that there was a common basic
pattern of muscular activities in each type of swimming stroke (Crawl, Backstroke,
Breastroke, Butterfly), the extensor muscles of the arm and trunk being activated more
vigorously to propel the body forward than the flexor muscles, with a slight exception in the
Backstroke. Ikai‘s results have provided a better interpretation of swimming technique, e.g. in
Counsilman's Science of Swimming [16]. More recently, Nuber et al. [39] observed similar
activations of the shoulder muscles in freestyle, breaststroke and butterfly with the M. supra
and infra-spinatus, deltoideus median and serratus anterior being predominant during the
recovery. Their function corresponded to the full abduction of the arm and the external
rotation of the scapula to prepare the next pull phase. The M. lattisimus dorsi and pectoralis
major acted as the main propulsor of the body during the pull-push phases. At least, the M.
biceps brachii had mixed inconsistent activity during both phases.
Lewillie [32,33] completed these results concluding that the electromyogram is more
characterized by the stroke used and less by the swimmer characteristics. More, the
repeatability of swimming by skilled swimmers appears exceptionally high, both in duration
and amplitude [33].

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 The Swimming Muscle: History, Methodology and Applications … 53

3.1. The Front Crawl … and More

Using the methodological investigations of Lewillie and based on preliminary research

material, the Brussels Swimming EMG project [9, 13] made an attempt to produce a total
experimental image of all measurable muscles presumed to be active during the front crawl
movement. Altogether 25 muscles were investigated and presented as normalised & rectified
pattern diagrams (based on a non-dimensional expression of I.EMG) in order to be practically
useful and allow comparison with other studies or between subjects.
Sixty subjects were studied of which 30 were pre-olympic elite swimmers and 30 were
club and college swimmers with good technical skills. Swimming speed was standardised for
all subjects by means of a series of successive time-regulated flashing lights, fixed 1m below
the water surface. The time component of the flash moments was adaptable to increase or
decrease the velocity of the swimmer. Such velocity standardisation increases the reliability
of comparison between subjects.
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Figure 8. Normalized EMG patterns (2 arm cycles) of both elite and good swimmers.

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 54 Jan Pieter Clarys and Annie Rouard

It is not the purpose of this chapter to give a detailed qualitative and quantitative analysis
for each muscle separately, an overall review of contraction characteristics is shown in figure
8.
All muscles have a greater or smaller constant activity during a swimming cycle
regardless of the technique the swimmer uses. A majority of 20 muscles out of 25 are labelled
with two contraction peaks, with a relative relaxation during the recovery phase. The
variability of the M. deltoideus pars posterior is related to "high" and "wide" recoveries. The
irregularity of the electromyogram of the leg muscles is explained by the individual variation
of the leg kick.
It is common knowledge that the main propulsive force in swimming the front crawl is
derived from the arms and shoulders. However it appears that trunk muscles including the M.
gluteus maximus clearly have a more important activity than the arm and shoulder
musculature. Although we have found similarity in EMG patterns between both groups
investigated, we noticed a significant difference in work intensity most evident in trunk,
pelvic and leg muscles. All these observations stress the importance of correct use and
specific training of trunk muscles to improve performance in swimming the front crawl
(Figure 9). The coordinating link of the trunk muscles is sometimes underestimated still.
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Figure 9. The trunk muscles are a discriminating factor between elite and good swimmers.

3.2. Water and Dry Land Swimming Training

We need to keep in mind that both in conventional and telemetric data acquisition the
water medium decreases the electricity output of a muscle.
Back in 1966, Kipke [28] took 507 EMG's of 17 top level East-German swimmers during
dry land front crawl movements against the resistance of a rubber rope and compared his
results with those of Ikai et al. [26]. Since the coordination and economic use of muscles in

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 The Swimming Muscle: History, Methodology and Applications … 55

swimming movements is regulated by the nervous system, the swimming world accepted the
idea that swimming movements were to be reproduced on dry land.
If we consider "dry land strength training exercises" as "specific training" and at the same
time as ‖strength training‖ we must take into account that:

a) The difference in activity of the various muscle bellies of one and the same muscle
indicates how carefully the non-specific development of a swimmer's training should
be undertaken [31].
b) The projection of the swimming movement in water on dry land exercises does not
guarantee an exact reproduction of time, acceleration and joint angulation
phenomena, although it is done frequently [51].

For this purpose a series of specific "dry land exercises" have been investigated using
different strength training devices such as call craft, roller-board, isokinetic swim bench,
expander and latissimus apparatus and compared the same subjects, with a standardised arm
frequency on land and in water [41,12].
Using the "normalized reference pattern diagrams" as a basis for analyses, a combination
of "dry and wet" EMG pattern could be established for both the non-resistance
accommodating and the resistance (isokinetic) accommodating devices.
From these studies it can be stated that there is little electromyographic similarity
between swimming movements on dry land and the front crawl movement under normal
conditions. If swimmers or coaches use dry land exercises for the purpose of gaining strength
within a movement reproducing simulation setting they should be aware that:

a) There are overall time differences between dry land and wet arm cycle executions.
b) The muscle potential amplitudes are different in all dry land devices studied.
c) Marked discrepancies for all comparisons (devices - muscles - functional groups -
cycle phase separately) were striking.
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

d) The dry land simulation swimming coordination creates different patterns.

Based on EMG data acquisition, the idea of "specific and strengthening dry land training"
cannot be supported. Suggestions are made for adaptations of some of the better devices
[49,50].
Of course it needs to be clear to the reader that these conclusions are the result of muscle
recruitment and ad hoc synchronisation 1) on land and 2) in water. In other words, strictly
oriented to neuromotor control aspects and a result of different proprioception. Also, we need
to warn for the classic, but erroneous- projection of all included muscular activity and force-
torque-strength aspects.
Is all this sufficient to conclude that dry land training is useless? … No certainly not as
long as we realize that simulation is not per se specific and EMG can only suggest that it is
not strengthening based on intensity (e.g. iEMG). Dry land training remains an important tool
within swimming training possibilities, e.g. for psychologically breaking swimming
monotony … or for rehabilitation/recovery from injury [49] … or amplifying arm power and
endurance [49] and taking the ―swim bench‖ as a role model, it certainly contributes to the
enhancement of physiological parameters, e.g. VO2max and other cardio-pulmonary responses
[51,52].

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 56 Jan Pieter Clarys and Annie Rouard

The ability to precisely manipulate exercise (e.g. arm movement simulations) using the
swim bench can provide data regarding the overall cardiopulmonary response to exercise
relative to the mechanical power output that can be delivered by each arm. Using the swim
bench this way, it offers direct measurements of power output in swimmers which could be
used in the assessment of critical power values as such [37]. A few decennia ago this was
possible only using a cycle ergometer. In addition, submaximal exercise in swimming can be
monitored precisely in relation to heart rate and for oxygen consumption versus ad hoc power
output [6].

3.3. EMG in Traditional and Non Traditional Training Aids

In the course of the last decennia, different alternative swimming-specific training

methods for the front crawl have been investigated with EMG.
The EMG specificity of different models of hand paddles were studied by [938].
Good similarities both in muscle patterns and intensities between swimming with and
without hand paddles, were the general conclusion of all studies. Except for undulating
paddle forms, it was found that the movement pattern became different.
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Figure 10. part a) de MAD system; part b) arm-shoulder-foot motion patterns: left with push-off on
MAD, right free swimming; part c) specificity level of MAD swimming compared to free swimming;
part d) non-significant difference of iEMG between MAD swimming and free swimming.

The Brussels group, also studied the muscular specificity of fully tethered and semi
tethered swimming training as compared to normal swimming training. During fully tethered
front crawl swimming at different frequencies, the muscular patterns of all investigated
muscles were similar to those of free swimming. During semi tethered swimming at sprint

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 The Swimming Muscle: History, Methodology and Applications … 57

velocity, the specificity of the muscular pattern is maintained up to a resistance of 10 to 12

kg. At higher resistance the muscular action becomes nonspecific, while the kinematics and
the muscular loading are different.
At the end of the eighties, the University of Amsterdam developed a system to measure
direct propulsive forces called the MAD system (Measuring Active Drag - figure 10). Soon it
became evident that this front crawl specific device could be used as an alternative training
instrument also
EMG registrations of free swimming and MAD swimming with the same arm frequency
and velocity indicated that the MAD system did not create a different muscular activity
(figure 10 art c and d), although different kinematics of the arm movement was observed
(figure 10 part b). Today, the MAD system is regarded as a specific measurement and training
device in several countries.

3.4. Remodelling the Front Crawl

Prior to the Olympic games of Munich 1972, top front crawl swimmers used the rather
long gliding phase after the hand input. Amongst others, EMG studies suggested to start the
pull-push phase immediately after the input. Remember the application of the Bernouilli
principle. At a certain point in the past, we realised that most authors did studied the front
crawl according to a two-dimensional model observed from a side view. In other words the
muscular participation in the front crawl is well known albeit from the pull-push perspective.
Clearly this two dimensional "pull-push" movement pattern (side view model) gives little
detail of the inward and outward sculling (top view model) of the upper extremity complex
figure 11.
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Figure 11. Top and side view motion pattern interpretation of the front crawl [14].

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 58 Jan Pieter Clarys and Annie Rouard

The underwater phase e.g. the pull-push phase is divided into the down-sweep, in-sweep
and out-sweep.
The EMG of six muscles were recorded simultaneously: The M. biceps brachii, the M.
triceps brachii, the M. flexor carpi ulnaris, the M. brachioradialis, the M. latissimus dorsi and
the M. deltoideus anterior. All swimmers studied where elite swimmers.
The quality of the repetitive and cyclic movement and the observation of the joint
trajectories were controlled with two synchronized cameras (Sony EVO 9100, 30Hz)
perpendicular to each other. The front crawl views allowed for the fractionation of the upper
limb movement into 4 phases (Figure 11): the initial press (A to B): from the hand entry to
the maximum external position of the hand also named as down sweep. The inward scull (B
to C): also named as in-sweep. The outward scull (C to D) or out-sweep: from the maximum
internal position of the hand to the hand exit and finally the recovery: from the hand exit to
the hand input.
The unexpected results …
It occurs that the in-sweep movement is demanding consistently the highest muscular
intensities within a short arm phase moment (figures 12-13). The prime movers during this
phase are the M. biceps brachii and the M. brachioradialis. The in-sweep flexion and
supination is supported by the M. flexor carpi ulnaris (and forearm flexors) to stabilize the
hand. It is interesting to see the activity behaviour of the three antagonists, the M. triceps
brachii, the latissimus dorsi and the anterior part of the M. deltoideus. According to
Solomonow et al. [44], this co-activation pattern of elbow (and shoulder) antagonists during
maximal effort is nearly inversely related to the muscle's moment arm variation over the
joint's range of movement and is estimated to generate a constant opposing torque [48]. The
purpose of this antagonist activity is most likely to maintain joint stability but also to
supplement the prime movers action by equalizing the pressure distribution in the joints
necessary to produce the effort.
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Figure 12. Percentage of arm cycle phases averaged over 4x100m (left) and muscular intensity (iEMG)
per cycle phase (right).

Since we know that under the same loading conditions, eccentric work creates higher
forces than concentric actions, but with significantly lower EMG, the muscular intensity of
the triceps, latissimus dorsi and deltoideus may be considered as invariable high. Training of
these muscles with eccentrics is advisable. Nuber et al. [39], Pink et al. [43] and many others
studied the EMG of the free style in detail - be it with different normalization techniques.

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 The Swimming Muscle: History, Methodology and Applications … 59

From these studies and although the high muscular load in the shoulder, it seems that there is
room for additional loading if eccentric work and co-contraction can be trained selectively.
All these data suggest that the in-sweep dominates the arm movement and that the down-
sweep is too long with too little impulses (Figure13).
Science has changed the front crawl in the seventies. The ―glide phase‖ was replaced by
an initial press- or down-sweep. Performance of all shorter distances (50, 100 and 200m)
improved considerably with it. However the duration within the arm cycle of this early press
remained more or less equal to the glide. We can change the arm motion of the crawl one‘s
more with the conviction that it will enhance performance again.
Shorten the down-sweep and start the in-sweep earlier. In other words, lengthen the in-
sweep but maintain the recruitment over a longer period of time. This will no doubt increase
the load of the shoulder musculature. If however, more emphasis is given to arm-shoulder
strengthening (e.g. eccentric or counter-weight training) this extra shoulder loading can be
anticipated. This special emphasis on extra training is compulsory to avoid shoulder
instability and/or impingement problems.

Figure 13. Total muscular activity (6 muscles; 4 x 100m) for the different arm cycle phases separately
(left), and how it should be to improve performance (right).
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3.5. The Painful Shoulder

The painful shoulder is a problem of overhead athletes and within the swimming world
probably the highest associated risk of injury. Several shoulder dysfunctions are generally
characterised as a shoulder impingement syndrome. Swimmers with shoulder pathology
consistently demonstrate abnormalities in rotation activity suggesting that muscle dysfunction
is a factor to consider in the aetiology of recurrence of shoulder pain in frontcrawl swimmers
[47,55]. Specially, glenohumeral instability has been seen as a primary cause of shoulder
impingement syndrome in swimming in particular.
Past studies have associated glenohumeral instability with modifications in latency,
recruitment order, e.g. synchronization and ad hoc muscle activity [7,23, 42].
According to Santos et al. [47] shoulder instability does not necessarily affect the
latencies and recruitment order of the shoulder in the scapular plane, while Wadsworth and
Bullock-Saxton [55] clearly stated that a relationship exists between shoulder dysfunction and
associated pain with the temporal recruitment patterns of the scapular rotator, such that injury
reduces the consistency of muscle recruitment … a feeling felt but also suppressed as such

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 60 Jan Pieter Clarys and Annie Rouard

during training sessions. Wadsworth and Bullock-Saxton [55] even suggested that the injured
swimmers e.g. by compensation create muscle deficits on their unaffected side.
The expanding understanding of intricate muscular interrelationships during swimming
activities and rehabilitative exercises have not only complemented clinical awareness of
subtle shoulder anomalies but helped to develop logical preventive exercises, surgical
procedures and ad hoc rehabilitative protocols. Comprehension of the intermuscular
interdependence and its relation to timing, velocity, and acceleration and thus essential if
corrections and/or adaptation and/or instruction of skills are to be considered.
The swimming athlete is very often associated with shoulder pain and the
pathophysiology of shoulder instability. In spite of the generated interest in this problem for
over ―a 1000 years‖ it is still today surrounded by controversy or question marks. Several
hypotheses have been suggested as to the cause of the disturbance of the balance between the
static and dynamic stability of the shoulder joint e.g. subacromial impingement, traction
injury, repetitive micro traumata, rotator cuff fears, scapular imbalance, latissimus dorsi
relation, etc [45, 27, 29].
Over the last decades there has been an improved understanding of the intricate anatomy
that provides stability and strength to the articulatio humeri. In the mid range of shoulder
motion, the so-called neutral zone, the glenohumeral joint reaction forces are primarily
stabilized dynamically by the rotator cuff, whereas at the end of range of motion the
capsuloligamentous envelop becomes the prime stabilizer of the joint reaction forces [1]. The
rotator cuff is the primary dynamic stabiliser, while the static stabilisers include the labrum
glenoidalis, the joint capsula and the associated ligaments [4]. At the end of the late
preparatory phase of throwing with the arm about 90° abduction and full external rotation, the
joint moment of internal rotation is controlled by the glenohumeral internal rotators (primarily
the M. pectoralis major, the M. subscapularis and the M. latissimus dorsi) and the coil in
glenohumeral capsule.
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Figure 14. The muscular axillary arch in-vivo and post-mortem drawn from a cadaver specimen.

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 The Swimming Muscle: History, Methodology and Applications … 61

Recently Clarys et al. [15] studied the role of the axillary arch (AA), connects the
latissimus dorsi with the insertion of the pectoralis major in the axilla (Figure 14). This AA is
present in about 10% of the swimming population. An extensive functional movement and
strength profile of athletes with AA and a control group without, showed that the presence of
an AA increases the force of the arm-shoulder complex but decreases his proprioception.

3.6. EMG Studies of Backstroke, Breaststroke and Butterfly

Backstroke
Few studies focused on the EMG patterns in backstroke. Among them, Lewillie's
approach was merely methodological when the study of Maes et al. [34] dealt with
handicapped swimming while the study of Pink et al. [43] was related to preventative and
rehabilitative exercise programs for shoulder injuries. The authors studied 12 muscles of the
shoulder girdle in 20 competitive swimmers throughout the different phases of the stroke
(Figure 15a). Similar patterns were observed for the M deltoid (3 heads) and the rotator-cuff
at the hand entry or at the hand exit (Figure 15b). They act as positioning and stabilising
activity to place the shoulder in correct position for both hand entry and exit. The M.
latissimus dorsi, M. subscapularis and the M. teres minor are the prime movers during the
propulsive phase (Figure 15d), and reveale a high constant activation throughout the stroke.
The M. pectoralis major (Figure 15c) and the M infraspinatus presented low activation
throughout the stroke. The authors concluded that the scapular muscles formed a force couple
to position the scapula in a way to minimize impingement of the rotator cuff muscles and
maximize the congruency of the glenoid with the humeral head. In other words, a correct
executed technique will create the least shoulder problems.
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Figure 15. Phases of the backstroke (a) with the three groups of muscular patterns: the 3 heads of the M
deltoideus and M. supraspinatus (b), the M. pectoralis major (c) and the M teres minor, subscapularis,
and latissimus dorsi (d); adapted from Pink et al. [43].

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 62 Jan Pieter Clarys and Annie Rouard

More recently, Hohmann et al. [25] tried to establish an EMG-model of the different
phases of the backstroke start technique of the German national team. Results indicated a
specific pattern of each studied muscle depending on the phase of the start (Figure 16).
The start movement out of the water is initiated by the M. erector spinae. In the jump
phase, the activation of the M. deltoideus allowed to put the shoulder backward with a high
activity of the lower limbs muscles during the explosive extension of the legs. During the fly
phase, M triceps brachii, M biceps brachii and M deltoideus contributed to stabilize the body
before and during the water entry. The M. gluteus maximus presented a peak activity just
after the hip water entry to accelerate the body. During the underwater gliding phase, the
dolphin kick was characterised by maximum activities of the M rectus femoris, M.
gastrocnemius and M. semi tendinosus. A good intra-individual reproducibility was observed.
The water entry required more activity from the spine muscles rather than from the propulsion
muscles of the legs.
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Figure 16. The normalized linear envelops (averaged 3 trials) of the backstroke start movement for one
subject [25].

Breaststroke
Similar to the backstroke, a few studies only are available on the EMG of the
breaststroke.
Lewillie [31,32] stressed the importance of the flexion-extension in the elbow joint. He
concluded that no simple relationship seems to link the velocity of the flexion-extension of
the elbow joint and the EMG activity level of the M. biceps and M. triceps brachii muscles.

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 The Swimming Muscle: History, Methodology and Applications … 63

Yoshizawa et al. [56] were the first researchers to give a complete view of muscular activity
and kinematic coordination in breaststroke swimmers comparing the glide stroke and the
continuous stroke.
Despite the different arm recoveries, both techniques indicated similar natural reflex
activity in the elevation of the upper extremities with the legs extended. For the continuous
stroke, the swimmer inhibits this natural reflex during the beginning of the arm-pull phase, by
performing lateral shoulder extension with the hip flexed and the lower extremities extended.
After the middle stage of the arm pull, the continuous stroke swimmer initiates the shoulder
extension with the hip extension [56]. Nube,r et al. [39] completed the description of the
breaststroke EMG patterns by studying the recovery and the pull-through phases. The
recovery phase activity was initiated by the M. supraspinatus, M. infraspinatus and M.
deltoideus followed up by the rotator cuff muscles during the aquatic recovery of the upper
limbs. Surprisingly the M. biceps brachii activity was inconsistent with low-level activity in
all phases. The trunk muscles appeared determinant with the M. pectoralis major activated
during both phases with a peak activity in middle pull-through phase as also observed for the
M. latissimus dorsi. The M. serratus anterior worked primarily in the recovery phase. The
importance of the trunk musculature was confirmed by De Witte et al. [18] after breaststroke
initiation in paraplegic patients. These results were partly confirmed by Ruwe et al. [46] who
tried to evaluate the possible causes of the painful shoulder in the breaststroke swimmers. The
authors compared 12 shoulder muscles on 25 competitive swimmers and 14 painful shoulder
swimmers. The M. serratus anterior and teres minor presented a consistent activation
throughout the stroke and are the origin of possible early fatigue. The painful shoulder
swimmers were characterized by a greater activation of the internal rotators and lesser for the
M. teres minor, supraspinatus, and the upper trapezius.
Tokuyama et al. [53] compared the EMG of child and skilled adults. The child activity
patterns are different from the adults but in the kick phase only. The overall EMG patterns
and the coordination of both the upper and lower limbs in children (age 5 y. 10) became
similar to the skilled adult swimmer after 2 years training. These results underline the
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difficulty of learning process of the breaststroke in particular the upper-lower limbs

coordination.

Butterfly / Dolphin
Studying the dolphin kick in four different velocity conditions, Barthels and Adrian [2]
observed differences in the kicking patterns, both with legs alone and in the full stroke. It
appears to be more appropriate to employ the full stroke at the stroke rate used in
competition, if refinement of the timing of leg action within the stroke is the desired objective
in practice sessions. Whether this can be translated to practise seems doubtful today. Nuber et
al. [39] studied the shoulder muscles and stated that the butterfly stroke closely mimicked the
freestyle activities. All muscles investigated were predominantly active during the pull-
through phase. Again the M. supraspinatus, M. infraspinatus, M. serratus anterior, and M.
deltoideus were most active during the recovery as observed in breaststroke. The M. biceps
and M. subscapularis were inconsistent. Pink et al. [43] showed that the 3 heads of the M.
deltoideus and the rotator cuff muscles demonstrated activity at the hand entry when the arm
is abducted, extended and externally rotated. To retract and upwardly rotate the scapula, the
Mm. rhomboideï and upper trapezius were activated. During the pull phase, the propulsion
was obtained by the activation of the M. pectoralis major, latissimus dorsi and serratus

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 64 Jan Pieter Clarys and Annie Rouard

anterior when the M. subscapularis and teres minor acted to control the humeral rotation. The
M. posterior deltoideus completes the arm extension at the end of the push phase. During the
recovery, the M. deltoideus, caput anterius et medialis, the Mm. supra and infra-spinatus were
activated to abduct and externally rotate the arm. The M. serratus anterior and the M.
subscapularis maintained a high activation during the whole stroke and are thus highly
susceptible to fatigue and vulnerable to injury. It needs to be reminded to the reader that the
M. subscapularis between thorax and scapula can only be measured with wire electrodes. The
importance and merits of this goes to the Sentinella hospital group (US).
For unexplained reasons, and although 50 years of EMG research in swimming, the
butterfly, back- and breaststroke EMG remains an ‗open field of research‘.

4. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
The knowledge of muscular activity in an aquatic environment and/of swimming strokes
and training techniques in terms of synchronisation and intensity create the possibility for
coaches, trainers and swimmers to improve the existing feedback, expertise and ad hoc
motion.
Comparison of free swimming with alternative training aids do inform about specificity
and reliability of the training alternative.
Remodelling the basic skills of the front crawl is possible with minor intervention but
conditional to preventive work to enforce the shoulder.

CONCLUSION
The study of EMG in an aquatic environment requires a good neuro-anatomical and ad
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hoc methodological knowledge.

Comparison of the EMG of swimmers, e.g. with training aids, are supported by a
quantified quality evaluation system that allows for the verification of specific reliability.
Neuro-muscular remodelling of the front crawl is supported by EMG evidence.
The EMG of swimming is studied since half a century but neuro-muscular feedback of
backstroke, breaststroke and butterfly remains an open field of research.

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234, Baltimore, MD, University Park Press.
[34] Maes, L., Clarys, J.P., & Brouwer, P.J. (1975). Electromyography for the evaluation of
handicapped swimmers. In J.P. Clarys & L. Lewillie (eds) Swimming II, pp 268-275,
Baltimore, MD, University Park Press.
[35] Marey, E.J. (1890). Le vol des oiseaux. Masson, Paris
[36] Merletti R., Botter A., Troiano A., Merlo, E. & Minetto, M.A. (2009). Technology and
instrumentation for detection and conditioning of the surface electromyographic signal:
State of the art. Clinical Biomechanics, 24, 122-134.
[37] Monod, H. & Scherrer, J. (1965). The work capacity of a synergic muscular group.
Ergonomics, 8, 32-37.
[38] Monteil, K.M. & Rouard, A.H., (1992). Biomechanical aspects of paddle swimming at
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in Swimming VI, pp 63-68, London: E. & F.N. Spon.

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[39] Nuber, W., Jobe, W., Perry, J., Moynes, R. & Antonelli, D. (1986). Fine wire
electromyography analysis of muscles of the shoulder during swimming. The American
Journal of Sports Medicine, 14, 1, 63-65.
[40] Okamoto, T. & Wolf, S.L. (1979). Underwater recording of electromyographic activity
using fine-wire electrodes. In: J. Terauds & E.W. Beddingfield (eds) Swimming III, pp
160-166, Baltimore, MD, University Park Press.
[41] Olbrecht, J. & Clarys, J. (1983). EMG of specific strength training exercises for the
front crawl. In A.P. Hollander & G. de Groot (eds) Biomechanics and Medicine in
Swimming IV, pp 136-141, Champaign, IL, Human Kinetics Publishers.
[42] Pink, M.M. & Tibone, J.E. (2000). The painful shoulder in the swimming athlete.
Orthopedical Clinicals of North America, 31, 2, 247-261.
[43] Pink, M., Jobe, E.W., Perry, J., Kerrigan, J., Browne, A. & Scovazzo, M.L. (1991). The
normal shoulder during freestyle swimming: an EMG and cinematographic analysis of
12 muscles. Journal of Sports Sciences, 9, 102-103.
[44] Rouard, A.H., & Clarys, J.P. (1995). Co-contraction in the elbow and shoulder muscles
in rapid cyclic movements in an aquatic environment. Journal of Electromyography
and Kinesiology, 5, 3, 177-83.
[45] Ruotolo, C., Penna, J., Namkoong S. & Meinhard, B.P. (2003). Shoulder pain and the
overhand athlete. American Journal of Orthopaedics, 32, 248-258.
[46] Ruwe, P.A., Pink, M., Jobe, F.W., Perry, J., & Scovazzo, M.L. (1994). The normal and
the painful shoulders during the breaststroke. Electromyographic and cinematographic
analysis of twelve muscles. The American Journal of Sports Medicine, 22, 6, 789-96.
[47] Santos, M.J., Belangero, W.D. & Almeida, G.L. (2007). The effect of joint instability
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[48] Solomonow, M., Barrata, R., Zhou, B.H., & D'Ambrosia, R. (1988). Electromyogram
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[49] Swaine, I.L. (1994). The relationship between physiological variables from a swim
bench ramp test and middle-distance swimming performance. Medicine and Science in
Sports and Exercise, 10, 41-48.
[50] Swaine, I.L., & Doyle, G. (1999). Relationships between the mean arm-pulling and leg-
kicking power output of semi-tethered and simulated front crawl swimming. In
Keskinen, K.L., Komi, P.V., & Hollander, P. (eds) Biomechanics and Medicine in
Swimming VIII, pp 363-368, Jyväskylä, University of Jyväskylä.
[51] Swaine, I.L. & Reilly, T. (1983). The freely-chosen swimming stroke rate in a maximal
swim and on a biokinetic swim bench. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise,
15, 370-375.
[52] Takahashi, S., Bone, M., Cappaert, J.M., Barzdukas, A., D‘Acquisto L., Hollander, A.P.
& Troup, J. (1992). Validation of a dryland swimming specific measurement of
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Medicine in Swimming VI. pp 301-305, London, E. & F.N. Spon.
[53] Tokuyama , H., Okamoto, T. & Kumamoto, M. (1976). Electromyographic study of
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Baltimore, MD, University Park Press.

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 68 Jan Pieter Clarys and Annie Rouard

[54] von Humboldt, F.A (1797). Versuche über die gereizte Muskel- und Nerven Faser,
H.A. Rottmann, Berlin.
[55] Wadsworth, D.J. & Bullock-Saxton, J.E. (1997). Recruitment patterns of the scapular
rotator muscles in Freestyle swimmers with subacromial impingement. International
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[56] Yoshizawa , M., Okamoto, T., Kumamoto, M., Tokuyama, H. & Oka, H. (1978).
Electromyographic study of two styles in the breaststroke as performed by top
swimmers. In A. Asmussen & K. Jorgensen (eds) Biomechanics VI-B, pp 126-131,
Baltimore, MD, University Park Press.
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

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 In: World Book of Swimming: From Science to Performance ISBN: 978-1-61668-202-6
Editors: L. Seifert, D. Chollet and I.Mujika ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 4

BIOMECHANICAL EVALUATION
OF FREESTYLE SWIMMING

Annie Rouard
Laboratoire de Physiologie de l‘Exercice, Université de Savoie, France

ABSTRACT
The swimming velocity resulted from the combination of the propulsive and drag
forces. The biomechanics evaluation was strongly improved during the 30 last years.
Results underlined the main contribution of the hand in the swimming propulsion. The in-
sweep-pull phase appeared the most important phase of the stroke either for kinematics
(hand, elbow paths, velocity and acceleration) or kinetics (forces) and muscular
activations. Fatigue state lead to a decrease of the in-sweep efficiency, the swimmer not
be able to maintain the forces, muscles contributions and path during this constraining
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phase. The strength capacity seems to be a necessary but not sufficient parameter of the
performance which is more related to the swimming force and power. Kinematics,
kinetics and electromygraphic measurements confirmed the complementarity of the dry
land and the water training process, the first allowing control of different parameters
(muscles, imbalance, velocity, load), the second one more reproducing the race condition.
Large individual variations were observed either in fresh or fatigue states, either for
local or international swimmers. Consequently, biomechanical approaches could be
useful tool in the swimmer evaluation to adapt specifically the training process.
Future researches will increase the knowledge on swimming propulsion and their
applications in the improvement of performance.

Key words: Freestyle, trajectories, forces, muscles, fatigue.

INTRODUCTION
As for all human activities, the swimming technique could be defined as the different
process used by the swimmer to propel the body through the water. Even though many
coaches and/or researchers have tried to describe the swimming technique for many years, the

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 70 Annie Rouard

scientific explanations were not completed until recently. For Reischle [77], ―the construction
of a model of propulsion in swimming is thwarted by the excessive complexity of the
undertaking, as the organisational complexity of the motor act is high and, in addition the
reactions of the fluid medium cannot be exactly recorded.‖ The swimmer‘s technique
evaluation is based upon the movement quantification which could be realised though the
different steps of movement‘s generation.
How the movement is generated? The movement generation presented different steps
from the order to the final production. These steps could be divided in a central component
which corresponded to the contribution of the Central Nervous System (CNS) and peripheral
component which corresponded to the actions within the muscle (Figure 1).
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Figure1. Different steps in the movement generation.²

The order starts from the activation of the NCS (a) which is transmitted (b) to the
motoneuron (c) via a nervous potential action (nap). The nap is then transmitted to the muscle
at the neuromuscular junction. If the stimulus is sufficient, the nap will conduct to the
creation of the muscular action potential (map) which is propagated alongside all the muscle
membranes and the reticulum sarcoplasmic. The map (d) will modify the permeability of the
membrane and consequently allowed the ionic movements from one side to the other side of
the membrane conducting to the liberation of the calcium (Ca2+) (e). The free Ca2+ will
modify the actions of the proteins which regulated the movement allowing the bridges
movements between the actine-myosine filaments (g). This movement required energy given
by substrates (f), especially by the degradation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in adenosine
diphosphate (ADP). The repetition of the bridge movements will conduct to the movement

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 Biomechanical Evaluation of Freestyle Swimming 71

production. In the same time, the antagonist muscle (grey on the figure 1) will also be
stimulated in order to control the movement. To resume, the movement generation started
with electrical phenomenon (map) following by chemical modifications (ionic movements)
which conducted to mechanical production (force and movement). In regard to theses
different steps, the movement could be evaluated through its electrical component
(Electromyography, (EMG)) and/or chemical and/or mechanical dimensions.
Biomechanics is the science which describes, analyzes, and assesses the human
movement. The studied biomechanical variables can be divided in four areas: 1) kinematics
which referred to the movement quantification (angular and linear displacements, velocities
and accelerations), 2) kinetics which corresponded to the forces that causes the movement, 3)
anthropometry (masses and lengths of the segments), and 4) electromyography (EMG) which
describe the input of the movement, i.e. the muscle electrical activity. This chapter focuses on
the kinematics, kinetics and EMG approaches of the crawl stroke.
In swimming, biomechanics evaluation is difficult because of the aquatic conditions.
Despite some basic studies at the beginning of the XXth century [21], the research on
biomechanics in swimming started in the 1970‘s and was strongly accelerated from the
1980‘s. Three main reasons could be advanced: 1) The development of training process
(indoor pool, equipment…) which conducted to improve performances, 2) The development
of biomechanics tools (cameras, sensors, computers …) which enhanced the range of
investigations and 3) The periodic congress on Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming
which created emulation among researchers. As for all other human movements
(handicapped, work, sports), most of the biomechanics freestyle studies are conducted in a
descriptive way. With the research development, the biomechanics appeared to not only allow
a better understanding of the swimming movement but also constituted a useful tool to
evaluate the individual technical characteristics.
The purpose of this chapter was to present the different tools of kinematics and kinetics
evaluations with their main advantages and limits The chapter will be illustrated by few
examples. Then, we will develop the use of kinematics, kinetics and EMG in the phases
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study, in the determination of parameters related to the swimming velocity, in the symmetry
measurement and finally in the fatigue evaluation. The final section will propose practical
applications with few examples of individual biomechanics evaluation. The chapter will
concern only the freestyle swimming as few studies are available for the other strokes
(breaststroke, butterfly, and backstroke).

1. KINEMATICS AND KINETICS EVALUATIONS

1.1. Kinematics

In swimming, different kinematics parameters have been evaluated such as the time
durations (race, start, turn, stroke, phases), the time - displacement curves of the joints, the
segments and/or the Center of gravity (Cg), the ratio displacement/time i.e. the velocity (of
the hand and/or the Cg) ant the ratio velocity/time, i.e. the acceleration.
Two ways were used for such evaluation: the direct method and the indirect one based
upon video acquisition.

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 72 Annie Rouard

1.1.1. Direct Methods

Sensors were used to quantify angle (goniometer few used in swimming), velocity
(velocimeter or speedometer), and acceleration (accelerometer). The direct methods presented
the advantage to give data in real time and could be useful for diagnosis evaluation. The data
were limited to the one measured parameter.
For example, the efficiency of the swimmer‘s arm and foot movements are usually
quantified by the forward velocity fluctuations of the swimmer‘s Center of gravity (or hip)
[62]. The intra-cyclic speed fluctuations may be +20% due to the intermittent application of
propulsive forces within the stroke cycle. In most cases, the peaks of the velocity curves were
incorrectly interpreted as moments of maximum propulsion [13]. Consequently, other
approaches to technique diagnosis were based upon body acceleration curves [56]. According
to the third Newton law, the maximum of the acceleration corresponded to the maximal
resultant force when a time delay occurred between the maximum of velocity and the forces
production (Figure 2). The acceleration is positive when the propulsive force (Fp) exceeds the
drag force (Fd) and reciprocally negative when Fp is lower than Fd. More recently, Tella, et
al. [97] applied frequency processing (Fourier Transform) to acceleration curve in order to
better estimate the sequence of propulsive forces.
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Figure 2. Acceleration (a) and velocity (v) of the body center of mass, total propulsive force (F) for one
1992 Olympic swimmer (adapted from [56]).

Accelerometer has also been used to evaluate the limbs motion. For example, using 3D
accelerometer, Ohgi, et al. [70] indicated that the acceleration of the arm motion has
translational (Y-axis), rotational (X-Axis) and gravitational (Z-axis) components (Figure 3).
Greater values were observed on the antero-posterior(Y) and transversal axes (X) at the end

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 Biomechanical Evaluation of Freestyle Swimming 73

of the stroke with an increase for fast velocity. Counsilman (22) suggested that poor
swimmers accelerated their hands too greatly thus slipping them through water.

Figure 3. 3D hand acceleration (X-ltransversal, Y-antero-posterior, Z-vertical) from slow to fast

swimming speed for one subject (from [70]).

1.1.2. Indirect Approach

The second way named indirect approach was based on video acquisition from which
angular and linear displacements were computed in order to calculate all the other parameters
(velocity, acceleration). The indirect method is interesting because non invasive (could be
used in race conditions) and get simultaneously all the kinematics data. More, some of them
(attack and sweep back angles, hand velocity) were used in the hand forces calculation. The
video evaluation allowed bettering understanding the joints movements (hand, elbow,
shoulder). The improvement in filming underwater technique conducted to analyse the real
path of the hand in taking a reference out of the body. The hand did not travel straight
backward during the underwater stroke. The hand presented also transversal (outward,
inward), vertical (upward and downward) deviations designed as sculling movements [86]
with the most important displacement in the horizontal and vertical dimensions [32, 61, 86]
(Figure 4).
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Figure 4. hand trajectory (mean, SD) on the 3 axes during the crawl stroke in regard to an external
absolute reference to the swimmer (adapted from [32]).

On the antero-posterior axis, the hand exited at the same point (or forward) to the point of
the hand entry, for high level swimmers, confirming the previous hand fixity theory [1]. In
fact, between the entry and the exit, the hand moved forward then backward in the middle
part of the stroke and forward again before the exit. The hand forward movement could result
from the other arm action and/or the legs kicks when the backward one indicated clearly a
loss of support of the hand on the water [34]. On the lateral axis, the wrist have a tendency to

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 74 Annie Rouard

move outward after the hand entry, to return to the medial axis of the body during the central
part of the stroke to finish the push in the outward direction. On the vertical axis, the hand
moved down until the middle part of the stroke and up until the hand exit.
The sculling movements allowed the hand to move through a greater distance and/or
speed thereby conducting forces to be applied longer and/or greater in each stroke [32, 61,
86]. More, sculling actions may involve the large muscle groups to be used more effectively
than when the hand is pulled straight back.
Different parameters could influence the 3D hand path such as the body roll, or breathing
conditions. Simulation studies indicated that the sculling hand‘s motion is related to the body
roll [73] that was confirmed by experimental studies [57]. At the opposite, Payton and
Mullineaux [73] concluded that body roll does not contribute to the production of lateral hand
speed during the central part of the stroke reducing the hand speed about 46%. More, the
authors did not observed significant differences in length, depth and width of the hand path
when swimming with and without breathing.
In fact, the sculling hand motion may be produced by the trunk rotators and incorporated
into the natural rolling actions which accompany breathing and hand exit. Such a technique
may be mechanically and physiologically more efficient [16].
The elbow movement could also influence the hand path since Payton and Mullineaux
[73] noted that for a same body roll, the elbow flexion reduced the vertical and lateral
components of the hand velocity because the decrease of the hand‘s radius of rotation.
Contrary to the hand, the elbow presented reduced 3D sculling movements [32]. On the
antero-posterior axis, the elbow stayed fixed during the central part of the stroke allowing the
body to overcross the hand-forearm paddle (Figure 5). This relative fixity of the elbow
appeared to be determining of the propulsion efficiency [14].
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Figure 5. Elbow and hip trajectories (mean, SD) on the antero-posterior axis (adapted from [32]).

The simultaneously kinematics of the joints allowed to study the intra-limbs coordination.
In this way, Duclos, et al. [36] observed that during the motor phase, the simultaneous
displacement of the upper limb segments characterising of national-level swimmers was
replaced by a disto-proximal coordination for the Olympic swimmers. For them, the hand was
the 1st segment to move followed by the forearm and the arm. The disto-proximal
coordination of these joints would improve the transferring force from the more distal

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 Biomechanical Evaluation of Freestyle Swimming 75

segment (the hand) to the more proximal one (the trunk). Recent studies quantified the
contribution of the shoulder adduction velocity in the hand velocity during the pull phase
[93]. Inverse contribution was observed during the push phase with an abduction of the
shoulder associated to elbow extension. These results underlined the main role of the shoulder
in the production of the hand velocity and consequently in the swimming propulsion.
Concerning the inter-limb coordination, Deschodt et al. [34] showed the influence of leg
actions on the arms movements. They compared the hand trajectory and the hip velocity in
swimming with and without the legs using one and both arms. They observed that the hand
path was less modified when adding the other arm then when adding the leg kicks (Figure 6).
Results indicated a 10% gain for the maximal velocity when swimming with the legs and 4%
when swimming with both arms. Leg participation mainly resulted in significant greater
forward hand movement and lower backward one with no modification of the maximal depth.
Results indicated also stronger negative correlation between the maximal backward
coordinate of the hand and the hip velocity when using the legs. The authors concluded that
the kick legs could either contribute to the body propulsion or improve the arm propulsive
action by limiting the slipping movement of the hand.
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Figure 6. Influence of the contro-lateral arm and of the legs on the hand path in the sagital plane (Oy
horizontal axis, Oz vertical axis). Subjects swam in freestyle with one arm without legs (1A), one arm
with legs (1AL), two arms without legs (2A), normal (Free).The comparison of the up line to the down
one give information about the influence of the legs on the hand path and the comparison of the left
column to the right one, on the influence of the contro-lateral arm. maxF, maxB, maxD are respectively
the maximal Forward, Backward, Depth coordinates (adapted from [32]).

Most of theses studies concerned males swimmers. Few studies attempted to compare
males and females hand paths although many authors observed lower swimming velocities for

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 76 Annie Rouard

the females associated to lower stroke length with no significant differences for stroke
duration [28]. The lower velocity of the women seems to be associated to changes in hand
path as observed by Deschodt, et al. [31] on 10 male and 8 female top-level swimmers.
Females were characterised by lower depth (maxD), lower lateral sculls (lat scull), higher
back slip (maxB) of the hand and the elbow (Figure 7) with no significant difference for the
time durations excepted that they presented greater forward glide time. All these differences
highlighted lower force capacity for the women.

Figure 7. Maximal hand forward (maxF), backward (maxB), depth (maxD) coordinates and amplitude
of the lateral displacement (lat scull) for 10 male and 8 female top-level swimmers (adapted from [31]).

Similar results were observed when comparing short and long distance swimmers. Sprint
swimmers (≤200m) presented deeper pulling pattern than distance ones (>200m) and greater
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knee bending during the kick increasing the range of the foot motion. Consequently the
propulsion from the legs was greater for sprint swimmers conducting to a higher position of
the body [14] with a lower body roll during the beginning of the stroke [16].

1.2. The Kinetics

The improvement of the swimming performance for the last several decades is related to
the greater muscular strength and endurance, greater propulsive force, and lower drag.
The main questions are how the strength capacity and/or the strength endurance are
necessary to perform in swimming? How the technical ability allows the swimmers to use his
strength capacity in the production of propulsive force? What kind of propulsive force to
swim faster?
Consequently, it could be useful to evaluate strength capacities and forces in swimming.
The forces evaluation is different in dry land compared to water conditions.

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 Biomechanical Evaluation of Freestyle Swimming 77

1.2.1. Dry-land Conditions

Maximal voluntary contractions (MVC) in isometric conditions (i.e. maximal isometric
force) was measured to evaluate the strength capacity as in all other sports. Because of the
fixity of the segments, the test setting is easy with a high degree of reproducibility and the
possibility to evaluate each group of muscles. Swimming velocity appeared strongly related
to the rate of force development (RFD) especially for the shoulder and trunk muscles [35].
The relation between the isometric force and the swimming velocity decreased with the
increase of swimming distance. No significant differences for MVC and RFD were observed
between top level and poor swimmers even higher correlations between swimming velocity
and RFD-MVC were noted for low level swimmers. Consequently, isometric force and
development of the force are determinant parameters of the swimming velocity for subjects
with low technical capacity.
The isometric force measurement was also used to evaluate the bilateral deficit (BD). BD
could be defined as the phenomenon that during a simultaneous contraction of both
extremities, the single limb produced less force than during unilateral contraction. Comparing
breaststroke and butterfly swimmers with back and crawl strokes ones, Strass, et al. [92]
observed greater unilateral and bilateral maximal isometric forces for the simultaneous
swimmers than for the alternative ones (Figure 8).
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Figure 8. maximal unilateral (right, left) and bilateral forces, differences between the bilateral forces
and the sum of right and left forces for swimmers of alternative strokes (crawl-backstroke) and
simultaneous ones (breaststroke and butterfly) (from [92]).

Because isometric force evaluation is limited to static condition, different ergometers

were developed to record the forces and power capacities, the subject simulating the
swimming movement in dry land condition (Figure 9).

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 78 Annie Rouard

Figure 9. example of ergometers to simulate the arm-pulling and the leg-kicking (from [95]).

Such ergometers allowed measuring peak force and mean force during the pull. They also
recorded or imposed the velocity in order to calculate the power (Force*Velocity).Greater
power were observed for the arms than for the legs [95] even results were strongly different
from one study to another due to the poor standardisation of the power measures and/or
testing setup and/or subjects characteristics (Table 1).

Table 1. examples of arm and leg power using different evaluation tools.

Authors year Method Arm power (W) Leg power (W)

Sharp et al 1982 Swim bench 36-490
Hawley et al 1992 Arm cranking 36.69
Takahashi et al 1992 Swim bench 370.29
Johnson et al 1993 Swim bench 331-647
Swaine & Doyle 1999 Swim bench 274.8 197.8
Shimonagata et al 2003 Swim bench 384.45
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All these testing procedures were also used in the training process. Different authors
found a strong relationship between the increase of swimming performance and the
improvement of force and power acquired with this kind of training.
Even these methods did not reproduce sufficiently the swimming movement, they
presented the advantage to better control the load and the muscles involved.

1.2.2. Water Conditions

In water conditions, as for kinematics, direct and indirect methods were available. In his
review article, Miyashita [65] remained that the swimmer‘s body is accelerated when the
propulsive force (Fp) exceeds the drag force (Fd) and decelerated when Fp is lower to Fd. Fp
is mainly related to the size, the shape and the velocity of the swimmer‘s limbs when Fd
depend mainly on factors such as size, shape, position, and the velocity of the body.
Consequently, it could be useful to evaluate Fp and Fd. Direct measurements were used to
evaluate the forces and swimming power starting from the tethered one to the ½ tethered,
following by the hand pressure recordings, the Measure of the Active Drag (MAD system). In
the full tethered test, the subject swam in stationary condition against a resistance exerted by a
cable-pulley system (Figure 10). The resistance for which the swimmer velocity is zero
corresponded to the maximal pulling force of the swimmer (i.e. the strength capacity in water)

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 Biomechanical Evaluation of Freestyle Swimming 79

[1, 102]. A high reliability of the full tethered force was observed from day to day and from
morning to afternoon and within the test protocol confirming the validity of this method [54].

Figure 10. A tethered swimming apparatus and an example of curve for a top swimmer (from [81]).

Different authors concluded on the alteration of the swimming technique in tethered

condition [60] even similar muscular recruitments were found in full tethered and free
swimming [12]. In regard to the kinematics differences between free ant full tethered
swimming, Kjendlie and Thorswald [54] questioned whether the tethered force measurement
could be transferable to normal swimming. Nerveless, the force measured in full tethered
swimming could be a suitable tool to evaluate the effect of training as Arellano and Pardillo
[3] noted a significant increase of the tethered force after a training season.
The technical limits of the full tethered swim conducted many authors to develop ½
tethered methods allowing the swimmer to swim at their maximal velocity against resistance.
The apparatus is close to the tethered one with an adjustable resistance imposed to the
swimmer. The force versus velocity curve is obtained to calculate the power
(P(W)=F(N)*V(m/s)) (Figure 11). The ½ tethered swimming could be a useful tool to
evaluate the performance, the technical ability, the specific strength and the effects of training
with high correlation between ½ tethered force, power, and swimming velocity [102, 105].
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Figure 11. An example of power curve (adapted from [6]).

As for the dry-land force measurements, the variety of used methods conducted to a wide
range of power values (Table 2).

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 80 Annie Rouard

Table 2. Examples of swimming power results measured with different methods.

Authors year methods Arm power (W) Leg power (W)

Costill et al 1986 ½ tethered 43.6
Hollander et al 1988 MAD 127.4 14.6
Johnson et al 1993 Power rack 235.44
Swaine & Doyle 1999 ½ tethered 45.1 9.5
Shimonagata et al 2003 ½ tethered 65.68

For Wirtz, et al. [105], the slope of the load versus swim time curve reflected the
performance level with lower values after training sessions indicating an improvement of
physical ability. Similar conclusions were obtained in flume condition by Voronstov et al.
[102] who noted that the individual pulling force (PF) vs. flow velocity curves reflected the
particular specific strength of swimmers which changed with training. The value of PF at
higher velocities characterised the ability to create effective propulsive force during
swimming.
The ½ tethered conditions presented few limits since Maglischo, et al. [60] noted changes
in technical parameters with longer time duration of aquatic stroke (especially for the final
portion) associated to slower angular and backward hand velocities compared to free
swimming. More, the testing distance is limited to the length of the pool.
To limit the inconvenient of the cable-pulley system, Kolmogorov and Duplisheva [55]
proposed a new method based on a known additional drag attached to the swimmer. The
maximal velocities with and without the added drag were measured. Assuming that the
swimmer delivered a constant mechanical power output (P), the active drag was calculated for
both conditions. Results indicated large individual values either for active drag force and
power which could be related to the technical ability of the swimmer and much less on the
individual anthropometry.
For training session, coaches replaced the extra loads by a parachute which constituted an
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

added resistance not well-controlled. Significant decreases of stroke velocity, stroke rate and
stroke length were noted while swimming with a parachute [58] as observed in ½ tethered
condition [60]. For this reason, these methods could not be too used in training session.
To avoid the constraints of the cable pulley system, Hollander, et al. [46] developed the
Measure Active Drag (MAD) system. The subject swam pushing on pads fixed on rod
mounted 0.8m below the water surface along the length of the pool. At each push on the pad,
the force is transmitted to a force transducer fixed at the end of the rod. Because the subject
swam at constant speed, the resultant force is equal to zero and consequently the propulsive
force recorded with the transducer is equal to the drag one. The main results indicated that the
swimming velocity is related to the propelling efficiency and mechanical power output which
could change with training. The propelling efficiency (power to overcome drag/total power
output) is higher in top swimmers than in triathletes ones and could be estimated by the
distance per stroke in ecological conditions [100]. Other results indicated a small contribution
of the legs in the total power output [47].
Even the MAD has largely contributed to give informations about the propulsive and
drag forces, the system presented three main limits: 1) The hand is fixed as the swimmer push
on a stable block. Consequently, one of the main efficacy component of the movement is
avoided (i.e. search and keep a support on the water), 2) Because of the pad, the hand

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 Biomechanical Evaluation of Freestyle Swimming 81

direction is limited to the plan of the pad (i.e. the forward-backward movement) which
constituted a great limit as many studies showed sculling hand movements in 3D, 3) The
length of the hand stroke is constrained as the swimmer has to move the hand from one pad to
the successive one from one stroke to the other. This could be an important limit as different
authors showed the relationships between the length hand path and the stroke velocity. The
cost and the time setup constituted other limits of this methodology.
To avoid the constraints of such apparatus (full, ½ tethered and MAD), different authors
developed other methods allowing free swimming based on pressure hand measurements and
kinematics data.
The hand pressure was measured with a strain gauge fixed in the center of a paddle [59,
94]. The reliability of the method required to consider the pressure difference between the
palmar and dorsal surfaces of the hand to eliminate the hydrostatic component. One sensor is
limited as Thayer [98] observed different pressures from one point of the hand to another
suggesting that 4 pairs of points (i.e. 8 points) are required for estimating the mean pressure
difference and the hydrodynamic force acting on the hand.
Three pressure peaks were observed during the cycle with a maximal value at the end of
the aquatic stroke [59, 94] (Figure 12).
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Figure 12. Pressure curves for the different phases of 3 consecutive strokes (adapted from [94]).

The pressure curve reflected the swimmer‘s technical ability especially for the pull-push
phases. For example, Svec [94] observed four different pressure curves according to the level
of the swimmer (Figure 13). Swimmer 1 was not able to create a great pressure alongside the
stroke contrary to subject 4. Swimmer 2 loosed too pressure when the hand moved from the
inward (PI) to the outward scull (PS) when the time of high pressure during the push phase is
too short for Subject 3.

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 82 Annie Rouard

Figure 13. Pressure curves for 4 swimmers during the different phases of the stroke (from [94]).

Because the pressure method is more ―light‖ to estimate propulsive force than
dynamometric one, it could be a useful tool to train proper stroke with an immediate
diagnostic allowing a continuous biofeedback [19].
All these methods gave only the resultant force acting on the hand. In regard to the
sculling movements of the hands observed in top level swimmers, the propulsion was not
only produced by drag forces opposite to the hand action but also by the lift force [26].
According to the Bernoulli‘s principle and comparing the hand to an airfoil, the lift forces
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resulted from a difference in pressure between the palmar and dorsal faces of the hand as the
fluid travels further and faster around the more curved side (the dorsal back) of the hand than
the less curved side (the palmar front). The lift force acted perpendicular to the direction of
the hand motion and was considered as a determinant propulsive force [26]. Consequently,
the sculling hand movements (up-down, left-right and forward-backward) allowed creating
drag and lift forces.
To quantify the different components of the hand forces, Schleihauf [86] developed a
new indirect method based upon kinematics data. First, he investigated forces on plastic resin
hand models in an open-water channel. The artificial hands were connected to a strain gauge
to record the lift and drag forces exerted by the fluid on the hand in regard to the steady flow
fluid velocity, the pitch (or attack) angle and the sweepback angle (Figure 14). The sweep
back angle defined the orientation of the flow vector when projected on the hand plane. The
pitch angle is the angle between the hand plane and the flow direction. The drag and lift
coefficients (CD and CL) were determined for different flow velocity, fingers, and hand
positions.

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 Biomechanical Evaluation of Freestyle Swimming 83

Figure 14. Sweep back (A) and pitch or attack (B) angles of the hand (adapted from [86])

In the second step, Schleihauf developed 3D kinematic software to analyse the

underwater stroke. From the 3D kinematics, the hand position (attack angle sweep back
angle) and the hand velocity were computed. The corresponding CL and CD were then applied
to calculate the lift and drag force components in swimming from the following equations:
L= ½ ρV2 CLS

D=½ ρV2 CDS

where ρ is the density of the water, V is the hand velocity, CL, CD are the coefficients of
lift and drag corresponding to the sweep back and attack hand angles, S is the hand plane
area.
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Figure 15. Hand forces: Lift (L), Drag (D), Resultant (R), efficient component (RE) for one top
swimmer. (A) bottom view in the middle part of the stroke, (B) side view at the end of the push, (C) R
and RE forces curves during the aquatic stroke. For (A) and (B) the hand velocity (V) and the pitch
angle (AP) was précised. (from [89]).

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 84 Annie Rouard

For each hand position, the lift (L) and drag (D) forces were summed to get the resultant
force (R). The propulsive force (RE: efficient component) is the projection of the resultant
(R) on the antero-posterior axis (i.e. the axis of the swimmer body displacement) (Figure 15).
The method has been firstly validated by a vertical scull experiment. The swimmer
carried a load and must maintain a vertical equilibrium by moving the hands [86]. The hand
forces are calculated according to the method previously described. The validation was also
done by comparing calculated resultant force with a tethered force [86]. More recently, the
calculated resultant force was compared to the force measured with the MAD system [9]. The
two methods produced comparable values with a difference of about 15%, confirming the
reliability of the Schleihauf‘s method.
The first results indicated that swimmers produced either one or two peaks of force which
can not be maintained more than 0.15s [63]. From the different forces, Schleihauf, et al. [89]
calculated different index. The force distribution index corresponded to the location of the
three largest RE forces expressed in percentage of the total duration. Results indicated that the
largest RE occurred near the end of the arm pull (B, Figure 15) as observed by Loetz, et al.
[59] with the pressure sensors. The components and the resultant values depended on the
hand position (Figure 16). The diagonality index corresponded to the angle between the
negative hand motion and the forward direction at the first, second and third largest RE
values. Results were between 40° and 60° indicating not pure side to side and up to down
hand movements which corresponded to a 90° value.
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Figure 16. Hand forces (Lift-L, Drag-D, Resultant-R, Efficient component-RE) for 2 subjects at the end
of the push. Subject A has a greater RE (greater forward propulsion) than B due to the hand position
and velocity (from [88]).

Different studies attempted to quantify the contribution of lift and drag components in the
swimming propulsion [85, 89]. Lift appeared maximal for a pitch angle between 35° and 45°
whatever the sweep back angle when the maximum drag was obtained when the hand is
perpendicular to the flow. To quantify the lift-drag contribution, Schleihauf, et al. [89]
proposed the scull index expressed as the ratio of lift and drag forces. For the whole stroke,
the drag appeared as the main contributor even the predominance of lift or drag component
depended on the part of the stroke [85] (Figure 17).

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 Biomechanical Evaluation of Freestyle Swimming 85

Figure 17. Lift and drag forces during one stroke for one Olympic swimmer. For this Olympic
swimmer, the lift predominated during the central part of the stroke when the drag was higher to the lift
at the end of the stroke (from [85]).

The predominance of drag force was recently confirmed by a new theoretical approach
based upon Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) [64]. The forces calculation was not based
on experimental kinematics but on 3D hand-forearm mathematical model simulating the fluid
flow around the limbs. The simulation corroborated maximal drag values for an attack angle
of 90° and maximal lift for a 45°one.
The contribution of lift and drag forces is also influenced by the position of the thumb
and the fingers [86]. Abduction-adduction of the thumb has greater effect on the lift force
production than on the drag one, thumb abduction allowing to increase the lift component [8].
This result was confirmed by the simulation approach (CFD) (for a complete review, see
[64]). Conversely, the drag force increased with a small finger spread with no influence on
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the lift one either from an experimental approach or from the simulation approach CFD [64,
86].
The forces calculations were also used to evaluate the arm and forearm contributions.
Schleihauf, et al. [87] estimated that the forearm few contributed to the propulsion compared
to the hand because the hand moved at a greater velocity than the forearm. Berger, et al. [8]
completed the Schleihauf‘s model and concluded that the hands are the main contributors for
the generation of lift force.
Whatever, the combination of lift and drag allowed the swimmers to produce the
maximum propelling force with the minimum energy consumption. Creating lift force, the
swimmer transferred less energy to the water and consequently minimised the ―wasted"
energy [100]. Today, the contribution of the lift force is still open when taking into
consideration the forces associated to the vortices.
Even the results gave an excellent insight into the reality with a non-invasive approach
largely investigated in race conditions, the method presented some limits such as its cost,
work intensity and inability to be interactively used. The main limit concerned the assumption
of a steady flow condition around the body [49]. For high limb velocities, the water is moving
unsteadily generating a turbulent wake or rotating water masses (vortex) behind the limb [5,

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 86 Annie Rouard

24]. Consequently, the flow could not be considered as long as steady flow and may the
Schleihauf‘s method inappropriate for the high swimming velocities.
The analysis of vortices generated and 3D analysis of the pulling path seems the most
adequate method to develop a new understanding of swimming propulsion. New Lift and
Drag equations were done for these unsteady conditions which took into account not only the
velocity but also the time-acceleration data and the acceleration history. The lift force was
increased through the sculling motion using a ―leading edge vortex‖ generating propulsive
force [49].
To resume, the dry land forces evaluation could be a useful tool to evaluate the strength
capacity of group of muscles with a high reliability when the water forces evaluation allowed
quantifying the specific propulsive force with more complex methods. The complementarities
of the two approaches lead to compare the results and to question about the relationships
between strength capacity and propulsive force. The results could also support the training
process as the swimmer trains both in water and dry conditions.
Greater power values were observed in dry land condition (Table 1) than in water (Table
2) [48, 91]. Moreover, Swaine and Doyle [95] found strong differences in the ratios of the
arms and legs power when testing on swim bench and in ½ tethered swim. They concluded
that the differences could be due to the lack of specific of the leg-kicking in the dry land
simulated condition as the measure were only realised in the vertical plane.
Even the difference of results, many authors focused on the relationships between dry
land and water forces and power. Fomitchenko [38] demonstrated that the relationships
between the strength and the swimming velocity depended of the age and/or the qualification
of the swimmer. He concluded that swimming velocity in young athletes is limited by the
level of their general and specific strength development when the transfer of high muscle
strength developed during dry land appeared limited into pulling force during swimming
[102]. To quantify these relationships, Rouard, et al. [81] calculated the correlations and
established different ratios between arm isometric force (Fiso), maximal full tethered force
(Fpmax) and force (FP) in power test in ½ tethered condition. For world swimmers, high
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

correlations were obtained between Fiso, Fpmax and Fp indicating that strength is required to
provide propulsive force and power. Fiso appeared as a necessary but not sufficient condition
to swim faster. The main problem is to adapt the strength capacity to the water constraints
referring to the technical ability. In this way, the ratio Fpmax/ Fiso could be a good indicator of
the technical ability. A low ratio indicated that even the subject has high strength capacity, he
is not able to transfer it in the swimming movement.
Many authors concluded that swimming velocity is strongly related to power production
[43, 48]. As the maximal power is related to 1/3 of the maximal force and ½ of the maximal
velocity, the swimmer has to adjust his maximal propulsive force to be combined with the
velocity in order to produce swimming power. Consequently, the ratio FP/ Fpmax could be a
good indicator to evaluate how the swimmer is able to adjust his propulsive force in the
power production [81]. A low ratio indicated that the swimmer strongly decreased his force to
produce the power. Even all the studied swimmers were at the world level, results indicated
large individual differences (Figure 18).

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 Biomechanical Evaluation of Freestyle Swimming 87

Figure 18. Maximal isometric force (Fiso30°), Maximal full tethered force (Fpmax), Force produced
during the power test in ½ tethered condition (Fp), ratios Fpmax/Fiso and Fp/Fpmax for 2 world
swimmers. Even Subject A presented higher strength capacity compared to Subject B (Fiso), the ratios
Fpmax/Fiso are similar indicating that Subject A did not optimise the transfer of his strength capacity in
the swimming force production. Subject B presented a higher ratio Fp/Fpmax indicating that he is more
able to sustain a high level of propulsive force in the power production (from [81]).

To conclude, the ratios Fpmax/ Fiso and FP/ Fpmax could be useful to evaluate the swimmer‘s
insufficiencies (low isometric force and/or bad technical abilities) and to control the effects of
training. The relationships between dry-land and swimming forces could support the idea that
dry-land and swimming were complementary training process. Even the swimming power
appeared specific, the swimming training condition did not allow to work specifically one
muscle group and/or to counterpart the unbalance of groups of muscles (antero vs. posterior
muscles, right vs. left, proximal vs. distal) and /or to focus on the force level and/or on the
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velocity of the movement. Dry-land training allowed to isolate and to control all these
parameters. More, the dry-land force and power evaluation could be a useful and easier tool
to evaluate power capacity of the swimmer, especially among the training period.
For many years, such kinetics and kinematics evaluations lead to improve the knowledge
on the propulsion in swimming. The methods were also used to evaluate different technical
data such as, 1-the stroke phases, 2-the determinant velocity parameters, 3-the symmetry of the
right -left patterns, 4- the effects of fatigue on swimming movement.

2. THE USE OF KINEMATICS, KINETICS, AND EMG

IN THE EVALUATION OF TECHNICAL ABILITY

2.1. Stroke Phases

The division of the stroke into phases is necessary in order to compare one stroke to another
and one subject to another. Except for the recovery phase, different methods attempted to
determine the different parts of the aquatic stroke based upon kinematics parameters such as
angles, characteristic hand points and/or hip velocity.The phases were previously determined

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 88 Annie Rouard

from the arm-trunk angle in the sagital plane [44, 78]. The calculation of the Index of
Coordination (IdC) was also based on a similar decomposition (see chapter IdC). The phases
corresponded to P1 (catch phase) from the hand entry to an arm-trunk angle of 45°, P2 (pull)
from 45° to 90°, P3 (push) from 90° to 135°, P4 (end of push) from 135° to the hand exit, P5
from the hand exit to the next hand entry. No significant differences were observed in time
phases decomposition comparing males and females, regional to international level swimmers
[78] (Figure 19).

Figure 19. Phases of the stroke in the sagital plane (P1-catch: from the hand entry to an arm-trunk angle
of 45°; P2-pull: from 45° to 90°, P3-Push: from 90° to 135°, P4-final push from 135° to the hand exit,
P5 from the hand exit to the next hand entry) and durations (mean, SD) of the different phases (% of the
total stroke time) for males (M) and females (F) swimmers ranging from local (loc), national (nat) to
international (inter) level. All the groups were homogeneous (small SD) (from [78]).

Hand forces were computed according to this phase decomposition [85]. For all the
forces (Drag, Lift, and Resultant), the values increased from the beginning (P1) to the end of
the stroke with maximal values during the final push (P4). For all the phases, the drag
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component is higher than the lift one with large individual variations (Figure 20).

Figure 20. Lift, Drag and Resultant forces (mean, SD) during the different phases of the
stroke in 9 top level swimmers (P1 from the hand entry to an arm-trunk angle of 45°; P2 from
45° to 90°, P3 from 90° to 135°, P4 from 135° to the hand exit, P5 from the hand exit to the
next hand entry) (from [85]).

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 Biomechanical Evaluation of Freestyle Swimming 89

The arm-trunk angle phase decomposition is limited because based only on the
movement in the sagital plane. The improvement of kinematics methods lead to consider the
3D movements of the hand in the phase decomposition.
Based upon Schleihauf‗s method [86], different authors proposed aquatic phases from the
characteristic points of the hand trajectory in the frontal plane. Most of these studies
considered five aquatic phases: the hand entry, the down-sweep, the in-sweep, the out-sweep
and the up-sweep. The stroke began with the hand entry in which the hand moved forward
stretching the upper arm. Then, during the down-sweep phase, the hand moved downward,
backward and slightly outward to place the arm-hand paddle in a propulsive position. This
phase is following by the in-sweep phase in which the hand moved back and to the midline of
the body. Then during the out-sweep phase, the hand moved essentially in an outward
direction. During the final upsweep phase, the hand described a backward-upward and
outward movement away from the midline of the body. Deschodt [32] précised these phases
according to the 3D hand coordinates (Figure 21).
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Figure 21. phases determination from the hand coordinates on the horizontal axis (Oy) with the
maximal Forward coordinate (maxF) and the maximal Backward one (maxB), on the transversal axis
(Ox) with the maximal Internal coordinate (maxI) and the two outward ones (O1 and O2) and on the
vertical axis (Oz) with the maximal Depth (maxD). For example, the insweep phase started from the O1
to maxI (adapted from [32]).

As observed for the phases in the sagital plane, the time phase decomposition was similar
from local to international swimmers [32] (Table 3).

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 90 Annie Rouard

Table 3. Spatial and temporal coordinates of the characteristics points of the hand
trajectory (F maximal forward, B maximal backward, D maximal depth, O1 first
outsweep, I maximal internal coordinate, O2 second outsweep). The time is expressed in
% of the total time of the stroke (N=60) (adapted from [32]).

Points F B D O1 I O2
Time (%) 43.4+10.2 51.1 +9.9 64 +8.5 50 +8.0 20.83+4.3 29.71 +6.0
Amplitude(m) 0.5+2.7 0.23+0.2 0.73+0.1 -0.08+0.06 0.08+0.05 0.26+0.04

For all subjects, the entry phase presented the longer time duration. Whatever the force
measurement method, no propulsive force was observed during this phase. More a negative
efficient resultant (RE) was obtained during this phase (i.e. RE is opposite to the body
translation). If the subject swam only this arm, he would move backward (Figure 22).
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Figure 22. Resultant (R) and efficient component (RE) during the crawl stroke (adapted from [88]).

Among these studies on 3D stroke phases, different authors underlined the determinant
function of the in-sweep phase. For Cappaert and Van Heest [15], the elbow angle during the
in-sweep phase is determinant of the force production for the whole stroke, especially for the
final phase. Higher force during the finish phase was associated with a more bent elbow in the
in-sweep one. The bent elbow could influence the finish phase by 1- setting the hand in proper

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 Biomechanical Evaluation of Freestyle Swimming 91

position, 2-placing the arm in a position to get more muscle activity from the internal rotators
(latissimus dorsi). The authors concluded that a straight back pulling motion (elbow quasi-
extended) is not as effective as sculling motion in the in-sweep.
For Prichard [76], the higher transversal hand speed during the in-sweep is produced by
body roll. At the opposite, Payton et al. [74] observed that the body roll acted to reduce hand
speed during this phase. The authors concluded that motions at the gleno-humeral joint
(extension and horizontal flexion of the shoulder) and elbow (flexion) are the main
contributors to hand speed during the in-sweep and consequently to the propulsion in front
crawl.
The final up-sweep phase is the shorter with the higher hand velocity and consequently
the maximal forces [89] (Figure 22).
Recently, the 3D hand phases were completed in taking into account the vortex theory.
Four kinematic portions were proposed: 2 translational phases (in-sweep out-sweep) with the
hands moving through the water and 2 rotational phases (pronation and supination) with the
hands quickly rotating and reversing [5]. The authors underlined the importance of the
changes from the in-sweep to the out-sweep [49]. During this transition, the palm of the
swimmer reversed the orientation and consequently separated the flow creating a wake. The
swimmer could extract energy from its own wake to generate positive lift and thus increasing
his propulsion.

Most of these phase studies are conducted in a descriptive way. For coaches and
swimmers, the main goal to improve the performance is to better understand how swimming
velocity is related to such kinematics and kinetics parameters.
Whatever the phase decomposition, the main muscular activations were observed during
the central part of the stroke. Using a new telemetric system, Rouard, et al. [82, 83] noted the
greater activations for the pull phase when the lower one was during the recovery phase for
all the studied muscles (M. Biceps brachii, M. triceps brachii, M. flexor carpi ulnaris, M.
deltoideus pars anterior and medialis, M. brachioradialis). The flexor muscles (biceps brachii
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and flexor carpi) appeared the most activated alongside the stroke. Greater reciprocal
activations of the M.triceps brachii in regard to the M. biceps brachii was observed during the
pull phase than of the M. biceps brachii to the M. triceps brachii during the push phase. The
decrease of the co-activation could be related to the decrease of the load (i.e, the water drag)
encountered by the upper arm during the crawl cycle. Just after the hand entry, water behind
the upper arm was still. As the subject pushed, the velocity of the water increased and
consequently presented less resistance to the upper arm movement.
Similar results were obtained with the 3D sculling movement‘s decomposition with the
higher recruitments during the in-sweep phase [23]. The prime movers during this phase are
the M. biceps brachii and the M. brachioradialis. The in-sweep flexion and supination is
supported by the M. flexor carpi ulnaris (and forearm flexors) to stabilize the hand. The hand
fixity is related to high co-activation of the M flexor (FCU) and extensor carpi (ECU) [18]
(Figure 23). As observed for the triceps-biceps co-activations, the antagnonist activity
appeared greater during the in-sweep than during the final out-sweep one due to the greater
water load supported by the swimmer‘s hand during the in-sweep phase.

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Figure 23. EMG (mean, SD) of the M flexor carpi ulnaris and extensor carpi ulnaris during the in-
sweep and out-sweep phases (adapted from [18]).

At the opposite, the shoulder rotators muscles were not recruited during one specific
phase. They presented higher activations through all the 3D aquatic phases [69] (Figure 24).
The constant activation within the stroke could be related to the different functions of these
muscles as they can act as propulsor and/or as stabilizer of the shoulder. Consequently, the
shoulder muscles appeared strongly required and training process required specific attention
to avoid shoulder instability and/or impingement problems.
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Figure 24. EMG (mean, SD) of the rotator muscles (external: M. supraspinatus, infraspinatus and teres
minor, internal: M subscapularis and pectoralis major pars clavicular) during the three main phases of
the aquatic stroke (adapted from [69]).

To resume, whatever the phase decomposition (push-pull versus sculling), the central
portion of the stroke clearly appeared the most soliciting phase, especially for the upper limb
flexors and rotator cuff muscles.

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 Biomechanical Evaluation of Freestyle Swimming 93

2.2. Relationships between the Swimming Velocity and Kinematics,

Kinetics or EMG Parameters

2.2.1.-Relationships Between the Swimming Velocity and the Kinematics Parameters

According to the 3D phases decomposition, Deschodt [32] calculated the correlations
between the swimming velocity and both spatial and temporal coordinates of the different
points of the hand trajectory. Results indicated that the velocity is related to each component
of the hand trajectory more for the spatial than for the temporal coordinates. Best swimmers
were characterised by shorter duration of the first out-sweep phase and longer in-sweep one.
In regard to the spatial coordinates, top swimmers presented greater in-sweep, forward
displacement and depth. They reduced the non-propulsive phase (entry) and increase the most
propulsive one (in-sweep). This reflected that they are more able to resist to the water drag
which is very important during the in-sweep phase (maximal depth for the hand-forearm
paddle perpendicular to the swimmer displacement). These results highlighted the importance
of the lateral hand movements in the production of swimming velocity.
The correlation gave also information about the evolution of kinematics parameters with
the increase of swimming performance. The representation of the relation between swimming
velocity and spatial coordinates suggested that the improvement of the hand trajectory from
local to international level is related to spatial but not temporal changes. More, the evolution
appeared to not be a continuous process (Figure 25).
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Figure 25. Relationship between the swimming velocity and spatial and temporal coordinates of the
maximal forward hand point for 60 swimmers ranging from local to international level. The temporal
coordinate is expressed in percentage of the total time of the stroke (adapted from [32]).

This example showed that the time duration of the maximum forward point is not
influenced by the expertise level with values similar for the lowest to the fastest swimmers
either for absolute values or normalised in percentage of the total time of the stroke. The
improvement of swimming performance is not associated to changes in time-distribution of
the hand trajectory. At the opposite, the swimming velocity is significantly related to the
spatial coordinate (r = 0.53). Even this significant relationship, slower swimmers have the
lower forward displacement when faster swimmers did not present the higher one. Swimmers
with the intermediated velocity (around 1.8m.s-1) presented a large range from low to highest

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 94 Annie Rouard

forward values. This result suggested that even the swimmer trained every day (local
swimmers), the access to the international level required spatial adjustments of the hand
trajectory.
Similar results were obtained for the elbow. Best swimmers were more able to keep their
elbows high during the catch and the beginning of the in-sweep phase contrary to non-elite
swimmers [32].
The ratio displacement/duration (i.e. velocity) and the ratio velocity/time (i.e.
acceleration) were also determinant parameters of the swimming velocity, best swimmers
being characterised by higher hand acceleration [8].
Other correlations were obtained between the swimming velocity fluctuations and the
mean velocity, the less velocity fluctuations leading to the higher average velocity [65] with
lower energy cost [39].

2.2.2. Relationships Between Swimming Velocity and the Kinetics Parameters

The swimming velocity appeared to be related either to the isometric strength of the arms
[38, 48] or to the dry arm power [43, 48]. For short distance, significant correlations were
observed between the 50m swimming speed and the power either of the arms or of the legs,
both for males and females (Figure 26) underlying the importance of the legs in the sprint
velocity [43].
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Figure 26. Relationships between the 50m-swimming speeds and the arm power and the leg power for
males (M) and females (F) swimmers (from [43]).

Dopsaj, et al. [35] completed these results in studying other mechanical parameters such
as the maximal force (Fmax), the time to reach maximum force (tFmax), the maximum value
of muscle involvement velocity (Cmax), the force impulse (ImpF) and the rate of force
development (RFD) for different muscles (knee extensors, trunk flexors and extensors, finger
flexors and shoulder flexors). The results showed that the sprint velocity is determined by the
ability of a muscle to develop the greatest force possible in time unit (explosive strength).
Authors noted that a high RFD for the trunk flexors is important for sprint swimming as these
muscles acted as stabilizers allowing to propel the body over the hand.

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 Biomechanical Evaluation of Freestyle Swimming 95

All these results underlined that dryland force and power capacities are required to swim
faster. Dry land capacities appeared as necessary but not sufficient conditions. The swimming
velocity seems to be more related to tests in water either for the maximum tethered force [53]
or the power obtained in 1/2 tethered conditions [25, 38, 48, 90]. More recently, moderate
correlations between the pulling force and the velocity were obtained in tethered condition
which decreased as the swimming distance increased to become insignificant for distance
over 400m [102]. In other words, the force became not determinant of the swimming velocity
for long distance races.
Concerning the races, peak forces were observed at the end of the stroke for World or
Olympic swimmers [63, 89]. The authors concluded that the final pushing is the main phase
responsible to propel the swimmer. Even the maximal force value was observed during this
phase, no correlations were obtained between the swimming velocity and the forces (drag,
lift, resultants, efficient component) during this phase for all values (peak, mean, integrated)
[85]. During the forward propulsion, the body over crossed the hand. At the time of peak
force, the body translation over the hand is close to its end (Figure 27). Consequently, even
the swimmer develop a high force at the end of the stroke, the consecutive hip displacement
will be limited. More, these results suggested that swimming propulsion is more related to
impulse (i.e. time * force distribution) than to high mean or integrated force values.
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Figure 27. Resultant force and forward body displacement during one stroke for one Olympic swimmer
(adapted from [85]).

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 96 Annie Rouard

2.2.3. Relationships between Swimming Velocity and EMG Parameters

Clarys et al. [22] found similarity in EMG patterns between competitive and non-
competitive swimmers with a significant difference in work intensity in trunk, pelvic and
lower limb muscles. The results were confirmed by Rouard, et al. [82] on 50 subjects ranging
from local to international swimmers. Great differences appeared between the three groups of
swimmers (local, national, international) even all of them trained each day. The best
swimmers appeared to present the lower muscular activations with a more selective
recruitment among the phases. They also reduced their reciprocal activation of the M. biceps
brachii and M triceps brachii during the pull and push phases (Figure 28).

Figure 28. Difference (EMG triceps –EMG biceps) (%) during the pull-push phases, for international,
national and local swimmers. Greater is the difference, lower is the co-activation (adapted from [82]).
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Moreover, D‘Acquisto, et al. [29] observed that for a given velocity, better swimmers
minimized the energy cost associated to lower muscular recruitment and higher hand forces.
This result may questionable the relationship between muscular activations and external
forces production. These relationships remained unclear because of the complexity of the
movement (uncontrolled changing loads, variations of muscle length and velocity, changes in
involving muscles…).
Similar results were observed for female swimmers with lower efficiency, e.g. similar
activation for lower body displacement and velocity (Figure 29) [82].
The correlation circle showed that the axis 2 is mainly defined by the hip displacement
during the stroke (number 2) and the swimming velocity (number 3) when the axis1 is
defined by EMG of all muscles over the stroke (numbers 6 to 10). The opposite position
between the swimming velocity and the EMG indicated that the greater velocity corresponded
to the lower activation. The subject‘s representation, issued from the correlation circle, clearly
illustrated this result. As the level of the swimmers decreased (from number 1 to number 30)
their position slipped from the right to the left indicating an increase of the EMGs.

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 Biomechanical Evaluation of Freestyle Swimming 97

Figure 29. Correlation circle (left) and subjects representation (right) of the Principal component
analysis (PCA) of the stroke parameters and EMG‘s for 30 males and 20 females, number 1 being the
best studied swimmer, number 30 the bad one [82].

Similar results were observed for the females (number 1 to 20 in circle) who are all
positioned under the axis1. This result indicated that for a given muscular activation, they
presented a lower velocity and. hip displacement during the stroke. Consequently, they are
less efficient (similar muscular activations for lower swimming velocity).
All these observations stress the importance of muscular control to reach the top level and
question about the correct use and specific training of muscles to improve performance in
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swimming the front crawl

As the control of the velocity is one of the main factors of the training load, the influence
of the velocity on the EMG patterns could be useful information. Rouard, et al. [84] did not
observe a linear relationship between the swimming velocity and the recruitments of the
upper arm muscles. Whatever the expertise level, the higher activity was observed for the
lowest and highest tested speed (respectively 75 and 100% of the maximum 100-m velocity).
The lower recruitments were obtained for the intermediate paces (85 and 95%). For these
velocities, the moderate recruitments could be related to a decrease of body drag resulting of
an increase of the body lift force due to greater legs kicking. Consequently, the upper arm
muscles develop less activity to propel the body through the water.
Few authors suggested that high swimming velocity is related to well balance left and
right arm pulling actions arms [39], but the relationships between swimming velocity and
symmetry of biomechanical parameters is still open.

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 98 Annie Rouard

2.3. Kinematics and Kinetics Evaluation of Right and Left

Symmetry Patterns

Symmetry could be defined as an exact correspondence between opposite halves of figure

or a form [41]. The symmetry has been studied for kinematics parameters (joints angles, 3D
angular momentum, hand trajectory) and pulling forces. Calculating the angular momentum
of the centrer of mass (HCM) on the 3 axes (sum of the angular momentum of each segment),
Cappaert and Van Heest [15] observed that the swimming economy appeared not related to
the mean HCM on the 3 axes but to the maximum values of HCM on the transversal and antero-
posterior axes. These results suggested that excessive limbs movements with the lack of
symmetry contributed to less efficient swimming. In this way, top swimmers were
characterised by symmetrical limbs patterns, determined for three points of the stroke, for
shoulder roll and upper arm angles except for the elbow joint [42]. To confirm these results,
Aujouannet [6] calculated the Absolute Symmetry Index (ASI) proposed in running [51]. ASI
was calculated for different key points of the hand path either for spatial or temporal
coordinates of world swimmers:

ASI = (│XR-XL│)/(0.5 * (XR+XL))*100 (%)

with XR, the coordinate of the right side and XL the corresponding coordinate for the left one
A zero value for ASI reflected perfect symmetry. Acceptable symmetry was considered
for an ASI <10% [45].

70
60
50
ASI(%)

40
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spatial
30 temporal
20
10
0
F

O
B

I
D

R
ax
ax

ax

ax

ax

B
m

ax
m

Figure 30. Absolute Symmetry Index for the maximal forward (maxF), backward (maxB), depth
(maxD), outward (maxO), inward (maxI) coordinates of the hand path and maximum body roll
(maxBR). The ASI was calculated both for the spatial and temporal coordinates (adapted from [6]).

A spatial symmetry (low ASI) associated to a temporal asymmetry was observed either
for the stroke parameters, or the different points of the hand trajectory or the body roll (Figure
30). Great individual variations were observed for the temporal asymmetry without any
correlation with the swimming velocity. The authors suggested that the temporal hand
asymmetry could reflect the variability of impulse (i.e. the force-time pattern). More, the
temporal asymmetry appeared to be not related to the dominant hand and/or to the side

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 Biomechanical Evaluation of Freestyle Swimming 99

breathing contrary to previous studies which concluded that breathing is one of the reasons of
the differences between right and left sides [4, 16, 99]. The difference in the effect of the
breathing on the symmetry could be due to the expertise level with greater asymmetry for
poor swimmers [4]. The authors concluded that asymmetric stroke is related to different
errors on one arm such as dropped elbow, horizontal forearm position or anticipated
breathing. The kinematics right-left imbalance could also be related to strength differences
between both arms as force asymmetry was recorded in tethered conditions [53] or on swim
bench [75] or for dry land force rotator muscle [99]. The stronger arm presented a shorter
duration of the stroke with stronger imbalance for swimmers with unilateral breathing [75].
The stroke symmetry and the relationships between swimming velocity and
biomechanical parameters could be influenced by the fatigue state of the swimmer.

2.4. Kinematics, Kinetics and EMG Evaluation of the Fatigue State

2.4.1. Fatigue Definitions

Many authors attempted to define the fatigue process according to different approaches.
Fatigue has been defined as an acute impairment of performance [37], an inability to maintain
a level of strength [30] or a temporary decrease in work capacity.
In regard to the movement generation process, fatigue could be related to central and/or
peripheral alterations (Figure 1). The central component of the fatigue could be due to the
decrease of the NCS activation (nervous order and/ or motoneuron activation). The peripheral
fatigue is related to an alteration of the neuromuscular junction and/or the deficit of
substrates, blood flow, and/or dysfunction of the sarcomer. Consequently, fatigue is a very
complex phenomenon which could be evaluated through different approaches (physiology,
EMG, Mechanics). More, fatigue is strongly related to the task (intensity, duration, muscles
involved) conducting to different types of fatigue.
For all these reasons and because of the complexity of the movement, few biomechanical
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

studies focused on the fatigue in swimming.

2.4.2. Effects of Fatigue on Kinematics Parameters

A decrease of stroke velocity (SV) was observed either in race [20, 28] or in testing
conditions [2, 8, 33, 97, 104]. The decrease of SV was associated to different changes in
stroke parameters. Most of the studies related a decrease of stroke length (SL) or a stable SL
[8, 97] associated to a decrease of stroke rate (SR) [8, 20, 33, 97] or to an increase of SR [72]
or to a stable SR [2, 28]. The differences in the SR results could be related to the task
(distances, rest times) and/or to the individual adjustments to the fatigue condition as Pai, et
al. [72] suggested that the SR could be considered as a compensatory mechanism which
allowed the swimmer to limit the decrease of velocity. The decrease of SR could reflect a
diminution of neural activation [52].This suggestion has been partially validated by Caty, et
al. [17] who observed a decrease of the EMG frequency of the forearm muscles during a test
of 4*50m at maximal intensity.
The expertise level seems to influence these results. Expert swimmers limited the
decrease of speed more than less-skilled by making appropriate changes in stroke parameters
[20]. Aujouannet [6] noted that in fatigue state, the fastest swimmers presented the higher SR

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 100 Annie Rouard

associated to greater maximal lactates values [Lmax] confirming previous studies [52]. Weiss
et al. [104] underlined the importance of SR and lactates tolerance capacity for high level
swimming and concluded that muscular fatigue during anaerobic work led to a breakdown of
the optimal swimming technique.
Even the mean stroke velocity decreased under fatigue condition, no significant changes
were observed for the intra-cycle fluctuations either for the body velocity [2] or acceleration
[97].
The decrease in swimming velocity could be related to changes in hand path which
appeared influenced by the expertise level and testing conditions. For national swimmers, a
decrease of the maximum forward and downward hand coordinates was observed after a
6*50m test [33] when for world level swimmers, stable 3D hand spatial coordinates were
observed associated to an increase of phases durations for the catch (C), out-sweep(O) and in-
sweep (I) [6] (Figure 31).World swimmers appeared to be characterised by a robust spatial
pattern regulated by temporal adaptation in fatigue condition.

Figure 31. Spatial (A) and temporal (B) values of the hand path for the 1st 50 (white bar) and the 4th 50
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

m (grey bar) of the maximal 4*50m test: F (maximal forward coordinate), B (maximal backward), Ex
(exit from the water), D (maximal depth), O (maximal outward) and I (maximal inward) * significant
difference between the 1st and 4th 50 m at p<0.05) (from [7]).

The increase of time duration of the propulsive phases was also observed on swimmers
with lower performance level [2, 99]. The increase of time associated to the stable spatial
coordinates lead to a decrease of the hand velocity in the first half part of the stroke (i.e.
during the most constrained part) [6] as previously observed on 400m flume test [67] (Figure
32). Similar decrease of body and hand velocities were observed after a full-exertion 100-m
[93]. High correlations were reported between the decrease of the mean swimming velocity
and the decrease of the hand velocity during the in-sweep phase in fatigue condition [67].
The main modifications during the in-sweep phase was confirmed by Ohgi and Ichikawa
[71] who observed a great bent elbow in fatigue condition associated to a decrease of the hand
acceleration on the antero-posterior axis due to the deceleration of the rotational movement of
the shoulder and elbow joints. This result was confirmed by Suito, et al. [93] who noted a
decrease of shoulder adduction velocity compensated by an increase of the internal rotation
during the pull phase (i.e. central part of the stroke) at the end of a full-exertion 100-m. The
modifications of the shoulder angular movements conducted to a decrease of the hand
velocity in fatigue condition leading to lower swimming velocity.

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 Biomechanical Evaluation of Freestyle Swimming 101

Figure 32. Hand velocity during the different phases of the stroke, at the beginning and at the end of a
maximal 400m freestyle test conducted in a flume (adapted from [67]).

Moreover, Aujouannet [6] did not observe any change on the spatial symmetry in fatigue
condition. At the end of the exhaustive test, the temporal asymmetry of the hand path
remained stable whatever the characteristic point and whatever the subject (Figure 33).
Breathing condition did not influence the asymmetry either in fresh or fatigue condition. For
example, Subject 6 has a bilateral breathing and presented right or left temporal asymmetry
depending of the points similar to Subject 1 who has a unilateral breathing. Subject 2 has
greater time durations for the left side than for the right one for all the studied points of the
hand path either in fresh or fatigue conditions. The results showed the large variety of
temporal hand patterns among the subjects even all are at the world level which remained
stable in fatigue state. This could reflect the different time-force distribution during the stroke
cycle which appeared not modified by the exhaustion condition.
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Figure 33. Absolute Symmetry Index with (black, 4 th 50m) and without (grey, 1st 50m) fatigue for the
temporal coordinates of the characteristics points of the hand path (F, D, O, I, B) and body roll (BR)
(adapted from [6]).

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 102 Annie Rouard

The kinematics changes of the hand path observed in fatigue state could lead to changes
in force production.

2.4.3. Effects of Fatigue on Kinetics Parameters

A decrease in force production was observed in fatigue state either in dry land condition
or full tethered or ½ tethered condition [80], (Figure 34), or swimming in a flume [67] or on
MAD system measurement [101].

Figure 34. Isometric (Fiso), full tethered (Fpmax) and ½ tethered (Fp) forces and power(P) (means, SD)
before and after a maximal 4*50m test (adapted from [80]).

Best swimmers were characterised by a lower decrease of the power in the fatigue
condition which appeared strong related to their isometric force. Consequently, in fatigue
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condition, swimming power seems to be limited by their strenght capacities when in fresh
condition, power was more related to specific swimming force. More, Potts et al. [75]
observed an increase of power imbalance in fatigue conditions especially for the swimmers
with a unilateral breathing.
The decrease of power output was also observed after a maximal 100m arm swam on the
MAD system associated to the decrease of swimming velocity and stroke rate [101]. The
authors suggested that the lower velocity conducted to a decrease of the drag and
consequently lower propulsive forces were required to overcome the drag in fatigue
condition. Performance appeared to be linked to the ability to maintain a high percentage of
peak power throughout the race related to the swimming technique and the mechanical
efficiency.
In free swimming, a decrease of the resultant and efficient components was noted during
the in-sweep phase at the end of a maximal 400m flume test [67]. More, the peak of the
efficient force observed during the in-sweep phase in fresh conditions moved to the final out-
sweep phase in fatigue state (Figure 35) reflecting that in exhaustive condition, the swimmers
were not able to sustain high forces during the most constrained phase.

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 Biomechanical Evaluation of Freestyle Swimming 103

Figure 35. Resultant and Efficient component forces at the beginning and at the end of a 400m test
conducted in a flume (adapted from [67]).

Whatever kinematics and kinetics studies, the results suggested that in fatigue conditions
swimmers increased the first gliding phase [2, 6] and limited the in-sweep phase (i.e. the most
mechanical constrained phase) to favour the final upsweep phase [6, 67]. Large individual
variations were observed either in fresh or fatigue condition and either for local to
international swimmers. In regard to the large panel of individual adaptations, kinematics, and
kinetics approaches could be related to changes in muscular activations.

2.4.4. Effects of Fatigue on EMG Parameters

For the muscle, fatigue corresponded to the failure to maintain a required force or power
[11]. The surface myoelectric signal was largely used in the fatigue evaluation. During
sustained isometric constant-force contractions, many authors observed a shift to lower
frequencies of the EMG signal spectrum. These spectral changes were related to a decrease of
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velocity conduction associated to physiological parameters such as the decrease of pH and/or

to neural factors such as the firing rate of the motor units depending on the intensity of the
exercise. Few studies focused on the muscular fatigue in swimming as in other complex
human tasks. Most of them were based upon the effects of fatigue on the amplitude of the
EMG‘s.
Monteil, et al. [69] studied the effect of fatigue on the rotator muscles of the shoulder.
EMG‘s were recorded using fine wire electrodes at the beginning and the end of a maximal
400m front crawl test realized in a flume. In fresh condition, different to opposite activations
were observed within the internal rotators group as well as for the external one. For example,
the M. infraspinatus and M. teres minor presented similar level of activation opposite to the
M. supraspinatus even the 3 are external rotator. These results suggested a high specificity of
each shoulder muscle within the stroke cycle in fresh condition. In fatigue state, no
predominance of a muscular group was observed either for the internal or external rotator
muscles indicating a loss of specificity and a possible relay within the muscles of each group
of rotator. Whatever the phase, the EMG‘s amplitudes (IEMG) were greater at the end of the
test than at the beginning except for the M pectoralis major pars clavicular (Figure 36). The
greater EMG‘s indicated an increase of motor units recruitment characteristic of a sub-
maximal activation [40] (medium activation on a long time).

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 104 Annie Rouard

Figure 36. EMG (mean, SD) at the beginning (fresh) and the end (fatigue) of a maximal 400m swam in
a flume (adapted from [69]).

Similar increase of the IEMG was observed by Wakayoshi, et al. [103] for the M
deltoideus while subject swam in a flume at a given velocity until exhaustion. Different flow
velocities were tested. At highest speed, the M. deltoideus and M. flexor carpi radialis showed
a progressive decrease of their IEMG reflecting a fatigue state typical of maximal effort
(Figure 37). The IEMG of the other studied muscles (M. biceps and triceps brachii) remained
unchanged indicating no evidence of neuromuscular fatigue.
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Figure 37. IEMG for 4 muscles plotted as function of time until exhaustion at three different swimming
speeds (from [103]).

Studying 6 upper limb muscles, Rouard, et al. [84] did not observe any changes for the
iEMG among the 4*100m test with 45s rest between each one except for the most activated
muscle (i.e. the M. flexor carpi ulnaris) which presented a significant increase. This result
suggested that the test did not conducted to exhaustion even the swimmer were not able to
realize one more 100m due to longer rest periods and/or not enough repetitions. Large

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 Biomechanical Evaluation of Freestyle Swimming 105

individual variations were observed reflecting a proper resistance of muscle fatigue and/or the
specificity of each muscle contribution to the propulsion.
Consequently, for a given exercise, the effects of fatigue depended on the muscle
involvement. A decrease of the amplitude of the iEMG reflected a maximal effort when an
iEMG increase indicated a sub-maximal effort and finally, no change corresponding to a low
request.
During constant force contractions maintained up to exhaustion, many authors observed a
shift of spectral parameters of the EMG‘s toward lower frequency. In these conditions, the
surface recorded myoelectric signal (SMES) can be considered as a realization of a wide-
sense stationary colored random process. In dynamic exercise such as swimming, the SMES
must be modelled as a non-stationary signal. Consequently, the quantification of muscle
fatigue has to be performed by using time-frequency spectral analysis [50].
To avoid the problem of non-stationary signals during dynamic contractions, Aujouannet
et al [7] evaluated on world swimmers, the frequency contents of isometric maximal
voluntary contraction (MVC) of the M. biceps and triceps brachii performed before and after
a maximal effort of four 50 m repetitions in freestyle separated by 10 s rest periods. Results
indicated a decrease of the Mean Power Frequency (MPF) for both muscles. The overall
compression of the power spectrum to lower frequencies suggested the presence of fatigue as
observed in previous investigations under isometric or dynamic contractions [10].
During the same protocol, Caty, et al. [18] evaluated the time-frequency contents of the
muscles stabilizer of the wrist joint, i.e. M. Flexor (FCU) and extensor (ECU) carpi ulnaris
during the four 50m swims. The activation bursts were processed by a time-frequency
algorithm in order to derive the instantaneous mean frequency (MNF) of the power spectral
density [66]. Results indicated significant percentage of decrease of the MNF for both
muscles at the end of four 50m (Figure 38) with a significant decrease of the IEMG for FCU
indicating the reaching of fatigue (Figure 39). The fatigue of theses muscles were associated
to a decrease of the wrist fixity.
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Figure 38. Mean (SD) of the percentage of decrease (PD,%) between the mean frequency of the 1st 25m
of the 1st 50m and the last 25m of the 4th 50m for the muscles Flexor (FCU) and Extensor (ECU) carpi
ulnaris (adapted from [18]).

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 106 Annie Rouard

Figure 39. Mean (SD) of the IEMG of the muscles Flexor (FCU) and Extensor (ECU) carpi ulnaris for
the 1st and the 4th of the four 50m test (adapted from [18]).

The most forward propulsion was related to the ability to maintain a given hand angle
during the swimming stroke which was directly affected by the ability of the forearm muscles
to maintain this position. The frequency decrease for the ECU and FCU indicated that both
antagonist muscles are strong involved during the crawl stroke and reached similar statement
of fatigue at the end of the 4*50m. Moreover, in fatigue state, the wrist stabilisation decreased
during the in-sweep phase associated to a decrease of the antagonist activation of ECU when
an opposite result was observed during the out-sweep phase with an increase of the wrist
fixation associated to an increase of the agonist activity without any modification of the
antagonist activity. The results seems indicated that the forces production moved from the in-
sweep to the out-sweep phase in the exhaustion condition as observed by Monteil, et al. [69].
Inter-subject differences could reflect the individual variability in muscles fibers and/or
motor unit recruitments and/or the subject capacity to restore the muscle during the 10s rest
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between each 50m (Figure 40).

Figure 40. MNF values for two subjects. Data are reported with respect to each 25-m epoch (i.e. the
first dot represents the 1st 25-m epoch of the first 50m; the last dot represents the 2 nd 25-m epoch of the
last 50m). PD is the percent decrement of the MNF, SL is the slope of the regression line (black line),
and CC is the correlation coefficient between the MNF estimates and the covered distance (expressed in
25-m epochs) (adapted from [18]).

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 Biomechanical Evaluation of Freestyle Swimming 107

In this example, subject 1 was characterized by a regular decrease of the MNF when
subject 2 presented a decrease from the 1st to the 2nd 25m of each 50m separated by an
increase of the MNF between each 50m (i.e. MNF increase during the 10s rest between each
50m).
The muscular fatigability is specific to the muscle, the exercise and the subject. EMG
methods allowed resolving individual strategies of swimming and adjustments caused by
fatigue. Future investigations will be required to evaluate the load-sharing across muscles
and/or the hand forces productions to evaluate the force-component of fatigue and to
determine the central to peripheral components of the fatigue in swimming. On the overall,
the quantification of the progression of muscle fatigue could be a valuable tool in the
development of specific training protocols. The control of the fatigue is required to adjust and
individualise the training load.

3. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
The kinematics methods have been used in the individual evaluation of national team
swimmers (Figure 41).
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Figure 41. Kinematics evaluation of a national team swimmer who trained 2 sessions each day (Ox:
transversal axis, Oz: vertical axis, Oy: antero-posterior axis) (adapted from [32]).

At the first evaluation (black points), the hand path was away on the side of the body axis
(frontal view). In the sagital plane, the forward movement of the hand was reduced and the
second half of the stroke was back to the entry point (sagital view). This hand path suggested
that the swimmer lost the support of the water during the second part of the stroke and has not
enough force to push the water alongside the body line. Five months later, the swimmer has
strongly improved his hand movement with a path in the axis of the body line and a greater
forward displacement. The back movement of the hand was reduced reflecting the higher
quality of the hand support. This evaluation clearly indicated that even though the swimmer is
at the world level, his technical ability could be improved.
The kinematic evaluation could also give information about the loss of technical ability in
fatigue condition (Figure 42).

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 108 Annie Rouard

Figure 42. Left and right hand paths in the sagital view of a world swimmer for the 1 st and 4th 50m of a
maximal 4*50m test (adapted from [6])
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Figure 43. Forces evaluation for 2 world swimmers before and after a maximal 4*50m test. Isometric
forces for three arm-trunk angles (Fiso30°, Fiso90° and Fiso120°), maximal full tethered force
(Fpmax), force (Fp) and power in a maximal ½ tethered swim. The ratios Fpmax/Fiso30° and
Fp/Fiso30° reflected the swimmer‗s ability to use his strength capacity in the water force or power
productions. The ratio Fp/Fpmax indicated the compromise force/velocity in the power production (i.e.
how the swimmer reduced his maximal propulsive force to swim at high velocity, to produce power
(power=Fp*Vp)) (adapted from [70]).

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 Biomechanical Evaluation of Freestyle Swimming 109

The right and left hands paths presented great asymmetry in the fresh condition. The left
hand slipped back during the support phase (i.e. lost water support) with a poor forward
translation when the right hand has a better trajectory. In fatigue condition, both hands
adapted similarly their trajectories with a longer first gliding phase (i.e. the swimmer delayed
the time to put the hand in a propulsive position).
Kinetics evaluation could complete the swimmer evaluation giving information about the
lack of maximal force and/or the technical ability (i.e. how the swimmer is able to use his
strength capacity in the water force production) and/or the force endurance (i.e. how the
swimmer lost maximal and specific water force in fatigue condition) (Figure 43).

Even subject 1 presented higher forces values (isometric, Fpmax, Fp) than subject 2, he
presented stronger forces decrease in fatigue condition (i.e. he has a poor force endurance).
Moreover, all the ratios of subject 1 are lower reflecting a poor technical ability and a poor
compromise force/velocity in the power production.
At least, EMG evaluation could be useful tool to detect the imbalance between left-right
muscles, between agonist-antagonist groups and within a group of muscles (Figure 44).

Flexor carpi
Extensor carpi

Biceps br .

Triceps br

Pecto right
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Dorsal right.
.
Pecto left

Dorsal left.
Figure 44. EMG‘s during the 4*50m test for one subject (adapted from [81]).

For this subject, EMG revealed a strong imbalance in the muscular activations between
the M. Dorsal right and left and between the anterior-posterior muscles (M. Pectoralis major
left and M. Dorsal left).
EMG also indicated the individual muscular strategy especially in fatigue state (Figure 45)

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 110 Annie Rouard

turn 10s rest

1str 50m 2nd 50m 3rd 50m 4th 50m

Flexor carpi

Subject A‟s muscle is more an more activated when B recruited less and less from the 2 nd 50m

Pecto left

A recruited less and less when B presented a regular moderated activation

Figure 45. EMG‘s of the M. Flexor Carpi and Pectoralis Major for 2 subjects (A and B) during the
maximal 4*50m test. For the same test condition, Subjects A et B presented different activations both
for the M. Flexor Carpi and left Pectoralis Major with different fatigue adaptations (adapted from [81]).

The EMG evaluation could be useful tool to individualise strengthening and endurance
muscular training process and to prevent the different imbalances between the different
groups of muscles.

CONCLUSION
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The improvement of biomechanical methods leads to better understanding the crawl

stroke. Kinematic, kinetic and EMG approaches underlined the main role of the in-sweep-pull
phase in the swimming propulsion either for hand and elbow paths, or for hand velocity and
acceleration or hand forces or muscular activations. The strength capacity appeared to be a
necessary but not sufficient parameter of the performance which is more related to the
swimming force and power. Kinematics and kinetics measurements confirmed the
complementarity of the dry land and the water training process, the first allowing control of
different parameters (muscles, imbalance, velocity, and load), the second one reproducing
more the race condition. Fatigue state lead to a decrease of the in-sweep efficiency, the
swimmer is not able to maintain the forces, muscles recruitments and path during this
constraining phase.
Large individual variations were observed either in fresh or fatigue states, either for local
or international swimmers. Consequently, biomechanical approaches could be an useful tool
in the swimmer evaluation to adapt specifically the training process.
Even the great number of biomechanics studies, the swimming propulsion remained not
well explained. Future researches will improve the knowledge and their applications in the
swimming performance, especially in regard to the Computational Fluid Dynamics.

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 Biomechanical Evaluation of Freestyle Swimming 111

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& Thayer, A. (1988). Propulsive technique: front crawl stroke, butterfly, backstroke and
breaststroke. In B. E. Ungerechts, K.,Wilke, & K., Reischle (eds). Swimming Science V,
(pp. 53-59), Human Kinetics Publisher, Champaign, Illinois.
[90] Sharp, R.L., Troup, J.P. & Costill, D.L. (1982). Relationships between power and sprint
freestyle swimming. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 14, 53-56.
[91] Shimonagata, S., Taguchi, M. & Miura, M. (2003). Effect of swimming power,
swimming power endurance and dry-land power on 100m freestyle performance. In:
J.C. Chatard (ed). Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming IX, (pp. 391-396),
University of St Etienne.
[92] Strass, D., Wild, M. & Hahn, A. (1999). A comparison of maximal voluntary force
during unilateral and bilateral arm extension in swimmers. In: K. Keskinen, P. Komi &
P. Hollander (eds). Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming VIII, (pp. 197-201),
University of Jyväskylä.
[93] Suito, H., Ikegami,Y., Nunome, H., Sano, S., Shinkai, H. & Tsujimoto, N. (2008). The
effect of fatigue on the underwater arm stroke motion in the 100-m front crawl. Journal
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[94] Svec, O. (1982). Biofeedback for pulling efficiency. Swimming Technique, 19, 38-46.
[95] Swaine, I.L. & Doyle, G. (1999). Relationships between the mean arm-pulling and leg-
kicking power output of semi-tethered and simulated front crawl swimming. In: K.
Keskinen, P. Komi & P. Hollander (eds). Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming
VIII, (pp. 363-368), University of Jyväskylä.
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[96] Takahashi, S., Bone, M., Cappaert, J.M., Barzdukas, A., D‘Acquisto, L., Hollander,
A.P. & Troup, J.P. (1992).Validation of a dryland swimming specific measurement of
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Medicine in swimming VI, (pp. 301-305), E & FN Spon.
[97] Tella, V., Toca-Herrera, J.L., Gallach, J.E., Benavent, J., Gonzales, L.M. & Arellano,
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[98] Thayer, A.M. (1990). Hand pressures as predictors of resultant and propulsive hand
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coordination in crawl. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 30, 182-187.
[100] Toussaint, H.M. & Beek, P.J. (1992). Biomechanics of competitive front crawl
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[102] Voronstov, A., Popov, O., Binevsky, D. & Dryko, V. (2006). The assessment of
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Mutoh Y, & Richardson AB (eds) Medicine and Science in Aquatic Sports, 39, 16-23.
[104] Weiss, M.., Reischle, K, Bouws, N., Simon, G. & Weicker, H. (1988). Relationship of
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268), University of Jyväskylä.
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 In: World Book of Swimming: From Science to Performance ISBN: 978-1-61668-202-6
Editors: L. Seifert, D. Chollet and I.Mujika ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 5

INTRA-CYCLE VELOCITY VARIATIONS,

SWIMMING ECONOMY, PERFORMANCE,
AND TRAINING IN SWIMMING

João Paulo Vilas-Boas1; Ricardo J. Fernandes1

and Tiago M. Barbosa2
1
Faculty of Sport, CIFI2D, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
2
Department of Sport Science, Polytechnic Institute of Bragança, Bragança, Portugal

ABSTRACT
This chapter deals with intra-cyclic velocity variations within a swimming stroke
cycle (dv), and its variation with technique, exercise intensity, energy expenditure and
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fatigue, as a relevant parameter to assess biomechanical and coordinative development of

swimming technique. The text starts through the theoretical foundations of the
assumption, relating variable movement with increased energy demands and
biomechanical proficiency. Then it progresses to the definition of the actual state of the
art of the practical solutions available for its assessment, with special emphasis on the
discussion about the convenience of centre of mass or a fixed anatomical point
assessment. The relationships between dv and other performance related/determinant
factors, both biomechanical and coordinative or physiologic and energetic, will be also
addressed. Finally, the chapter concludes with considerations related to the applications
of the study of dv to performance and training evaluation and advice.

Key words: Speed fluctuations, energy cost, cyclic technical advice, performance and
training evaluation

1. INTRODUCTION
The enhancement of swimming competitive ability should be understood under a
biophysical point of view, which means relating biomechanical and energetic constrains and

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 120 João Paulo Vilas-Boas; Ricardo J. Fernandes and Tiago M. Barbosa

its influence in performance. This point of view introduces an interesting and clear
perspective about coaching and sport analysis: the physiologic or the biomechanical
knowledge and approaches, once isolated, are not sufficient for the job. It is needed an
integrated approach; of course including also other scientific domains that, somehow,
influences that energy release and its most appropriate use. This concept implies that the
modern coach and scientist need to have full understanding about the maximization of the
energetic input (Ė) to the work performance system - the swimmer - and about the
maximization of the capacity (the total amount of energy available to generate work) and
efficiency (η = Ẇ . 100 . Ė-1) to use that energy to generate propulsive power (Ẇ) in order to
compensate and overcome drag (D).

2. THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF INTRA-CYCLIC

VELOCITY VARIATIONS
2.1. Uniform and Variable Movement; Inertia, Acceleration, and Force

Once propulsive power (ẆP) compensates, or equals, the dissipative or resistive one - the
resistive or drag power (ẆD) - the swimming velocity is constant and the body movement is
known, from classical mechanics, as uniform movement. This strictly means that within
stroke cycle the instant velocity is constant and that the body acceleration in null. When, WP
is consistently or circumstantially higher or lower than its counterpart (WD), the movement is
known as accelerated movement. The accelerated movement, meanwhile, can be uniformly
accelerated (the acceleration is constant, positive or negative), or variable, the most complex
condition, when acceleration continuously changes, both within positive or negative phases,
and between positive and negative phases. The generality of the human locomotion
conditions are characterized by variable movement, including human swimming.
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In swimming variable movement, the same change in velocity (v) considering a given
period of time defines the acceleration (a) and it is dependent upon the applied resultant force
(F), and upon the inertial term of the equation of movement:

F=m.a (1)

In this case, the inertial term of the equation of movement (m) should be understood as
the adding of the swimmer‘s body mass (mb) plus the added mass of water (ma) that it moves
together with him [47]. Meanwhile, the resultant force (F) is the result of the vector adding of
the propulsive force (P) and D, by definition two opposed forces.
From the above stated, equation (1) can be rewritten as:

P + D = (mb + ma) . a (2)

In conclusion, variable movement is the result of: (i) a circumstantial prevalence of P or

D, or; (ii) a consequence of an increased (or reduced) added mass effect during a given swim
cycle.

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 Intra-Cycle Velocity Variations, Swimming Economy, Performance, … 121

P and D have already been shown to change disproportionally, during the swimming
cycle of the four swimming techniques. This can also be estimated by the variation of body
impulse within a stroke cycle [2, 4, 44]. On the other hand, changes in ma during a stroke
cycle have not been yet quantified, but seem about to be estimated, once human swimming
mean added mass is currently a topic addressed by different research groups [10, 21].
In general, the ability to produce high mean and peak P and ẆP values is considered as a
main performance related competency characteristic for swimmers, especially for short
events. On the other hand it is known that drag force is dependent of about the square of the v
value, as discussed elsewhere in this book. So, short distance swimmers are expected to be
able to produce strong accelerations even if submitted to high D and great ma values,
determining high peak v values, and thus positively affecting the event mean v value
potentiating swimming and overall performances, despite a possible increase in intra-cyclic
velocity fluctuations.
Nevertheless, the above relationship is not the only key to success. In fact, it seems
possible to achieve similar results with relevant differences in the capacity to produce peak P
and ẆP values. As we have already stated, this can be achieved through a reduced D and/or
ma. However, for a given morphology and a per se optimised body and segmental
movements, it seems quite difficult to change those variables. As a consequence, with a finite
energy supply, the best solution to optimise performance is to increase the capacity to
produce P and develop ẆP seems to be to reduce velocity fluctuations within a stroke cycle
(dv), transforming the apparently inevitable variable movement into a movement as
―uniform‖ as possible.
We do think that this double possibility for high performance arrangement (manipulating
power and dv) may be the explanation for the apparent conflict in literature when dv and
performance are related. Some authors supported that high swimming performance is related
to higher dv (e.g., [23]), while others found the opposite (e.g., [40, 42]). We can hypothesise
that the first case may be particularly frequent in shorter events, while the latest may be
prevalent in longest ones, especially in those limited by the capacity of energy supply to
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working muscles, or by the power regimen of that supply. Nevertheless, to our knowledge, no
systematic research has been conducted on this direction. One possibly interesting approach
on this dv to power relationship may outcome from the pilot research of Soares et al. [39],
that allow to understand that a spectral analysis of the velocity to time function may clarify
changes on maximal swimming power output associated to the transition from a predominant
alactic to lactic anaerobic energy supply in 30 s maximal sprints.
The apparently strongest theoretical assumption to underline is that, despite a P and ẆP
generation capacity as large as possible, a swimmer needs also to maintain v as stable as
possible. At least theoretically, reducing energy expenditure due to inertia and dv, and
preserving its full energetic potential to generate maximal P and ẆP, swimming at a higher
mean v as possible. Thus, facing high D and ẆD levels, those growing, respectively, with the
second and the third power of v [43].

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 122 João Paulo Vilas-Boas; Ricardo J. Fernandes and Tiago M. Barbosa

2.2. Energy Cost, Economy and Efficiency in Uniform and

Accelerated Movements

With the exception of a circumstantial reduction of D, extra energy is needed when ẆP

exceeds ẆD, accelerating the swimmer and the corresponding added mass. In this
circumstance, swimming economy is expected to decrease in comparison with uniform
movement.
Since long [14], swimming economy has been related to swimming performance and to
biomechanical behavior:

v = Ė . ηP . D-1 (3)

where Ė express the time rate of energy expenditure and ηP the propulsive efficiency of P
generation.
Authors, however, clearly stated that this relationship is strictly true to a steady velocity
condition, which mechanically means uniform movement.
From this point of view, expression (3) can be rearranged and written:

Ė . v-1 = D . ηP-1 (4)

From equation (4) it is possible to conclude that energy cost (the inverse of swimming
economy) is directly determined by a biomechanical term of the equation, which relates D
and the efficiency of the P production process (ηP = ẆP . Ė-1). So, the more economic is the
swimmer, the lower is D or higher is ηP. This means that the better is the technical level,
higher and stable is his mean v for the same amount of energy release.
Meanwhile, no other complete biophysical model of swimming propulsion was, for our
knowledge, attempted. The only exception was the estimation of extra energy wasted with dv
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by Nigg [31]. This author estimated that changes in the v of 10%, within a stroke cycle,
results in an additional work demand of about 3%.
Despite the current availability of swimming energy expenditure evaluation methods, and
procedures for the assessment of dv, the difficulties associated with the instantaneous
assessment of Ė, as well as D - considering the intra-cyclic transient body positions -, and the
insipient methodologies at our disposal for added mass evaluation, compromises the accurate
intra-cyclic evaluation of mechanical work and efficiency in swimming. So, it has been
impossible until now to experimentally assess the surplus energy requirements associated to
dv, in order to reach a more reliable understanding of its energetical implications.

3. METHODS TO ASSESS INTRA-CYCLIC VELOCITY

VARIATIONS IN SWIMMING
Despite further research is urgently needed to allow full understanding of the relevance
and real performance implications of dv, it is already commonly accepted, both within the
scientific and the coaching communities, that the assessment and research of dv is quite

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 Intra-Cycle Velocity Variations, Swimming Economy, Performance, … 123

relevant to enhance the swimming performance and to highly understand factors that
constrains performance evolution.
Since long, dv assessments have been tried in swimming. Nevertheless, regular
assessment of dv began during the late seventies and early eighties. From then to our days,
several methods have been developed and improved. It is possible to categorise these methods
in two main types: (i) a fixed body landmark evaluation, and (ii) the swimmer‘s overall centre
of mass (CM) evaluation.
The methods based upon the kinematics of a fixed point are divided into mechanical,
image-based, and mixed ones. The mechanical methods include the use of: (i) cable speed
meters (Figure 1), started with Karpovich and Karpovich [18], gaining special relevance in
the eighties [11, 13] and were recently re-launched also by our group (e.g., [24]); (ii)
propeller based speed meters, with a first prototype proposed by Kent and Atha [19] and
further developed by others (e.g., [16, 27]); (iii) other creative devices like the Speed Capsule
[9], that uses built-in semiconductors tension-transformers that records water pressure over
the capsule, assumed to be proportional to the swimmers‘ translational velocity, and; (iv)
accelerometers [17, 41].
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Figure 1. The cable speed meter developed by our group [24] and an example of an output curve, both
with the instantaneous velocity, and the mean velocity of the trial. The stick figure allows to identify the
different phases of the breaststroke cycle.

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 124 João Paulo Vilas-Boas; Ricardo J. Fernandes and Tiago M. Barbosa

Eventually it is possible to consider also as a ―mechanical‖ device the apparatus

developed by Loetz, et al. [25]. It is, in fact, an electric apparatus that works based upon the
registration of the electrical impedance of water as a function of distance between two
electrodes (one fixed on the pool and other attached to the swimmer). These methods are
characterized by a mechanical connection to the body (the one of the electrode, for instance),
and are mainly affected both by that mechanical connection itself, especially by its
consistency, and by the incapacity to monitor the effective inertia of the swimmer‘s body, due
to the permanent change of the relative body position of the CM due to limb movements.
These problems are shared by the mixed methods, including the intermittent light-trace
photography [25, 35, 45, 46]. Images are used to monitor a landmark kinematics, but this is
marked by an active marker, also attached to the swimmer‘s body.
The late problem, meanwhile, is common to the image-based methods, normally using
film, or video images to be digitised, allowing monitoring the time change of the position of a
body landmark, usually the hip. This category of methods have also to face other problems,
shared by the mixed ones, like image distortions, water bobbles and waves, especially in the
boundary between water and air, parallax errors, digitising and calibration errors, and
problems related to a reduced interactivity with the performer. This is, perhaps, one of the
most important problems of the image-based methods, and is due to the forced time gap
between the data collection and the feedback, which is caused by the image processing task,
considering the unavailability of automatic digitising procedures for dual-media (water and
air) images. Some few attempts are being made to develop accurate automatic digitising
procedures, at least for full underwater techniques in 2D movements, such as butterfly kick.
The methods dealing with the CM kinematics are supposed to be much more accurate,
especially if they are to be used trying mechanically based energetic approaches.
Nevertheless, once they are image-based methods, they face the same problems of other
image assessment methods, plus some specific ones: (i) they are very time-consuming; (ii)
they rely on the accuracy of the anthropometric biomechanical model used to compute the
inter-limb inertial effects; (iii) they ignore the inertial effect of the added mass of water upon
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the global inertia of the moving mass; (iv) they impose a number of various body reference
points to be digitised, and (v) the 2D or 3D nature of the kinematics to be assessed, imply
different and serious considerations about hidden points, number of cameras, space
references, calibration, coordinates, and algorithm for 3D reconstruction.
In synthesis, CM kinematic methods are characterized by a very low interactivity
capacity with swimmers and coaches, but they seem particularly useful for research purposes
(if the enounced problems are satisfactorily solved). On the other hand, mechanical methods,
if validated previously, can be much more interactive and training relevant, once results and
outputs are immediately or even real-time available [24]. In this domain, it is critical to define
in what extend it is reasonable and accurate to assess the inertia of the full body through a
fixed point, and the legitimacy of this based upon a mechanical linked procedure.
Several authors already tried to answer the above question, but the results are particularly
controversial. For example, Costill, et al. [11], and Maglischo, et al. [26], are among those
who considered that the hip can replace satisfactorily the kinematics of the CM, while
Psycharakis and Sanders [33, 34] and Mason, et al. [28] don‘t - despite these late group reach
to a mean r value of 0.84 computed between the hip and CM velocity distributions obtained
for butterfly. Our group [5] found out, for butterfly, r values between 0.303 and 0.951 (with a
mean value of 0.644 ±0.191) between both distributions, reason why we conclude that hip

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 Intra-Cycle Velocity Variations, Swimming Economy, Performance, … 125

kinematics may not properly represent CM kinematics. Nevertheless, some of the

distributions found were quite similar. Figure 2 presents an example of a graphic relationship
between the velocity to time distributions obtained for the hip (measured by image kinematics
– Hip kin - and by speed meter – Hip sm) and for the CM during the butterfly stroke. Mean
swimming velocity values obtained for the hip and the CM were not significantly different,
but revealed minimum and maximal values lower and higher, respectively, for the hip
kinematics, traduced in higher coefficients of variation for the kinematics of fixed point‘s
(e.g., [26, 28]).

Hip sm Hip kin CM

3.00

2.50

2.00
Velocity (m/s)

1.50

1.00

0.50

0.00
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
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Time (%T)

Figure 2. An example of the graphic relationship between the velocity to time distributions obtained for
the hip (measured by image kinematics – Hip kin - and by speed meter – Hip sm) and for the centre of
mass (CM) during the butterfly stroke. Mean velocity was 1.5 m.s-1, and ―r‖ values were 0.946 between
both hip distributions, and of 0.768, and 0.823, for the correlation between the CM and, respectively
Hip sm, and Hip kin.

To solve this controversy, an important question has to be answered: is it possible that the
errors associated to the CM assessment in swimming (images‘ quality, digitizing,
reconstruction, and inertial models) may contribute as the main, or relevant, discriminators of
both kinematics? Without a deep analysis of this question it is irrelevant to further discuss the
appropriateness of these different methods, inclusively for 3D dv recently tried by Figueiredo
et al. [15] and Psycharakis and Sanders [33, 34]. In this particular, it must be emphasise that,
at least for front crawl swimming, dv seems to be particularly high in all the three dimensions,
and capable to influence performance. For the three other swimming techniques, future
research is needed at this level.
One last issue is about the procedure to quantify dv. There are several approaches,
namely: (i) the difference the maximal and minimum instantaneous value of velocity [33, 34];

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 126 João Paulo Vilas-Boas; Ricardo J. Fernandes and Tiago M. Barbosa

(ii) the ratio to the mean v value within the stroke cycle of the difference between the
maximal and minimum instantaneous values of velocity [32]; (iii) a transformed Strukhal
number [45]; (iv) the ratio between minimum and maximal velocities in several arm and leg
actions with the mean value within the stroke cycle [23] and; (v) the coefficient of variation
(e.g., [6]). Coefficient of variation is computed based in the standard deviation and the mean
value (CV = SD . mean-1). This is the only approach sensitive to the mean swimming velocity
and to the dispersion of the instantaneous velocity throughout all cycle, and not to a single or
couple of instantaneous moments, as happens to some of the other approaches. Therefore,
mathematically is the more accurate method to the quantification of dv. The remaining
approaches probably can under or overestimate the dv. Nevertheless, a comparative study of
all this procedures can be useful and should be conducted in the near future.

4. THE STATE OF THE ART ABOUT INTRA-CYCLIC VELOCITY

VARIATION IN SWIMMING RELATED TO OTHER PERFORMANCE
RELEVANT PARAMETERS
Several papers have been published to clarify how dv interplays with other variables
(specially biomechanical, coordinative and energetical ones) and therefore its role in
swimming performance. It is possible to describe some of the highlights obtained in the most
relevant studies in the literature concerned with dv and its links with biomechanical,
coordinative and energetical variables in the four competitive strokes.

4.1. Relationships of Intra-Cyclic Velocity Variations with

Biomechanical and Coordinative Relevant Parameters
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One first issue that might be of interests is how the dv changes according to the stroke
swam and the swimmer‘s gender. Comparing the dv between the four swimming techniques,
butterfly and breaststroke presents a higher dv than font crawl and backstroke when measured
with a speedometer [12], or based upon image digitize methods [3, 7]. Those differences are
related to different mechanical impulses applied to the swimmer‘s body within the stroke
cycle (for more details consult the section 2.1. of this chapter).
At least two studies compared the change in the dv according to gender. Compared to
male swimmers, females generally had a lower dv [28, 37]. Those differences can be related
to anthropometric parameters and mechanical power output capacity. When compared to
males, females had a lower mechanical power output and lower drag to overcome, which
explains the lower dv [37].
The dv is described in the literature as being related to several biomechanical and
coordinative parameters on regular basis. From the biomechanical point of view, the dv
presented significant relationships with the v and the segmental velocity. In what concerts to
the motor control domain, dv was related to segmental coordination.
As reported in Table 1, there are significant relationships between dv and v for
competitive swimming. Figure 3 presents the typical mathematical relationship between dv
and v for elite swimmers. Polynomial model presents a better adjustment than the linear

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 Intra-Cycle Velocity Variations, Swimming Economy, Performance, … 127

approach, for this relationship between both parameters in all swim strokes [7]. The parabolic
function is explained by the curve between force and velocity for neuromuscular activity, as
also reported for terrestrial locomotion [29]. Moreover, dv is influenced by drag force (and
this one has a non-linear relationship with v).

Table 1. Review of some of the main studies about the relationship between intra-cyclic
velocity variation and swimming velocity in competitive swimming. N/S – not specified.
N = number of subjects; R2 = determination coefficient; r = Pearson product - moment
correlation coefficient; p = Probability for the rejection of H0.

Stroke Authors N Competitive R2 r

technique level (p) (p)
Backstroke Barbosa et al. [7] 5 Elite 0.45
(> 0.05)
Butterfly Togashi and Nomura [42] 25 0.51
(0.03)
Barbosa et al. [7] 4 Elite 0.47
(0.05)
Breaststroke Manley and Atha [27] 8 N/S 0.79
(< 0.01)
Barbosa et al. [7] 4 Elite 0.65
(0.02)
Front crawl Barbosa et al. [7] 4 Elite 0.65
(< 0.01)
Schnitzler et al. [36] 2 Elite N/S < r < 0.74
(0.05 > P < 0.05)

A few attempts were done to identify possible relationships between dv and 3D

segmental velocities. A pioneer study was performed at butterfly and, to our knowledge, there
are no others related to the remaining swim strokes. It was verified that the last phase of the
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underwater path, characterised by high hand velocity values, as well as the foot downbeat, are
important actions to reduce dv during the hand‘s entry and the arm‘s recovery at butterfly
stroke [8]. These data can contribute to a better understanding in the dv and must be also
searched for the three other swimming techniques.
Another relationship that has been explored is the one about the interplay between dv and
segmental coordination. Some studies suggest that this relationship may be an interesting tool
to determine a swimmer's mis-adaptation to the swim pace and to orient individual coaching
in coordination analysis. For example, an increased coordination index was described as
being a strategy adopted by elite swimmers to maintain dv at a constant level, with increasing
swim paces, despite increases in both propulsive and drag forces [37]. The effect of the
velocity increase over the index of arm coordination, active drag and dv was analyzed by
Seifert et al. [38] in front crawl swimming. The change of the index of coordination with v
followed the one observed for active drag variation also with v, indicating that swimmers
shifted from the catch-up to the opposition coordination to overcome the higher active drag
characteristic of swimming at also a higher v. This adaptation of the motor organization
pattern appeared adequate, because it did not lead to a higher dv for higher speeds. About the
fatigue influence on coordination index and dv, some evidence exists that, as fatigue
develops, dv tend to keep unchanged [33] while the evolution of coordination index traduces

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 128 João Paulo Vilas-Boas; Ricardo J. Fernandes and Tiago M. Barbosa

a reduction of the non-propulsive lag time between the two arm's propulsive actions [1].
Nevertheless, there are also some evidence supporting both a positive [15], and an inverse
relationship between the index of arm coordination and dv [30], pointing out that this
particular issue should be carefully addressed in the future.
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Figure 3. The relationships between intra-cyclic velocity variation (dv) and swimming velocity (v) in
each one of the competitive swimming techniques, including female (●) and male (○) swimmers
(modified from [7]).

A conflicting research topic is the relationship between dv and swimming performance.

An inter-group comparison (elite breaststrokers versus non-elite) showed that elite swimmers
had higher values of dv [23]. The authors suggest that these data indicated the swimmers
capacity to accelerate to boost the swim. However, when dv of a group of swimmers
eliminated in the preliminaries of the 9th World Swimming Championships with another who
qualified to the semi-finals was compared, dv was found to be significantly higher in the
group of eliminated breaststrokers [40]. The researchers concluded that higher dv was the
result of a very low minimal instantaneous velocity and not from the maximal value achieved
within the stroke cycle.

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 Intra-Cycle Velocity Variations, Swimming Economy, Performance, … 129

4.2. Relationships with Energetic and Other Physiological

Relevant Parameters

The dv is also related to the physiological and energetic profile of the swimmer. Several
investigations observed significant relationships between the dv and the energetic domain.
Variable movement, such as swimming, induces increases of the swimmer‘s mechanical
work (for more details consult the section 2.2. of this chapter). Theoretically, changes in the
swimming velocity of 10%, within a stroke cycle, results in an additional work demand of
about 3% [31]. Thus, dv should give an indication of swimming efficiency [22] and energy
cost of swimming [6, 45].
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Figure 4. The relationships between energy cost (C) and intra-cyclic velocity variation (dv) in the four
competitive swimming techniques, including female (●) and male (○) swimmers (modified from [7]).

Based in experimental research, it can be confirmed that a higher energy cost is related
with dv in all swimming strokes. Figure 4 presents the typical mathematical relationship
between both variables for elite swimmers. The literature describes linear relationships
between dv and energy cost (e.g., [7]).

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 130 João Paulo Vilas-Boas; Ricardo J. Fernandes and Tiago M. Barbosa

Table 2 presents a review of some of the main studies about the relationship between
energy cost and dv in competitive swimming. In most studies, increases of dv promote
significant increases of the energy cost. Only a few studies did not described significant
relationships between the two variables. It was the cases of Alves, et al. [2] and Kjendlie, et
al. [20] for front crawl, and Barbosa, et al. [7] for breaststroke. One first reason might be
related to the anatomical landmark evaluated. For both front crawl studies, it was evaluated
the hip‘s dv and not the CM‘s dv. Secondly, biomechanical and energetic tests were applied
in different moments, for different swims. For the case of the breaststroke study, as well as,
for front crawl studies, the explanation can also be related to the non-control of the v effect.
Swimming v has direct influence in the energetic profile of the swimmer (as described else
where in this book) and in the dv (for more details consult the section 4.1. of this chapter).
Therefore, it is important to control its effect when studying the relationship between energy
cost and dv. When this effect control is done, there were observed strong and positive
relationships between energy cost and dv in all swim strokes [7].

Table 2. Main studies about the relationship between energy cost and intra-cyclic
velocity variation in competitive swimming. Partial correlation (Rc) was performed
controlling the effect of the swimming velocity. N/S – not specified. N = number of
subjects; R2 = determination coefficient; r = Pearson product - moment correlation
coefficient; p = Probability for the rejection of H0.

Stroke Authors N Competitive R2 r Rc

technique level (p) (p) (p)
Backstroke Alves et al. [2] 12 National N/S
(< 0.05)
Barbosa et al. [7] 5 Elite 0.38 0.55
(0.05) (< 0.01)
Butterfly Barbosa et al. [6] 5 National 0.65
(< 0.01)
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Barbosa et al. [7] 4 Elite 0.55 0.55

(0.01) (0.01)
Breaststroke Vilas-Boas [45] 13 National 0.322 < R2
< 1.0
Barbosa et al. [7] 4 Elite -0.20 0.60
(> 0.05) (< 0.01)
Front crawl Alves et al. [2] 12 National N/S
(> 0.05)
Kjendlie et al. [20] 13 Adult 0.32
(> 0.05)
Kjendlie et al. [20] 10 Children 0.28
(> 0.05)
Barbosa et al. [7] 4 Elite 0.79 0.62
(< 0.01) (< 0.01)

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 Intra-Cycle Velocity Variations, Swimming Economy, Performance, … 131

5. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSION

For practical purposes, it is possible to conclude that dv is an important criteria to be
considered for technical evaluation and training advice. Nevertheless, it should not be
considered as an isolated parameter, neither as a definitive gold standard. There are a number
of recognisable parameters that may influence its relationship with performance, and even
with swimming economy. As a consequence, the development and use of biofeedback
systems based upon this criterion should be encouraged, simultaneously with further research
on the complex system of biomechanical and energetic factors that affects and depend on it.
Meanwhile, a principle is clear: for a given context of maximal power output performing a
particular event, dv should be minimized. Moreover, recent arguments [39] seems to point out
that spectral analysis of swimming velocity variations may contribute to clarify fatigue
boundary zones, which means incapacity to sustain a given power output.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This study was supported by grant: PTDC/DES/101224/2008.

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[44] Vilas-Boas, J.P. (1994). Maximum propulsive force and maximum propulsive impulse
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 In: World Book of Swimming: From Science to Performance ISBN: 978-1-61668-202-6
Editors: L. Seifert, D. Chollet and I.Mujika ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 6

BREASTSTROKE KINEMATICS

L. Seifert1, H. Leblanc1, D. Chollet1, R. Sanders2 and U. Persyn3

1 CETAPS, EA 3832, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Rouen, France
2 Centre for Aquatics Research and Education, Chair of Sports Science,
University of Edinburgh, Scotland
3 Research and Evaluation Centre, University of Leuven, Belgium

ABSTRACT
This chapter on breaststroke kinematics mostly presents the works of the Leuven
Research and Evaluation Centre, under the direction of Professor Ulrik Persyn since
1970, and is dedicated to one of his pioneering researchers in breaststroke Dr Veronique
Colman. The breaststroke has the greatest variation in intra-cyclic velocity of the four
strokes and has the most variants in style. This chapter is therefore composed of four
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

parts: the phases of a stroke cycle, the intra-cyclic velocity variations, the styles
(undulating vs. flat), and the influence of body characteristics.

Key words: stroke phase, intra-cyclic velocity variation, style, body characteristics

1. INTRODUCTION
The breaststroke has the greatest intra-cyclic velocity variations of the four competitive
strokes due to the underwater recoveries and the relatively long glide times. During these
periods resistive forces are much greater than propulsive forces. Moreover, the breaststroke
has the most styles, ranging from flat to undulating, with intermediate variants regarding the
degree of cambering and limb waving [8, 45].
This overview of breaststroke kinematics deals with the intra-cyclic velocity variations
regarding the stroke phases and individual styles (undulate vs. flat). Since the 70s, the Leuven
Research and Evaluation Centre, under the direction of Professor Ulrik Persyn, has greatly
improved the scientific knowledge of swimming and established a direct relationship between
science and training [39]. The last part of this review concerns the technical diagnosis and

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 136 L. Seifert, H. Leblanc, D. Chollet, et al.

evaluation of Persyn and his colleagues in order to determine the optimal individual style on
the basis of body characteristics.

2. STROKE PHASES AND INTRA-CYCLIC VELOCITY VARIATIONS

2.1. Stroke phases

Nemessuri and Vaday [30] first proposed modelling the breaststroke pattern and
emphasised the cyclic and simultaneous characteristics of this aquatic locomotion. From
video data, they analyzed the angular position delimiting each stroke phase and then provided
temporal measures of the elite swimmer‘s stroke phases (Fig. 1).

Figure 1. Cyclic characteristics of the breaststroke pattern. This example shows that 30 % of the cycle
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

duration corresponds to the glide phase, 21 % to arm propulsion, 21 % to the arm and leg recoveries,
and 28 % to leg propulsion (adapted from [30]).

Other authors performed video analysis using a qualitative method [6, 21, 22, 41] or
digitalisation followed by 3D reconstruction [40] to determine the stroke phases. Several
researchers determined the stroke phases from angular position [9, 34, 37, 45]. They showed,
for example, that a 90° arm flexion is synchronised with a 90° leg flexion, during the
recovery phase of the flat style. Other methods consisted of assessing the intra-cyclic velocity
variations of the centre of mass from 3D video analysis [15, 11] or of the hip from a
speedometer [6, 13, 14, 23, 41]. Table 1 summarises the protocol conditions and the stroke
phase durations.
The glide duration was found to be the most variable phase of the, as it depends greatly
on the swimmer‘s properties and technique [38]. At velocities ranging from 0.92 to 0.97 m.s-
1
, the best swimmers spent more time gliding than less skilled swimmers [15], suggesting that
effective arm to leg coordination allows more glide time. For example, Seifert et al. [42]
showed that the bronze medallist of the 100-m breaststroke at the 2004 Olympic Games in
Athens spent more time gliding with the body fully extended when the arm and leg recoveries
were well synchronised than when a time gap occurred between the arm recovery and the leg

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 Breaststroke Kinematics 137

recovery at the beginning, at 90° of flexion or at the end of the recovery phase. It was also
observed that for a given subject swimming at two different velocities, the intra-cyclic
velocity variations were more closely related to arm to leg coordination than to the maximal
and minimal values of the velocity [17]. An analysis of the relationships between stroke
phases and the intra-cyclic velocity variations revealed positive correlations between the glide
time following leg propulsion and the duration of arm propulsion, and between the velocity
decrease due to the underwater arm and leg recoveries and the glide time with the body fully
extended [2, 24, 26, 35, 47].

Table 1. Relative duration of the stroke phase (expressed in % of the complete cycle
duration)

conditions Number ofArm Leg Leg

swimmers propulsion recovery extension Glide
Bober and Czabanski [2] SR: 47.80 1 male 28.99 30.75 19.25 21.01
Bober and Czabanski [2] SR: 22.90 1 male 14.37 19.27 10.55 55.81
Miyashita [29] V: 1.40 SR:
52.20 1 male 36.52 34.78 17.39 11.30
D‘Acquisto et al. [15] V: 0.97 SR:
27.30 7 males 20.49 26.36 12.25 40.90
D‘Acquisto et al. [15] V: 0.92 SR:
34.30 10 females 23.15 28.42 12.77 35.66
Craig et al. [13] SR: 20-30 12 males 29.13 23.77 6.76 25.75
Craig et al. [13] SR: 50-60 12 males 28.57 28.57 12.90 15.22
Van Tilborgh et al. [49] 50 m race pace 9 males 42.50 34.20 23.30 --------
Sanders [38] SR: 32.40-58.80 3 males + 3 29.90-58 --------- --------- 0-33
100 m race pace females
Chollet et al. [6] V: 1.32 SR: 9 males + 7 27.01 26.81 16.12 17.56
39.90 females
V: velocity (m.s-1), SR: stroke rate (cycles.min-1)
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2.2. Intra-Cyclic Velocity Variations and Stroke Phases

From biomechanical and energetic points of view, it is more economical to swim at a

constant velocity than to have intra-cyclic velocity variations [20, 28, 29]. At each velocity
increase, the swimmer must increase power output to overcome inertia and aquatic resistances
[31, 49]. Due to the underwater arm and leg recoveries, the intra-cyclic velocity variations are
greater in the breaststroke than in the other strokes [12, 18, 25, 29]. Van Tilborgh, et al. [49]
showed that the useful work to accelerate the body from the minimal and maximal values of
intra-cyclic velocity variations reached 92 J, which represents a dissipated power of 79 W per
cycle, i.e. about 25% of the total power output. According to Ungerechts [48], swimmers
should minimise the intra-cyclic velocity variations. Therefore, as presented by Vilas Boas et
al. (see chapter 5) and reported in previous studies on the breaststroke [20, 23, 25, 36, 44], the
assessment of intra-cyclic velocity variations provides a good indication of the skill level and
swimming economy. Vilas-Boas [51] compared three styles of breaststroke for the same
swimmer and showed a correlation between energetic cost and the index of velocity variation,
relating these variations to technical (underwater versus above water arm recovery) and

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 138 L. Seifert, H. Leblanc, D. Chollet, et al.

morphologic characteristics. For a given velocity, Barbosa, et al. [1] confirmed the positive
correlation (r=0.6) between the energetic cost and the intra-cyclic velocity variations of the
centre of mass. These data on the relationships between stroke phases and intra-cyclic
velocity variations were ultimately used to improve the organisation of arm and leg stroke
phases, notably their coordination. For example, for a swimmer who swam the 100-m
breaststroke in 62 s, better management of the arm to leg coordination (i.e. synchronisation of
the arm and leg recoveries) resulted in a decrease of 2 s.
The first studies to analyze intra-cyclic velocity variations and stroke phases showed that
the breaststroke can be characterised by two velocity increases in relation to leg propulsion
and arm propulsion [2, 19, 29, 35]. Two phases of velocity decrease then follow, during the
glide and the underwater arm and leg recoveries, with the minimal value of intra-cyclic
velocity occurring during this last phase. Thus, the stroke can be regarded as comprising four
phases:

1. Leg propulsion leads to a high velocity increase that can reach 4 m.s-1 at the end of
the leg extension [3, 15, 27]. Maglischo, et al. [25] noted a centre of mass increase of
0.90 m.s-1, while Van Tilborgh, et al. [50] observed propulsive force generation of
348 N. Ungerechts [48] showed that the maximal acceleration occurred 0.72 s before
the end of leg extension. The leg insweep can be propulsive or not, depending on the
swimmer. Van Tilborgh, et al. [49] observed an impulse four times greater during leg
in-sweep than during leg out-sweep [46 N.s versus 11 N.s), which could be due to
inertial rather than propulsive forces. In summary, the legs may be responsible for up
to 75% of the total impulse of a breaststroke cycle [49].
2. The first phase of velocity decrease starts from the middle or end of the leg in-sweep
to the beginning of arm propulsion, which represents a longer duration than the so-
called ―glide time‖ [27].
3. Arm propulsion starts during the hand out-sweep and finishes at mid in-sweep [27];
however, variations may occur in relation to the hand path. The hand in-sweep is
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

often the most propulsive phase of the arm stroke [11, 25, 49, 50], with hand velocity
reaching 4 m.s-1 and the velocity of the centre of mass increasing from 0.15 to 0.30
m.s-1 at the end of the in-sweep. For some swimmers, the greatest propulsion occurs
during the half part of the hand out-sweep. Finally, some swimmers show two
velocity peaks during arm propulsion: the first occurring during the hand out-sweep
while the second comes from the hand ins-weep and particularly relates to the
shoulder adduction [24, 27]. As the stroke rate increases (i.e. the cycle duration
decreases) when the swimming speed increases, the swimmers could shorten the
shoulder adduction that lead to a switch from a pattern with two peaks of velocity to
a pattern with only one peak (Fig. 2).
4. The arm and leg recoveries show the greatest velocity decrease and lead to the
minimal absolute value of intra-cyclic velocity [2, 3, 13, 14, 15, 19, 24, 25, 26, 35,
47, 49]. The absolute durations of the recoveries, as well as the durations relative to
the duration of the stroke cycle, are shorter for the best swimmers than for lower
performers [5, 22].

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 Breaststroke Kinematics 139

3 3
Leg extension

2.5 2.5

Hand insw eep

Leg recovery
2 Leg extension 2
Arm recovery Arm recovery

Velocity (m.s -1)

Velocity (m.s -1)

Leg joined
Hand outsw eep
Leg recovery
1.5 1.5
Hand insw eep
Leg joined
1 90° flexion of leg 1 Hand outsw eep 90° flexion of leg
Arm extension recovery recovery
Arm extension
90° flexion of arm
0.5 recovery 0.5 90° flexion of arm
recovery
Leg outsw eep Leg outsw eep Leg outsw eep
Leg outsw eep
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100

Duration (% of one leg stroke) Duration (% of one leg stroke)

Figure 2. Pattern with two peaks of velocity at a speed of 1.36 m.s-1 (left panel) and with one peak of
velocity at a speed of 1.5 m.s-1 (right panel) for the bronze medallist at the Athens 2004 Olympic
Games.

Although breaststrokers clearly show two velocity increases associated with the
respective propulsive actions of the arms and legs, there is no unanimity among studies as to
where the maximum velocity peak occurs. Some authors found the greatest peaks during leg
propulsion (i.e. the out-sweep of the feet) [3, 13, 15, 16, 52], whereas others found the
greatest peak to occur during the arm propulsion (i.e. the in-sweep of the hand) [24, 26, 29],
and still others noted that the values were quite similar [2, 19, 25, 27, 47, 50]. These
discrepancies could be due to differences in methodology and/or the technical characteristics
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

of the swimmers. For example, Figure 3 illustrates the difference between the profile of an
―arm propulser‖ and that of a ―leg propulser‖ based on the intra-cyclic velocity variations in
two internationally ranked swimmers at the 100-m pace. The first swimmer (Fig. 3a), a
medalist in the 2002 European Championships, was predominantly an ―arm propulser‖. This
swimmer used a technique with a glide time following leg propulsion. The second swimmer
(Fig. 3b), the European champion in 1999, propelled mainly with his legs. The first swimmer
glides with the body fully extended during 0.28 s and makes a forward displacement of 0.56
m while the glide duration of the second swimmer is 0.27 s for a forward displacement of
0.53 m.
Moreover, d‘Acquisto and Costill [15] observed that the minimum in intra-cyclic velocity
reached just before the propulsive action of the arms was positively correlated with the peak
velocities of the arms (r = 0.68) and legs (r = 0.81). Manley and Atha [26] also suggested that
the peak velocity reached during the arm stroke was the result of sufficient velocity having
been reached in the preceding phase. Significant correlations were also found between sprint
performance (22.86 m) and the peak velocity of the arms (r = 0.74), legs (r = 0.74), or the
minimum in intra-cyclic velocity reached just before arm propulsion (r = 0.80) [15].

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 140 L. Seifert, H. Leblanc, D. Chollet, et al.

3.0
Velocity
2.5
velocity (m.s-1) . peak of
2.0 the arms

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100
stroke cycle duration (%) 3a

3.0

2.5
Velocity
peak of
velocity (m.s-1) .

2.0 the legs

1.5
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

1.0

0.5

0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100
stroke cycle duration (%) 3b

Figure 3. Example of two swimmers with different velocity profiles: 3a: profile of an ―arm propulser‖,
3b: profile of a ―leg propulser‖.

One of the main characteristics of the intra-cyclic velocity variation that can be used to
distinguish the level of expertise is the capacity of the best swimmers to lose less velocity and
cover more distance during the non-propulsive phases [23]. These phases correspond to the
arm and leg recoveries and the glide time and catch, during which the best swimmers
maintain a better hydrodynamic profile [5, 15, 16, 23, 46, 52]. For example, Takagi, et al.

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 Breaststroke Kinematics 141

[46] observed that the 200-m breaststroke finalists in the world championships in Fukuoka
(2001) lost less velocity during these phases compared with the swimmers who were
eliminated. These authors pointed out that the finalists had a longer glide phase which
delayed the beginning of the arm propulsive phase. They thus concluded that the non-
propulsive phases of the cycle were key factors in performance.

3. BREASTSTROKE STYLES AND VARIATIONS

IN INTRA-CYCLIC VELOCITY

3.1. Breaststroke Styles

The above-mentioned analyses did not take into account the different styles of
breaststroke. Although several technical solutions are always observed during breaststroke
competition today, this stroke shows a tendency to incorporate a body undulation [11, 45].
When typically undulating styles are compared with flat styles, four main differences are
observable [7, 9, 34]. In comparison to the flat style, in the undulating style:

1. The leg extension is deeper and is followed by a rising undulation of the feet during
the in-sweep;
2. The hands and head plunge under the water surface during the arm recovery. The
forearms recovery is sometimes accomplished just above the surface;
3. An upward arm trajectory is observed during the out-sweep of the hands and the in-
sweep of the feet, Because of this, the foot and hand movements occur much more in
the vertical axis than the horizontal axis;
4. The downward and backward leg propulsion is countered by a plunge downward and
forward of the upper half of the body, giving the body a dome-like position. This is
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

an integral part of the undulating progression, indicating the superposition of the end
of leg propulsion and the beginning of the hand out-sweep (Fig. 4).

Figure 4. Differences in the outline of a swimmer using the flat and undulating styles [10, 39].

Thus, the relative durations of the breaststroke phases change with the style (Fig. 5) [11].
More precisely, the body segment angles change with the breaststroke style. In the
undulating style, trunk rotation around the transverse axis is quite marked [8, 34], which

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 142 L. Seifert, H. Leblanc, D. Chollet, et al.

results in vertical movements of the head and shoulders. The final result is an overall body
undulation. For example, an ―S‖ position is very characteristic of the undulating style at the
moment when the legs are ending their propulsion. Moreover, at the end of the hand in-
sweep, the trunk is typically around a 63° angle to the horizontal axis with the undulating
style as opposed to 34° with the flat style [33]. At this moment, 29% of the body mass is
above the water surface in the undulating style as opposed to 21% in the flat style [11, 33].
One consequence of the total body undulation is that the drag section through which the body
passes (trunk and thigh) between the end of the leg recovery and the beginning of the arm
recovery is smaller when undulating.

leg outsweep
F flat 13.9 6.5 14.9 9.4 11.0 11.0 19.5 13.8
leg insweep part 1

M flat 12.1 6.0 23.9 9.4 8.1 8.1 19.9 12.5 leg insweep part 2 + arm
outsweep part 1
arm outsweep part 2

F undul 13.6 7.0 23.4 9.7 11.8 11.8 9.1 13.6

arm insweep part 1

arm insweep part 2

M undul 12.5 6.1 20.0 9.3 11.1 11.1 16.9 13.0

arm recovery part 1

0 20 40 60 80 100
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

arm recovery part 2

stroke cycle duration (%)

Figure 5. Breaststroke phase durations for four groups of five subjects swimming at the 100-m pace.
The data are represented for the undulating and flat styles for females (F) and males (M). The phases
marked 1 and 2 correspond respectively to the first and second parts of these phases (adapted from
[11]).

Thus it was shown that certain key positions of the breaststroke cycle were correlated
with the 100-m performance [45]. For example, in the undulating style, the maximal depth
reached by the feet during leg movement and the amplitude of the vertical head movements
constitute discriminating factors of performance. In the flat style, the mid trunk-shoulders-
elbows angle is one of these discriminating factors (Fig. 6).
In addition to the two styles described above, intermediary styles have also been
characterized [8, 32] from a large data base of 570 competitive swimmers. The authors were
able to group the swimmers according to the degree of undulation and cambering of the body
(Fig. 7).

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 Breaststroke Kinematics 143

Figure 6. Coefficients of correlation (r) between key positions in the two breaststroke styles and 100-m
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

performance. The angular data are expressed in degrees, the lengths in % of body length [43, 45].

Figure 7. Five styles of breaststroke as regards the degree of weaving and cambering [8, 32].

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 144 L. Seifert, H. Leblanc, D. Chollet, et al.

Style variant 6 shows the greatest undulation and is used primarily by women, although
men and women score similarly on flexibility, except for hip inward and outward rotation.
Style variant 4 shows average undulating and is situated between variants 2 and 6. This
variant is used by both men and women. Although their swimming velocity differs by 10%,
the velocity variation of the body centre of mass is almost identical in the two sexes [8]. In
addition, the flexibility scores in this variant are very similar for the two sexes.
Style variants 3 and 5 are a mix of the other variants. Variant 3 is predominantly flat but
shows an S-shaped body position as in variant 6, and it is primarily used by men. Variant 5 is
predominantly flat, but shows a cambered body position as in variant 6, and it is primarily
used by women.
Style variant 1, classic flat, is disappearing from international competition. This variant
was popular before the rule change and was typified by a stable uphill trunk position, deep
arm recovery and downward arm spreading. It was a frequent cause of deformation (kyphosis;
but lordosis can also be caused by the hyperextension in variants 5 and 6).
Colman et al. [7, 11] noted that the undulating variants seem evenly distributed among
women, whereas the two opposing styles - undulating and flat, each with sharply different
characteristics - are observed in men: most using the flat style and a minority showing a very
undulating style. Sanders [38] observed wide variations among nationally ranked swimmers
from New Zealand. The vertical movements oscillated from 43 to 64 cm (head), 21 to 50 cm
(shoulders), 12 to 17 cm (hips), and 8 to 25 cm (centre of mass). The maximum angle of trunk
flexion in relation to the water surface varied from 28° to 53°. Given the wide variability, this
author assumed that breaststroke styles are in fact distributed over a continuum.
In addition to this diversity in styles, Cappaert [4] observed technical differences
according to the race distance. In comparison with 200-m swimmers, 100-m swimmers
maintain the shoulders and hips closer to the water surface and their arms-forearms angle is
narrower at the beginning of the recovery; this favors better alignment. Also, these swimmers
have a greater leg-thigh angle at the end of the recovery phase. The author suggested that
swimmers tend to shorten this phase to move more quickly to the next movement.
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

3.2. Breaststroke Styles and Intra-Cyclic Velocity Variations

The various breaststroke styles have repercussions on the intra-cyclic velocity. The most
undulating style shows a smaller range of velocity of the centre of mass than the flat style [11,
49]. Overall, the undulating style produces less acceleration during the propulsive phases of
the arms and legs, but on the other hand it induces less deceleration during the recovery phase
of these segments. During the arms and legs recovery, the velocity loss is 17% for the
undulating style and 27% for the flat style.
According to Persyn et al. [33], several factors explain these velocity variations: 1) In the
undulating style, the body position during leg propulsion is less favorable to forward
movement (―dome‖ position); indeed, the legs push downward and backward whereas the
arms and trunk plunge forward. 2) At the end of arm propulsion, the back is quite cambered;
because of this, 29% of the body mass is above the water and this position thus creates
additional drag [11]. This trunk rotation creates a mass of water behind the swimmer. At the
moment when the swimmer decelerates, he or she benefits from the force of this water mass
and ―surfs‖ on the wave that is generated.

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 Breaststroke Kinematics 145

4. BODY CHARACTERISTICS AND PERFORMANCE

ANALYSIS IN BREASTSTROKE
Most swimmers do not find the stroke or the style per stroke that is most suitable to their
physical characteristics [10, 33]. The analysis of individual breaststroke style should thus take
into account body characteristics. For example, a lack of flexibility in the back will limit the
undulations, but this could be compensated by the explosive force of the arms and legs. The
research centre developed by Professor Persyn and his colleagues in Leuven has contributed
greatly to overcoming these problems.
In the 70s, hypotheses about physical characteristics and stroke mechanics (propulsion
and balance) were formed. These hypotheses were primarily based on the observation and
analysis of the first widely available film and video archives of the (semi)-finalists at the 1972
Olympic Games in Munich [35].
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Figure 8. Measurement of body structure, flexibility and strength: A. Description of the measurements;
B. Relation to breaststroke technique; C. Demonstration of the measurements on dry land [10].

The first step in forming hypotheses about the physical characteristics per stroke was the
careful observation of these champions, which then inspired measurements on dry land of
their body structure, joint flexibility and muscle strength. Since the 80s, the Leuven team has
gathered data from a very large number of competitive swimmers (N=574) and average
swimmers (N=244) regarding body structure and composition, joint flexibility, isometric
strength, style and performance (Fig. 8). Statistical analyses were used to develop individual
profile charts (Fig. 9) and to select the movement variables relevant to performance per style
variant in the strokes of 62 swimmers at the international level (Fig. 10) [10, 43, 45].

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Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. 146 L. Seifert, H. Leblanc, D. Chollet, et al.

Figure 9. Visualization of the joint positions achieved during the flexibility measurements for subjects
at the 25% and 75% percentiles (situated in percentile scales of the total reference population of 267
females and 307 males: swimmers of at least national level in one stroke in the age group) [10].

In fact, breaststroke styles reflect specific strength and flexibility characteristics [7]. For
example, high score in ankle flexion and hip and knee outward rotation in males is
characteristic of the flat styles. This permits the soles of the feet to assume an orientation
comparable to the movement of a propeller blade at the beginning of the leg in-sweep. In the
undulating breaststroke, great trunk flexibility (extension) is needed for undulating and for
maintaining the arch of the back at the end of the hand in-sweep. This characteristic is
encountered more often in female swimmers, who arch the trunk an average of about 8° more
than men at the end of the arm propulsive phase [33].

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 Breaststroke Kinematics 147

Figure 10. Chart with statistical data on physical characteristics of breaststrokers, used to estimate the
best stroke and style [10].
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5. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
The analysis of breaststroke kinematics (stroke phase composition and duration, intra-
cyclic velocity variation) confirmed that many stroking styles are possible and that the
adoption of a given style is related to body characteristics. This suggests that several
parameters such as body structure, flexibility, strength, stroke phase durations, body position
during these phases, and intra-cyclic velocity should be assessed. Globally, a more undulating
style, characterised by high scores for body waving and trunk cambering and featuring a deep
leg kick, is associated with smaller intra-cyclic velocity variations and better performance
than a flatter style. However, this general trend does not necessarily imply that every
swimmer, and certainly every male, should adopt an undulating style. As was noted, many
swimmers are physically more suited to a flatter style than an undulating style. For this
reason, it is necessary to look closely at the physical characteristics and technique of the
various style groups to gain further insight into how to maximize performance using the most
appropriate style.

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 148 L. Seifert, H. Leblanc, D. Chollet, et al.

CONCLUSION
Because the breaststroke shows the highest intra-cyclic velocity variations and the
greatest number of style variants, coaches are advised to cross the measurements of the stroke
cycle phases, the calculation of the intra-cyclic velocity variations, and the body
characteristics before recommending specific drills to swimmers. This complete procedure of
technique assessment, so well managed by Persyn and his Leuven centre of research, would
help to determine each breaststroker‘s style with reference to a standard for each skill level
and style variant.

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(1988). Computerized evaluation and advice in swimming. In BE. Ungerechts, K.
Wilke, K. Reischle (Eds), Swimming Science V, Champaign, Illinois, Human Kinetics,
341-349
[38] Sanders R.H. (1996). Breaststroke technique variations among New Zealand Pan
Pacific squad swimmers. In J.P. Troup, A.P. Hollander, D. Strass, S.W. Trappe, J.M.
Cappaert, T.A. Trappe (Eds), Swimming Science VII, London: E & FN SPON, 64-69
[39] Sanders R.H. (2005). K.U. Leuven evaluation centre: leading the world in breaststroke
research and its application. Coaches‘ Information Service website:
http//www.coachesinfo.com/
[40] Schleihauf, R.E. (1979). Analysis of swimming propulsion. In J. Terauds, E.W.
Bedingfield (Eds), Swimming Science III, Baltimore: University Park Press, 71-109
[41] Seifert L., Chollet D. (2005). A new index of flat breaststroke propulsion: a comparison
between elite men and elite women, Journal of Sports Sciences, 23, 3, 309-320

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[42] Seifert L., Chollet D., Papparadopoulos C., Guerniou Y., Binet G. (2006). Longitudinal
evaluation of breaststroke spatial-temporal and coordinative parameters: preparing of
the 100-m breaststroke bronze medallists of the Athena 2004 Olympic Games,
Portuguese Journal of Sport Sciences, 6 (Supl. 2), 260-262
[43] Silva A., Colman V., Alves F., Soons B., Persyn U. (2003). Performance relevant time-
space variables in breaststroke: sex differentiation. In J.C. Chatard (Ed), Biomechanics
and Medicine in Swimming Science IX, St Etienne, France: Université de St Etienne,
179-183
[44] Soons, B., Colman, V., Silva, A., Sanders, R., Persyn, U. (2005). Reduction of velocity
fluctuation and improvement of performance by undulating in breaststroke. Coaches‘
Information Service website: http://www.coachesinfo.com/
[45] Soons B., Silva A., Colman V., Persyn U. (2003). Specific movement variables
important for performance in different breaststroke styles. In J.C. Chatard (Ed),
Swimming Science IX, Saint Etienne, France: Université de St Etienne, 295-300
[46] Takagi H., Sugimoto S., Nishijima N., Wilson, B. (2004). Differences in stroke phases,
arm-leg coordination and velocity fluctuation due to event, gender and performance
level in breaststroke. Sports Biomechanics, 3, 1, 15-27
[47] Tourny C., Chollet D., Micallef J.P., Macabies J. (1992). Comparative analysis of
studies of speed variations within a breaststroke cycle. In D. MacLaren, T. Reilly, A.
Less (Eds), Swimming Science VI, London, E & FN SPON, 161-166
[48] Ungerechts B.E. (1988). The relation of peak body acceleration to phases of movements
in swimming. In BE. Ungerechts, K. Wilke, K. Reischle (Eds), Swimming Science V,
Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics, 61-66
[49] Van Tilborgh L.M., Eustache, E.J., Persyn U. (1988). Estimation of breaststroke
propulsion and resistance-resultant impulses from film analyses. In BE. Ungerechts, K.
Wilke, K. Reischle (Eds), Swimming Science V, Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics,
67-71
[50] Van Tilborgh L.M., Stijnen U.V., Persyn U. (1987). Using velocity fluctuations for
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estimating resistance and propulsion forces in breaststroke swimming. In B. Johnson

(Ed), Biomechanics XB, Champaign, Illinois: Human Kinetics, 779-784
[51] Vilas-Boas J.P. (1996). Speed fluctuations and energy cost of different breaststroke
techniques. In J.P. Troup, A.P. Hollander, D. Strasse, S.W. Trappe, J.M. Cappaert, T.A.
Trappe. (Eds), Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming Science VII. E & FN SPON,
London, 167-171
[52] Yoshimura Y., Tanaka T., Oishi K., Yasukawa M., Kazuo F. (2005). Breaststroke skills
in male elite swimmers directed by means of a speed meter. Medicine and Science in
Sports and Exercise, 37, 5, S75-76

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Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

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 In: World Book of Swimming: From Science to Performance ISBN: 978-1-61668-202-6
Editors: L. Seifert, D. Chollet and I.Mujika ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 7

INTER-LIMB COORDINATION IN THE FOUR

COMPETITIVE STROKES

Didier Chollet and Ludovic Seifert

CETAPS EA 3832, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Rouen

ABSTRACT
In swimming, as in several sports, the performance optimization relates to capacity
of swimmers to coordinate their motor actions. In alternates strokes (front crawl and
backstroke), the inter-arm coordination is evaluated. The method uses the Index of
Coordination (IdC) to measure the coordination of arm stroking with precise
quantification of the lag time between the start of propulsion by one arm and the end of
propulsion by the other, and secondly to describe how this index varies as a function of
the stroking parameters (speed, stroke rate, stroke length). In simultaneous strokes the
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assessment of arm-leg coordination, both in butterfly stroke and in breaststroke, consists

to analyse the spatial-temporal relationships between the key points defining the start and
the end of the arm and the leg stroke phases. Coordination changes are function of skill
level, gender, and speed. The major objective of this chapter was to present the studies
about the coordination, firstly of arm stroking in alternates strokes, secondly arm to leg
coordination in simultaneous strokes, thirdly the effect of skill, gender and speed on
inter-limb coordination and fourthly the coordination between propulsion and breathing:
effect of preferential side of breathing, coordination asymmetry, force asymmetry and
handedness.

Key words: Inter-limb coordination, coordination symmetry, stroking parameters, breathing,

handedness

1. INTRODUCTION
As speed increases, humans and other animals shift from a walking gait to a running gait
at a characteristic speed. Diedrich and Warren [12] propose that gait transitions are a
consequence of the intrinsic dynamics of a complex system, with properties characteristic of

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 154 Didier Chollet and Ludovic Seifert

bifurcations between attractors and phase transition occurs at a speed that tends to reduce
energetic costs. Indeed, motor behavior in humans and animals exhibits two notable features:
the presence of stable patterns of coordination and the sudden reorganization that occurs
when switching between them. Much research has been directed at describing individual
motor patterns such as walking and reaching, but the study of behavioral transitions may
reveal principles of the formation of coordinative patterns. Locomotion offers a model system
for the study of both, for it is a fundamental, fluent, and complex behavior that is likely to
share basic characteristics with other skilled actions.
In walking humans, arm to leg coordination is a well established phenomenon [60]. The
origin of this coordination, however, remains a matter for debate. It could derive from the
intrinsic organisation of the human central nervous system, but it could also consist of a
movement induced epiphenomenon. In order to establish which of these alternatives applies,
arm and leg movements were recorded as well as their muscle activities during walking,
creeping on all fours and swimming. The relationship between arm and leg cycle frequency
observed under these various conditions was then investigated. Wannier et al. [60] found that
during walking, creeping on all fours or swimming, arm and leg movements remain
frequency locked with a fixed relationship of 1/1, 2/1, 3/1, 4/1 or 5/1. When movements of
the legs are slowed by flippers, the frequency relationship may skip to a different value, but
the coordination is preserved. Furthermore, minimising the mechanical interactions between
the limbs does not abolish coordination. These findings demonstrate that the arm to leg
coordination observed in the walking human is also present during other human locomotor
activities. The characteristics of this coordination correspond to those of a system of two
coupled oscillators like that underlying quadruped locomotion.
As in several cyclic activities, in swimming, because the specificity of water locomotion,
the performance optimization relates to capacity of swimmers to overcome active drag forces,
to product effective propulsive forces, hence to have the highest propelling efficiency [55,
57]. The success of a swimmer is determined by the ability to generate propulsive force,
while reducing the resistance to forward motion. In this way, the swimmers have to well
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coordinate their limbs to avoid ineffective movement that don‘t lead to forward body
displacement.
The first studies about inter-limb coordination in human swimming come from Vaday
and Nemessury [58] in front crawl, and Nemessuri and Vaday [23] in breaststroke, presenting
the cyclic characteristics of swimming (Figure 1). Coordination is defined as ―schemes of
structural circle of breast-stroke as a cyclic and synchronously symmetrical form of
locomotion‖.
Based on this cyclic presentation of arm and leg strokes, the major objective of this
chapter was 1) to describe a tool in the four strokes: the Index of Coordination (IdC) for
alternate strokes (front crawl and backstroke) and the Total Time Gap (TTG) for
simultaneous strokes (butterfly and breaststroke), to measure the inter-limb coordination with
precise quantification of the lag time between two propulsions or two recoveries, and 2) to
describe how this IdC and this TTG vary as a function of stroking parameters, gender and
skill.

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 Inter-Limb Coordination in the Four Competitive Strokes 155

Figure 1. Motor pattern representations of breaststroke and crawl stroke and movements of the right and
left shoulders and elbows of front crawl (from [23, 51]).

2. INTER-LIMB COORDINATION IN THE FOUR STROKES

In front crawl, Vaday and Nemessuri [51] are the first to analyse the motor pattern and to
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describe the different types of coordination. Coordination of arm movements during

performance of the front crawl shows three major models [10]. The model of opposition
describes series of propulsive actions: one arm begins the pull phase when the other is
finishing the push phase. The model of catch-up describes a lag time between the propulsive
phases of the two arms; this lag generally occurs during the catch and entry phase. Last, the
superposition model describes an overlap (to a greater or lesser degree) in the propulsive
phases. Costill et al. [10] stated that the ideal coordination in expert swimmers would
conform to the opposition model. In fact, the swimming speed is not uniform as the
application of propulsive forces in water leads to acceleration and deceleration within the
cycle, i.e. to centre of gravity intra-cyclic velocity variation [21]. Generally, large intra-cyclic
velocity variation leads to a loss of part of the mechanical power output. From a theoretical
point of view, Nigg [25] showed that a speed change of 10 % within a stroke cycle resulted in
an additional work demand of about 3 %, suggesting that the best solution to increase the
capacity to produce propulsive force and to develop mechanical power output seems to be to
reduce intra-cyclic velocity variation. In this way the proposal of Costill et al. [10] is
acceptable as the opposition mode of coordination provides continuity between propulsive
phases. Conversely, Chatard et al. [3] suggested that the superposition model would be more
economical in terms of energy cost. These authors demonstrated that the periods of

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 156 Didier Chollet and Ludovic Seifert

simultaneous propulsion compensated for the non-propulsive lags time. Considering these
different point of views, the relationships between inter-arm coordination and intra-cyclic
velocity have been investigated in several conditions (fatigue effect, see [1, 53]; swim speed
increase, see [36]; drag increase, see [59]). These results showed that the degree of propulsive
continuity is not automatically correlated to the intra-cyclic velocity variations. In this ways,
this chapter would show that there is not an ideal coordination mode, but coordination varies
with interacting constraints (task, organismic, and environment [24]). For example, the
coordination changes with swim speed and aquatic resistance [10, 55, 57]. It also changes
with the type of swimmer: swimmer or triathlete [13], sprint, middle-distance, or distance
racers, and the type of leg kick: two-, four-, or six-beat kicks [20]. These changes occur at the
expense of the non-propulsive phases of hand entry into the water and catch, and to recovery
phase [3, 55].
In backstroke, the alternating body roll, which may lead to a 90° abduction of the
shoulder during the mid-pull [20], and the small shoulder flexibility [29, 30] require both an
additional arm stroke phase to recover into the water surface and a particular arm
coordination. Indeed, Lerda and Cardelli [17], Lerda et al. [19] and Maglischo [20] showed
that the second upsweep, also called the "clearing phase" (after the push phase and before the
above-water recovery) does not allow continuity between the propulsive actions of the two
arms for the swimmers with two force peaks pattern. In most cases, swimmers adopt catch-up
as their preferential coordination mode whatever the skill level or speed [17], which is
detrimental to propulsive continuity.
In the butterfly stroke the FINA rules require that the actions of the two arms be
simultaneous, as well as the actions of the two legs. The arm actions alternate with the leg
actions. This alternation between arm and leg does not favour the continuity of propulsion,
however, but instead tends to create higher resistance than in the front crawl or backstroke
[14]. In the butterfly, the aerial recovery of the arms is facilitated by the leg undulation, but to
be effective the undulation should resemble a wave-like motion and hence the arm and leg
actions need to be highly coordinated [10, 14]. In fact, Sanders [32] and Sanders et al. [33]
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showed specific frequency, amplitude and phase characteristics in the leg oscillations that
lead to a wave motion and possibly conserve mechanical energy. The high coordination of
expert butterfly swimmers is based on two undulations of the legs for each complete arm
cycle. Costill et al. [10] and Maglischo [20] showed that 1) the downward phase of the first
leg undulation should occur during the catch phase of the arms and 2) the upward phase of
the second undulation should occur during the pull phase of arms. Thus, there is a challenge
to measure the lag time between arm and leg stroke phases as it would explain the
efficiency of the upper and lower limb coordination.
More than any other stroke, the breaststroke undergoes wide variations in intra-cyclic
velocity because of the greater drag components of the forward movement during underwater
recovery of both arms and legs [14, 22]. Therefore, there is a high challenge to well organise
the propulsion, the glide and the recovery of the arms and legs. Usually, three coordination
modes are observed: glide, continuous and superposition [20]. Moreover, different
breaststroke styles have been identified: vertical, flat, undulated, and undulated with
overwater recovery of the arms [9, 20, 59]. These swimming styles are all associated with a
more or less horizontal position of the trunk and with different levels of energy expenditure
[59], meaning there is not an ideal mode of arm to leg coordination.

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 Inter-Limb Coordination in the Four Competitive Strokes 157

3. METHODS AND TOOLS FOR QUANTIFYING THE

INTER-LIMB COORDINATION
Inter-limb coordination was quantified from a video analysis system which was
composed by a minimum of three underwater video cameras with a rapid shutter speed (rate
of 50 Hz). One camera filmed the swimmer from a frontal view, the others from a side aerial
and underwater view. These lateral cameras could be fixed to the edge of the pool (enabling
digitizing process) or fixed on a trolley and follows the swimmer. These frontal and lateral
views were synchronised, genlocked and could be mixed on the same screen.
The key motor points of the arm and leg phase were determined qualitatively by three
independent operators measuring with a blind technique, i.e., without knowing the results of
the analyses of the two other operators. The three analyses were then compared. When the
differences were < 0.04 s, the mean of the analyses was accepted to quantify the key point.
When the error was > 0.04 s, the three operators proceeded to a new assessment of the key
points. Three strokes were analyzed and the data were then averaged. Seifert et al. [50] have
assessed the reliability of the qualitative method of determination of the arm stroke phases in
front crawl 1) by studying the influence of the expertise level of the operator, and 2) by
comparing the phases results determined qualitatively by an operator with data obtained from
a digitizing process using Schleihauf‘s software (Kinematic Analysis, 2004) or Simi Motion
software. Smaller standard deviations of index of coordination were observed for expert
operators compared to novices indicating a greater reproducibility in the phases determination
[50]; the error of the novice operators being reduced after 50 hours of training [35]. No
significant differences of stroke phases and index of coordination were observed between the
results obtained from the expert operators and the digitizing [50].
Using the digitizing process, the coordinates corresponding to the hand positions (hand
entry, maximal forward coordinate of the hand, hand in the vertical plane of the shoulder,
hand exit) were extracted from the smoothed 2D or 3D hand trajectory. Then, from the speed
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in x-axis for wrist, elbow, shoulder and hip, the beginning of the propulsion was considered
in accordance with Chollet et al. [4], i.e. when the hand goes backward that correspond to key
point where the wrist speed becomes negative.
In the protocols which assess inter-limb coordination, two main goals are purchased:
(1) to analyse the stability of a coordination mode; the protocols used are race analysis or
characteristics aerobic (6 sets of 300m incrementated in speed) and anaerobic (4 sets of
50m at maximal speed) tests, and (2) to analyse the variability/flexibility of the
coordination through protocol of 4 to 8 sets of 25 m (to avoid fatigue) incrementated in
speed.
The tool use to measure the inter-arm coordination in front crawl is the Index of
Coordination (IdC) [4]. IdC is the time lag between the beginning of propulsion with the first
right arm stroke and the end of propulsion with the first left arm stroke, and between the
beginning of propulsion with the second left arm stroke and the end of propulsion with the
first right arm stroke. IdC is expressed as the percentage of the mean duration of the stroke.
When the propulsive phase of one arm starts when the other arm finishes its propulsive phase
the coordination mode is called ―opposition‖ (IdC=0) (Figure 2). In case of a time lag
between the propulsive phases of the two arms, the stroke coordination mode is called ―catch-

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 158 Didier Chollet and Ludovic Seifert

up‖ (IdC<0) (Figure 3). When the propulsive phases of the two arms overlap, the
coordination mode is called ―superposition‖ (IdC>0) (Figure 4).

OPPOSITION
Left Arm
(2 cycles)

Right Arm
(1 cycle)
PROPULSION

Lag Time (LT) LT2 = 0

LT1 = 0

LT1 + LT2
Index of Coordination (IdC) LT = (-----------
2
)=0 IdC = 0 %

Figure 2. Inter-arm coordination in opposition mode (from [4]).

CATCH UP
Left Arm
(2 cycles)

Right Arm
(1 cycle)

PROPULSION

Lag Time (LT) LT1 = 20 LT2 = 20

LT1 + LT2
Index of Coordination (IdC) LT = (-----------
2
) = 20 1 cycle = 120 IdC = - 16,6 %

Figure 3. Inter-arm coordination in catch-up mode (from [4]).

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SUPERPOSITION
Left Arm
(2 cycles)

Right Arm
(1 cycle)
PROPULSION

Lag Time (LT) LT1 = 20 LT2 = 20

LT1 + LT2
Index of Coordination (IdC) LT = (-----------
2
) = 20 1 cycle = 200 IdC = + 10 %

Figure 4. Inter-arm coordination in superposition mode (from [4]).

To measure the inter-arm coordination in back stroke, IdC used in front crawl was
adapted for the backstroke, adding the clearing phase and a possible hand lag time to the thigh
[6]. Indeed, as presented in figure 5, the arm stroke was divided into six phases: entry and
catch, pull, push, hand lag time at the thigh, clearing and recovery.

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 Inter-Limb Coordination in the Four Competitive Strokes 159

Figure 5. Modelling of arm stroke phases in backstroke between left and right arms [6].
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Figure 6. Synchronised structure of the arm and leg for butterfly stroke (from [5]).

In butterfly stroke, the arm stroke and leg stroke were divided into four distinct phases:
respectively, entry and catch, pull, push, recovery, and downward phase of the kick at cycle 1,
upward phase at cycle 1, downward phase at cycle 2 and upward phase at cycle 2, knowing

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 160 Didier Chollet and Ludovic Seifert

that only swimmers with two leg undulations for one arm stroke were studied (Figure 6) [5,
39]. Arm to leg coordination was determined by measurement of the time gaps between the
different stroke phases of each pair of motor limbs, and this in turn enabled us to analyze the
propulsive and non-propulsive times. Four time gaps were identified (Figure 6) [5, 39]: T1:
time gap between the entry of the hands in the water and the high break-even point of the first
undulation. T2: time gap between the beginning of the hands‘ backward movement and the
low break-even point of the first undulation. T3: time gap between the hands‘ arrival in a
vertical plane to the shoulders and the high break-even point of the second undulation. T4:
time gap between the hands‘ release from the water and the low break-even point of the
second undulation. TTG is the sum of the absolute values of the four time gaps. TTG and
each time gap are expressed as the percentage of a complete leg stroke.
respectively.
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Figure 7: Arm to leg coordination in breaststroke (from [41).

Complete
Stroke PROPULSION LEG INSWEEP GLIDE PROPULSION GAP RECOVERY GAP
Phases :

Figure 7. Arm to leg coordination in breaststroke (from [41).

In breaststroke, the arm stroke was divided into five phases (Figure 7): Arm glide, arm
propulsion, elbow push, first part of the recovery until an arm/forearm angle of 90°, second
part of the recovery [7, 8, 15, 41]. The leg stroke was also composed of five phases (Figure
7): Leg propulsion, leg insweep, leg glide, first part of the recovery until a thigh/leg angle of
90°and second part of the recovery [8, 15, 41]. This model is adapted for recreational

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 Inter-Limb Coordination in the Four Competitive Strokes 161

swimmers by Leblanc et al. [16]: For the arm phases, a vertical line which passed through the
shoulder profile axis was drawn to have a fixed reference on the swimmer‘s body. The
leg/thigh angle was measured to determine the leg maximal extension and end of recovery.
The feet distance was checked on the frontal view to determine the leg in-sweep phase [16].
Thus, arm-leg coordination was determined by measurement of the time gaps between the
different stroke phases of each pair of motor limbs. Five time gaps were identified (Figure 7)
[8, 15, 41]: T1a: time between the end of leg propulsion and the beginning of arm propulsion;
T1b: time between the end of leg insweep and the beginning of arm propulsion; T2: time
between the beginning of arm recovery and the beginning of leg recovery; T3: time between
the end of arm recovery and the end of leg recovery; T4: time between 90° arm flexion in arm
recovery and 90° leg flexion in leg recovery. TTG is the sum of the absolute values of the
four time gaps. TTG and each time gap are expressed as the percentage of a complete leg
stroke. Maglischo [20] pointed out that there are three coordination modes: overlap,
continuous and glide, which correspond roughly speaking to 50m, 100m and 200m
respectively.

4. EFFECT OF SKILL, GENDER,

AND SPEED ON INTER-LIMB COORDINATION

4.1. Effect of Skill

Because expert male swimmers develop higher drag force and higher power output than
non-expert swimmers, they can overcome higher forward resistance leading them in front
crawl to switch to a superposition coordination mode [59]. Indeed, when swimming at their
respective maximal speeds in front crawl, expert male swimmers used a superposition mode
of coordination (IdC = 2.8±5.4%), while non-expert males swimmers exhibited catch-up
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coordination mode (IdC = -4.3±5.0%). Conversely, at a similar speed of 1.7 m.s-1, the two
groups of swimmers did not show any difference of coordination (IdC ~ -6±4.2%) [47].
However, superposition coordination (high IdC) is not the cause of high speed but results
from the high active drag that swimmers must overcome to swim fast; in other words, the
aquatic resistance is the cause of coordination changes and not the consequence. For example,
during a 100 m race, Seifert et al. [37, 46] showed that expert males have a higher and more
stable IdC (always in superposition mode) than non-expert male swimmers. In fact, the
increase in IdC for non-expert male swimmers in the second part of the 100 m resulted from a
longer relative duration of the hand spent in the propulsion phase [46]. However, this motor
change was ineffective because, unlike in the expert male swimmers, stroke length continued
to decrease both between and within 25 m laps. This suggests that the longer relative duration
of the propulsion time of the non-expert male was related to their smaller hand speed [51, 56].
Similarly, high hand speed did not guarantee effective propulsion and arm coordination. For
example if the hand slips through the water, the high hand speed did not help in catching
water [11]. During time to exhaustion tests, Alberty et al. [2] showed that fatigue
development induced a decrease of stroke length, an increase of IdC and stroke rate to
compensate for the reduced capacity to generate a propulsive impulse per stroke. The change
in arm coordination ensures that the overall propulsive impulse remained constant while

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 162 Didier Chollet and Ludovic Seifert

average propulsive force per arm stroke is reduced [2]. Therefore, the coordination value
could not in itself explain the swimmer‘s skill, but should be associated to the measurement
of speed, stroke length, stroke rate, stroke index, active drag, power out-put and some
parameters about propulsive efficiency.
In backstroke, for swimmers with two force peaks pattern, only the catch-up mode of
coordination is observed [6, 17, 19, 42]. For example, at the 100-m pace, Chollet et al. [6]
showed an IdC of -11.4% for expert swimmers (speed = 1.56 m.s-1). Lerda and Cardelli [17]
showed an IdC of -9.7% for the more expert backstrokers (speed = 1.44 m.s-1) and an IdC of -
11.3% for the less expert (speed = 1 m.s-1). The difference between skill levels could come
from the hand lag time at the thigh, which leads to propulsive discontinuity; notably Chollet
et al. [6] showed that expert swimmers limit their hand lag time to near 2% of the stroke cycle
duration.
In the simultaneous strokes, the total time gap (TTG), which is the sum of the absolute
values of the four time gaps (T1, T2, T3 and T4), was lower for expert swimmers and for high
speed. The TTG of expert butterflyers was shown to decrease from 30% at a speed of 1.4 m.s-
1
to 15% at a speed of 1.8 m.s-1, whereas the TTG of the non-expert swimmers decreased from
50% at a speed of 1.4 m.s-1 to 30% at a speed of 1.6 m.s-1 [42]. Therefore, at a speed similar to
that of expert swimmers (1.4 m.s-1), non-expert swimmers have a TTG nearly two times
greater, indicating mistakes in the arm-leg coordination. For example, the non-expert
swimmers use a catch-up with the arms extended forward that indicates a time lag or a glide
time for the hands. This catch-up occurs when leg propulsion (beginning of downward phase
of the kick) begins after the hands enter the water, and the arms remain extended forward
(measured by T1). It also occurs when the downward phase of the kick ends early or the arm
propulsion starts late (measured by T2) [39, 49]. Moreover, non-experts do not synchronise
the beginning of the downward phase of the leg kick with the beginning of the push phase of
the arms (measured by T3) whereas in expert swimmers, the superposition of these two
propulsive phases provides the highest body acceleration in the stroke [39, 49]. Finally non-
expert swimmers exhibited late or curtailed aerial arm recovery (measured by T4) [39, 49].
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Late arm recovery is often associated with a head that is hyper-extended to enable long
respirations and a flexed back, leading to the ―banana‖ shape.
In expert breaststroke, the propulsion of one set of limbs is performed while the other set
is in hydrodynamic position (limbs extended in glide position) to ensure propulsive
continuity. The TTG of expert breaststrokers was shown to decrease from 60% at a speed of
1.2 m.s-1 to 20% at a speed of 1.8 m.s-1 [42] while the TTG of the non-expert breaststrokers
was shown to decrease from 50% at a speed of 1 m.s-1 to 30% at a speed of 1.2 m.s-1 [15].
Therefore, as observed in butterfly, at a speed similar to that of expert swimmers (1.2 m.s -1),
non-experts have a TTG two times greater, which indicates mistakes in the arm-leg
coordination, notably the use of superposition coordination. However, in sprint, some expert
breaststrokers do not alternate the leg and arm propulsion but show a partial superposition
between the end of the arm recovery and the beginning of the leg propulsion, which still
allows them to reach high speed [15, 41]. Conversely, two superposition coordination modes
are commonly observed in non-expert breaststrokers, which do not typically translate to fast
speeds [16, 43]; these two modes look like an ―accordion‖ and a ―windscreen wiper‖. Some
non-experts superpose two contradictory phases (leg propulsion during the arm recovery and
arm propulsion during the leg recovery) in which no phase is effective because each
propulsive action is thwarted by a recovery action. This accordion-like coordination pattern is

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 Inter-Limb Coordination in the Four Competitive Strokes 163

generally linked to time lags in the cycle; for example, non-expert swimmers regularly stop
their hands at the chest at the end of arm propulsion, usually to take a long breath. By doing
so, the arm recovery lags and overlaps with the leg push. In contrast to the non-expert, the
expert‘s hands do not stop at the chest because this position causes strong forward resistances.
Other non-expert swimmers superpose two propulsions: a complete superposition of the
propulsive phases of the arms and legs resembles the movement of ―windscreen wipers‖,
while a partial superposition of the propulsions occurs with the body in an X position with
arms and legs in complete extension. In term of performance, these superposition
coordination modes are ineffective but answer to a different functional goal than those of the
expert breaststrokers, notably to sustain the body near the water surface rather than to go
forward fast.

4.2. Effect of Gender

Because of the greater fat mass, a different distribution of this mass, lower arm strength
and greater difficulty in overcoming forward resistance than males, front crawl females have
less propulsive continuity between the propulsion of the two arms and further glide than
males [38].
In butterfly expert swimmers, no gender effect appear in the arm to leg coordination; the
highest speed of males resulting to their greatest stroke length. Conversely, a significant
gender effect revealed greater speed and stroke length for the non-expert males, and smaller
T1 for the non-expert females [39]. The arm to leg coordination of the non-expert females
was ineffective because the arms were not in a streamlined position (extended forward) and
caused active drag when the legs began propulsion. Therefore, these females tended to
compensate their lack of coordination by adopting a higher stroke rate, but this strategy
disturbed their motor organisation, instead of improving the coupling of the arms with the
legs.
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

As in front crawl, the female breaststrokers also exhibit less propulsive continuity
between the arm and leg actions than males, because females tend to glide longer (mean time
gap T1 equalled to 31.7% for females vs. 27.4% for males) and are not able to superpose the
end of the arm recovery with the beginning of the leg propulsion (mean time gap T3 equalled
to 6.2% for females vs. 2.7% for males) to maintain high mean speed [41].

4.3. Effect of Speed

Knowing that active drag increases with speed square, the swimmers must adapt their
arm coordination to overcome the active drag and achieve high speed. Nikodelis et al. [26]
showed that the arm coupling is more close to an anti-phase mode (relative phase of 180°)
when the speed increased. Using the IdC, Seifert et al. [47] showed that when the speed
increased from 1.47 to 1.92 m.s-1, the inter-arm coordination of elite front crawl males
switches from a catch-up mode (IdC ~ -10±5 %) to a superposition mode (IdC ~ 3±6 %).
According to Kolmogorov et al. [14] which showed a particularly large increase in active
drag and power near 1.8 m.s-1 in front crawl, when the speed increased above this critical
value, only the superposition mode was observed [45, 47]. In fact when moving at high speed

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 164 Didier Chollet and Ludovic Seifert

(>1.5-1.7 m.s-1) wave drag becomes even more important with wave drag accounting for up
to 50% of total drag [57], that lead to a change of mode of arm coordination. Knowing that
speed is the product of stroke length and stroke rate, IdC was also found to vary with stroke
rate [27, 47]. At low stroke rate, the inter-arm coordination is in catch-up mode with large
inter-individual variations (i.e. with a more or less degree of catch-up) due to weak constraint.
Conversely, at high stroke rate, notably above the critical stroke rate value of 50 stroke.min-1,
the only coordination mode observed is in superposition [27].
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Figure 8. Arm to leg coordination in butterfly in relation with race paces (from [5]).

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 Inter-Limb Coordination in the Four Competitive Strokes 165

As explained before, in backstroke, only one mode of coordination is thus possible:

catch-up. Thus, whatever the speed, IdC varies from -25% to -5% [6, 17, 19, 42].
In the simultaneous strokes, increase in speed also induces to arm-leg coordination
changes, which leads to decrease the glide time [5, 7]. In butterfly, the decrease in glide phase
(measured by T2) related to an increase of the pull phase, allowing applying greater
propulsive forces [5] (Figure 8). This greater relative duration of the upper limbs also related
to a greater relative duration of the downward phase of the first leg undulation.
In breaststroke, from the 200-m to the 50-m paces, the glide (measured by T1b) decreased
from -25.8 to -10.4% (T1b divided per 2.4) while T2, T3 and T4 did not change significantly
with the increase in speed [7] (Figure 9). This adaptation of the arm-leg coordination showed
that a higher propulsive continuity between upper and lower limbs propulsion mostly related
to the glide time changes rather than to the synchronisation of the arm and leg recoveries.
Studying the 50, 100 and 200 m events at the 9th FINA World Swimming Championships,
Fukuoka 2001, Takagi et al. [52] showed a lower percent simultaneous arm-leg propulsion
time and the higher percent simultaneous arm-leg recovery time with increase in event
distance. These results confirmed that the arm propulsion and the leg propulsion have a
common effect on the propulsion of the whole body.

Continuity of actions, no glide Arm-leg coordination at V50 Superposition of actions

T1b = 0 T3 < 0

arm
leg
Leg Propulsion
Arm Propulsion

-20% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120% 140% 160%

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Arm-leg coordination at V100 Superposition of actions

Glide T3 < 0
T1b < 0

arm
leg
leg propulsion
arm propulsion

-20% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120% 140% 160%

Glide T1b < 0 Arm-leg coordination at V200 Continuity of actions

T3 = 0

arm
leg
leg propulsion
arm propulsion

-20% 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120% 140% 160%

Figure 9. Arm to leg coordination in breaststroke in relation with race paces (from [7]).

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 166 Didier Chollet and Ludovic Seifert

Recently, spatial-temporal and coordinative parameters are modelled through race paces
in four swimming strokes [42]. The relationships among speed and stroke rate, stroke length
and coordination were modelled by polynomial regression. It was demonstrated that stroke
rate, stroke length and speed may influence coordination, suggesting for coaches and
scientists that ineffective time gaps can be distinguished from those that simply reflect an
individual swimmer's profile by monitoring the glide (lag) times within a stroke cycle.

5. COORDINATION BETWEEN PROPULSION AND BREATHING:

EFFECT OF PREFERENTIAL SIDE OF BREATHING, COORDINATION
ASYMMETRY, FORCE ASYMMETRY, AND HANDEDNESS
Breathing can bring about catch-up coordination because the time spent inhaling leads to
a lag time in propulsion [18] on the preferential breathing side [40, 44]. Throughout a 100-m
race, Seifert et al. [44] found that swimmers having unilateral breathing patterns (every 2, 4,
or 6 arm strokes) showed an asymmetric coordination (―rickety swimming‖), characterized in
non-experts by a prolonged catch with the arms extended forward to facilitate head rotation
during breathing and thus by catch-up to the breathing side. Conversely, swimmers with
bilateral breathing patterns (breath every 3 or 5 arm strokes) tended to balance the arm
coordination by distributing the asymmetries [44]. The control of breathing laterality would
help to bring about efficient inter-arm coordination. Seifert et al. [40] manipulated breathing
laterality by imposing seven breathing patterns (each trial was swum on 25-m to avoid
fatigue), divided in two categories: unilateral patterns and bilateral patterns. The unilateral
patterns corresponded to breathing every 2 strokes to the preferential breathing side, breathing
every 2 strokes to the non-preferential breathing side, simulation of breathing every 2 strokes
on the preferential breathing side, i.e. turning the head as if breathing but not breathing to
analyse whether rolling the body affected the coordination symmetry, breathing every 2
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strokes in a frontal snorkel. The axed and bilateral patterns were breathing freely in a frontal
snorkel, breathing every 3 strokes (bilateral breathing) and apnoea. The results indicated that
breathing to the preferential side led to an asymmetry, in contrast to the other breathing
patterns, and the asymmetry was even greater when the swimmer breathed to his non-
preferential side [40]. Moreover, coordination was symmetric in patterns with breathing that
was bilateral, axed (as in breathing with a frontal snorkel) or removed (as in apnoea) [40].
Deepest analyses investigated the relationships between breathing laterality and motor
coordination symmetry as a function of 1) arm dominance [44] and 2) the symmetry of
medial rotator muscle force in the shoulders [54]. Most of the front crawl swimmers showed
asymmetric arm coordination, with propulsive discontinuity on one side and propulsive
superposition on the other. This asymmetry was most often related to breathing laterality (a
preferential breathing side for a unilateral breathing pattern) and motor laterality (arm
dominance), with different profiles noted [44]: 1) Most of the swimmers (17 of 28 swimmers)
had the same side for coordination asymmetry, breathing and arm dominance and composed
the laterality group; 2) swimmers with the same side for motor and breathing laterality but the
opposite side for coordination asymmetry composed the first part of the mixed group; 3)
swimmers with the same side for coordination asymmetry and either motor laterality or
breathing laterality composed the second part of the mixed group; and 4) swimmers showing

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 Inter-Limb Coordination in the Four Competitive Strokes 167

coordination symmetry as the last group. As regards the laterality group which represents the
most representative case, the dominant arm might have been the propulsive arm, while the
non-dominant arm served as a support or a compensation, for unilateral breathers who had too
great a body roll (knowing that hip and shoulder roll could be in-phase or in anti-phase
coupling, see [28]) or too wide an insweep on one side. Thus, as observed for the lower limbs
in walking [31], in swimming the non-dominant arm could serve to control local asymmetries
in order to ensure globally balanced swimming.
Then, Tourny-Chollet et al. [54] showed that breathing laterality had an impact on the
symmetry of the medial rotator forces (responsible of catch and pull phases) and the arm
coordination of front crawl swimmers. It was observed a coordination asymmetry, notably a
catch-up coordination, which came from the greater relative duration of catch + pull phases
for the dominant arm than for the non-dominant arm for the swimmers with force asymmetry;
knowing that this force asymmetry corresponds to the side with the higher force (dominant
arm). Thus, two profiles of swimmers were noted: 1) swimmers for whom breathing laterality
was related to force symmetry and stroke phase duration and 2) swimmers for whom the
impact of breathing laterality on force symmetry and stroke duration was low. The first
profile corresponded to sprint specialists and the second profile corresponded more to middle-
distance specialists.

6. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Whatever the skill level, gender and age, the goal of all competitive swimmers is the
same, e.g. overcoming aquatic resistance and fatigue to swim fastest. In this way, inter-
individual variations should be explore (notably as regards swimmer‘s impairment, see [34,
48]) to determine some profiles. Globally, four theoretical profiles could summarize the
relationship between speed and coordination in front crawl (Figure 10) [48]: 1) a small scale
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

of speed and coordination; 2) a small scale of speed and a large scale of coordination; 3) a
large scale of speed and a small scale of coordination; 4) a large scale of speed and
coordination.
The first profile corresponded to swimmers with little ―motor flexibility‖ in coordination
and speed. These could be ―ultra-specialists‖, training mostly in one way. For example,
because they trained mostly for endurance triathletes maintained their inter-arm coordination
in catch-up mode with extremely negative values for IdC [13]. The second profile
corresponds to an ineffective large value for coordination, because high speeds cannot be
attained. It could be the case of non-expert swimmers which used a superposition mode (IdC
> 0 %) because their hand spent too much time in the propulsive phase, due to slow hand
speed, but therefore did not generate high propulsive force. The third profile corresponds to
swimmers which less change in their coordination while reaching high speed. These
swimmers were focused on adaptation in the ratio between stroke rate and stroke length.
Finally for the fourth profile, the longer the coordination curve, the greater the swimmer‘s
range of coordination; indicating motor flexibility in coordination. Indeed, the higher the
maximal coordination, and the lower the minimal coordination of the curve, the more the
swimmer is exploring human potential. These swimmers reach a range of speeds depending
on the type of coordination mode: catch-up mode by using glide time, or superposition mode

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 168 Didier Chollet and Ludovic Seifert

by overlapping the propulsive phases. To the coach, these four profiles indicate that the value
of IdC does not explain itself the coordination efficiency of the swimmer, but should be
related to the stroking parameters (speed, stroke rate, and stroke length) and some parameters
of propulsive efficiency.

Figure 10. Four profiles of relationships between coordination and speed (from [48])

In backstroke, catch-up appears to be the exclusive coordination mode, due to limited

shoulder flexibility and the alternate body-roll and thus the existence of an additional phase in
the arm stroke (the clearing phase). The consequences of this motor organization are such that
three recommendations can be made to improve backstroke performance: 1) Swimmers
should minimize the clearing phase (when it is not propulsive) and the hand's lag time at the
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thigh, notably by increasing the hand speed in this specific phase that could be achieved by a
greater or a faster roll of the shoulder; 2) For swimmers with a ―two force peak‖ pattern, they
should modify their hand sweep from a "two-peak" to a "three-peak stroke pattern", with a
partly propulsive clearing phase [20], although this is possible only for swimmers with elbow
hyperextension, and 3) They should compensate the loss of speed in the clearing phase -
which prevents propulsive continuity - by increasing the stroke length.
In the butterfly stroke, good motor control implies avoiding time gaps and favouring
synchronisation between: 1) The hand entry and the high break-even point of the first
undulation (measured by T1); 2) The beginning of the pull phase and the low break-even
point of the first undulation (measured by T2); 3) The beginning of the push phase and
the high break-even point of the second undulation (measured by T3), and 4) The hand
exit and the low break-even point of the second undulation (measured by T4). Contrary to
conventional thinking, the butterfly stroke does not require great force above all, but
rather a high degree of arm-to-leg coordination. Indeed, swimmers often compensate for
coordination mistakes by applying greater force, whereas the most effective response
would be to work at reducing the time gaps that extend the duration of the non-propulsive
phase.

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 Inter-Limb Coordination in the Four Competitive Strokes 169

In breaststroke, the practical applications should include drills to improve 1) The arm-leg
recoveries coordination (measured by T2, T3, T4); 2) The transition of the leg-arm propulsion
(measure by T1); 3) The monitoring of glide in the arm and leg stroke phases. Gliding drills
such as ―kick only breaststroke‖, coordination drills such as ―two kicks to one arm pull
breaststroke‖ and arm pull and recovery drills such as ―vertical arm pull or breaststroke pull
with flutter kick‖ could be proposed.

CONCLUSION
Inter-limb coordination could be easily assessed from temporal time gaps that quantify
the continuity between left and right arm actions in the alternate strokes and between the arms
and legs actions in the simultaneous strokes. It was shown that small values of time gap could
reveal great disturbance of motor organization, which varies with skill level, gender, and
speed. However, the challenge for all competitive swimmers remains the same: reach the
highest speed. In this way, there is not an ideal coordination mode. Different profiles of
coordination appear which relate to different combinations of stroke rate / stroke length and to
more or less efficient propulsion.

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coordination in crawl. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 30, 182-187.
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[54] Toussaint, H.M. & Beek, P.J. (1992). Biomechanics of competitive front crawl
swimming. Sports Medicine,13, 8-24.
[55] Toussaint, H.M., Carol, A., Kranenborg, H. & Truijens M. (2006). Effect of fatigue on
stroking characteristics in an arms-only 100-m front-crawl race. Medicine and Science
in Sports Exercise, 38, 1635-1642.
[56] Toussaint, H.M., & Truijens, M. (2005). Biomechanical aspects of peak performance in
human swimming. Animal Biology, 55, 17-40.
[57] Vaday, M. & Nemessuri, M. (1971). Motor pattern of free-style swimming. In L.
Lewillie & J.P. Clarys (Eds). Biomechanics in swimming I (pp. 167-173), Brussels,
University of Brussels.
[58] Vilas-Boas, J.P. & Santos, P. (1994). Comparison of swimming economy in three
breaststroke techniques. In Miyashita, M., Mutoh, Y. & Richardson, A.B. (Eds).
Medicine and Science in Aquatic Sports (pp. 48-54), Basel, Karger.
[59] Wannier, T., Bastiaanse, C., Colombo, G. & Dietz, V. (2001). Arm to leg coordination
in humans during walking, creeping and swimming activities? Experimental Brain
Research, 141, 375-379.

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 In: World Book of Swimming: From Science to Performance ISBN: 978-1-61668-202-6
Editors: L. Seifert, D. Chollet and I.Mujika ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 8

BODYROLL IN FRONT CRAWL SWIMMING

Carl J. Payton1 and Ross H. Sanders2

1 Department of Exercise and Sport Science,
Manchester Metropolitan University, England
2 Centre for Aquatics Research and Education,
University of Edinburgh, Scotland

ABSTRACT
The rolling actions of the shoulders and hips (bodyroll) in front-crawl and backstroke
reflect the rhythmical contributions of the lower limbs, the actions of the upper limbs, and
gravitational effects. The timing of the shoulder and hip rotations varies between and
within swimmers, depending on speed, the stage of the race, and the nature of the kick
(e.g. depth and frequency). A number of performance benefits have been attributed to
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

bodyroll including reduced drag, increased stroke length, reduction in shoulder injury and
increased propulsion.

Key words: bodyroll, body undulation, rhythm, propulsion, resistance

1. INTRODUCTION
The rotation of a swimmer‘s body about the longitudinal axis in the front-crawl and
backstroke is commonly referred to as bodyroll. This rotation is seen as an essential feature of
these two strokes and can be observed in all trained competitive swimmers.
Bodyroll has been claimed to serve many useful functions in front-crawl swimming
including: facilitating the breathing action [15, 24], aiding recovery of the arm [17, 19],
increasing propulsion [7, 13, 27], reducing hydrodynamic drag [8, 19], and reducing the risk
of shoulder injury [10, 21, 26].
The aim of this chapter is to discuss the importance of bodyroll in front-crawl swimming
and to critically evaluate the scientific evidence regarding the potential performance benefits
associated with bodyroll.

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 174 Carl J. Payton and Ross H. Sanders

2. DEFINING AND MEASURING BODYROLL

There are a number of definitions of bodyroll in the literature and several different
approaches have been used to quantify bodyroll. One popular method of measuring bodyroll
in front-crawl is the use of a dorsal fin. This involves attaching a lightweight fin or rod to the
back of the swimmer, usually at the level of the inferior borders of the scapulae [18, 24]. The
motion of the fin is then recorded by video cameras from the front or rear view and the roll
angles obtained using standard video analysis techniques. In this method, bodyroll is usually
defined as the angle between a vertical line and the projection of the fin onto the x-z plane
(Figure 1).
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Figure 1. Bodyroll measured using a dorsally-mounted fin (adapted from Payton et al. [24]).

The dorsal fin method of measuring bodyroll has two main limitations: first, as the fin‘s
motion is typically recorded from only a single camera, it is assumed that bodyroll is a two-
dimensional movement that is confined to the photographic plane of the camera; this is
unlikely to be the case as swimming is a three-dimensional activity. Second, it assumes that
the swimmer‘s trunk behaves as a rigid unit and that the rotation of the fin therefore
adequately represents the motion of the entire trunk. Studies have shown that a swimmer‘s
shoulders and hips do not roll as one unit and are often out of phase [5, 6, 7, 20, 28, 39, 40].
A more valid method of determining bodyroll involves calculating shoulder roll and hip
roll separately using three-dimensional coordinates of the shoulders and hips obtained from
above and below water recordings [e.g. 5, 20, 28, 39]. In this approach, bodyroll is defined as
the rotation of the line joining the two shoulders (shoulder roll) or the two hips (hip roll),
about the trunk‘s long axis. Maximum bodyroll angles reported in the literature for front-
crawl range from ~18 degrees [15] to 75 degrees [40]. Table 1 summarizes the bodyroll data
in the literature.

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 Bodyroll in Front Crawl Swimming 175

Table 1. Mean values for maximum bodyroll angles for front-crawl reported
in the literature.

Swim Speed Maximum Bodyroll

Authors Study Methods
(ms-1) ()
Beekman & Hay 2D (Dorsal fin). ♂ N=4, ♀ N=7, Sprint Pace 54 (B-B)
(1988) breathing & non-breathing 55 (B-N)
2D (Dorsal fin). Skilleda N=7,
Kippenhan & Hay 46  7 (B-N)a
Unskilledb N=8, breathing & non- Preferred Pace
(1994) 18 to >30 (B-N)b
breathing.
Lui et al. (1993) 2D (Dorsal fin). Skilled ♂ N=10 Distance Pace 61  4 (N-N)
3D (shoulders). Elitea ♂ N=5, Sub- 2.01a 34  2
Cappaert et al. (1995)
eliteb ♂ N=7. 1.87b 35  3
2D (Dorsal fin). Skilled ♂ N=6. 1.52 66  5 (B-B)
Payton et al. (1999)
Breathing and non-breathing trials. 1.52 57  4 (B-N)
3D (shoulders). Skilled ♂ N=11. Two 1.3 75
Yanai (2003) test paces (moderate, submaximal 1.6 66
sprint),
1.27 74  2 (B-B)
2D (Dorsal fin). Skilled sprint 1.50 71  6 (B-B)
specialists. 1.88 63  7 (B-B)
Castro et al. (2002) ♂ N=10. Breathing & non-breathing
trials. Three test paces (warm-up,
1.33 64  5 (B-N)
1.61 60  5 (B-N)
1500-m, 50-m). 1.94 56  9 (B-N)
1.68 50  7 (SRD)
57  4 (SRND)
23  7 (HRD)
22  8 (HRND)
1.52 49  7 (SRD)
57  5 (SRND)
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3D (shoulders and hips separately.

26  7 (HRD)
Calculations for dominant and non-
Psycharakis & Sanders 24  9 (HRND)
dominant sides). Skilled (♂ N=10). 1.47
(2008)
Non-breathing trials Four measures 49  5 (SRD)
during a 200m maximum swim. 57  5 (SRND)
26  7 (HRD)
1.45 26  10 (HRND)
49  6 (SRD)
57  6 (SRND)
28  6 (HRD)
27  9 (HRND)
3D (shoulders). Skilled sprinta (♂ 1.41a 59.2 (N)
b
N=7) and distance (♂ N=8) 1.50b 56.5 (N)
McCabe (2008)
specialists. Non-breathing trials at two 1.81a 59.1 (N)
test paces (sprint and 400-m). 1.80b 55.1 (N)
Notes: SRD: Shoulder roll towards the dominant side; SRND: Shoulder roll towards the non-dominant
side HRD: Hip roll towards the dominant side; HRND: Hip roll towards the non-dominant side; B-
N: Breathing side with no breathing action; B-B: Breathing side with breathing action; N-N: Non-
breathing side with no breathing action

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 176 Carl J. Payton and Ross H. Sanders

This wide range of values for the maximum bodyroll angle can partly be attributed to
different definitions of bodyroll and their corresponding methods of calculation. Also, as
some studies in Table 1 indicate, maximum bodyroll is strongly influenced by swimming
speed, with the maximum roll angle decreasing as speed (and stroke frequency) increases [8,
20, 40]. The findings of Psycharakis and Sanders [28], for competitive 200 m front crawl
swimmers, were in agreement with the above as far as hip roll is concerned, but no changes
were observed in the maximum shoulder roll angle as swimming speed decreased across the
laps of a 200 m simulated race. Several of the studies show that front-crawl swimmers tend to
roll more to their breathing side during a breathing cycle, compared to a breath-holding cycle
[3, 8, 24]. Interestingly, a recent study [28] has shown that during non-breathing cycles,
swimmers tend to roll their shoulders more towards the non-breathing than the breathing side.
However, no similar pattern was reported for hip roll.
One other factor that may influence the extent to which a swimmer rolls is their skill level
[15]. The effect that the breathing action has on bodyroll, the relative timing of hand entries
and exits, and the coordination of the phases of the arm stroke cycle with the bodyroll, is
much greater for unskilled swimmers, than for skilled swimmers. Kippenhan and Hay [15]
reported that unskilled swimmers increased their maximum bodyroll, to the breathing side, by
up to 40 when taking a breath, compared to a maximum increase of only 8 for skilled
swimmers. They observed that skilled swimmers, in breathing and non-breathing trials,
achieved their maximum bodyroll toward the breathing side (Figure 1) shortly after the hand
on the breathing side left the water. This hand then entered the water again shortly after the
swimmers began rolling back toward the other side. Unskilled swimmers generally exhibited
later hand exits (after maximum bodyroll had been reached), and later hand entries (bodyroll
close to neutral), than skilled swimmers. On their breathing strokes, hand entry occurred later
in the stroke cycle than in the non-breathing strokes [15] indicating that the breathing action,
and the associated increase in bodyroll, was disrupting their stroke technique. Studies on
unskilled swimmers are limited and further work is necessary to improve our understanding
of the relationships between skill level, bodyroll, the breathing action and stroke organization.
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

3. TIMING OF SHOULDER AND HIP ROLL

In recent studies [20, 28] three-dimensional analysis has been used to investigate the
time-lag between shoulder and hip roll during the front-crawl. Psycharakis & Sanders [28]
reported large inter-swimmer variability in the timings of shoulder and hip roll peaks on each
side. Nevertheless, the very small intra-swimmer variability indicated high individual
consistency for the timing differences. McCabe [20] revealed a different sequencing order of
the shoulders and hips rolling between specialist sprint and distance swimmers groups, and
between paces. When sprinting, sprint specialists clearly led with the hips (Figure 2).
Although the distance specialists showed this same trend when sprinting, the hips did not lead
the shoulders as much as they did among the sprinters (Figure 3).
Figures 2 and 3 show that when sprinting, both sprint and distance swimmers rotated the
hips prior to the shoulders. This trend was most distinguishable within the sprint group.

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 Bodyroll in Front Crawl Swimming 177

Figure 2. Shoulder roll angles as a function of % stroke cycle, for sprint swimmers whilst sprint and
distance swimming [20].
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Figure 3. Shoulder roll angles as a function of % stroke cycle, for distance swimmers whilst sprint and
distance swimming [20].

When swimming at a distance pace, sprint specialists rolled the shoulders and hips
simultaneously (Figure 2), whilst the distance specialists rotated the shoulders prior to the
hips (Figure 3). McCabe [20] speculated that the varied sequential rotation of the shoulders
and hips between paces was as a consequence of a different kicking depth magnitude across
paces.

4. BODYROLL, UPPER LIMB MOVEMENT AND PROPULSION

A number of authors have speculated that bodyroll can directly or indirectly increase the
amount of propulsion created during front-crawl swimming. It has been argued that an
increase in shoulder roll puts the upper limb in a position to more efficiently execute the

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 178 Carl J. Payton and Ross H. Sanders

stroke [13]; that greater body roll is associated with higher forces during the finish phase of
front-crawl [7], and that front crawl swimmers ‗whip‘ their arms through the water and
generate propulsion using hip rotation [27]. Unfortunately, there is currently only limited
empirical evidence to support the proposed link between bodyroll and propulsion.
Several studies have attempted to quantify the relationship between bodyroll and the
underwater actions of the upper limb, shedding some light on the possible links between
bodyroll and propulsion. These studies have used either a modelling and simulation approach
[14, 23] or an experimental study approach [18, 25].
The modelling and simulation studies have demonstrated how bodyroll can significantly
influence the path and the speed of the hand during the pull phase of the stroke. Using a
simple two-segment (trunk and arm) rigid body model, Hay et al. [14] showed that the medio-
lateral motions of the hand typically observed during the front-crawl pull could be achieved
entirely by bodyroll, without the need for elbow flexion or horizontal adduction at the
shoulder. They also reported that the amount of bodyroll needed to sweep the hand to the
vertical plane through the long axis, commonly referred to as the ‗midline‘ of the body, was
only 19-34 degrees. As this was well below the maximum bodyroll values typically exhibited
by swimmers (Table 1) it was concluded that swimmers must move their arms laterally
relative to the trunk in order to prevent the hand from travelling too far across the midline.
One of the main limitations of the Hay et al. model was that the hand was constrained to
remain in the plane that passed through the shoulder, parallel to the sagittal plane of the
swimmer. This was an unrealistic constraint as swimmers invariably move their hands
laterally relative to this parasagittal plane [18]. Another limitation was that the upper limb
was represented as a single segment, so no elbow flexion-extension was permitted. A
refinement of this model was proposed by Payton et al. [23]. Their three-segment rigid body
model allowed elbow flexion-extension and movement of the hand out of the parasagittal
plane, through horizontal abduction at the shoulder. The model was used to investigate the
effect of bodyroll on medio-lateral and vertical hand motion. Simulations indicated that
bodyroll makes no contribution to hand motion in the backward direction and cannot
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therefore help generate forwardly directed (propulsive) drag forces on the hand. However,
bodyroll could potentially help generate hand speed in both the medio-lateral and vertical
directions during the pull phase. As propulsive lift forces can be created by sculling the hand
in either of these directions, it was speculated that bodyroll could serve to increase the
potential of the hand to produce propulsion from lift.
Experimental studies into the effect of bodyroll on upper limb motion supported the
notion that bodyroll strongly influences medio-lateral and vertical hand motion during the
front-crawl pull. Lui et al. [18] conducted a three-dimensional analysis of the arm-pull and
bodyroll patterns of ten male university swimmers. They demonstrated that the ‗S-shaped‘
medio-lateral path of the hand through the water was due to the combined effect of bodyroll
and the motion of the arm relative to the rotating trunk, resulting from shoulder and elbow
movements. They calculated that bodyroll contributed from 41-74 percent of the medio-
lateral hand movement. Interestingly, the swimmers were generally found to sweep their
hands laterally, relative to their rotating trunk, in the first part of the pull and then medially, in
the second part. This sequence of movements was necessary to counteract the effect of the
bodyroll and to prevent the hand from travelling too far across the midline of the trunk. This
finding has important implications for swimming teachers and coaches, as the classic ‗S-
shape‘ pull is generally demonstrated on the pool-deck using a medial-then-lateral sweep of

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 Bodyroll in Front Crawl Swimming 179

the hand, with no acknowledgement given to the moderating effects of bodyroll. Although
Lui et al. [18] quantified the influence of bodyroll on hand motion, their calculation methods
did not differentiate between positive and negative contributions. Their study did not
therefore reveal the extent to which hand motion could be caused by bodyroll. A more recent
study [25] provided some insight into this question. Three-dimensional data describing the
arm-pull patterns of six male university swimmers were used in conjunction with bodyroll
data, to calculate the relative contribution of bodyroll to hand speed at three key instants in
the front-crawl pull (start, middle and end of the insweep). Bodyroll did not help the
swimmers generate hand speed at any stage during the insweep. In fact, it had a negative
influence. This was because all swimmers began to roll back to the neutral position (Figure 1)
near the beginning of the insweep. Thus, bodyroll created a laterally-directed hand velocity
component, during a phase when the hand was sweeping medially. Although the analysis in
this study was limited to the insweep phase, the authors speculated, based on the observed
bodyroll patterns, that bodyroll could help generate downward hand speed during the
downsweep, and upward and lateral hand speed during the upsweep.

5. RHYTHMS IN BODYROLL
While the term ‗bodyroll‘ generally evokes images of the roll of the upper body, the
influence of the upper body on the motion of the upper and lower limbs must be recognised
also. Similarly, the effect of the actions of the upper and lower limbs on the rolling motion of
the shoulders and hips must be considered. The coordination of the actions of the body yields
characteristic ‗rhythms‘ of motion that can be quantified using Fourier analysis in terms of the
sinusoidal oscillations of the body parts around the body‘s longitudinal axis [31]. When
angular displacement is graphed as a function of time, the oscillation of the shoulders about
the longitudinal axis of the body is predominantly a single sinusoidal waveform. It has a
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

maximum when the swimmer rolls to one side and a minimum when the swimmer rolls to the
other side. Yanai [39, 41] has indicated that much of the two-beat rolling rhythm of the upper
body comes from the pendulum-like effect of the gravitational force being out of alignment
with the buoyancy force due to each arm and some trunk mass being alternately submerged
and raised out of the water. The sinusoid may be raised or lowered on the ordinate, that is, the
mean roll angle may not be zero, reflecting greater roll to one side than the other.
In addition to the two-beat influence of the upper limbs as they alternate between above
and below water periods, the upper limb actions produce a maximum and minimum torque in
reaction to the external force of the water during the pull, for example, by medio-lateral
movements of the propelling arm, or by internal joint torques acting on the trunk, in reaction
to, for example, the shoulder horizontal adduction torque acting during the insweep phase
[24]. Similarly, the influence of the six-beat kicking action on shoulder roll is reflected in the
contribution of the six-beat sinusoid (H3). Figure 4 shows a typical shoulder angular
displacement-time graph of an elite 200-m front crawl swimmer after the mean roll due to
asymmetry has been removed. Notice that the single sinusoid H1 fits the actual body roll data
very well. In fact, nearly 99% of the ‗power‘ in the actual shoulder roll data is contained in
the single two-beat sinusoid. While an even better fit is created when the small contributions
of the four-beat waveform and six-beat waveforms are added, these contributions are very

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 180 Carl J. Payton and Ross H. Sanders

small. However, despite their small magnitude, the variability in magnitude of the H2 and H3
waveforms across laps of a 200-m maximum swim was small indicating a consistent effect of
the upper limb actions and kicking on shoulder roll.

Figure 4. Rotation of the shoulders about the longitudinal axis (degrees) plotted against time (s) for one
cycle of an elite 200-m front crawl swimmer. Contributions of the two-beat sinusoid (H1), four-beat
sinusoid (H2) and six-beat sinusoid (H3) are shown [31].
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Figure 5. Rotation of the hips about the longitudinal axis (degrees) plotted against time (s) for one cycle
of an elite 200-m front crawl swimmer. Contributions of the two-beat sinusoid (H1), four-beat sinusoid
(H2) and six-beat sinusoid (H3) are shown [31].

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 Bodyroll in Front Crawl Swimming 181

Figure 5 shows a typical hip angular displacement-time graph of the same elite 200-m
front crawl swimmer. Again, the sum of the three waveforms yielded an excellent fit to the
data. As in the shoulder roll, the two-beat sinusoid (H1) was the dominant waveform and
accounted for more than 90% of the power in the hip angular displacement-time profile. The
kicking action, reflected in the H3 waveform, had considerable influence whereas the
influence of the arm actions reflected in H2 was small. Consequently, more than 98% of the
hip angular displacement-time profile was contained in H1 and H3.
The mean magnitude of hip roll in the Sanders and Psycharakis study [31] (47 degrees)
was less than half the magnitude of the shoulder roll (104 degrees), emphasising the
independent nature of shoulder and hip roll and the need to study them separately. Sanders
and Psycharakis [31] hypothesised that the smaller hip rotation compared to the shoulder
rotation was due to the rotation of the hips being damped by the action of the lower limbs,
that is, the kicking action applied a torque to the hips that limited the range of hip rotation.
Yanai [39] also indicated that internally generated reaction torques from the leg actions acted
primarily to resist bodyroll.
An imaginary line between the knees also rotates about the long axis of the body; about
75 degrees among skilled 200-m front-crawl swimmers. Figure 6 shows that the greatest
contribution to the rotation is a six-beat sinusoidal waveform associated with the kick.
However, the two-beat waveform associated with the role of the upper body and the four-beat
waveform associated with the actions of the upper limbs both contributed to the rotations of
the knees about the long axis. The sum of the three waveforms yielded a close fit to the data
and accounted for over 95% of the power in the knee angular displacement-time profile.
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Figure 6. Rotation of the knees about the longitudinal axis (degrees) plotted against time (s) for one
cycle of an elite 200-m front crawl swimmer. Contributions of the two-beat sinusoid (H1), four-beat
sinusoid (H2) and six-beat sinusoid (H3) are shown [31].

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 182 Carl J. Payton and Ross H. Sanders

Figure 7 indicates that the ankles roll through a large range of about 148 degrees. Like
the knees there were contributions from all of H1, H2, and H3 to the rotation of the ankles
about the longitudinal axis. However, the six-beat H3 waveform dominated.
The data of Sanders and Psycharakis [31] indicated that front-crawl swimming among
skilled 200-m front crawl swimmers was characterised by rhythmic rotations about the
longitudinal axis and that the rhythms of individual swimmers were consistent throughout a
200-m simulated race.

Figure 7. Rotation of the ankles about the longitudinal axis (degrees) plotted against time (s) for one
cycle of an elite 200-m front crawl swimmer. Contributions of the two-beat sinusoid (H1), four-beat
sinusoid (H2) and six-beat sinusoid are shown [31].
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6. BODY WAVES – SWIMMING LIKE FISH

Another important aspect to be considered regarding the rhythms in front crawl
swimming is their ‗phase‘. That is, what is the timing of reaching the maximum and
minimum values? The phase greatly influences the coordination characteristics of the
technique. For example, Sanders et al. [29] found that the phasing of the vertical motions in
elite butterfly swimming was such that a body wave travelled from head to feet. Traveling
‗body waves‘ are well known in marine animals [37]. Among efficient swimmers, the speed
of travel of the wave relative to the body is only slightly faster than the speed of swimming.
Could it be that waves travel along the body in front crawl swimming and that the
characteristics of the wave differ between skilled and unskilled swimmers?
To address this question Sanders [30] studied the prone kicking actions of swimmers at
different stages of a learn to swim programme and compared them to those of skilled
swimmers. Swimmers kicked in a prone position without body roll and without arm actions.
The Fourier contributions to the vertical motions of the hips, knees, and ankles were
quantified in terms of magnitude and phase.

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 Bodyroll in Front Crawl Swimming 183

Two main differences between skilled and less skilled swimmers were apparent. Skilled
swimmers had a very high percentage of the power of the vertical displacement-time profiles
contained in a single sinusoidal waveform corresponding to the kicking frequency. That is,
the motion was very rhythmical and smooth. Less skilled swimmers had more irregular
profiles comprising contributions of waveforms of several frequencies. Further, unlike the
skilled swimmers, the relative magnitudes of the waveforms varied greatly across kick cycles.
In lay terms the kicks were not rhythmical or consistent and were ‗jerky‘ rather than smooth.
A wave corresponding to the kicking frequency progressed from hip to ankle with
increasing amplitude. Table 2 indicates that the wave was much faster between the hips and
knees among the less skilled swimmers than the skilled swimmers. The fast wave motion of
the less skilled swimmers was due to the vertical motions of the hips, knees and ankles being
almost in-phase, that is, they all moved up and down at the same time. The sequencing of the
vertical motion of the body parts of the elite swimmers was out of phase so that the upward
movement of the hips commenced before the upward movement of the knees which, in turn,
preceded the upward movement of the ankles. This meant that a body wave progressed quite
slowly along the body, but with increasing speed as it moved caudally, in a manner
resembling the motions of marine animals [37]

Table 2. Body Wave Speeds (Mean  SD) of the Prone Flutter Kick Obtained in the
Sanders [30] Study of Three Levels of Learners (L1, L2, L3) and a Group of Skilled
Swimmers.

Skill Level Hip-Knee Wave speed Knee-Ankle Wave speed

(ms-1) (ms-1)
L1 8.2  7.1 2.5  0.5
L2 8.3  3.6 4.1  0.5
L3 7.3  4.3 3.8  0.8
Skilled 2.8  0.5 3.2  0.3
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But what about body waves in the whole stroke? Because the body is rotating about a
longitudinal axis we need to consider waves moving along the body in terms of a three-
dimensional ‗torsional‘ wave created by differences in phase of the rotations about the
longitudinal axis of the body. The study by Sanders and Psycharakis [31] revealed that
although the H1 and H2 waves were transmitted along the body, their phasing varied
considerably between swimmers. The phase difference in H1 between shoulders and hips was
small indicating that the rotations of the shoulders and hips were almost
simultaneous.However, the wave corresponding to the six beat kicking frequency (H3) did
progress from hip to ankle at a modest speed of approximately 3 ms-1. The wave speed was
very consistent within individual swimmers across laps, reducing slightly as the simulated
race progressed. Bearing in mind that efficient swimming among marine animals is associated
with small wave velocities relative to swimming speed [37] it is interesting that the best four
swimmers had H3 wave velocities that were less than those of the remaining three national
level swimmers. More data are required to establish whether small differences in skill of
swimmers at this level can be detected through analysis of rhythms and whether, even at this
level, the efficiency of kicking can be improved.

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 184 Carl J. Payton and Ross H. Sanders

There is great potential for investigations of rhythms in front crawl swimming to uncover
important knowledge regarding the relationships between coordination and performance.
Investigations across a broader range of swimming distances, skill and performance levels,
are required. Currently, there is a paucity of data with regard to the rhythms in front crawl
with two beat and four beat kicking patterns and the changes in rhythms that occur when
swimmers switch between front crawl kicking patterns.
The effect of timing of upper limb actions, for example the degree of ‗catch up‘, on the
rhythm characteristics, is an important area of future investigation. In particular there is a
need to combine rhythm analysis with other measures of timing and coordination, for
example the ‗index of coordination‘ [9, 36]. Thus, knowledge of how coordination changes
with changes in swimming pace [22], race distance [32] and fatigue [1, 2] will be extended by
establishing how these spatio-temporal changes and coordination indices are reflected in
changes in the underlying rhythms. Another aspect of interest is the manner in which spatial
and temporal asymmetries in stroke patterns [33, 34, 35], including those due to breathing, are
reflected in the underlying rhythms. These studies will lead to a deeper understanding of how
individual swimmers adjust to the various constraints of competitive swimming. Finally, the
characteristics of body waves and their influence on propulsion, drag, and economy need to
be investigated with a view to improving coaching and performance.

7. BODYROLL, ARM RECOVERY AND SHOULDER INJURY

One of the major causes of overuse injury of the shoulder in front-crawl swimmers is the
impingement of the supraspinatus and biceps tendons against the overlying coraco-acromial
arch. This impingement, thought to occur mainly during the arm recovery phase, can lead to a
condition called shoulder impingement syndrome.
A number of authors have suggested that swimmers should be able to reduce or even
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

eliminate the risk of shoulder impingement by altering their stroke mechanics. One of the
most common recommendations given to front-crawl swimmers that suffer from impingement
syndrome is to increase the amount of bodyroll they use [e.g. 10, 21, 26]. The theory behind
this recommendation is that without sufficient bodyroll the swimmer is forced to increase the
amount of shoulder horizontal abduction they use during arm recovery to bring the hand clear
of the water. It is argued that this increase in horizontal abduction increases the likelihood of
impingement. If this proposal is valid, then swimmers who display large bodyroll angles
should exhibit lower shoulder horizontal abduction angles and consequently less shoulder
impingement, during the arm recovery phase, than those with lower bodyroll angles.
The scientific evidence to support the proposed link between bodyroll and shoulder
impingement is not strong. Yanai & Hay [38] conducted a study in which the three-
dimensional movements of the shoulder and upper arms of eleven male collegiate swimmers
were measured during front-crawl swimming and during a boundary range of movement test.
The latter was used to identify the shoulder configurations that were indicative of
impingement. As expected, shoulder impingement occurred most frequently in the arm
recovery phase. Surprisingly, Yanai & Hay [38] found no link (r = -0.11) between a
swimmer‘s maximum bodyroll and the amount of shoulder horizontal abduction used during
arm recovery, nor between maximum bodyroll and percentage of time the shoulder spent in

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 Bodyroll in Front Crawl Swimming 185

an impinged position during arm recovery (r=0.07). The authors identified certain
characteristics of the front-crawl stroke, associated with shoulder impingement, which could
be eliminated by altering technique, for example, late initiation of external rotation of the
shoulder during arm recovery. Importantly, they concluded that achieving a high bodyroll
angle should not be a priority when trying to prevent shoulder impingement.

8. BODYROLL AND DRAG

It seems likely that bodyroll would have a considerable influence on the amount of form
drag experienced by swimmers, in both front-crawl and backstroke, although the precise
nature of this influence is unclear. Maglischo [19] suggested that bodyroll may help to
minimize undesirable lateral movements of the trunk, hips and legs. He stated that if
swimmers do not use bodyroll, their bodies swing from side to side, creating unnecessary
form drag. In slight contradiction, he also observed that bodyroll is likely to increase form
drag, compared to swimming in a prone position. To date the relationship between bodyroll
and active drag has not been scientifically investigated.
Kolmogorov and Duplishcheva [16] argued that bodyroll may reduce the frontal cross-
sectional area presented to the water (compared to a prone position). In a towing study on a
single subject, Counsilman [12] found less passive drag was produced in the prone position,
compared to a side position, at speeds of 1.5 – 1.9 ms-1. This suggests that the transient side-
on position achieved during body roll may create extra resistance. However, a later study by
Clarys and Jiskoot [11] contradicted this finding. Towing tests conducted on 43 male subjects
indicated that the side position (45 degrees) created significantly less passive drag than the
prone position, at towing speeds of 1.5 and 1.6 ms-1; there was no significant difference in
drag between the two body positions at 1.9 ms-1. Moreover, it has been suggested that
swimmers intuitively increase the bodyroll magnitude at distance pace, due to the associated
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

decreases in drag, by rotating onto one side as identified in the aforementioned studies, thus
reducing the frontal surface area and consequently minimizing active drag [5, 7, 8]. It has also
been proposed that reducing the difference between shoulder and hip roll magnitude could be
beneficial in terms of minimizing active drag [5]. McCabe [20] found that the difference
between total shoulder and hip roll was less at distance pace (~57 degrees) than in sprinting
(~68 degrees) confirming that swimmers adopted a more streamlined or improved
hydrodynamic body position when swimming at a distance pace.
Cappaert et al. [5] examined three-dimensionally the magnitude and temporal aspects of
shoulder and hip rotation in elite and sub-elite swimmers. It was found that elite swimmers
displayed a symmetrical bodyroll with both shoulders and hips rolling in the same direction,
whereas sub-elite swimmers demonstrated an asymmetrical body roll pattern with the hips
rolling in the opposite direction to the shoulders. From these results it was suggested that elite
swimmers had a reduced active drag due to a symmetrical body roll, whereas the opposing
body roll between the shoulders and hips of the sub-elite group may have increased the active
drag by increasing the frontal surface area.
Psycharakis and Sanders [28] underlined the necessity for separate calculation of
shoulder and hip roll, for the purpose of assessing their association with drag and swimming
performance. These authors argued that, given that active drag is affected by frontal surface

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 186 Carl J. Payton and Ross H. Sanders

area, large differences in the magnitude of shoulder and hip roll might increase the frontal
surface area and create large resistive forces.

9. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
This chapter has highlighted the importance of bodyroll in front crawl swimming and
presented a critical evaluation of the scientific evidence supporting the potential performance
benefits associated with bodyroll. Based on the current research into bodyroll, the following
practical recommendations can be made:

 The term ‗bodyroll‘ in swimming has several connotations. When discussing

bodyroll, it is therefore important to identify clearly which aspect of bodyroll is being
addressed (shoulder-roll, hip-roll, trunk-roll).
 When measuring bodyroll, a simple 2D motion analysis of a dorsally-mounted fin
can provide a general indication of trunk rotation. However, 3D motion analysis is
necessary to provide an accurate picture of the shoulder and hip rotations.
 The medio-lateral hand movement (S-shape pull) in front crawl is influenced by
bodyroll. When demonstrating arm pull patterns on the pool-deck, swimming
teachers and coaches should consider the effect of bodyroll on hand trajectory and
incorporate this in their demonstrations.
 There is little evidence to support the view that bodyroll has a direct influence on
arm propulsion in front crawl. Teachers and coaches should view bodyroll as an
important effect of the swimmer‘s arm action, rather than the cause of it.
 Rhythm in swimming, quantifiable using Fourier analysis, may be used in the future
to indicate where technique interventions are required. Skilled swimmers have
characteristic rhythms such that body waves influence propulsion and minimise
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

resistive drag. Unskilled swimmers have rhythms that are less effective from a
hydrodynamic perspective.
 In front crawl, skilled swimmers are consistent in producing a six beat body wave
that progresses from hips to ankles and the variability in wave speed remains small
throughout a 200m race. Small decreases in the wave speed occur throughout the
race. It is possible that analysis of the body waves will assist swimmers to ‗hold their
form‘ and maintain good rhythm when fatigue.
 Bilateral asymmetries in magnitude and timing of body roll are evident through
rhythm analysis. The bilateral asymmetries of the different frequency components of
the rhythms may indicate bilateral differences in stroke mechanics where technique
interventions are required.
 Increasing the amount of bodyroll does not appear to be an effective strategy for
reducing shoulder impingement in the front crawl. Other changes in technique, such
as initiating external rotation of the shoulder earlier in the arm recovery, can reduce
or eliminate impingement.

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 Bodyroll in Front Crawl Swimming 187

CONCLUSION
Bodyroll is an integral part of the front crawl and backstroke swimming techniques and it
has been attributed a number of performance benefits. Based on the available evidence from
the research literature it can be concluded that bodyroll is a complex movement involving
separate rotations of the shoulders and hips. The maximum bodyroll angle is influenced by
the breathing action, swimming speed, stroke rate, and skill level of the swimmer. In addition
to the roll of the upper body, the roll of the lower body must be considered. The timing of the
rolling actions of the upper and lower body are interrelated and yield body waves with
amplitude and phase characteristics that distinguish skilled from less skilled swimmers and
influence hydrodynamic efficiency.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors express their appreciation to Dr. Stelios Psycharakis and Dr. Carla McCabe
for their editorial contributions to this chapter.

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[17] Leonard, J. (1992). Science of coaching swimming. Champaign, Il: Leisure Press.
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[24] Payton, C.J., Bartlett, R.M., Baltzopoulos, V. & Coombs, R. (1999). Upper extremity
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[28] Psycharakis, S.G. & Sanders, R.H. (2008). Shoulder and hip roll changes during 200-m
front crawl swimming. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 40(12), 2129-2136.
[29] Sanders, R.H., Cappaert, J.M. & Devlin, R.K. (1995). Wave characteristics of butterfly
swimming. Journal of Biomechanics, 28, 9-16.
[30] Sanders, R.H. (2007). Kinematics, coordination, variability, and noise in the prone
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[31] Sanders, R.H. & Psycharakis, S.G. (2009). Rolling Rhythms in Front Crawl Swimming
with Six-Beat Kick. Journal of Biomechanics, 42, 273-279.
[32] Seifert, L., Chollet, D. & Bardy, B.G. (2004). Effect of swimming velocity on arm
coordination in the front crawl: a dynamic analysis. Journal of Sports Sciences, 22(7),
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[33] Seifert, L., Boulesteix, L., Carter, M. & Chollet. D. (2005). The spatial-temporal and
coordinative structures in elite 100-m front crawl swimmers. International Journal of
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[34] Seifert, L., Chollet, D. & Allard, P. (2005). Arm coordination symmetry and breathing
effect in front crawl. Human Movement Science, 24(2), 234-56.
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Effect of breathing pattern on arm coordination symmetry in front crawl. Journal of

Strength and Conditioning Research, 22(5), 1670-1676.
[36] Seifert, L. & Chollet, D. (in press). Modelling spatial-temporal and coordinative
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[37] Sfakiotakis, M., Lane, D.M. & Davies, J.B. (1999). Review of fish swimming modes
for aquatic locomotion. IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering, 34, 237-251.
[38] Yanai, T. & Hay, J.G. (2000). Shoulder impingement in front-crawl swimming: II.
Analysis of stroking technique. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 32(1),
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[39] Yanai, T. (2001). What causes the body to roll in frontcrawl swimming? Journal of
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[40] Yanai, T. (2003). Stroke frequency in front-crawl: its mechanical link to the fluid forces
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swimming. Journal of Biomechanics, 37, 605-612.

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Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

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 In: World Book of Swimming: From Science to Performance ISBN: 978-1-61668-202-6
Editors: L. Seifert, D. Chollet and I.Mujika ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 9

RHYTHMS IN BUTTERFLY SWIMMING

Ross H. Sanders
Centre for Aquatics Research and Education, University of Edinburgh, Scotland

ABSTRACT
This chapter addresses the role of rhythm in butterfly swimming. The underlying
rhythms of the vertical undulations of the body parts and the motion of a ‗body wave‘
have been quantified using Fourier analysis. In combination with advanced three
dimensional analysis of kinematics, kinetics, and energetics, the analysis of rhythms and
body wave motion provide insights into how skilled butterfly swimmers are able to re-use
energy in the process of rotating and raising the trunk to swim economically. Three main
conclusions can be drawn from the evidence and rationale provided. First skilled butterfly
swimming is characterised by wave-like undulations of shoulders, hips, knees, and ankles
with the vertical undulations consisting almost entirely of a waveform corresponding to
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the stroke frequency (H1) and a waveform of twice that frequency (H2). Second, the
undulations are coordinated to yield travelling 'body waves' to optimise performance
from both hydrodynamic and energy transmission and re-use perspectives. Third, the
phase relationship between the one-beat H1 frequency and two-beat H2 is important to
performance.

Key words: butterfly, Fourier, rhythms, swimming.

1. INTRODUCTION
Anyone who has ever learned to swim butterfly knows how exhausting it is until a
rhythmical body motion is achieved. The rhythmical ‗wavelike‘ undulations of the shoulders,
hips, knees, and feet, distinguish skilled from unskilled butterfly swimming and butterfly
swimming from the other strokes. The importance of rhythm in butterfly is well recognised
and referred to very often in descriptions of the butterfly technique. For example, Thornton
stated that ‗maintaining a relaxed rhythm while performing the butterfly is essential to
swimming the whole stroke well (1). The best butterfly swimmers can flow with their strokes

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 192 Ross H. Sanders

while being completely relaxed‘ (p.42). Similarly, Cater stated that ‗once you learn how,
learn the rhythm, butterfly is a great stroke‘ (2, p.9). Seifert et al. (3) have found recently that
skilled swimmers are distinguished from less skilled swimmers by having better
synchronisation of arm and leg actions leading to effective and efficient propulsion. Clearly,
there is a rhythm associated with skilled butterfly technique that enables consistent
synchronisation. Until that rhythm is established, the timing is ineffective and inconsistent.
Typing ‗butterfly stroke rhythm‘ in a web search engine such as Google yields many
articles in which rhythm features strongly in descriptions of the butterfly stroke. However,
rhythm in butterfly usually remains a qualitative descriptive term and the essential features of
what constitutes appropriate rhythm in butterfly swimming are rarely defined or elaborated.
Quantitative analysis by Sanders et al, (4) confirmed a suggestion by Ungerechts (5) that
butterfly swimming among skilled swimmers is somewhat ‗dolphin-like‘ comprising a series
of undulations progressing in a ‗wave-like‘ manner from the upper body towards the feet and
culminating in a vigorous kick that aids propulsion.
To quantify the rhythms in butterfly swimming Sanders et al. (4) applied a mathematical
technique called ‗Fourier Analysis‘. The method is based on the assumption that human
movement can be represented by sinusoidal waveforms, an assumption that fits well with
dynamical systems theories of movement control incorporating limit cycle oscillators (6).
Fourier analysis represents any time series data, for example a displacement/time signal, as a
series of waveforms. Each waveform (harmonic) is an integer multiple of the fundamental
frequency. For example, if the fundamental frequency is 1hz, then harmonics occur at 2hz,
3hz…. Fourier analysis determines the amplitude of each of those contributing waveforms
and the ‗phase‘, that is, the timing of when the peaks of the wave are attained. Using this
technique the rhythms comprising the vertical undulations of the body parts can be quantified
as well as the speed of travel of the ‗body wave‘.
In this chapter the rhythms in butterfly swimming will be explained based on research
that applies Fourier analysis in conjunction with analysis of the technique in terms of its
kinematics, kinetics, and energetics. In doing so, the reason why having a good rhythm is so
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important in butterfly swimming is explained.

2. RHYTHMS IN BUTTERFLY SWIMMING

Sanders, et al. (4) established that the motion of elite butterfly swimmers is characterised
by sinusoidal vertical undulations with the fundamental frequency (H1) and 2nd harmonic
(H2) accounting for more than 98% of the power of the vertical motions for all of head,
shoulder, hips, knees, and ankles. The fact that so much of the power in these motions is
contained in only two waveforms indicates that the motion is very smooth and regular, that is,
it is very ‗wave-like‘. The undulations of the body parts are sequenced so that a body wave
with the fundamental frequency (H1) progresses along the entire body at a rate (relative to the
swimmer‘s centre of mass) that is slightly faster than the swimmer‘s speed.
Among elite swimmers the rate of progression of H1 is related to swimming speed (males
r=.88; females r=.96). A body wave of twice that frequency (H2) travels from the hip to ankle
at a faster rate of approximately 2.5 metres per second. These findings are reinforced by data
obtained recently from three skilled female butterfly swimmers. Both studies have indicated

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 Rhythms in Butterfly Swimming 193

that the displacement-time signal is very well represented by the sum of two sinusoidal
harmonics H1 and H2. There is very little power in the signal not taken up by those two
waveforms.

0.2
ShH1+H2
0.15 HipH1+H2
KneH1+H2
Displacement (m)

0.1
AnkH1+H2
0.05

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
-0.05

-0.1

-0.15

-0.2
Time (% stroke cycle)

Figure 1. Typical butterfly vertical displacement-time signals of the combined H1 and H2 contributions
for the shoulders, hips, knees, and ankles for one stroke cycle from hand entry to the next hand entry.

The different frequencies and the phase relationship between them enables each body part
to have a period of large amplitude of vertical motion and a period of smaller amplitude of
vertical motion because the signal is reinforced at one part of the cycle and attenuated at
another. This yields a strong beat and a weaker beat (figure 1). The sequencing of the peaks
of the waves at each body landmark is such that a wave comprised of contributions of H1 and
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H2 travels along the body. The amplitudes of the composite wave, and, therefore, the vertical
motions of the body parts change progressively along the body.

3. HOW TRAVELING „BODY WAVES‟ MIGHT

ASSIST PERFORMANCE
Waves traveling along the body may assist performance in two ways. First, the basic
function of waves is to transmit energy from one place to another. In the case of swimming,
the goal is to transmit motion in the form of mechanical kinetic energy to sites where work
can be done on the water to produce propulsion. Second, the travelling body wave itself may
contribute to propulsion if it progresses along the body faster than the speed of forward
motion. This is the case for some aquatic animals such as sea snakes and eels. If the body
wave is not faster than the forward motion of the swimmer it may at least minimise resistance
compared to the resistance encountered by a body that does not have a body wave.
There are several mechanisms by which propulsion may be produced (7). Broadly,
propulsion can be achieved by accelerating a mass of water backwards in accordance with
Newton's Laws or by creating a pressure difference across a propelling limb. Propulsion from

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 194 Ross H. Sanders

vortices is well established as a mechanism of propulsion in fish (8) and given that vortices
are evident following the kicks it is likely that this mechanism contributes to propulsion in
human butterfly swimming. Propulsive force is generated when the vortex is pushed away,
that is, 'shed'. The change in momentum of the mass of water corresponds to a change in
momentum of the swimmer in the opposite direction in accordance with the conservation of
momentum principle. The vortex is shed near the time of direction change of the end of the
oscillating segmental chain. Many swimming scientists believe that propulsion from vortices
is a dominant source of propulsion in human swimming. However, its relative contribution
remains unknown.

4. RESULTS OF THE RECENT RESEARCH IN BUTTERFLY SWIMMING

In the recent research conducted at the Centre for Aquatics Research and Education
(CARE) advanced three dimensional analysis techniques were used to calculate the motion of
the body parts, and segment energies using a MATLAB analysis programme (9). To ensure
accuracy the segment and whole body centre of mass (WBCM) positions used in the analysis
were calculated using the elliptical zone method (10, 11), and angular momentum was
calculated using the method of Dapena (12).
Figure 2 shows the energy possessed by virtue of translation in the desired direction, and
the gravitational potential energy, for one of the three female swimmers involved in the recent
study.

100
90
80
Energy (Joules)
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70
Whole
60
Potential
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (% stroke cycle)

Figure 2. Typical energy possessed by the whole body by virtue of translation in the desired direction
and gravitational potential energy in butterfly swimming for one stroke cycle from hand entry to the
next hand entry.

The energy possessed by virtue of translation in the desired direction fluctuates

considerably from the minimum to the maximum. In fact, half the energy is dissipated to the
water due to the action of resistive forces during the cycle. There is a large increase in energy

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 Rhythms in Butterfly Swimming 195

during the arm pull in combination with the downbeat of the second kick. The fact that there
is so much fluctuation in the energy of primary interest suggests that this is very
uneconomical - like driving a car in the city as opposed to driving at a more constant speed
along a flat country road. And yet Michael Phelps‘ world record in 200m fly, at the time of
writing, stands at 1.52.09. At the same swimming competition, Melbourne in March 2007, he
set a world record for 200m front crawl of 1:43:86. This was only 8.23 seconds quicker than
the butterfly time. Thus, elite butterfly swimming is only about 8% slower than elite front
crawl despite having only one arm stroke per cycle.
Figure 2 also shows that there is a large change in potential energy. Raising the WBCM
is associated with raising the upper body to facilitate arm clearance and clean entry as well as
breathing. This requires additional work to be done by the swimmer and therefore an
additional demand on the physiological system to provide energy. But is it possible that the
potential energy can be used to aid swimming speed? Perhaps there is a rhythmical exchange
between potential energy and useful kinetic energy as in a pendulum or bouncing
trampolinist? Unfortunately, rather than high potential energy occurring at times of low
kinetic energy, the period of high potential energy is only slightly out of phase with the period
of high translational energy in the desired direction.
However, the possibility of transfer of energy via a series of rotations remains. In fact,
when the upper body is raised, the centre of buoyancy is well out of alignment with the centre
of mass and thereby produces a torque producing rotational energy in the trunk. Could this
rotational energy be transmitted by a wave along the body to contribute to a propulsive kick?
Evidence for this would be a cephalo-caudal sequencing of energy gains and losses
culminating in large energy gains and losses related to propulsive phases of the stroke.

60
Potential
50 Trunkrot
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Energy (Joules)

Lowerrot
40

30

20

10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (% stroke cycle)

Figure 3. Typical gravitational potential energy, trunk rotational energy, and total lower limb rotational
energy in butterfly swimming for one stroke cycle from hand entry to the next hand entry.

Figure 3 shows potential, trunk, and total lower limb energy. Note that these energies do
not include the energy possessed by virtue of whole body translation. Both the trunk and
lower limb energies are high together. This doesn't fit well with the idea that the traveling

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 196 Ross H. Sanders

wave transmits energy from the trunk to the lower limbs. However, the timing of energy
peaks of the thighs and shanks (figure 4) indicates that there is a sequencing of energy
acquisition compatible with the idea of cephalo-caudal energy transmission by a traveling
wave.

25
Thighrot
20 Shank+Foot
Energy (Joules)

15

10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (% stroke cycle)

Figure 4. Typical thigh, and shank+foot rotational energy in butterfly swimming for one cycle from
hand entry to the next hand entry.

5. PERSPECTIVES REGARDING HOW TRAVELING WAVES MIGHT

ASSIST PERFORMANCE
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The data provide insights from both a hydrodynamic perspective and an energetics
perspective. In the hydrodynamics perspective we are interested in how the body is moving
relative to the water, that is, the external reference frame. In the energetics perspective we are
interested in how the wave might transmit energy by virtue of the motions of the body parts
relative to each other. In this case it doesn't matter how the whole body is moving vertically
but how the body segments oscillate vertically with respect to a suitable reference point of the
internal reference, appropriately the WBCM.
The two analyses yield different results. Typical results for one swimmer are presented in
Table 1. When expressed relative to the WBCM (energy perspective) there is less vertical
undulation of the shoulders and more vertical undulation of the hips than when expressed
relative to the eternal reference frame (hydrodynamic perspective). The shoulder and hip
undulations are almost exactly out of phase (159 degrees) and the wave velocity is slower.
From the hydro perspective the H1 wave from trunk to shoulders to hips of these
swimmers was not very different from their swimming speed. Thus, the wave would not be
very propulsive nor very resistive. From the energy perspective the out-of-phase oscillations
of the hip and ankle together with the in phase energies of the trunk and lower limbs suggest
energy transmission from trunk to lower limbs by a pendulum mechanism rather than a wave
mechanism. The undulation of the hip with respect to the WBCM is substantial and likely to

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 Rhythms in Butterfly Swimming 197

transmit much energy into the lower half of the body. The phase of the H1 contribution is
such that it reinforces the H2 wave at one part of the cycle and attenuates it at another.

Table 1. Comparison of Shoulder and Hip Oscillations from Hydrodynamic

and Energy Perspectives.

Shoulder (cm) Hip (cm) Phase Diff. (deg.) Wave Vel. (m.s-1)
Hydro 0.313 0.080 114.3 1.450
Energy 0.245 0.104 159.3 1.043
p (t-test) 0.007 0.039 0.008 0.007

If the upper body is acting like a pendulum by rotating about some instantaneous axis of
rotation then the amplitude of hip undulations, and consequently the magnitude of energy
transfer, depends on the position of that axis of rotation relative to the hips. The further the
axis from the hips, the greater the hip undulation.
There are important implications for talent identification and development. By combining
three reasonable assumptions we can make predictions about the desirable body shape of
butterfly swimmers, or perhaps, explain what we have already observed about butterfly
swimmers in terms of their extreme body shape. The first is that energy is transmitted to the
lower body via the pendulum-like rotation of the upper body about an axis of rotation.
Second, the amount of energy transmitted is linked to the amplitude of undulation of the hips
relative to the axis. Third, the amplitude of undulation is linked to the position of the axis –
the further from the axis, the greater the amplitude of undulation.
Thus we can hypothesise that the pendulum mechanism is more effective in transmitting
energy for swimmers who are 'top heavy'. That is with mass distribution biased towards the
upper body rather than the lower body. It has been recognised for many years that broad
shoulders and slender hips offer an advantage from a hydrodynamic perspective. In butterfly,
it may also assist in energy transfer and economy through the pendulum mechanism.
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PROPULSION
Figure 5 shows the whole body acceleration profile and thereby reflects the net forces
acting on the typical swimmer. In the first part of the cycle there are large fluctuations in net
force associated with the first kick. Recall that the first kick had the smaller amplitude of
vertical motion of the feet resulting from the phase relationship of H1 and H2. The arm action
combined with the culmination of the strong upbeat produces a high force during the second
half of the cycle. The hands contribute to one sustained period of acceleration but not to the
three other periods of acceleration. However, the rapid acceleration of the upper segments
during exit and recovery may help the feet to shed a vortex due to the inertial reaction effect.
The velocity vectors of the centre of the feet indicated that there was no backward
component of foot velocity at any stage during the cycle. This was due to the strong effect of
whole body motion in the forward direction. In combination with the fact that the peak
accelerations did not coincide with periods of fast vertical foot motion this provided indirect
evidence for propulsion by shedding of vortices rather than other mechanisms. The greatest
accelerations of the body during the pull did occur during a period of rapid backward hand

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 198 Ross H. Sanders

motion. However, because the peak acceleration at this time was also influenced by the kick,
it is not possible to attribute a likely propulsion mechanism to this period of propulsion.

2
Acceleration (m.s -2)

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
-1

-2

-3

-4

-5
Time (% stroke cycle)

Figure 5. Typical acceleration of the WBCM in the desired direction in butterfly for one cycle from
hand entry to the next hand entry.

THE ROLE OF THE OUT-SWEEP

The out-sweep is not a propulsive part of the underwater action of the hands. Maglischo
(13) proposed that the main purpose of the out-sweep is to ‗position the arms to deliver
propulsive force during the in-sweep that follows‘ (p.157). The data from the recent study of
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three swimmers indicates that the out-sweep may play another important role. During the out-
sweep the angular motion of the trunk is reversed from rotating forwards to rotating
backwards thereby contributing to the body wave. Why is this reversal of angular motion
important in establishing good rhythm and maintaining the body wave? A good analogy is the
action used when trying to free a garden hose that has been annoyingly snagged on an
obstruction. Rather than walking back to where the hose is caught we try to send a wave
along the hose that jolts it free. What action would you use to generate that wave – a single
motion or one in which the direction of the hand holding the hose is suddenly reversed?
Obviously, generating the wave requires a reversal of motion.
The recent research revealed that the out-sweep of the hands coincided with the reversal
of vertical motion of the shoulders from downward to upward. Thus, it appears that the out-
sweep plays an important role in maintaining the sinusoidal rhythm. The downbeat of the feet
at this time would tend to drive the shoulders too deep if the out-sweep wasn't counteracting
that. Once the WBCM is moving upwards the upbeat of the kick in combination with the in-
sweep/back-sweep of the hands takes over the role of assisting the trunk to rotate backwards.

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 Rhythms in Butterfly Swimming 199

8. EFFECT OF WAVE PHASE ON PERFORMANCE

Recall that the H1 phase was such that as it reached the ankle it attenuated the upbeat of
the first kick, reinforced the upbeat of the second kick, and reinforced the downbeat of the
second kick (figure 1). Does that offer any advantage to the swimmer? Why not have two
kicks of equal magnitude? While kicks of equal magnitude would seem appropriate for
gaining propulsion from the kick, the possible effects on rotation of the body must be
considered.
Maximum angular momentum in the clockwise direction coincides with the conclusion of
the first downbeat and the entry of the shoulders into the water. The large angular momentum
at this time is not apparent in rapid clockwise rotation of the trunk. Rather, the angular
momentum is manifest in the rotation of the upper limbs. Maximum angular momentum in
the anti-clockwise direction coincides with the middle of the arm pull and the cessation of the
strong upbeat between the first and second kicks.

400
300
200
100
Torque (N.m)

0
-100 0 20 40 60 80 100

-200
-300
-400
-500
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-600
Time (% stroke cycle)

Figure 6. Typical net torque about the transverse principal axis in butterfly swimming for one cycle
from hand entry to the next hand entry.

Figure 6 shows the torques acting about the transverse principal axis. This first period of
negative torque, that is torque tending to rotate the body in a clockwise direction, is due to the
combined effect of the downbeat of the first kick and the buoyancy force which at this time is
acting behind the centre of mass due to much of the upper body mass being out of the water.
The upbeat between the first and second kicks combines with the out-sweep of the hands
to produce a sustained anticlockwise torque of moderate magnitude preceding a strong
anticlockwise torque associated with the backward motion of the hands. The strong downbeat
of the second kick then produces a strong clockwise torque in combination with the torque of
the buoyancy force acting behind the WBCM at this time.
Simulation of the composite waveform moving from hip to ankle (H1+H2) in which the
phase of H1 was changed relative to the phase of H2 indicated that when the phase is changed
either the upbeat between the first and second kick or the downbeat of the second kick are

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 200 Ross H. Sanders

weakened. We would expect this to reduce the torques tending to rotate the body, thereby
reducing the range of trunk rotation and the energy put into the system for transfer along the
body. Thus, it may be speculated that this disturbance to the rhythm would reduce the
economy. The recent studies indicate that the phase of H1 relative to H2 adopted by the
swimmers produces a strong upbeat and strong downbeat and adds rotational energy to the
trunk which is then transferred to the feet thereby optimizing economy.

EFFECTS OF BREATHING AND CHANGES OF PACE

Butterfly swimmers, particularly in shorter events do not breathe every stroke. Does the
rhythm differ between breathing and non-breathing strokes? Recent research by Seifert et al.
(14) indicates that adjustments are made in the timing of the arm actions relative to the kick to
facilitate breathing. These adjustments include a shorter arm push to enable the head to exit
for breathing and a longer glide time. However, the research by Sanders et al. (4) indicated
that the wave progressed consistently along the body regardless of whether it was a breathing
or a non-breathing cycle. This suggests that the fundamental rhythm involving progression of
a wave remains across breathing and non-breathing cycles yet does not constrain the system
from adjusting timing and duration of component parts of the stroke to adapt to the differing
requirements of breathing and non-breathing stroke cycles.
Similarly, Seifert et al (3) provided evidence that the pattern of timings between kick and
arm actions remained similar across race paces but with the gaps between the key events
closing to become more synchronous with increasing pace. This suggests that adjustments
such as changes in pace can be made without changing the fundamental rhythm embodied in
the travelling body wave. That is, the fundamental wave-like rhythm characteristic of skilled
butterfly swimmers is stable and endows the system with the capacity to adjust to changes in
pace and to alternation of breathing and non-breathing cycles.
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10. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSION

Having investigated the rhythms in butterfly in combination with accurately derived
kinematic and kinetic data some conclusions may be drawn.

1. Skilled butterfly swimming is characterised by wave-like undulations of shoulders,

hips knees and ankles.
2. The undulations are coordinated to yield travelling 'body waves' to optimise
performance from:
a. A hydrodynamic perspective
b. An energy transmission and re-use perspective.
3. The phase relationship between the one-beat H1 frequency and two-beat H2 is
important to performance.

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 Rhythms in Butterfly Swimming 201

REFERENCES
[1] Thornton, K.M. (1984). Learning from Olympians: Butterfly stroke rhythm. Swimming
World, March, 42-46.
[2] Cater, M. (1988). Star Tips: Mojca Cater on Butterfly. Swimcanada, August, 9.
[3] Seifert, L., Boulesteix, L., Chollet, D., Vilas Boas, J.P. (2007). Differences in spatial-
temporal parameters and arm-leg coordination in butterfly stroke as a function of race
pace, skill, and gender.
[4] Sanders, R.H. Cappaert, J.M., & Devlin, R.K. (1995). Wave characteristics of butterfly
swimming. Journal of Biomechanics, 28(1), 9-16.
[5] Ungerechts B.E. (1982). A comparison of the movements of the rear parts of dolphins
and butterfly swimmers. Biomechanics in Medicine and Swimming, pp.215-221.
[6] Kelso, J.A.S. (1995). Dynamic Patterns: The Self-Organisation of Brain and Behavior.
London. The MIT Press.
[7] McCabe, C., & Sanders, R.H. (2005). Propulsion in swimming. www.coachesinfo.com.
Triantyfillou, M.S. et al. (2002). Vorticity control in fish-like propulsion and
manoeuvring. Integr. Comp. Biol., 42, 1026-1031.
[8] Sanders, R.H. (2007). Three dimensional analysis of swimming kinematics, kinetics,
and energetics. Unpublished MATLAB computer programme.
[9] Deffeyes, J, & Sanders, R. (2005). Elliptical zone body segment modeling software:
Digitising, modeling and body segment parameter calculation. In Q. Wang (Ed.)
Proceedings of XXIII International Symposium on Biomechanics in Sports. The China
Institute of Sports Science, Beijing, pp. 749-752.
[10] Jensen, R.K. (1978). Estimation of the biomechanical properties of three body types
using a photogrammetric method. Journal of Biomechanics, 11, 349-358.
[11] Dapena, J. (1978). A method to determine the angular momentum of a human body
about three orthogonal axes passing through the centre of gravity. Journal of
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Biomechanics, 11, 251-256.

[12] Maglischo, E. W. (2003). Swimming Fastest. Champaign, Il. Human Kinetics.
[13] Seifert, L., Chollet, D., & Sanders, R.H. (in press). Does breathing disturb arm to leg
coordination in butterfly. International Journal of Sports Medicine.

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Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

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 In: World Book of Swimming: From Science to Performance ISBN: 978-1-61668-202-6
Editors: L. Seifert, D. Chollet and I.Mujika ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 10

MORPHOLOGY AND SWIMMING PERFORMANCE

Per-Ludvik Kjendlie and Robert Stallman

Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Norway

ABSTRACT
This chapter deals with the way morphology influences performance and mechanics
of swimming. Performance in swimming is influenced by size. A taller swimmer will
generally swim faster. Larger propelling sizes better the propelling efficiency and lower
the stroke rate – creating a more energy efficient mode of swimming. Drag is influenced
by size: a taller swimmer will create less wave resistance at the same speed, and the tall
swimmer will have a greater potential for maximal velocity due to a higher hull speed.
Pressure drag is directly influenced by the projected cross sectional area which increases
drag. During a swimming race, a taller swimmer will have a shorter true race distance
due to turning and finishing actions with their center of mass further away from the pool
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wall.
Sprinters are larger than long distance specialists, freestyle specialists are often
larger than breaststrokers and the best swimmers are often taller and bigger that the rest.
There is little to do with the genetics of one individual, however coaches should guide the
young athletes to make the most out of ones pre determined morphology. The guiding
towards specialization of strokes or distances should have the scientific evidences
presented in this chapter in mind.

Key words: swimming, body size, morphology, anthropometry, performance determining

factors, body shape, body composition, somatotypes

1. INTRODUCTION
In his treatise ―The Movement of Animals‖, Aristotle described the actions of muscles
and the skeleton as a system of levers. He noted that some animals are built for speed and
some for power. Archimedes, a century later, described the laws we use today, describing

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 204 Per-Ludvik Kjendlie and Robert Stallman

buoyancy and the mass/volume relationship. He is said to have reflected on the variation of
buoyancy/density of different body types.
Leonardo de Vinci was interested in body structure and its relationship to performance.
He noted that persons of different physiques excelled in different activities. Logic and
experience tell us that the 150cm tall elite gymnast can never reach the elite level in
basketball and that the 210cm tall NBL player could never reach the same level in
gymnastics. At this level, genetics is the deciding factor.
In the late 1940s Cureton demonstrated that elite swimmers have lower body density than
other elite sportsmen. They tended to be taller, narrower in the hips and broader in the
shoulder. Newer technology and improved knowledge of movement in the aquatic medium,
allow a more sophisticated look at how body shape, size and composition affect swimming
movements. The purpose of this chapter is to review the relevant literature of the past 30-40
years and to attempt to paint a picture of how far we have come in understanding these
complex relationships. Nearly every scientific paper on swimming describes in one way or
another, the size, shape and body composition of the subjects. This review cannot cover them
all and does not claim to be a meta-analysis. Where there remain unanswered questions, we
hope to identify some of these and we hope to introduce the reader to in-depth reading for
additional insight.
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Figure 1. The Vitruvian man, by Leonardo DaVinci

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 Morphology and Swimming Performance 205

2. MORPHOLOGICAL, SOMATOTYPE AND ANTHROPOMETRIC

CHARACTERISTICS OF SWIMMERS
Before the Bejiing Summer Olympic Games, The Associated Press published an
interactive webpage titled ―Olympic Bodies: All shapes and sizes‖. It shows the interest also
of the general public for anthropometrical issues in sport. Swimmers are described as tall,
with long arms and big feet, broad shoulders and narrow hips: the upside down triangle shape.
(http://acsm.stats.com/interactives/olympics/oly_bodies/index.html#start). From this
anecdotal evidence we will look more closely to the scientific literature to describe the size
and shape of swimmers, comparing them to other athletes and within aquatic sports, to
describe variations among stroke and distance specialists.

2.1. Swimmers are Tall

Among children and adolescents, several studies have found swimmers to be taller and
larger than same aged non-athletes, gymnasts, soccer players or tennis players [e.g.
2,3,7,8,18,22]. Age group swimmers are reported to have a stature above the 50th percentile of
the normal population [2,37]. The subject ages in these studies ranged from 11-16, where
growth is the dominant factor of development. One reason for the swimmers‘ taller stature
might be earlier biological development [2,5,22,37]. Self-selection into the most appropriate
sport might be another reason [2,22]. However, one study investigating somewhat younger
children (aged 7-12) did not find any differences in body shape, flexibility, strength or lung
function between swimmers, non athletes and tennis players [2].
Body mass shows similar trends as for stature. Boulgakova found that Russian swimming
national team members where heavier than a control group at the same ages [7]. Furthermore,
other authors have found that up to the age of 15, male adolescent swimmers had a body mass
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at the 50th percentile, but above this age, the body mass increased in relationship to the
reference population and rose above the 50th percentile [2]. This is of course, due to the
already reported greater height, but may also be due to greater muscle mass.
For adults and elite performers, where growth is no longer a factor, swimmers are
reported to be taller than the normal population [9,15,17,19]. Carter [10] found that from the
1964 Tokyo games through the 1976 Montreal games, both male and female swimmers
became taller but not heavier. Data from over 40 years of testing the Russian national teams
shows a similar trend, at reported ages 11 through 19 years, the swimmers of the decade
1960‘s where shorter than the swimmers of the 1990‘s [8].
Comparing nine male Olympic level swimmers and 63 male physical education students
with a reference population of the same age, not only height, but also weight, arm length, leg
length, and 15 width or circumference measures were found to be higher for the sports
students and swimmers [15]. However, the pelvic circumference and abdomen circumference
for the swimmers were slightly lower and for the students were only slightly higher compared
to the reference population of 572 military men [15]. Furthermore, Olympic elite swimmers
were found to be taller than sub-olympic swimmers [21]. For both males and females in this
study, height, sitting height, torso circumference and torso to waist ratio were greater for the

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 206 Per-Ludvik Kjendlie and Robert Stallman

Olympic group compared to the sub-olympic group [21]. Other measures were not different,
such as arm span, hand length and foot length.
These data support the common belief that elite swimmers are tall, with broad shoulders
and narrow hips, compared to the normal population, and compared to sub-elite swimmers.

2.2. Fatness and Body Composition

Mean body fat expressed as a percentage of total body weight has been reported at about
16% in young female swimmers [20,47]. For adult collegiate competitive swimmers, a fat %
of 14 and 23% for male and females respectively have been reported [45], and for highly
trained female master swimmers the fat % increased with age, from 14% (20-29 years old) to
28% (60-69 years old) [52].
In young female swimmers (9-13 years old) a high level of % body fat was moderately
correlated with slower age corrected performance in butterfly [4]. On the other hand Stager et
al. [47] found no relationship between performance and body density, fat percentage, or body
fat mass in a large group of young female swimmers. However, lean body mass (LBM) was
related to performance – a higher LBM improved performance [47]. The lean body mass
reflects increased muscle hypertrophy.
Several studies point out that swimmers have lower % body fat compared to the general
public, due to extensive training; this is true for age group swimmers and adults alike [e.g.2].
Bloomfield et al. [5] found that high performance age group swimmers had a significantly
lower sum of three skin folds (estimation of body fat) compared to a non athlete group.
Compared to the normal population, swimmers were found to have the same bone mineral
content [1]. On the other hand, many studies point out that swimming activity - being non
weight bearing - would mean less stimulation of bone mineralization processes, see Suominen
[48] for a review.
Males swimmers were found to have a more central distribution of fat compared to
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female swimmers, where the fat was more pronounced in the legs [1], however for both
genders upper extremity (arms and trunk) fat content was lower than for the legs.

2.3. Somatotype of Aquatic Athletes

The somatotype is a measure of ones shape, and is represented by three numbers,

describing the endomorph (relative fatness), mesomorph (relative muscle- skeletal robustness)
or ectomorph (relative slenderness) characteristics. The ratings are given as a number ranging
from 1 (low) to 7 (high), with above 7 as very high. A somatotype of for instance 2-6-3 is low
in fatness (endomorphy), high in muscles (mesomorphy) and moderate in slenderness
(ectomorphy).
Somatotype descriptions of swimmers showed that male swimmers are balanced
mesomorphy (2-5-3), compared to women who are more upper central somatotype (3-4-3)
[11]. Divers are almost the same as swimmers, while synchronized swimmers are central
somatotype (3.5-3.5-3). Water polo males are balanced mesomorphy (2.5-5.5-2.5) and
females are more endomorphic than ectomorphic (3.5-4-3).

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 Morphology and Swimming Performance 207

Figure 2. Endo- meso and ectomorph

200

180

160

140
Stature (cm)

120

100

80

60

40
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20

0
Crawl 100m Crawl 1500m Backstroke Butterfly Breaststroke Individual Medley

Figure 3. Stature of male stroke specialists. Modified after data from [7]. Note that the graphics only
shows the correct relationships between statures, and not other morphological measures (e.g. width or
limb lengths).

2.4. Differences in Morphology for Stroke and Distance Specialists

The study of anthropometrics of all competitors at the 1991 FINA world championships
revealed several characteristic differences between stroke specialists in swimming [11]. Male
freestylers (FR) were found to be taller, had longer lower limbs than breaststrokers (BR) and
butterflyers (FL), had greater chest breadth than BR and longer thighs than FL. For females
the FR were heavier than BR, had longer arm span than BR and FL, longer lower limb
lengths than FL, and longer thighs than BR and FL. Boulgakova [7] has also shown a similar
trend, where backstroke and 100m freestyle swimmers appears taller, compared to butterfly,
breaststroke, and 1500m freestyle swimmers.

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 208 Per-Ludvik Kjendlie and Robert Stallman

2.5. Morphology and Race Distance

From the theoretical consideration elsewhere in this chapter, it might be tempting to

hypothesize that sprinters should have a taller stature than middle and long distance
swimmers, due to their need for higher hull speeds. Several studies have examined this
question. Among 24 sprinters and 24 middle distance swimmers, the sprinters were found to
have a longer forearms than middle distance swimmers [6]. Middle distance swimmers had a
longer thigh length and a higher vital capacity than the sprinters. For standing and sitting
height, overall arm and leg length, body weight and density there were no differences
between these groups [6]. It should be noted that the level of significance chosen was 10%
and that the athletes was not elite, but typical university swimmers.
Furthermore, Carter and Ackland [11] included freestyle swimmers of sprint distances
(SD- 50+100m), middle distances (MD 200+400m), middle to long distance (ML 800 and
1500 m) and finally long distance races (25 km open water) in their studies. The findings
show that male LD were smaller than SD in stature and sitting height, arm span, hand- and
foot length. The upper body breadth is smaller for LD and ML than SD. However, the
anterior-posterior chest depth was larger for the LD swimmers compared to the SD
swimmers, perhaps reflecting greater lung capacity. For females similar findings confirm that
LD swimmers are smaller in many linear dimensions than SD and MD.

2.6. The Best and the Rest – Performance Level and Morphology

In the same study, Carter & Ackland investigated the differences between the best
swimmers (ranked 1-12th place) and the ‗rest‘. For male SD freestyle races the best were
older, taller, with longer arm and leg segments compared to the rest. The best female SD
swimmers had longer legs, foot length, biiliocristal and wrist breadths compared to the rest.
For MD, male best freestylers were older, taller, heavier, had loner arms and legs, and with
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greater circumferences of the upper arms, thighs and chest. Female best MD swimmers were
also taller, with longer arms and legs, and with broader shoulders and chest compared to the
rest. Contrary to the SD and MD distances, the best 800m and 1500m swimmers were not
very different in size compared to the rest, only age and sitting height greater for the best.
Furthermore, in BR, BA and FL, similar findings were done as in FR. The details are given in
Carter and Ackland [11], who summarized the best swimmers as often taller and older, with
longer limbs.
It seems that greater stature is a performance determining factor for sprint, but that it is
not so critical for long distance races. This may be explained in two ways. a: At high
velocities at the surface, wave resistance increases sharply. The hull speed is therefore
detrimental to a high maximal swimming speed. Hull speed is directly determined by the
characteristic length of a swimmer, as given in equation 2. b: The floating torque influences
the swimming economy in a negative way. Here we know that taller swimmers have a higher
leg-sinking torque than shorter swimmers at submaximal speeds. In long distance races
swimming economy is more important than maximal swimming velocity.
In summary, there is general agreement that swimmers are both taller and heavier than
their inactive age mates and than some other athletes. This tendency increases with age and
performance level. Swimmers are slightly more endo-morphic than some other athletes but

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 Morphology and Swimming Performance 209

less so than many, and clearly less fat and more muscular than their inactive age mates. It is
also generally agreed that sprint free stylers are taller, heavier and more muscular than middle
and long distance free stylers and than other stroke specialists. Also, in all strokes and
distances (except 800-1500 meter races), the very best are taller and heavier than the next
best.

3. MORPHOLOGY AND SWIMMING BIOMECHANICS

3.1. Body Length and Race Performance: A Long Person Swims a Shorter
Race Distance in Lap Pool Races

Let‘s consider a swimming race in a pool. Except for 50m distances in long course, turns
are involved in every race. In the starting position, before the start signal, the centre of mass
(CM) is approximately at the edge of the block. Body size would influence this – but only to a
negligible extent. Putting the CM at the starting point at the front of the block would imply an
unstable position, but for this thought experiment we assume that all swimmers have their
CM in the same position at the front of the starting block. Approaching the turn in freestyle
and backstroke, the CM need not ‗touch‘ the wall. In fact the CM is at its closest point 50-
70cm from the wall, depending on the body size. At the finish, where a hand touch ends the
race – the CM is even farther from the wall – about 110-140cm. A tall swimmer can perform
turning and finishing actions with their CM at a greater distance from the wall – thereby
actually swimming a shorter distance during the race. Remember that CM represents the
mean point of body movement.
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Figure 4: During lap-swimming in a pool, the centre of mass does not travel the whole race distance.
The taller swimmer are at an advantage, swimming a shorter race, due to his centre of mass turning
(CMd) and finishing at a longer distance from the pool wall.

Even for 50m long course races, the taller swimmer‘s CM is higher at the start. All other
things being equal, they will have a longer start, i.e. an entry farther from the block. With a

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 210 Per-Ludvik Kjendlie and Robert Stallman

finish also with the CM farther from the wall, the taller swimmer also swims a shorter
distance.
This hypothesis has been supported by experimental data. Kjendlie and Stallman [32]
showed that for a simulated 100m race a child‘s CM (150cm tall) moves only 95.5m and an
adult‘s CM (185 cm tall) moves even less, only 94.3m. The difference between children and
adult‘s true race distance of 1.18m is attributed to their differences in body size. The taller
swimmer will swim 1.3% faster in a 100m race due to his size only. The conclusion is that a
swimmer‘s body size influences the swimming distance in such a way that taller swimmers
move their CM a shorter distance during the race in lap pool swimming. This is one
explanation for the influence of size on swimming performance. This is also one of the
explanations for faster times in short course pools compared to long course pools (more turns
thus less true race distance).

3.1. A Long Boat Creates Less Wave Drag

The year was 1868, William Froude defined the speed – length ratio. Later to be called
the Froude number (Fr) it defines the ratio of inertial forces to gravitational forces [54]. The
wave making resistance of a swimmer depends on the Froude number for each flow situation.
The Froude number is determined by velocity (v), characteristic length or the length of the
hull (body length - BL), and the acceleration of gravity (g). Also the Reynolds number
depends on the characteristic length of the swimmer [54]. Thus – the common size factor in
both Re and Fr numbers is body length – and the drag factor is dependent to a large extent on
body length. Body length has previously also been found to be a good size scaling factor for
energy consumption in swimmers [29].

v
Fr  (eq. 1)
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g  BL

For swimmers moving at the water surface at increasing velocities, the formation of
waves and lifting of the water at the front will eventually increase the cost of propulsion
sharply. The hull speed is a critical velocity where the wave length along the hull equals the
hull length. Above the hull speed the swimmer must eventually climb over the bow wave by
planing to increase speed further – which seems impossible for humans. The hull speed is
closely related to body length, or to the characteristic length that the swimmer can pose in the
water, see eq. 2.

BL  g
vH  (eq. 2)
2

For general purposes a Froude number of 0.42 represents the hull speed [54]. By
checking the Froude number of swimmers, i.e. how close to (or in some cases above) Fr=0.42
swimmers are moving, we propose one means of investigating whether swimmers utilize their
full potential when considered as displacement vessels. Several authors have adapted the

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 Morphology and Swimming Performance 211

Froude number and its implications for human swimming [35,50]. All things being equal, a
longer boat will thus create less wave drag. Also the width of the swimmer will influence the
wave-drag, and increasing width will increase the wave resistance.
Vogel [54] has suggested a Fr of 0.42 as the maximal attainable for non planing
swimmers in general. In a longitudinal study the Froude number at a submaximal velocity
decreased after growth, indicating that at any given velocity the taller swimmers create less
wave-making drag [50]. Kjendlie and Stallman [35] proposed that Fr should be used to
evaluate the swimmers potential for maximal velocity. They found that elite swimmers at
maximal sprinting velocity have a higher Fr than younger swimmers in a developmental
phase, and at any given submaximal velocity a taller swimmer will have a lower Fr number
and thus lower wave making resistance. This means that children swim maximally with lower
wave drag than adults. This is probably due to several factors, not only size. Furthermore we
investigated the Froude number of world class swimmers, finding that for instance Alexander
Popov was able to swim at a Fr= 0.49. This exceeds the theoretical hull speed, based on his
stature. The explanation for this discrepancy is that the characteristic length in swimming is
not a fixed value, it varies between body length (=stature) and the reaching height when the
swimmer stretches his arm in front at the entry. By altering the arm-stroke coordination in
freestyle [as documented for instance by 14] swimmers could adjust the mean length of the
hull. From these considerations it is quite evident that tall swimmers will have a higher hull
speed and a potentially lower wave making resistance compared to shorter swimmers.

3.2. Morphology and its Drag Influence

During steady motion (= no acceleration) the resistive forces are pressure drag, wave
making resistance and skin friction drag. During unsteady motion (with acceleration) one
must consider the inertial effects of body mass and the added mass of water as well. Pressure
drag is expressed in the general equation:
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D = ½∙d ∙A∙CD∙v2. (eq. 3)

The A is projected frontal surface area, determined by the body size and the angle of
attack the swimmer has with the horizontal. This means: a larger person has more pressure
drag compared to a smaller swimmer, everything else being equal. The empirical evidence for
this is found in several scientific papers. For active drag, Hujing et al. found a correlation of
r=0.87 with the projected frontal area [26]. Kolmogorov et al. [36] found that size scaled
active drag, CD, was not particularly different between groups of different ages, similar to
results of another study [35]. From the growth versus drag study [50], the 11% height and
36% weight increase after a 2.5-year growth period of 13-year-olds did not change the active
drag. However, the CD of active drag, (scaling drag to size and velocity) was found to be
significantly lower after growth. Related to their size, these swimmers experienced less active
drag after growth.
For passive drag (Dp), Chatard et al. [13] found that Dp correlated significantly to height
(r=0.80 and 0.60), weight (r=0.78 and 0.54) and BSA (r=0.80 and 0.58) for male and females
respectively. Furthermore passive drag increased after maximal inspiration – i.e an increase of
the maximal body cross sectional area.

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 212 Per-Ludvik Kjendlie and Robert Stallman

To relate human body shape and size to hydrodynamic non dimensional relationships,
Clarys [15] proposed the anatomical measures given in table 3. He found no close
relationship between active drag and anatomical measures, or the dimensional measures in
table 3. However, another study showed that the active drag proportionality coefficient (drag
scaled for v2) correlated significantly with 8 of 18 anthropomethrical variables. Also the
length2/projected surface area correlated with active drag [53].

Table 3. Non-dimensional form relationships [15]

Length/breadth ratio Body height/biacromial breadth

Length/depth ratio Body height/thorax depth
Length/thickness ratio Body height2 / greatest body cross section
Length/surface ratio Body height2 / body surface
Slenderness degree Body height /body volume1/3
Breadth / depth ratio Biacromial breadth / thorax depth

There is probably a close relationship between body size measures and BSA, indeed
Clarys [15] found a correlation of r=0.94 when using a linear regression between weight and
height to predict BSA. Furthermore, the cross sectional area was predicted from height and
weight with r=0.71. However, in the same study there were no empirical indices showing any
connection between passive drag and BSA, or the length/surface ratio [15]. On the other
hand, the cross sectional area and length/thickness ratio showed a significant relationship with
passive drag, indicating the importance of frontal surface area to drag. Also, other studies
have not found any close relationship between BSA and passive drag [38]. Controversy exists
in this matter, as several studies have found close relationships between BSA and passive
drag [e.g. 12,53] due to its relation with wet surface. Some of the controversy is due to a
small range of BSAs investigated [15] or to a diversity of the performance levels of the
subjects [38]. The study of Chatard et al. [12] has a stronger foundation for their conclusions,
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

using 218 swimmers. They also found that increasing frontal surface area by maximal
inspiration, compared to maximal expiration increased the passive drag about 26%, and
furthermore that passive drag corrected for BSA showed a decline with increasing
performance level.

3.3. On Propelling Size and Swimming Efficiency

In the previous paragraphs we have discussed body size and its influence on drag. It is
also evident that body size will influence propulsion. More specifically, hand size and arm
length for the arm strokes, and foot size and leg length for the kicking actions seems to
influence the propulsive actions of humans. Both a theoretical discussion and empirical data
will be presented.
In a review, Toussaint has described a basic explanation of how propulsion is created
during human arm stroke swimming [49]. Giving impulses to the water can be done by
applying a force which gives a mass of water a change in velocity. This can be done either by
giving a large amount of water a small change in velocity, or the same amount of propulsive
force can be created by pushing on a smaller amount of water, but giving it a higher velocity

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 Morphology and Swimming Performance 213

change. However, using a large water mass involves less kinetic energy dissipating in the
water whirls. From this theoretical discussion it is obvious that a large propelling surface –
i.e. a large hand area is beneficial in swimming, and makes for a higher propelling efficiency.
Toussaint and co-workers supported this by finding that swimming with paddles, (thus
increasing propelling size) raised propelling efficiency by 8% compared to swimming with
hands only [51], and that stroke length increased. Other authors found similar results, i.e.
stroke length increased [33], that propelling efficiency increased, and maximal velocity
increased [24] as an effect of swimming with an increased propelling surface size. For flutter
kicking, wearing fins compared to barefoot kicking reduced the cost of swimming by 40%,
together with a similar reduction in kicking frequency [58]. These authors claim that the
reduction in energy cost of kicking is due to reduced internal work (the energy used to
accelerate the mass of the legs up and down) and a reduced transfer of wasted kinetic energy
to the water. Furthermore, the Froude efficiency of kicking with fins was increased, but the
power to overcome body drag was unchanged compared to barefoot kicking. The technique
seems not to be altered to any great extent by increasing propelling size, neither for kicking
[58] where the amplitude of kicking was only slightly reduced, nor for arm stroking [24]
where the lift/drag ratio of propulsion and the hand curve pattern was unchanged.
Finally, Ogita et al. [39,40] found that increasing propelling size in front crawl arm
stroking did not alter the metabolic responses (peak VO2 and maximal accumulated O2
deficit) and conclude that the higher swimming speeds wearing paddles must be attributed to
mechanical factors such as propelling efficiency. Evidently, from both theoretical
perspectives, and experiments with increased propelling size, a larger hand or foot in
swimming seems beneficial, and the effect is attributable to an increased propelling efficiency
and reduced movement frequency.

3.4.Body Size and Swimming Technique - Particularly SR and SL

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The stroke length (SL) and stroke rate (SR) relationship is important in swimming. A
longer SL often coincides with higher performances [e.g.28]. So how does body size affect
the SL and SR?
For female adult swimmers, age, height, and arm span were correlated with performance
of sprint distances [41], for males this was not the case. Other studies, however, have found a
positive and significant correlation between body size measures and stroke length in adult
males [25]. The size measures were axilla cross sectional area, arm length, foot size, leg
frontal area and hand size. Furthermore, none of the anthropometrical parameters were
correlated with swimming speed and only arm length, leg length, and axilla cross sectional
area were negatively correlated to stroke rate [25]. Also Keskinen, et al. [28] found a
significant correlation between SL (but not for SR) and arm span, reaching height, height and
weight in addition to maximal swimming velocity in male competitive swimmers.
For younger swimmers, using both pre and post pubescent subjects, Jürimäe et al. [27]
found that SL was correlated to armspan, height, body mass and developmental stage, but that
SR did not correlate with any anthropometrical parameter. SL, maximal 400m swimming
speed and the energy cost of swimming increased from the prepubescent group to the post
pubescent group, however SR did not.

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 214 Per-Ludvik Kjendlie and Robert Stallman

Comparing children with adults, Kjendlie, et al. [33] found that adults have lower SR at
the same relative velocity than children, and that SL scaled for arm length were higher for the
adults at sub maximal-, but not at maximal velocity. It has also been shown in cross-sectional
studies that increases in vmax from the age of about 11 are related to increased SL while the
SR at vmax did not increase with age [31,42]. These changes happen together with an increase
in body size.

1.2
SL:
1.5 m
1

0.8 2.0 m
SR (cycles * s-1)

2.5 m
0.6
3.0 m

0.4

0.2

0
0 1 2 v3 (m 3*s-3) 3 4

Figure 5. Stroke rate (SR) vs. velocity cubed (v3), adults closed and children open dots. Curved lines
represent stroke length for different sets of SR and v3, linear lines represent linear regression for the two
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groups. Adapted from [33].

The inter-arm coordination in front crawl has been described by Chollet et al.[14]. This
technical parameter is also influenced by body size and shape. Seifert et al. [43] showed that
women more often have a coordination characterized by catch-up style than men due to
greater fat mass, a different distribution of fat tissue and inferior arm strength. Furthermore, a
more catch-up like style of coordination was found during an experiment with hand paddles
[44] showing that a larger propelling size (or larger hand size) leads to a more catch-up style
of swimming.

3.5.Flotation, Body Torque (Floating Angle), and Body Size and Composition

Previously in this chapter we revealed the differences in fat content of females, males,
adults, children, swimmers and non-athletes. These differences will have an impact on the
floating abilities of swimmers. The questions that arise of course are how does body
composition affect the dynamics of swimming, and how do these dynamics affect the
energetics of swimming. While these questions appear to be rather straight forward, it

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 Morphology and Swimming Performance 215

becomes more complex when we remember that total, uncorrected body density includes
tissue density, lung volume and tissue distribution. Tissue density, lung volume and the
density of the water determine the total body density (floating capacity) while tissue
distribution also affects the torque around the body mass centre.

Figure 6. The underwater forces acting on a swimmer – creating a rotational torque around the center of
mass. BL – body length. B – buoyant force, W – weight, CV centre of volume, and CM center of mass.

The way people float when passively lying in a prone or supine position is affected by
gender, age and body size. The so called passive floating torque exists due to the difference in
position of center of mass and center of volume (see Figure 6). This torque was found to be
less in boys than in men [34]. Males have a higher passive leg-sinking torque than females
and passive floating torque increases with age, body weight and height [56]. Furthermore,
passive torque seems to be linked closely to the energy cost of swimming at sub maximal
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speeds [30,57]. From this evidence, it seems that children and women have a better static
floating position than adults and men, and that this is due to differences in body length, where
the distance between the centre of volume and the centre of mass increases with length. It is
also probably due to influences of total body fat or net buoyancy force.

4. SWIMMING PERFORMANCE – AND MORPHOLOGY.

When investigating the factors that influence swimming performance, many studies have
included morphological measures. We will discuss some of these here.
First, let‘s consider investigations among age groups swimmers. Geladas et al. [23]
investigated a homogenous group of 12 year old boys (n=178) and girls (n=85) to find the
relationships between somatic and physical traits and performance. The performance measure
was each subject‘s best long course 100m race performance for the season. For boys, the
variables found to correlate best with performance were body mass (r=0.65), chest
circumference (r=0.64), upper extremity length (r=0.64), body height (r=0.61), biacromial
breadth (r=0.61), hand- (r=0.57) and foot length (r=0.49) and biiliac breadth (r=0.46).
Furthermore, for strength parameters measured, boys showed a significant correlation

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 216 Per-Ludvik Kjendlie and Robert Stallman

between performance and vertical jump height (r=0.58) and grip strength (r=0.73). On the
other hand, ankle and shoulder flexibility as well as % body fat did not correlate with
performance. In girls fewer variables correlated significantly with performance, height
(r=0.31), hand length (r=0.30), shoulder flexibility (r=0.22) and horizontal jump (r=0.25).
[23]
A number of anthropometrical measures were investigated to find the relationships to
swimming speed in 107 swimmers aged 7-17 [46]. Height related to age and relative foot size
were the only significant skeletal variables, but also biceps size, skinfold measures and waist
size correlated significantly with swimming sprint speed. Furthermore, in 9-13 year old
Australian state championship finalists, height, body mass and triceps skinfold correlated with
freestyle and butterfly performance. Also, endomorphy, % body fat and density correlated
significantly with butterfly performance [4].
Also in 11 year old boys, Duché et al. found that height (r=0.60) correlated well for 50m,
and forearm length (r=0.50-0.56) for 100m, 200m and 400m events) [20].
In girls (n=280, age 12-17), performance was found to be related to lean body mass, but
not to body density, fat mass or fat % [47]. In this study, height correlated with 100y
performance (r=0.25) for the whole group, but when controlling for age in the statistical
model, height did not influence performance.
For adults and elite swimmers similar results have been obtained in numerous
investigations. Investigating predictors of success in middle distance races., Costill et al. [16]
found that distance per stroke was the single best predictor of 400m performance (r=0.88),
and furthermore that lean body weight was the best predictor of VO2 max (r=0.88). No other
anthropometrical measurement was investigated. In a study to investigate anthropometrical
influences on stroke length, stroke rate and swimming speed, Grimston and Hay [25] found
none of the 21 parameters to significantly correlate with swimming speed. However, axilla
cross sectional area (r=0.74), foot cross sectional area (r=0.68), arm length (r=0.68), leg
frontal area (r=0.61) and hand cross sectional area (r=0.57) all correlated significantly with
stroke length. The authors conclude that although swimming speed was not directly
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influenced by anthropometrical variables, the combination of stroke rate and stroke length
used to attain a given swimming speed, certainly is a function of the swimmers physique [25].
In a similar study, where also females were investigated, Pelayo et al. [41] found no
significant influence of anthropometrical parameters (height, arm span, weight, and foot size)
for the male group (n=300) of national and international swimmers. However, for the females
(n=325), age (r=0.49), and height (r=0.72) correlated significantly with performance for the
100m events, and weight (r=0.44) for the 400 m event correlated significantly with mean
swimming speed [41]. Furthermore for females, stroke length, age and armspan (r=0.83 and
0.69) for the 50 m events and height and armspan (r=0.57 and r=0.57 respectively) for the
100m events, showed a significant relationship.
In 33 males (aged 17) of various performance levels, maximal swimming velocity
correlated with a number of anthropometrical measurements (height, r=0.72, arm span,
r=0.72, reaching height, r=0.70 and body weight 0.73), the conclusion being – bigger
swimmers are faster [28]. In this study the highest correlation factor influencing swimming
speed was maximal tethered force (r=0.86).
Finally, for 135 elite masters swimmers aged 56 (±12 years), Zampagni et al. [55] were
able to predict 50m freestyle times, explaining 84% of performance variations using age,
height and handgrip strength. For longer distance races (200, 400 and 800m), 75, 66 and 63%

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 Morphology and Swimming Performance 217

of the performance variations were explained using only age and height. Their simple
correlation analysis showed that age correlated with performance in all distances (50m
through 800m times) both for females and males, r ranging from 0.45 to 0.81, as well as for
handgrip strength, except for females 800m times. Body weight did not correlate significantly
with performance, nor did arm length (except for males 400m) or forearm length (except for
females 400 and 800m and males 200m). However height correlated with performance times
in most events (except for males 100m and 800m and females 200m), the highest r was for
males 200m and 400m (0.63). To summarize, the important factors that correlated with all
freestyle events were age, height, and hand grip strength for the whole group of master
swimmers [55]. It is important to note however, that the subjects were a homogenous group.
From the preceding discussion it should be clear that swimming performance, as
measured by race times, is influenced by body size, in many studies - being bigger means
better performance. This applies to age group, elite and masters swimmers alike. As race time
is dependent on starting, turning and swimming actions, we propose that in all future
research, clean swimming speed (i.e. mid pool velocity) is a far more valid indicator of
performance. Any investigation of body size and shape or composition and their relationship
to performance should use this as the reference.

5. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSION

In summary, taller swimmers swim a shorter distance than shorter swimmers, swimming
as much as 1.3% faster because of size alone. The taller swimmer will also experience less
wave resistance. Hullspeed, is the speed at which the wave length along the hull equals the
hull length. In relation to swimming the hull length is constantly changing as the arm(s) is
extended forward for the next stroke. Adjusting the coordination of the stroke (e.g. catch-up
in crawl) will influence the mean hull length. A Froude number of 0.42 is often considered
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the maximum attainable by human swimmers. The Fr number decreases with growth and the
swimmer thus experiences reduced wave making drag.
It is also generally agreed that pressure drag increases as cross sectional frontal area
increases. In addition to body size, the angle of attack of the swimmer (which is primarily
determined by technical skill) determines the pressure drag. Contradictory results have been
obtained regarding the influence of BSA (frictional drag) and performance, although the most
convincing evidence indicates a close relationship.
Studies with paddles have demonstrated that increased propelling surface size increases
propelling efficiency. Stroke length is shown to relate to body size but stroke frequency does
not. Men have greater floating torque than women, older men than boys and sprinters than
long distance swimmers.
Performance seems to be influenced by size, as shown by studies on children, elite
swimmers and master swimmers. A bigger, taller or more muscular swimmer swims faster.
There is a considerable difference between gathering data to better understand human
movement in an aquatic environment and to using this data in a more clinical/pedagogical
situation. It would be justified for example to encourage the swimmer who seems to have
chosen an event for which they are less suited, to explore other possibilities. This guidance
should have the scientific evidence of this chapter in mind. The youth all-rounder has many

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 218 Per-Ludvik Kjendlie and Robert Stallman

more options to explore and a far better chance of retaining motivation, than the swimmer
who can only master one stroke or distance. The literature is full of examples of youth who
never discover where their potential really lays.
Lastly, when dealing with youth, remember that they change and what they prefer or can
do today, they may not manage tomorrow. The tallest (sprint freestyle) often get their growth
later than early maturers. The strongest among children often win by genetics and neglect
mastering technique. Those who mature early or late, need careful guidance, and coach and
swimmer need to be patient and have a long time perspective.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The work of finding and reviewing papers and writing this text was done with the
assistance of PhD student Cecilie Caspersen. Her contribution is greatly appreciated.

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[17] Cureton TK. Physical fitness of champion athletes. Urbana: University of Illinois Press;
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[20] Duche P, Falgairette G, Bedu M, Lac G, Robert A, Coudert J. Analysis of performance
of prepubertal swimmers assessed from anthropometric and bio-energetic
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Sports Exerc 2008;40(1):34-42.

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[29] Kjendlie PL, Ingjer F, Madsen Ø, Stallman R, Stray-Gundersen J. Differences in work

economy between children and adults during front crawl swimming. Eur J Appl Physiol
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[40] Ogita F, Onodera T, Tabata I, Tanaka T, Taguchi N. Effects of hand paddles on peak
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[45] Sinders WA, Lukaski HC, Bolonchuk WW. Relationships among swimming
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[56] Zamparo P, Antonutto G, Capelli C, Francescato MP, Girardis M, Sangoi R, Soule RG,
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 SECTION II
ENERGETICS AND TRAINING
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Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

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 In: World Book of Swimming: From Science to Performance ISBN: 978-1-61668-202-6
Editors: L. Seifert, D. Chollet and I.Mujika ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 11

ENERGY SYSTEMS IN SWIMMING

Ferran A. Rodríguez1 and Alois Mader2

1
Institut Nacional d‘Educació Física de Catalunya, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain
2
Deutsche Sporthochschule Köln, Cologne, Germany

ABSTRACT
Swimming performance can be described as the result of the transformation of the
swimmer‘s metabolic power into mechanical power with a given energetic efficiency.
Most of the energy produced by the swimmer is utilized to overcome water resistance or
drag, and the rate of energy expenditure theoretically increases with the cube of the
velocity. This energy is generated by the sum of the immediate (phosphagen), short-term
(anaerobic glycolysis) and long-term (oxidative phosphorilation or aerobic) energy
delivery systems. The relative contribution of each system has been frequently
determined on research developed in other types of exercise activities or from linear
calculations. The modeling of the energy metabolism behavior using computer
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simulation, combined with physiological field measurements, offers new insights and
improved estimations on the relative contribution of the energy delivery systems.

Key words: Energy metabolism, bioenergetics, aerobic/anaerobic energy expenditure,

maximal oxygen uptake, computer simulation

1. INTRODUCTION
This chapter (i) briefly reviews the bases of the energy delivery systems during exercise,
(ii) presents a computer simulation model of the dynamic behavior of energy metabolism
during swimming, (iii) describes the relative contribution of the aerobic and anaerobic
systems to energy expenditure during swimming in different events, and (iv) summarizes the
practical applications of swimming bioenergetics for performance and training.

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 226 Ferran A. Rodríguez and Alois Mader

2. ENERGY METABOLISM DURING EXERCISE

In swimming, as in all forms of human locomotion, muscles generate the energy or power
to propel the body through the water. Thus, swimming performance can be described as the
result of the transformation of the swimmers metabolic power into mechanical power with a
given energetic efficiency [19]. As in any form of exercise, chemical processes transform the
chemical energy stored within the muscle or borne by the blood into mechanical energy.
Energy for any biological function is obtained from the breakdown (catabolism) of food
into three basic chemical compounds: carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. These can be stored
and ultimately transformed into another chemical compound, adenosine triphosphate (ATP),
which is the only fuel that can be used directly for muscle force generation or for any cellular
function. In muscle, energy from the hydrolysis of ATP by the enzyme ATPase activates
specific sites on the force-developing elements, which allows the muscle filaments
(myofibrils) to generate force. ATP is also needed to re-uptake calcium ions for muscle fiber
relaxation. There are three mechanisms involved in the breakdown and resynthesis of ATP
[2,10]:

1. Phosphagen system. Phosphocreatine (PCr) is broken down enzymatically to creatine

(Cr) and Pi which is transferred to ADP to re-synthesize ATP. This is in turn broken
down enzymatically to ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and inorganic phosphate (Pi) to
yield energy for muscle activity. This mechanism is commonly called phosphagen or
anaerobic alactic (i.e. does not use oxygen nor produces lactate) system and is the
sole source of energy for muscles lasting only a few seconds (up to 3-5 s at maximal
intensity). Only two thirds of phosphagen can be depleted without the activation of
glycolysis.
2. Glycolytic system. Glucose 6-phosphate, derived from muscle glycogen or blood-
borne glucose, through anaerobic glycolysis is converted to lactate and re-synthesizes
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ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation reactions. This mechanism is named the

glycolytic or anaerobic lactic (i.e. lactate producing) system and represents a
medium-term energy delivery system. This system needs a few seconds to reach
near maximal rate and delivery of ATP plateaus after ~1 min at maximal power.
3. Aerobic system. The products of carbohydrate, lipid, protein, and alcohol metabolism
can enter the tri-carboxylic acid (TCA or Krebs) cycle in the mitochondria and be
oxidized to carbon dioxide and water in the presence of oxygen. This mechanism is
known as oxidative or aerobic (i.e. oxygen using) system and can be seen as a long-
term source of energy. This system takes about 40s-1.5 min to reach maximal power
but energy delivery can be maintained for about 5-7 min at that rate and almost
indefinitely at submaximal rates of exercise.

Figure 1 presents an overview of the main metabolic pathways of energy supply from
carbohydrate, lipid, and protein substrates, as well as the three mechanisms of energy
delivery.

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 Energy Systems in Swimming 227

Figure 1. Overview of the main pathways of energy metabolism with indication of the three metabolic
energy delivery systems: (1) phosphagen or anaerobic alactic, (2) glycolytic or anaerobic lactic, and (3)
oxidative or aerobic (3). The purpose of the three metabolic systems is to continuously re-synthesize
ATP to avoid a significant fall of intramuscular ATP concentration.
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3. METABOLIC POWER PRODUCTION DURING SWIMMING

In physiological conditions ATP concentration does not decrease much during muscular
contraction. We will consider the rates of ATP splitting and resynthesis equal for all practical
purposes. Therefore, the overall energy output per unit of time ( E ) can be expressed by the
following simple equation:[2]

 
E  ATP  PCr  bLa  cVO2 (1)

where variables (note the dot above meaning ‗per unit of time‘) indicate the net rates of ATP
and PCr splitting, lactate production and O2 consumption (and thus the rate of energy
expenditure by the three mechanisms for energy supply), and the constants b and c, the
amount of ATP re-synthesized per unit of lactate formed or O2 consumed. This equation helps
us to understand the notion of a continuum of energy supply to the working muscles, and how
the rates of energy expenditure can be estimated via measurement of PCr stores (estimated as
a function of the swimmer‘s body mass), muscle lactate formation and elimination (estimated

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 228 Ferran A. Rodríguez and Alois Mader

as blood lactate accumulation), and oxygen uptake. For the sake of simplicity we will express
equation 1 as follows:

Pmet  Palac  Plac  Paer (2)

where Pmet is total metabolic power, and Palac, Plac, and Paer, metabolic power from anaerobic
alactic (phosphagen), lactic (glycolytic), and aerobic (oxidative) sources. However, this
classification is somewhat simplistic because exercise requires the simultaneous delivery of
more than one type of energy source, and must be viewed as a continuum of energy supply.
Figure 2 shows a diagram of the total energy output (i.e. Pmet) and absolute contribution of the
three energy systems during maximal swimming, as a function of time in top male swimmers
obtained by computer simulation. The diagram illustrates the concept of simultaneous
activation of the metabolic mechanisms for the maintenance of the high energy output needed
to swim at maximal speed over the different competitive distances.
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E
Figure 2. Total energy output ( tot ) and share of the three energy delivery systems during maximal
swimming as a function of time. Data (expressed as mLO2·kg-1·min-1) correspond to absolute values
for 50 to 1,500 m freestyle swimming at competitive speed in top male swimmers as obtained by
computer simulation.

Swimming can be interpreted as a simple thermodynamic process in which chemical

energy (E) is transformed into mechanical work (W in joules) with a given efficiency (e);
since W (J) per unit of time (s-1) is mechanical power (Pw in watts, W):
E  W ;e  W / E (3)

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 Energy Systems in Swimming 229

That implies that the energy required to swim at a certain speed does not depend only on
the metabolic power developed by the swimmer but also on his or her swimming efficiency,
which is known to be the most relevant factor in swimming performance.[19]
All mechanical power output (P0) is delivered by the transformation of metabolic power
(Pm) into mechanical work. In this process, a large part of the chemical power contained in
the muscle is transformed into heat, with a given metabolic efficiency (em), which does not
vary much between subjects:

Pm  Po / em ; Po  Pm  em (4)

On the other hand, a considerable part of the mechanical power is used to overcome
water resistance or drag forces (Pd in watts),[3] which is theoretically dependent on the cube
of swimming velocity:[19]

Pd  K  v 3 (5)

where K is a constant incorporating the density of water, the drag coefficient, and the greatest
cross-sectional area - the last two factors largely depending on individual swimmers
characteristics. This relationship implies that small increments in swimming velocity will
dramatically increase the mechanical power needed, and thus the metabolic power that the
swimmer must generate. For example a 2% increase in velocity will require an 8% increase in
mechanical power.
But in reality, the total mechanical power output (Po) produced by the swimmer equals
not only power to overcome drag (Pd), but also power expended in giving pushed away
masses of water a kinetic energy change (Pk). The ratio of the useful power (to overcome
drag) to the total power output has been defined as the propelling efficiency (ep), and thus:
[19,20]
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e p  K  v 3 / Po ; Po  K  v 3 / e p (6)

Hence, rearranging equations 4, 5, and 6, the metabolic power that a swimmer must
generate (Pm) is directly proportional to the velocity cubed times the constant K (basically
depending on the drag coefficient and cross sectional area), and inversely proportional to his
or her propelling and metabolic efficiency:

Pm  K  v 3 / e p  em (7)

Since metabolic efficiency is quite homogeneous among individuals, we will assume it is

a constant. This leaves propelling efficiency as the major denominator in the equation. This
factor must be taken into account when assessing the metabolic capacity of swimmers, since
the energy cost of swimming for submaximal intensities has often been expressed as a linear
function, yet it theoretically increases with v3.

Pm  K  v 3 / e p (8)

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 230 Ferran A. Rodríguez and Alois Mader

Another parameter expressing the relationship between energy and propulsion (i.e.
propulsive efficiency) is the energy cost of swimming (Cs), which can be defined as the
amount of metabolic energy spent in transporting the body mass (mb) of the swimmer over a
unit of distance.[3] Energy cost is usually reported in J per m per kilogram (J·m-1·kg-1) or
simply as kJ·m-1.

Cs  E / mb  d ;Cs  E / d
(9)
Swimming performance (vmax) may then be quantified as:

vmax  Cs ·Pm (10)

At submaximal intensities (i.e. below 80% of Vo2max ), almost the total mechanical power
output is generated by the aerobic metabolism (Paer), and since oxygen uptake can be
measured, we may establish the following relationship:

Paer  Vo2  K  v 3 (11)

The rate of anaerobic lactic energy expenditure (Plac, mLO2·min-1) can be calculated from
the oxygen energy equivalent of net blood lactate accumulation after exertion during
swimming using the 2.7 mLO2·mmol-1·kg-1 of body mass (mb) proportionality constant
calculated by di Prampero et al. (1978):[2,4]

Plac  2.7  [ Laexer ]b  [ Larest ]b   mb / t (12)

In high velocity swimming, the rate of alactic anaerobic energy contribution (Palac,
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mLO2·min-1) can also be estimated according to the constant calculated by di Prampero et al.
(1978) for front crawl swimming (18 mLO2·kg-1):[4]

Palac 18  mb / t (13)

According to equation 4, the rate of total energy expenditure (Pm, E tot , mLO2·min-1) in
high velocity swimming can be estimated from Vo and blood lactate measurements after free
2
swimming and the two energy equivalent constants:[16,17]

Pm  E tot  Vo2 ( 2.7  Lab / t )  ( 18  mb / t ) (14)

Another means of estimating the anaerobic contribution to swimming is based on the

calculation of the accumulated oxygen deficit as described by Medbø et al. (1988),[11] using
equation 10 and extrapolating to speeds higher than 80% of Vo . However, this estimation
2 max
relies on the assumption that the high velocity swimming speed is proportional to v3 in its

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 Energy Systems in Swimming 231

total range of variation, which is not completely in agreement with experimental

results.[12,13,16,17]
4. THE ENERGY COST OF SWIMMING
Swimming performance depends on the swimmer‘s metabolic power attainable at
competitive speed and the energy cost to swim at that speed (equations 9-10). Thus, the
energy cost of swimming (Cs) can be used to quantify propulsive efficiency, a major
determinant of swimming performance.
At competitive speeds, Cs is least in freestyle and greater in backstroke, butterfly and
breaststroke, respectively.[1] As can be seen in Figure 3 in a wide range of submaximal
speeds, breaststroke is the least economical stroke, and Cs increases linearly with velocity.
This relationship is probably due to wide intracycle variations in speed (i.e. the substantial
amount of energy spent accelerating the body during the pushing phase to compensate for the
loss of speed occurring in the non-propulsive phase). The other three strokes show
exponential increases in Cs with increasing velocity, with butterfly reaching a minimum at a
speed of about 1 m·s-1, probably due to the tendency of the body to sink at lower speeds.[1]
These results are highly correlated to maximal competitive speeds and time records in the
four strokes.
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Figure 3. Mean values of the energy cost of swimming (Cs) in the four strokes as a function of speed.[1]

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 232 Ferran A. Rodríguez and Alois Mader

5. CONTRIBUTION OF THE ENERGY DELIVERY SYSTEMS DURING

MAXIMAL SWIMMING
Competitive pool events include races from 50 up to 1,500 m. The metabolic power
needed to swim at maximal speed and the relative contribution of the three energy systems
vary depending on the distance and, thus, on the swimming time at maximal intensity. On the
other hand, the power and capacity of the three energy systems are individual factors
determining performance capacity in swimming. A large part of training is devoted to the
improvement of the different energy production mechanisms.[19] However, there is a
remarkable disparity in the technical and scientific literature as to how each of these systems
is activated and their proportional contribution to the total energy output in the different
events. Table 1 summarizes studies estimating the relative contribution of the energy delivery
systems during freestyle swimming events from 50 to 1,500 m. A very large disparity
between estimates is evident, particularly in the shorter events, where the anaerobic
contributions are obviously under- or overestimated. In contrast the disparity in longer events
(800-1,500 m) is comparably smaller, presumably reflecting more accurate quantification of
the aerobic contribution due to the practicality of oxygen uptake measurements. In previous
reports, the relative contribution of each system has frequently been suggested from
estimations based on other types of exercise, on linear calculations, or assuming a linear
increase of metabolic power in supra-maximal speed (e.g. maximal accumulated oxygen
uptake estimations of anaerobic contribution). Differences on the mechanical efficiency of the
swimmers investigated may also account for the disparity.

Table 1. Suggested relative contribution of the energy systems during swimming. Data
(in percentage) are a summary of the literature and are expressed the range of values
from different authors.[1,5,9,12-14,18,21]
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Distance* Phosphagen (%) Glycolytic (%) Aerobic (%)

50 m 15-80 2-80 2-26
100 m 5-28 15-65 5-54
200 m 2-30 25-65 5-65
400 m 0-20 10-55 25-83
800 m 0-5 25-30 65-83
1,500 m 0-10 15-20 78-90
*For male freestyle swimmers. Relative energy contribution is assumed to be similar in females for a
given distance.

Based on experimental results during free swimming, we calculated the rates of energy
expenditure ( E tot ) during 50, 100, 200, and 400-m crawl swimming events along a wide
range of speeds (i.e. circa 1.1-2.2 m·s-1) (figure 4). The metabolic requirements, calculated
using equation 14, increased exponentially with an exponent close to 3. This outcome is
consistent with the mechanical power requirements to overcome water resistance and drag
forces (see Equation 5), theoretically dependent on the cube of swimming velocity.[19]
Interestingly, when compared with computer simulation values based on measurements
obtained in sprinters by Ring, et al.,[14] this exponent seems to be somewhat lower for high-
velocity swimming (i.e. over 1.9 m·s-1), and can also be observed in Figure 4 as the two

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 Energy Systems in Swimming 233

values corresponding to male sprinters over 2 m·s-1. This outcome may be explained by the
greater body height of male sprinters, which is related with faster swimming at high speed,
and/or by other biomechanical factors such as the hydrodynamic lift.

Figure 3. Rate of total energy demands ( E tot ) during front crawl swimming in the range of submaximal
and maximal speeds (ca. 1.1-2.2 m·s-1). Values (filled circles) have been calculated using equation 13
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from free swimming experimental data. Empty triangles (and dashed line) correspond to computer
simulation results in 50-m sprinters.[14] See text for further details.

6. MODELING OF THE AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC ENERGY

YIELD AS A FUNCTION OF SWIMMING SPEED: A NEW APPROACH
In recent years, a model of the dynamics of energy muscle metabolism has been
developed by Mader.[6,8] This model assumes that the dynamic changes of the
phosphorylation state of the high-energy phosphate system, and the adjustment of the rate of
glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation as a result of contraction, as well as the lactate
distribution from muscle to a passive compartment, can be calculated by a system of
differential equations. To summarize, Mader‘s model is based on the regulation of ATP
production in muscle cells by oxidative phosphorylation (OxP) and glycolysis as a function of
the phosphorylation state of the cytosolic high-energy phosphate system. In this model, the
activation of OxP can be established including free cytosolic [ADP] as substrate and a second
driving force which results from the difference of free energy between mitochondria
(ΔGOXap ~ (1+ n)*Δp) and cytosol (ΔGATPcyt). Glycolysis is regulated at the level of PFK

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 234 Ferran A. Rodríguez and Alois Mader

mainly by free [ADP] and [AMP]. PFK is inhibited by a decreasing pH resulting from lactate
accumulation. The steady state characteristics of the activation control exhibit sigmoid types
of kinetics. The ATP/PCr equilibrium is calculated by algebraic equations. The dynamic
behavior of the metabolic control of ATP production as function of ATP consumption is
calculated by a system of two first order non-linear differential equations, which include the
steady state characteristics of OxP and glycolysis as well as a time delay for oxygen transport.
Lactate distribution and elimination is calculated using a two compartment model with an
active lactate space (lactate production) and a passive space, which includes lactate oxidation
and glucose resynthesis. After translation into a computer simulation model, the simulation of
the dynamics of the metabolic behavior is performed by a stepwise solution of the differential
equation with a Runge-Kutta-Fehlberg-method. The model has been applied to the computer
simulation analysis of energy supply during 50-m swimming[13,14], and 100, 200, and 400-
m crawl.[12,13,18]
Based on this computer simulation analysis (a detailed description and assumptions are
beyond the scope of this chapter but can be found elsewhere[6]) a much more precise picture
of metabolic processes involved during a race can be reproduced. Figure 5 displays an output
diagram resulting from the computer simulation of metabolic parameters during rest, exercise,
and recovery for 400 m freestyle swum at 3 min 45 s. Input parameters were adjusted to meet
the expected metabolic pattern of an elite 400-m specialist (i.e. very high oxidative and
relatively low glycolytic power). Figure 6 shows the corresponding time-dependent relative
contribution of the three energy delivery systems.
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Figure 5. Computer simulation of metabolic parameters during rest, exercise, and recovery for a 400-m
freestyle race (3 min 45 s). See further details in the text.

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 Energy Systems in Swimming 235

Figure 6. Share of the three energy delivery systems during a 400-m race (3 min 45 s) as calculated by
dynamic computer simulation. Values are percentage of energy output from aerobic, alactic
(phosphagen), and glycolytic (lactic) processes, respectively.

To quantify the energy share during swimming at maximal speed, the dynamic behavior
of the energy metabolism during 50 to 1,500-m events has been simulated and a summary of
computed results are presented in Table 3. Input parameters (i.e. VO , maximal glycolytic 2 max
power, maximal ATP-PCr availability in the active muscles, percentage of active muscle
mass, and space for lactate distribution) were specified to meet the expected swimmer‘s
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power output (according to equation in Figure 4) and specific metabolic profile (e.g.
relatively high glycolytic power and low aerobic power in sprinters, high aerobic power, and
low glycolytic power in long-distance swimmers).

Table 3. Share of energy systems during freestyle swimming competitive events in top-
level swimmers obtained by computer simulation. Data are in percentage of total energy
output (Etot). See text for further details.

Distance Time* (min:s) Phosphagen (%) Glycolytic (%) Aerobic (%)

50 m 0:22.0 38 58 4
100 m 0:48.0 20 39 41
200 m 1:45.0 13 29 58
400 m 3:45.0 6 21 73
800 m 7:50.0 4 14 82
1,500 m 14:50.0 3 11 86
* Reference times for top-level male freestyle swimmers (2008). The relative energy patterns in female
swimmers are assumed to be relatively similar for a given distance.

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 236 Ferran A. Rodríguez and Alois Mader

The prevalence of anaerobic processes during sprinting events (i.e. 22 to 48 s ca.), leads
to a progressive predominance of the aerobic processes in middle- (i.e. 200 and 400 m) and
long-distance events (i.e. 800 and 1,500 m).
In 50m events a large muscle mass with a high percentage of fast twitch fibers (i.e. with
high glycolytic power) is required to produce a remarkably high energy output (over 200
mLO2·kg-1·min-1). ATP and PCr stores are rapidly depleted and glycolysis is almost
immediately activated to maintain energy output and becoming the most important source of
energy for muscle contraction. However, the short duration of these events prevents a high
level of acidosis from occurring, and maximal blood lactate will typically be at the range of
12-14 mmol·L-1. The activation of the aerobic system can be neglected because the race can
be completed without breathing.
100-m events, contrary to traditional views, require the complete and rapid activation of
both the glycolytic and aerobic energy delivery processes, as well as the capacity to sustain
high lactate concentrations in the active muscles. These high rates of activation (with short
time constants of oxygen uptake and glycolysis) must also be maintained to sustain the high
energy output needed to swim at maximal speed. Average values for the time constant  = 22
s (ranging from 12 to 32 s) have been measured using breath-by-breath gas analysis.[15] In
fact, the simulations show that  decreases when a fast PCr depletion takes place. Muscle
lactate will rapidly accumulate to values in excess of 30 mmol·L-1 causing acidosis (pH
reduction) and decreasing glycolysis probably through the inhibition of phosphofructokinase,
a key enzyme in the glycolytic pathway. This sequence of events will cause in turn a decrease
of the muscular rate of contraction and the onset of fatigue if the aerobic processes are not
able to sustain energy output during the last two thirds of the race. Blood lactate during
competition would typically rise up or exceed 20 mmol·L-1. Interestingly, during 100-m
maximal swims, peak VO correlated significantly with swimming speed (r = .79) and to 400
2
m (r = .75), confirming that both a high aerobic power and a fast activation of the aerobic
mechanisms are needed.
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Middle-distance events require very high VO2 max values (i.e. maximal aerobic power), as
well as moderate (400 m) to high (200 m) glycolytic power. The rate of activation of the
aerobic system is lower in 400-m events as compared to 100-m (average time constant equals
about 28 s),[15] but top-level specialists show the highest VO among swimmers, with2 max
values in the range of 70-75 mL·kg-1·min-1 (60-65 for females) and a large body mass.
Maximal blood lactate values are typically in the range of 16-18 mmol·L-1 (200 m) and 14-16
mmol·L-1 (400 m). Interestingly, the fastest swimmers will also be able to swim faster at low
blood-lactate concentrations.[7]
Long-distance events are characterized by a predominance of the aerobic energy delivery
processes. Long-distance specialists show very high VO2 max values, many in excess of 75
mL·kg-1·min-1 (65 for females), and low glycolytic power. A metabolic balance is required,
with muscle glycogen oxidation occurring at a high rate and VO reaching values close to 2
maximal. Glycolysis is in turn activated, reaching a steady state at a higher level of muscle
lactate. Maximal blood lactate values are typically in the range of 8-12 mmol·L-1.
Figure 7 displays graphically the percentage relative contribution of the three energy
delivery systems and the simplified aerobic-anaerobic share during swimming at maximal
speed (50 to 1,500 m) as a function of time obtained by computer simulation.

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Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Energy Systems in Swimming 237

Figure 7. Share of the three energy delivery systems (A) and simplified aerobic-anaerobic contribution
(B) during freestyle swimming at maximal speed as a function of time. Data (in percentage of total
energy demands, E tot ) were obtained by computer simulation. Symbols denote values corresponding to
50, 100, 200, 400, 800, and 1,500 m freestyle, respectively. See text for further details.

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 238 Ferran A. Rodríguez and Alois Mader

7. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
For performance:

1) Comprehension of the metabolic energy demands in various swimming events may

help the coach to determine which ones (i.e. sprint, middle-distance, or distance) best
match the individual metabolic capacities of a swimmer.
2) Computer simulations of the dynamic metabolic behavior, together with individual
metabolic data collection, may help the coach determining the optimal race (pacing)
strategy during competition.

For training:

1) A large amount of training is devoted to improve the metabolic capacities of the

swimmer. Knowledge of the metabolic requirements of the different swimming
events and strokes may help the coach to develop training plans to enhance the
underlying metabolic capacities.
2) Metabolic testing may identify which metabolic capacities are being improved,
maintained or decreased through training, and how the swimmer‘s metabolic profile
corresponds to the optimal energy system development for given events and strokes.

CONCLUSION
Swimming performance is the result of the transformation of metabolic power into
mechanical power with a given energetic efficiency. Most of the energy produced will be
utilized to overcome drag, and the rate of energy expenditure will increase approximately
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with the velocity cubed. Energy is generated by the sum of the immediate (ATP-PCr), the
short-term (anaerobic glycolysis), and the long-term (oxidative phosphorilation or aerobic)
energy delivery systems.
The energy cost of swimming is used to quantify propulsive efficiency, a major
determinant of swimming performance. At competitive speeds, propulsive efficiency is
greater in freestyle and lower in backstroke, butterfly, and breaststroke, respectively.
To quantify the energy share during swimming at maximal speed, the dynamic behavior
of the energy metabolism has been simulated. In 50-m events ATP and PCr stores are rapidly
depleted and glycolysis is almost immediately activated to maintain energy output. 100-m
events require the complete and rapid activation of both the glycolytic and aerobic energy
systems, since the decreasing glycolytic energy supply is compensated in part by increasing
oxidative ATP production during the last two thirds of the race. Middle-distance events
require very high VO2 max values, as well as moderate to high glycolytic power. Long-
distance events are characterized by a predominance of the aerobic energy delivery processes.

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 Energy Systems in Swimming 239

REFERENCES
[1] Capelli, C., D. R. Pendergast, and B. Termin (1998). Energetics of swimming at
maximal speeds in humans. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 78: 385-93.
[2] di Prampero, P. E. (1981). Energetics of muscular exercise. Reviews of Physiology,
Biochem Pharmacol 89: 143-222.
[3] di Prampero, P. E. (1986). The energy cost of human locomotion on land and in water.
Int J Sports Med 7: 55-72.
[4] di Prampero, P. E., D. R. Pendergast, D. W. Wilson, and D. W. Rennie (1978). Blood
lactic acid concentrations in high velocity swimming. In Eriksson, B. and B. Furberg,
eds., Swimming Medicine IV. Baltimore: University Park Press, 249-261.
[5] Houston, M. E. (1978). Metabolic response to exercise, with special reference to
training and competition in swimming. In Eriksson, B., Furberg, B., eds., Swimming
Medicine IV. Baltimore: University Park Press, 207-232.
[6] Mader, A. (2003). Glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation as a function of cytosolic
phosphorylation state and power output of the muscle cell. Eur J Appl Physiol 88: 317-
38.
[7] Mader, A., H. Heck, and W. Hollmann (1978). Evaluation of lactic acid anaerobic
energy contribution by determination of postexercise lactic acid concentration of ear
capillary blood in middle-distance runners and swimmers. In Landry, F. and W. Orban,
eds., Exercise physiology. Miami, FL: Symposia Specialists, 187-200.
[8] Mader, A., H. Heck, and W. Hollmann (1983). A computer simulation model of energy
output in relation to metabolic rate and internal environment. In Knuttgen, J. A.
//Vogel, J. //Poortmans, J., eds., Biochemistry of Exercise. Champaign, IL: Human
Kinetics, 263-279.
[9] Maglischo, E. (2003). Swimming fastest. Champaign, IL, Human Kinetics.
[10] Maughan, R., M. Gleeson, and P. L. Greenhaff (1997). Biochemistry of exercise and
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training. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

[11] Medbo, J. I., A. Mohn, I. Tabata, R. Bahr, O. Vaage, and O. M. Sejersted (1988).
Anaerobic capacity determined by maximal accumulated O2 deficit. J Appl Physiology
64: 50-60.
[12] Olbrecht, J. (1989). Metabolische Beanspruchung bei Wettkampfschwmmern
unterschiedlicher Leistungsfähigkeit. Doctoral dissertation. Cologne: Deutschen
Sporthochshule Köln.
[13] Ring, S. (1997). Energiestoffwechsel im Sprintschwimmen. Cologne: Deutschen
Sporthochschule Köln.
[14] Ring, S., A. Mader, W. Wirtz, and K. Wilke (1996). Energy metabolism during sprint
swimming. In Troup, J. P., Hollander, A. P., Strasse, D. et al., Biomechanics and
Medicine in Swimming VII. London: E. & F. N. Spon, 177-184.
[15] Rodríguez, F. A., K. L. Keskinen, O. P. Keskinen, and M. Malvela (2003).Oxygen
uptake kinetics during free swimming: a pilot study. In Chatard J. C., ed., Biomechanics
and Medicine in Swimming IX. Saint-Étienne: Publications de l‘Université de Saint-
Étienne, 379-384.
[16] Rodríguez, F. A. (1997). Metabolic evaluation of swimmers and water polo players.
Kinesiology. Journal of Biology of Exercise 2: 19-29.

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 240 Ferran A. Rodríguez and Alois Mader

[17] Rodríguez, F. A. (1999). Cardiorespiratory and metabolic field testing in swimming and
water polo: from physiological concepts to practical methods. In Keskinen, K. L., P. V.
Komi, and A. P. Hollander, eds., Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming VIII.
Jyväskylä: Gummerus Printing, 219-226.
[18] Rodríguez, F. A. and A. Mader (2003). Energy metabolism during 400 and 100-m
crawl swimming: computer simulation based on free swimming measurement. In
Chatard, J.-C., Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming IX. Saint-Étienne:
Publications de l'Université de Saint-Étienne, 373-378.
[19] Toussaint, H. M. and A. P. Hollander (1994). Energetics of competitive swimming.
Implications for training programmes. Sports Med 18: 384-405.
[20] Toussaint, H. M., W. Knops, G. De Groot, and A. P. Hollander (1990). The mechanical
efficiency of front crawl swimming. Med Sci Sports Exerc 22: 402-8.
[21] Troup, J. (1984). Energy systems and training considerations. Journal of Swimming
Research 1: 13-16.
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

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 In: World Book of Swimming: From Science to Performance ISBN: 978-1-61668-202-6
Editors: L. Seifert, D. Chollet and I.Mujika ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 12

TRAINING ENERGY SYSTEMS

Futoshi Ogita
Department of Physiological Sciences,
National Institute of Fitness and Sports, Japan

ABSTRACT
The primary purpose for training energy systems is to improve swimming
performance by enhancing the ability to produce energy from anaerobic and aerobic
processes. Endurance training．which is performed at sub-maximal intensities, i.e. from
around lactate threshold to VO2max, enhances lactate removal, and improves cardio-
respiratory functions for oxygen delivery, as well as muscular oxidative capacity for
oxygen utilization. Anaerobic training which produces a significant amount of lactic acid
induces an increase in the enzymatic activity of the glycolytic system as well as the
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muscle‘s buffering capacity. Finally, sprint training lasting less than 10 seconds enhances
the ATP-PCr system and glycolytic system, but could decrease some resting metabolites
stores, such as ATP and PCr. Since the effect of training on each energy system depends
strongly on training intensities, it is of major importance to understand why training
intensities have to be carefully set to optimally stress and maximally potentiate each
energy system.

Key words: central adaptation, peripheral adaptation, endurance training, anaerobic training,
sprint training

1. INTRODUCTION
Competitive swimming events consist of different distances from 50m to 1500m, with
performances ranging from around 22 seconds to 14 minutes and 30 seconds in elite
swimmers. The energy required to swim a certain distance is supplied by aerobic and
anaerobic energy processes, varying the relative contribution of each energy system
depending on the duration of the exercise (and thus the swimming distance) [35]. This is why
training over specific distances / time is necessary to strengthen more specifically one or the

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 242 Futoshi Ogita

other of the energy systems. To do so, coaches have attempted empirically to set several
zones of training intensities, which based on aerobic, anaerobic metabolism, and power, or
speed at threshold arbitrarily fixed by blood lactate concentration, and so on.
This chapter will be considered about three types of training, that is, 1) aerobic training,
2) anaerobic training, and 3) sprint training. The training-induced effects to each type of
training will be reviewed with a wish to give the reader an opportunity to clarify the methods
of enhancing power and capacity of the energy systems for success in swimming
performance.

2. PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS TO DIFFERENT

INTENSITIES OF TRAINING
Numerous physiological and biochemical changes (adaptations) induced by exercise
training occur in response to an increase in the muscle energy demands [8]. The amplitude of
the physiological changes would depend on the training impulse (intensity and volume). This
training impulse influences the demand on specific metabolic processes within the working
muscles, as well as the cardio-respiratory systems for oxygen delivery. It is therefore
important to understand the adaptations occurring for each training impulse, in order to target
and strengthen one targeted energy process more effectively.

2.1. Aerobic Training-Mild (Submaximal) to Heavy (Maximal) Intensities

Training intensities within this type of training range from below the lactate threshold to
．
intensity eliciting VO2max during exercise. The purpose of this category is to improve
endurance capacity which can be brought by the enhancement of lactate removal and
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maximal aerobic power.

2.1.1. Training Effect on Lactate Removal

In competitive swimming training, LT has been used as one of major criteria for
successful endurance training because the training at or near intensities of LT can improve
more effectively the rate of lactate removal and consequently improve swimming
performance.
The lactate removal from the working muscles has been considered as a result of both
passive diffusion and active transport. However, recent studies have shown that a large
portion of lactic acid (lactate/H+) is removed by lactate transport from the working muscles
to blood during exercise, this being mediated mainly by monocarboxylate transporters
(MCT). Therefore, MCT are of great importance for pH regulation delaying acidosis,
especially during exercise of intensities above LT.
A number of studies have demonstrated that training can change lactate kinetics in the
body. The improvement of lactate removal would be attributed not only to some metabolic
alternations within the muscle (increased oxygen utilization, see section 2) but also to an
increase in the muscular MCT contents. Although the literature is rather weak concerning the
effect of exercise training on changes in the MCT contents in human muscles, several studies

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 Training Energy Systems 243

have reported that bicycle endurance training increased MCT1 contents [4] and that high-
intensity intermittent training increased in both MCT1 and MCT4 [38]. These increases in
MCT contents following training would enable muscle to reuse lactate for energy production
as well as clearing it from the muscles to the blood during exercise. Furthermore, it appears
that any training at moderate to high intensity would increase the MCT1 contents while the
MCT4 contents are only increased following high-intensity training, i.e. the so called
―anaerobic training‖.

Examples aerobic training program 1

For improvement of LT or maximal lactate steady state (MLSS)
100m x 20 or more with 10-15s rest
200m x 10 or more with 10-15s rest
400m x 5 or more with 10-15s rest
Guideline
The intensity should be set at LT or MLSS level or slightly higher
The repetition number should be designed so that total work time exceeds 30 minutes to induce
physiological adaptation.
The rest interval should be designed within 15s.

2.1.2. Training Effects on Oxygen Delivery to the Muscles

The most distinct effect brought by training at moderate to high intensity would be an
．
increase in VO2max. This is attained by an increase in the oxygen delivery to the muscles and
an enhancement of oxygen utilization at the muscular level. For increasing the rate and
capacity of oxygen delivery to the working muscles, following several prominent training-
induced adaptations occur.

Pulmonary and Respiratory Functions:

Generally, endurance training on land causes few morphological and/or functional
changes in healthy adult lung [10]. However, trained swimmers appear to have a greater lung
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

volume, i.e. a larger vital capacity and total lung volume than sedentary or values predicted
from their body shape [7]. Maximal voluntary ventilation (MVV) is also much greater when
compared to standard value of people of similar physique [36]. Although the reasons why
trained swimmers have greater lung volume and superior ventilatory function remain
unknown, it may be a result of the swimming training per se, or an enhanced respiratory
muscle strength because of breathing overcoming hydrostatic pressure, rather than genetic
endowment.
Moreover, several investigations have reported that trained swimmers have a higher
pulmonary diffusion capacity at rest and during exercise when compared to non-swimmers
[57]. The pulmonary diffusion capacity is largely influenced by the surface area of contact
between the alveoli and the pulmonary capillaries. Since training does not cause any
substantial increase in pulmonary structures, the enhanced pulmonary diffusion capacity of
the lungs of swimmers is mainly due to an increased number of capillaries that surround each
alveolus.
Since the higher diffusion capacity will allow more oxygen to diffuse into the arterial
．
blood, the higher the diffusion capacity, the higher the VO2max and consequently greater the
swimming performance. However, a strong correlation was not found between swimming

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 244 Futoshi Ogita

performance and pulmonary diffusion capacity [32]. This may be because the diffusion of
．
oxygen does not limit VO2max except in extremely trained endurance athletes [40].

Increasing Cardiac Output:

Maximal cardiac output, which set the upper limit of oxygen transport to exercising
．
muscle, is regarded as the major factor limiting VO2max [45], and has been suggested to be
．
the most important cardiovascular factor in the training-induced enhancement of VO2max
[12]. Cardiac output is regarded as the product of heart rate and stroke volume. However,
since the maximal heart rate does not increase with training [12, 42], an increased maximal
cardiac output is solely due to an enhanced maximal stroke volume.
The enhanced stroke volume results mostly from morphological adaptations of the
myocardium such as a dilation of the left ventricular chamber [15]. The main stimulus
inducing these adaptations is mechanical overload caused by increased preload and after-load
[6, 56]. Early study demonstrated that stroke volume plateaus at approximately 40% to 75%
． ．
VO2max [3]. Therefore, it has been suggested that training at about 75% VO2max should
cause the heart to work maximally for each beat, and consequently is the optimal intensity to
enhance stroke volume and maximal cardiac output [31]. However, more recent studies have
found that stroke volume of well-trained athletes continues to increase up to maximal exercise
intensity [16, 58]. Similarly, systolic and mean arterial blood pressure progressively rises in
response to increasing exercise intensity up to maximum [16, 28]. Since these evidences
indicate that both pressure and volume overloads are maximal at the intensities that elicit
． ．
VO2max, training at or near VO2max would be most effective for eliciting myocardial
adaptations that enhance maximal stroke volume [2, 53].

● 5d/w 7.5wks A B
0.5 ◇ 5d/w 7.5wks 0.5
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▲ 5d/w 7.5wks
△ 4d/w 7wks
■ ■
∆VO2max (l•min-1)

0.4 □ 2d/w 7wks 0.4 ◯

◯ 4d/w 13wks ◯

■ 2d/w 13wks △ △
0.3 0.3 □ ●
□●

◇ ◇
0.2 0.2
．

▲ ▲

0.1 0.1

0 0
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 4 8 12 16 20
Relative training intensity Total O2 cost, Training
．
(%VO2max) (l•kg-1)
．
Figure 1. A: Relationship between average increase in maximal oxygen ． uptake (∆VO2max)
Figure 1. A:interval
following Relationship between
training andaverage increase
relative in maximal
training oxygen
intensity. uptake
Solid line(∆V O2max) following
calculated by least squires;
interval training and relative training intensity. Solid line ． line
calculated by least squires; dashed ± one
．
dard error of estimate. B: relationship between ∆ VO2max and total O2
standard
cost AdaptedB:from
error of estimate.
of training. relationship
[13] between ∆ VO2max and total O2 cost of training. Adapted
from [13]

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 Training Energy Systems 245

As stroke volume increases with training, heart rate during a given submaximal exercise
decreases. Since the greater the stroke volume the higher maximal cardiac output and thus
．
VO2max, it might be assumed that the magnitude of a decrease in heart rate during
．
submaximal exercise is directly related to an increase in VO2max. But this is not necessarily
．
the case. Previous investigations [13] have indicated that the enhancement of VO2max per se
is positively related to ―training intensity‖ (Figure 1), whereas the decrease in heart rate,
which might be associated with the increase in stroke volume, during submaximal exercise
directly related to training frequency and duration, i.e. training volume (Figure 2) [13]. That
．
is, the a key of a training program aiming at enhancing VO2max is to perform training at
higher intensities, while a key aiming at enhancing stroke volume is to maintain the intensity
．
at or near VO2max for as long as possible. Based on those viewpoint, many studies have
focused on the design of better training protocol that would allow athletes to maintain as long
． ．
as possible VO2max (T＠VO2max) during either continuous or intermittent exercise [33].
These protocols would be available for especially enhancing stroke volume.

● 5d/w 7.5wks
0 ◇ 5d/w 7.5wks
▲ 5d/w 7.5wks
∆Submax HR (beats•min-1)

□
△ 4d/w 7wks
-4
□ 2d/w 7wks
◯ 4d/w 13wks
-8 ■ 2d/w 13wks
■

-12 △

●
-16 ◇
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▲ ◯

-20

-24
4 8 12 16 20
Total O2 cost, Training
(l•kg-1)

Figure 2. Relationship between average decrease in submaximal heart rate (∆Submax HR) following
interval training and total O2 cost of training. Solid line calculated by least squires; dashed line ± one
standard error of estimate. Adapted from [13]

Increasing Muscle Capillaries:

It has been recognized that appropriate endurance training induces a growth of new
capillaries [1, 11]. For example, an increased capillarization has been observed after
． ．
endurance training performed at 70-80% of VO2max, but not at 45% of VO2max [46]. A
more recent study using knee-extension exercise has demonstrated that intense intermittent

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 246 Futoshi Ogita
．
training performed at 150% of leg VO2max , that is, very intense exercise performed by a
small muscle group, can also induce capillary growth [27].
The larger the capillary network, the larger the capillary blood volume and capillary
surface area, and the shorter the diffusion distances to the mitochondria. Consequently, an
improved in capillarization within the muscles allows not only to deliver more oxygen to the
exercising muscle, but also to eliminate more rapidly heat and metabolites which can cause
muscle fatigue. A dense capillary network could also be quite critical for uptake of substrates
by muscles, and an enhanced endurance performance following aerobic training may be
partly due to a greater ability for muscle to uptake and utilize blood-borne substrates, in
particular, free fatty acid and possible serum triglycerides.
Additionally, more significance of the training-induced increase in capillary density may
be to maintain or elongate mean transit time, which is defined as a mean transit time that
blood pass through a capillary, in exercising muscle [44]. The elongated mean transit time
would contribute to a more complete uploading of oxygen and wider arterio-venous oxygen
difference even at higher rate of muscle blood flow during intense exercise. This would
．
consequently improve VO2max and endurance performance. Indeed, a strong relationship has
been obtained between the number of capillaries per muscle fiber (vastus lateralis) and
．
VO2max measured in cycle exercise [43].

2.1.3. Training Effects on Oxygen Utilization by the Muscles

Increasing Mitochondria and Mitochondrial Enzyme Activities:

Endurance training induces major metabolic adaptations in skeletal muscle, which
include increases in mitochondrial content and oxidative enzyme activities [22]. The
increased mitochondrial content results from an increase in both the size and the number of
mitochondria, and occurs in both fast and slow twitch types of muscle fibers [17, 23].
Mitochondria are the site where oxygen is finally used for aerobic ATP production.
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Therefore, as the mitochondria content increases, a greater quantity becomes available for
aerobic energy production.
Additionally, endurance training also induces an increase in mitochondrial enzyme
activities. Those adaptations would allow a greater extraction of oxygen from the blood by
the working muscles, and also would enhance the rate of oxygen utilization. Therefore, it may
be thought that an increase in enzyme activities of mitochondria enhances proportionally
．
VO2max. However, previous studies have shown that there is only a modest increase in
．
VO2max (20–40%) despite a 2.2-fold increase in mitochondrial enzymes [43], indicating that
the training-induced increase in mitochondrial enzyme activities is not necessarily
．
proportional to VO2max enhancement.
Two possible metabolic effects have been associated with an increase in mitochondrial
enzymes activity: 1) endurance-trained muscles will oxidize fat at a higher rate (thus sparing
muscle glycogen and blood glucose), and 2) lactate production will decrease during exercise
[22]. These muscle adaptations would explain the improvement in endurance performance
that occurs with training because exercise at the same work rate elicits smaller disturbances in
homeostasis in the trained muscles. Indeed, an increase in mitochondrial enzymes activities
．
would enhance mainly endurance performance rather than VO2max.

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 Training Energy Systems 247

Example aerobic ． training program 2

For improvement VO2max
50m x 20 or more with 10-15s rest
100m x 10 or more with 10-15s rest
200m x 5 or more with 10-30s rest
400m x 3 or more with 15-60s rest
Guideline
The intensity should be set between the speed corresponding to slightly higher than MLSS and
the average speed calculated from 200m best record.
The repetition number should be designed so that total distance reaches 1000m to 2000m.
The rest interval should be designed with 10s in short distance interval training to 60 s with
long distance interval training.

2.2. Anaerobic Training

．
Training intensities are here close or higher than VO2max, which corresponds to at least
higher than critical speed. During such short-lasting high intensity exercise, the energy is
largely supplied by the anaerobic energy system (i.e. ATP-PCr system and glycolytic system).
Therefore, the main purpose for anaerobic training is to enhance the capacity to produce
anaerobic energy (―anaerobic capacity‖). This could be the result of an increase in the
glycolytic enzyme activities and as well as the buffering capacity of the muscles (lactate
tolerance). Accordingly, training program should be including short distance (25m or 50m)
interval training bouts performed at or near maximal speed, or 100m and 200m exhaustive
swimming like race simulation, so called repetition training, which will tax almost maximally
the anaerobic energy system.

2.2.1. Increasing Enzyme Activities

Like aerobic training, high-intensity training, enhances many enzyme activities [37, 41].
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

For example, the glycogenolytic enzyme activity, such as hexokinase (HK) and
phsophofructokinase (PFK) have been shown after intermittent training at supramaximal
intensity. Similarly, mitochondrial enzyme activities, involving citrate synthase (CS) and
succinate dehydrogenase (SDH), were also increased by high-intensity intermittent training.
These peripheral adaptations are supported by a previous findings supporting the idea that
both aerobic and anaerobic capacities can could be simultaneously increased following
supramaximal intermittent training, i.e. 20s bout with near maximal effort x 8 or more sets
[50].

2.2.2. Improving Buffering Capacity (Lactate Tolerance)

The increase in the enzyme activities of the glycolytic pathway will favor a greater rate of
glycolysis, and thus enhance the capability for rapid production of ATP. In the mean time, an
enhanced anaerobic glycolysis will result in more lactic acid being formed in the exercising
muscle. Then, the proton formed from the dissociation of lactic acid will decrease muscle pH,
and inhibits the activity of key enzyme of the glycolytic pathway such as PFK [49]. Since the
rate of glycolysis and consequently the rate of ATP production would be lowered, peripheral
fatigue would develop during high-intensity exercise [18].

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 248 Futoshi Ogita

Muscle buffer capacity refers to the ability of a buffer to resist changes in pH, and it can
be improved by high-intensity training. The improved muscle buffering capacity could
indirectly contribute to an improved glycolytic ATP yield and facilitate the maintenance of a
high exercise intensity for a longer duration. Indeed, it has been reported that the capacity of
working muscles to buffer proton is related to sprint performance [29], and furthermore,
skeletal muscle buffering capacity can be improved by high intensity training [55].

Example of anaerobic training program

For improvement muscle buffering capacity
25m x 4 to 8 with 5-30s rest
50m x 4 to 8 with 5-60s rest
100m x 3 to 5 with 10-30 minute
200m x 2 to 3 with 10-30 minute
Guideline
The intensity should be set at the race pace from 50m to 200m.
The repetition number should be designed so that total distance reaches 100m to 400m where
lactate production reaches at maximal or near maximal level.
The rest interval should be designed within 60s when short distance swimming is repeated.
When repetition training is done, swimmers are allowed to rest until they completely recover.

2.3. Sprint Training

During brief maximal exercise of 10 second or shorter, energy for muscle contraction is
primarily derived from the breakdown of stored ATP, phosphocreatine (PCr), and glycolysis
[21]. Therefore, the purpose of sprint training is mainly to enhance the capacity or the rate of
energy production from ATP-PCr system. Accordingly, this type of training in swimming
should include short-duration maximal effort, such as 25-m sprint and shorter.
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2.3.1. Resting ATP-Pcr PCr Storage in Muscle

An increase in the quantity of metabolic substrate available before exercise begins may
enhance energy production during high-intensity exercise, enabling a higher energy rate
during all-out effort, or given energy rate to be maintained for longer. However, short sprint
training appears to cause no change or rather a decrease in resting muscle levels of ATP and
/or PCr [9, 34, 47, 52]. Nevertheless, it is of interest to note that although a reduction in
resting ATP levels has been reported after sprint training, significant improvements in power
output were still observed in these studies [20].

2.3.2. Muscle Enzyme Activity

It is well known that brief maximal exercise performance depends on the capacity for the
muscles to use high-energy phosphate substrates (ATP and PCr) at the beginning of the
exercise. Glycolysis is also initiated at the onset of exercise [24] and contributes significantly
to the energy production during a 10second maximal dynamic exercise. Therefore, it can be
expected that an increase in the enzyme activities of these energy systems by sprint training
would contribute to an improvement in sprint performance. However, although several
studies have reported that short sprint training enhances the key enzyme activities of each
energy system, such as Myokinase (MK), CPK, PFK, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) [9, 29,

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 Training Energy Systems 249

30, 52], others have not found any improvement[26]. Furthermore, it has been also shown that
the improvements in performance after sprint training are not necessarily related to these
increased enzyme activities [26].

2.3.3. Buffering Capacity

Muscle buffering capacity has also been shown to be increased after sprint training
involving long sprint efforts such as 15s to 30s maximal exercise [41], although not all
studies have found such a result [34]. Currently, less is known about possible buffering
capacity enhancement following sprinting training. However, Dawson reported the increased
in the run time to exhaustion after short-sprint training (<10s sprint training, i.e. 30 to 80 m
sprint running at 90-100% maximum speed were repeated between 20 and 40 times) [9], and
suggested that the improvement of the running performance might have been caused by
improvement in buffering capacity.

Example of sprint training program

For improvement of sprint performance
12.5m x 4 with 10-30s rest
Start dash ; 25m (50m) x 2 to 5 with at least 3min rest
Guideline
Training should be always done with maximal effort.
The repetition number should be designed so that total distance is ~ 200m.
The rest interval should be designed with at least 1 to 3 min in order to recover muscle PCr.

3. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
The ultimate goal for training the energy systems is to improve swimming performance,
thus by an enhancement in the capacity ability of producing at high rate, great amount of
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

energy from anaerobic and aerobic processes. Training would also induce some physiological
adaptations aiming at delaying fatigue.
．
The stimulus for enhancing VO2max is dependence on the magnitude of training impulse
(i.e. intensity and duration) [48], and training intensity has often been regarded as the most
．
important variable to elicit the training–induced enhancement of VO2max [13, 48]. This is
．
strongly supported by the findings that the enhancement of VO2max was positively related to
．
exercise intensity in the range of 50% to 100% VO2max, irrespective of duration and
．
frequency [54]. However, even though VO2max can be significantly enhanced with training at
．
intensity as low as 40% to 50% VO2max in sedentary individuals [5, 15, 39], for well trained
．
swimmers who are approaching their genetic limit for VO2max enhancement, such intensity
may be too low for training benefits. Therefore, it should be emphasized that while significant
improvement of endurance performance and corresponding physiological markers including
．
VO2max are evident following training at moderate intensities in sedentary groups, a similar
training does not appear to further enhance either endurance performance or associated
physiological variables in highly trained athletes.
Furthermore, coaches have to discriminate the optimal training intensities that will
maximize the improvement of each physiological factor explaining performance. For

World Book of Swimming : From Science to Performance, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 250 Futoshi Ogita
． ．
example, continuous exercise training at 70% VO2max induced a large increase in VO2max,
but no increase in the maximal accumulated oxygen deficit (Figure 3) [50].

70 ○ Endurance training 100 ○ Endurance training

● Intermittent training ● Intermittent training
VO2max (ml•kg-1•min-1)

MAOD (ml•kg-1)
90
60
○
○ 80
● ●
○ ●
● ●
● ○ ○
50 70 ○
●
●
60
40
．

50

30 40
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Training duration (week) Training duration (week)

Figure 3. Effects of endurance

． training at moderate intensity and high-intensity intermittent training on
] maximal O2 uptake (VO2max; left panel) and the maximal accumulated O2 deficit (MAOD; right
the
panel). Adapted from [50]
．
This suggests that the training intensity (stimulus) as high as 70% VO2max is not intense
enough training to improve the anaerobic capacity. On the other hand, high-intensity
intermittent training, which would tax maximally not only the anaerobic but also to aerobic
．
energy process [51], hasve been shown to increase simultaneously VO2max and maximal
accumulated oxygen deficit (Figure 3). These findings would provide some hints how
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

coaches should design training program in order to improve aerobic and anaerobic energy
system more effectively. Obviously, current competitive swimming training does not consist
of only one type (intensity) of training, but includes a variety of training impulse. For
．
example, training at OBLA or MLSS as well as at or near VO2max can be arranged to
enhance endurance capacity. High-intensity interval training or repetition training could also
be included to the training for an additional improvement of the anaerobic capacity. Although
the importance of aerobic and anaerobic training would vary depending on each swimmer,
both types of training should be employed. In fact, when the interval training at OBLA, at
． ．
VO2max, and at supramaximal intensity are well combined, greater improvement in VO2max
(>10%), anaerobic capacity (>20%) and swimming performance have been obtained within
relatively short training period (3 weeks) even in well-trained swimmers [35].

CONCLUSION
Several physiological and biochemical adaptations occur with training and would
contribute to the improvement in swimming performance. However, whether a given training
can induce targeted adaptations depends on the selection of the correct training intensity

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 Training Energy Systems 251

(stimulus). It is therefore fundamental to understand the training effect of each type of

training to enhance the energy systems optimally in order to maximize performance.

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 254 Futoshi Ogita

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 In: World Book of Swimming: From Science to Performance ISBN: 978-1-61668-202-6
Editors: L. Seifert, D. Chollet and I.Mujika ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 13

LACTATE PRODUCTION AND

METABOLISM IN SWIMMING

Jan Olbrecht
German University of Sports Sciences, Cologne (GER)
Rehabilitation Sciences and Physiotherapy (REVAKI), RUGent (BEL)
Faculty of Biological Engineering, KULeuven (BEL)

ABSTRACT
In competitive swimming, as in other competitive sports, lactate tests are commonly
applied not only to describe the current metabolic performance of the swimmer but also
to define appropriate training goals, intensity and volume, to monitor metabolic
adaptations to training and to adjust the training periodisation in order to increase the
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

training efficiency. Mader ([42], [44]) argued in a mathematical model of metabolic

energy supply that beside the aerobic activity the lactate production also strongly affects
the lactate-speed relation. This finding can explain a lot of contradictory interpretations
([28]) and paradoxes between the evaluation of lactate tests and the performances in
competition and/or in training, but it also stresses the importance of examining and
considering both the aerobic and anaerobic metabolic components together in order to
ensure a reliable implementation of lactate test results ([56]). In the last 20 years, more
basic studies support this rather theoretical approach and provide better insight in
different factors, other than O2-limitation for contraction, that affect blood lactate
concentrations during exercise ([19], [20]).
Beside its metabolic metamorphosis, being upgraded from a glycolitic waste product
to an important intermediate that helps regulating the metabolic activity, lactate has
newly been described as a signalling molecule ([62]) between respectively the metabolic
and nervous system and the metabolic and gene expression system. However these
finding certainly need more research before any evidence based application in training.

Key words: lactate production, training periodisation, testing aerobic, anaerobic

metabolism

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 256 Jan Olbrecht

1. INTRODUCTION
Each athletic world-top exploit requires many years of exercising the components that
determine the athlete‘s competitive performance. The priority given to exercising these
different components depends on the talents the athlete is blessed with and on the
requirements of the event he will compete in. The right setting of these priorities will
determine the training goal and will be of outmost importance for a successful training
process. Exercise volume, - intensity, - interval (fraction) and rest are the only training
elements to modulate in order to provoke adaptations in these components. However, the
adaptations to training vary from one component to the other and from one athlete to the other
regarding response time and amplitude. Consequently the achievement of a world
performance becomes not only a long term but also a very complex process, and, therefore,
requires a good planning and periodisation. The success of this planning and periodisation
just as much depends on a well balanced content and timing of training stimuli, tuned to the
athlete‘s specific needs and training response capabilities, as on a systematic program to
monitor the real execution of the training exercises and the development of the main
components.
A scientific training support will not only be related to the transfer from research findings
into training praxis, but also to the methodology to reveal priorities and training structures
(periodisation) that fit best with the athlete‘s characteristics in order to achieve the training
objectives.
Within the context of a scientific training support lactic acid measurements are very
common to describe the swimmer‘s metabolic performance, to define appropriate training
goals, intensity and volume, to monitor metabolic adaptations to training and to adjust
training periodisation in order to increase training efficiency. For many years the use and
interpretation of lactate levels were based on empirical assumptions lacking scientific
evidence about their real significance. Coaches faced contradictory results, unrealistic
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

interpretations and inconsistent implementations in training. Findings on basic lactate

research show what accounts for the misleading lactate interpretations and indicate how one
can more correctly work with lactate and what the future may have in store.
Complementary test information from different sport scientific disciplines is very
important not only to define limitative components for a better competitive performance in a
sufficient broad spectrum but also to unravel the interactivity between the different
components. Only the detection of the limitative components in combination with a good
understanding of the interaction between the components will enable to set the right training
priorities and to tackle appropriately the improvement to achieve. Moreover, this good
understanding allows coach and scientist to deal with the continuously changing athlete‘s
profile due to training or whatever other situation (mental… and even technological, such as
the introduction of a new type of swimsuit). Detailing more extensively the multidisciplinary
approach is not really object of this article, although we want to stress its importance in praxis
in order to view all the measures discussed below in the proper context. An example of a
swim-specific multidisciplinary approach is described by Pyne ([65]) while Smith, et al.
([74]) provides some critical comments about biomechanical (incl. race analysis),
physiological and psychological measures.

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 Lactate Production and Metabolism in Swimming 257

The aim of this article is to confront praxis and theory regarding the interpretation and
implementation of lactate tests. The comparison between its use and recent findings from
basic research should reveal the strengths and weaknesses and inspire further methodological
development to maximise for each swimmer individually the benefit of training programs.

2. LACTIC ACID
Lactate tests are intensively debated by coaches and scientists; by believers who stress its
importance for maximising training efficiency as well as by non-believers who emphasise the
controversies about interpretation and implementation of lactate results in training and the
paradoxes when comparing the lactate test and competition results. Lactate seems to have
been described for the first time in 1807 by Berzelius (cited [30]). That more than 200 years
later there is still so much to discuss, proves the complexity of the subject. One of the key
studies that still drives the interpretation of lactate tests in praxis has been published by
Fletcher and Hopkins (in vitro [17]) and Hill and Lupton ([31]) postulating that lactate
increases during muscular exercise due to a lack of O2 for the energy requirements of the
contracting muscle. This statement turned lactate into a marker to estimate the aerobic
metabolic performance of athletes; any increase of intensity (power) at a given blood lactate
or decrease of blood lactate at a given intensity (both resulting in a shift of the lactate curve to
the right) was assigned to an improvement of the aerobic metabolism while a shift to the left
was linked to a decline of the aerobic metabolism.

Table 1. Increased lactic acid (HLa) accumulation in the absence of O2 limitation (19)
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However, several basic studies in vitro- ([33], [9], [10], [11], [38], [80]) and later in
human- ([76], [66]) induced the reflection that an O2 limitation could not be the only trigger
for the production and accumulation of lactate in muscle ([19], [20]). Table 1 summarizes
different interacting factors that may, in absence of an O2 limitation, cause a decrease of

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 258 Jan Olbrecht

lactate clearance during recovery or an increase of lactate production and lactate

concentration in blood or tissue ([19]).
In 1984, at the time of the first publications around this reflection, Mader ([42], [43],
[44], [45], [46]) mathematically described and published for the first time, the regulation of
ATP-rephosphorylation in skeletal muscle applied to the human body and driven by the
decrease of the cytosolic phosphorylation state due to exercise. He assumed a second order
Hill-kinetic with cytosolic [ADP] as the activating substrate for oxidative phosphorylation,
which was experimentally confirmed by Jeneson et al. ([34]) and later by Cieslar and Dobson
([8]). His calculation scheme quantifies the activation of the aerobic and lactic anaerobic
(glycolysis, pH adjusted) metabolism and reveals the lactate distribution and elimination
using a two-compartment model with an active lactate producing and a passive space
including lactate elimination by combustion. In this model the glycolysis (pyruvate/lactate
production) is not driven by the limitation of O2 but is regulated by the cytosolic
phosphorylation state. Moreover, lactate is not anymore an end-product of the glycolysis but
an important intermediate that can be combusted to contribute in the aerobic energy supply or
be rebuilt back to glycogen.
Many studies ([6], [35], [20]) described and discussed different transport mechanisms of
lactate from cell to cell or from organ to organ such as the lactate shuttling ([5]) and
monocarboxylate transport (MTC, [36], [49]) with the MTC1 to import lactate in muscle
fibres type I, MTC4 to export lactate from fibres type IIa and MTC2 to import lactate into the
liver. All these findings support that lactate produced during work by the glycolysis in one
place can be used as fuel for oxidation somewhere else. Consequently, the amount of lactate
measured in blood only partially reflects the lactic anaerobic contribution (glycolysis) to the
total energy supply since lactate, produced by the glycolysis but also combusted as fuel
during the exercise, will never contribute to the post exercise blood lactate concentration (see
later fig 2). Based on Mader‘s calculation and given that enough lactate can be produced, this
―not seen‖ glycolytic energy supply, expressed in O2-equivalents, can amount to ca 10% for
an effort requiring 60ml/min*kg body mass oxygen uptake.
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According to Mader‘s model, Olbrecht et al. ([56]) published a simplified calculation

scheme in order to resolve blood lactate concentrations measured after single bouts of
submaximal exercises that can lead to a lactate steady state, into a quantification of oxidative
and glycolytic energy delivery rates. For a given lactate after a submaximal swim, it was
found that the calculated oxidative and glycolytic energy delivery, expressed as respectively
the end O2-uptake (VO2ss, ml/min*kg) and the mean lactate production (VLass, mmol/l*s),
can originate from many combinations of maximal oxidative (VO2max) and glycolitic (VLamax)
rates.
For the training praxis we consider that both maximal rates reflect the metabolic
potentials an athlete can appeal to in order to provide energy for muscle contraction. We
therefore label the maximal oxidative and glycolytic rates as respectively the athlete‘s aerobic
and anaerobic capacity. If different capacities can result in the same lactate-speed relation, it
is quite obvious that, despite the same lactate in training, swimmers will undergo different
training load depending on their capacities and, consequently, show different training
response. These capacities will therefore predominantly be involved to set the training
objectives and the range of affordable training load ([58]) and not anymore the lactate-speed
relation as such. Performance in competition, however, will depend on the extent to which the
athlete can appeal to both capacities. The extent to use both, the aerobic and anaerobic

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 Lactate Production and Metabolism in Swimming 259

capacities, is considered as respectively the aerobic and anaerobic power (always part of the
capacities).
In order to determine both capacities, calculations as mentioned above ([56]) are repeated
for different distances and submaximal swims in order to find out the most probable
combination of VO2max and VLamax.
Once both most probable capacities are determined, they can be used to reproduce
observed O2-uptake-lactate-speed relations per distance for submaximal exercises at constant
intensity (speed) or to estimate/evaluate, before the execution of a planned training exercise,
the extent of aerobic and glycolitic activity at different intensities, or even to estimate the
maximal speed, blood lactate and O2-uptake when lactate production equals its elimination
(=MLSS=maximal lactate steady state or MaxLass).
Calculated post exercise blood lactate concentrations and O2-uptake at the end of
submaximal runs between 600 and 2000m in training correlated well with the measured
observations ([57]). The calculations were based on the athlete‘s VO2max and VLamax
determined a few days before the training test (fig 1).
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Figure 1. Strong correlation between measured and simulated post exercise blood lactate concentrations
at the end of submaximal runs of 600 to 2000m (right). Similar results were found between measured
and simulated O2 uptake (left).

Based on Olbrecht‘s approach ([56]), it can be demonstrated that for the same blood
lactate concentration the mean anaerobic energy delivery (VLa) will be higher the shorter the
exercise time, but will also increase the better the athlete‘s aerobic endurance (fig 2). Higher
anaerobic energy delivery for the same blood lactate in short as compared to long distance
events is well accepted by coaches and can partly be explained by the higher swimming speed
that is required to achieve the same lactate when shortening the swim distance. But nearly
doubling the anaerobic energy supply in order to achieve the same lactate on the same swim
distance when world-class swimmers are compared to regional performers is less obvious to
them. To become a world-class athlete, a high O2-uptake is required. The higher the O2-

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 260 Jan Olbrecht

uptake per time the more lactate per second is combusted during exercise ([13], [18], [45],
[77]). This combusted amount of lactate will contribute to the total energy delivery but will
never contribute to the measured post exercise blood lactate concentrations (see calculation
above). This increasing amount of ―hidden lactate‖ with an improving O2-uptake explains the
higher anaerobic energy delivery rate despite the same post exercise blood lactate especially
in long distance competitions.

Figure 2. 4mmol/l lactate speed on a 200 (left) and 400m (right) for swimmers qualified for Regional
(R), National (N), European (E), World Championships or Olympic Games (W) and the corresponding
mean aerobic (VO2) and anaerobic (VLa) energy delivery rates. For the same distance and on average
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

(without differentiation according to sprinter or distance swimmer), nearly no difference in aerobic

(WO2), alactic (WCP) and lactic (WLA) work was found. The anaerobic lactic energy delivery rate
(VLa) of World Class swimmers, however, is nearly double as high as that of Regional swimmers
despite the same 4mmol/l lactate at the end of the effort.

Different aerobic and anaerobic capacities may also result in the same lactate for a
training set (fig 3). This will then, despite identical blood lactate, reflect a total different
contribution of both these capacities in that training set and therefore result in a different
training stimulus. Swimmers A and B in figure 3 have clearly different aerobic and anaerobic
capacities (upper right), unfortunately leading to the same lactate-speed relation for a 400m
and therefore also to the same 4-mmol/l lactate speed (right below, V4400) in a 2-speed test
([48], [58]). Converting this lactate-speed relation to a 6x400m with 30s rest ([55]) provides
the swimming speed both swimmers should achieve to obtain 2, 3 and 4 mmol/l lactate at the
end of the set (left below). This conversion ends for each lactate level in the same speed for
swimmer A and B. But, if we compare for swimmer A and B the extent of their aerobic and
anaerobic capacity they need to appeal to in order to achieve the same lactate at the end of the
set (left upper), swimmer A clearly charges less his capacities compared to B. In this example
swimmer B will train much more intensively than A despite the same lactate in training. This
may explain the coaches‘ observations that completing a training set at the same lactate

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 Lactate Production and Metabolism in Swimming 261

concentration is not always achievable for all the swimmers of the team and that swimmers
can get a different training effect despite they all trained at the same lactate.

Figure 3. Despite the same lactate-speed relation in a one- or two-speed test (V4400,= speed at 4 mmol/l
lactate for a 400m) or even in training, the contribution of the aerobic (VO2max) and anaerobic capacity
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(VLamax) may be different and therefore also the training stimulus and response.

It is obvious that if different aerobic capacities may result in a same lactate-speed relation
depending on the anaerobic capacity the swimmer disposes of at the moment of the test, a
better performance at a given blood lactate not automatically reflects a better aerobic
endurance. A higher speed for the same lactate can be the result of a decreased anaerobic
capacity as well as of an improved aerobic capacity. Despite the statistical significance
(p<0.001), the correlation in about 700 swim tests between the 4mmol/l lactate speed on
400m and VO2max was therefore weak (r=0.634). This observation not only concerns the
4mmol/l lactate speed but also whatever lactate concentration on the lactate curve that is
taken as a reference for a longitudinal comparison of lactate test results.
Consequently, the assignment of a ―shift to the right‖ and a ―shift to the left‖ to
respectively an improvement or decrease of the aerobic performance risks to be wrong, too. It
can therefore be expected that the evolution of a given point of the swimmer‘s lactate curve
(e.g. a 4 mmol/l speed), even for an effort lasting at least 4 minutes, very disappointedly fits
with the evolution of the aerobic capacity (fig 4). Similar observations were also found
between the evolution of the anaerobic capacity (VLamax) and blood lactate after a 100m all-
out. Again, despite the statistical significance (p<0.001), the correlation in about 600 swim
tests between blood lactate after a 100m all-out and VLamax was weak (r=0.355).

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 262 Jan Olbrecht

Figure 4. Comparison of the evolution of the aerobic (VO2max, left) and the anaerobic capacity (VLamax,
right) with respectively the evolution of the 4mmol/l lactate speed on 400m (n=552) and the evolution
of the post exercise lactate after a 100m all-out (n=421). Qualitatively, the classic interpretations (i.e.
faster at 4mmol/l on 400m is aligned with an improvement of the aerobic endurance while slower
means a decline of the aerobic endurance, or a higher blood lactate after a 100m all out reflects a
stronger anaerobic performance) fits only for about 50% with the simulated metabolic performances of
the athletes during the tests. Quantitatively an even more expressed lack of relationship between the
classic lactate test interpretation and the simulated metabolic performance of the athletes was found.
Therefore the classic interpretation of lactate test has clearly a lot shortcomings and its benefit in
training monitoring is rightly doubtable.

If the test protocol is adequately chosen, indicators such as the highest O2-uptake at
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maximal intensity (=VO2peak) and lactate can be used to assess the power of the aerobic
metabolism. Anaerobic power tests, however, are widely discussed in literature ([84], [29])
but their validity is likewise strongly debated upon. Heck and Schultz ([29]) concludes that
the alactic, lactic and oxidative components of the total energy supply in these anaerobic tests
cannot be distinguished by means of simple parameters such as lactate and time until
exhaustion, which strongly hampers a reliable assessment of the anaerobic power and
capacity.
Mader ([43]) described a simplified formula to estimate the anaerobic capacity (VLamax)
based on short all-out efforts (10-15s):

VLamax = (maxNBL-RLa) / (tbel-talak)

with maxNBL = highest post exercise blood lactate, RLa = lactate at the beginning of the
exercise (rest lactate), tbel = time of exercise, talak = estimated time where energy delivery is
considered alactic (3-5s).
A quick explorative comparison for swimmers between the results of this easy formula
using 25m sprints (start in water) and the VLamax according to our calculation scheme ([56])
showed no statistical significant correlation (n=40, data on file). The very complex interaction

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 Lactate Production and Metabolism in Swimming 263

between technique, strength and conditioning within a water medium may explain the weak
match. However, a controlled and more sprint oriented study design, similar to the study of
Ring and Mader ([68]), should confirm or reject this observation.
With the Dutch Pre-Olympic Rowing Team of 2008, we put a 1 minute all-out power on
a Concept2 rowing ergometer to an Anova to explain the differences in power output with
respect to body weight (BW), both the aerobic (VO2max) and anaerobic capacity (VLamax),
post exercise blood lactate (Lamax) and mean stroke rate (SR, fig 5). In order to avoid a bias of
BW on the 1 minute all out performance, we split the team in heavy-weight (n=25) and light-
weight (n=16) oarsmen. We found that the 1 minute all-out power in both model is explained
with a R2-adjusted of 0.921 and 0.951 (both p<0.001) for respectively the heavy and light
group. For both groups the maximal 1 minute power was mostly (highest absolute -values,
p<0.001) and positively related to VO2max and in second line but negatively to VLa max ( < 0,
p<0.001). Only for the heavy oarsmen, a small part of the power output was explained by post
exercise blood lactate (=0.219, p=0.001) while for the light class rowers, the stroke rate also
explained some differences in the maximal power output (=0.145, p<0.05). Body weight
wasn‘t for both teams a significant explaining factor.
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Figure 5. Rowing performance during an all-out effort of 1 minute (Wmax) on a Concept2 rowing
ergometer is mainly dependent from body weight (BW) and the aerobic capacity (VO2max). Post
exercise blood lactate is positively while the anaerobic capacity (VLamax) is inversely related with the
power out.

We were somewhat surprised by the negative relation between power output and VLamax.
This generated the hypothesis that the maximal lactate production capacity (VLamax) can also
be too strong and that it has to be well-balanced with VO2max in order to positively contribute
to an all-out effort in test and competition. Theoretically there could be an explanation: the
O2-uptake, as already described above, is positively related to the combustion of
pyruvate/lactate as the intermediate of the glycolysis ([13], [45]). If VLamax is too high as

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 264 Jan Olbrecht

compared to VO2max, more pyruvate/lactate will be produced than can ever be combusted
even at moderate intensities. This results in an intracellular acidosis and an inhibition of the
further glycolitic activity ([12], [82], [46]). Moreover, not only the glycolitic contribution to
the maximal effort but also the mechanical power of the affected muscle ([71], [16]) will
decrease. This will lead to both a low aerobic and a low anaerobic power; ie the athlete can
only appeal to a limited part of both the aerobic and anaerobic capacity without activating the
tempering safety-processes. In competition, swimmers with a very explosive first part of the
race very often ―die‖ before the end of the race and also achieve lower blood lactate levels
compared to swimmers who progressively paced their race. When the anaerobic capacity
(VLamax) is overdeveloped, a decrease of this VLamax by training can be very helpful to
improve aerobic as well as anaerobic power. Especially for longer events, it is much easier to
increase the competition performance by decreasing VLamax than by increasing VO2max ([45]).
A strong anaerobic capacity (VLamax) will also promote the use of glucose/glycogen. At
low intensities, the oxidative system can combust more pyruvate/lactate than can be delivered
by the glycolysis. This lack of pyruvate for the oxidative process will mostly be supplemented
by fat oxidation. The stronger the anaerobic capacity, the more pyruvate will be produced
even at low intensities and consequently a shift from fat oxidation to glycogen/glucose
utilisation will occur. The same simplified calculation model as above ([57]) enables us to
demonstrate this for 2 swimmers with the same aerobic capacity (VO2max of 80ml/min/kg) but
different anaerobic capacity (fig 6).
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Figure 6. A higher VLamax will provoke a higher use of carbohydrates for the same O2-uptake and
VO2max being constant.

Since competitive swim training is characterised by high mileage at low intensities,

adjustments in caloric intake may be necessary not only according to the planned training
intensity, but additionally according to the athlete‘s metabolic profile, i.e. his VO2max and
VLamax.

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 Lactate Production and Metabolism in Swimming 265

The development of the aerobic capacity (VO2max) is very often observed with an
improvement of the anaerobic capacity. This may be explained by the fact that the glycolysis
is the main provider of fuel for the aerobic system; both capacities could therefore be
positively related. It can even be questioned whether in some athletes a hardly developable
anaerobic capacity impedes the improvement of their aerobic system. This may be supported
by the observation that McArdle patients (patient with no or nearly no glycolysis) rather show
low O2-uptake ([67]).
Coaches very often link high blood lactates with high acidosis (low pH). This is not
wrong but certainly not correct. It is an over-simplified deduction that needs some
differentiation. Indeed, lactate production (glycolysis) is the main provider of free H+ protons
in the working muscle. So, it sounds obvious that the more lactate is produced, the stronger
the intracellular acidosis. A linear relation between muscle lactate concentration and muscle
pH is also reported ([70], [75]), however, always with a considerable standard deviation.
Despite the immediate intracellular buffering reaction by muscular free phosphates (Pi), by
creatine (Cr) from dissociated phosphocreatine and by bicarbonates (HCO3-) in order to keep
the number of free H+ protons from lactic acid very low within a pH range between 7.2 and
6.3, it is the buffer content (slykes) of the muscle which determines the intracellular pH in
accordance to the cytosolic lactate. This buffering capacity may vary and thus a different
intracellular pH may be observed for the same lactate concentration. Highly oxidative trained
red muscle fibres, for example, have a lower buffering capacity than the white glycolytic
fibers (slykes of red fibre < slykes of white fibre). This has been confirmed by a 31P-NMR
study ([52]) showing a positive relation between slykes and the percentage type IIa and a
negative correlation between slykes and the percentage type I muscle fibres from the mid-part
of the tibialis anterior during a 1min isometric and anaerobic exercise in a mixed study
population of untrained, sprint and endurance trained athletes. Therefore intracellular pH in
red fibres will usually be lower than in white fibres despite the same intracellular and blood
lactate. In the same train of thought, higher slykes will enable higher muscle and blood lactate
for the same muscular pH. Using a simulation methodology based on the complex description
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of the buffer process during exercise ([44]), a move in slykes from 45 to 56mval/kg muscle
mass will result in an increase of muscle and blood lactate for the same muscle pH (table 2,
unpublished data for a 6x2min run with 2min rest, load increment 20W/kg) and consequently
in an incremental performance in competition. It will therefore be important to avoid the
impairment of the buffer capacity by training exercises such as aerobic and anaerobic power,
in a period close to competition.

Table 2. Simulation methodology based on the buffer process during exercise

Slykes Muscle pH Muscle lactate (mmol/kg) Blood lactate (mmol/l)

56 mval/kg MM 6.41 33.5 20.3
45 mval/kg MM 6.41 26.2 16.0

In blood, similar processes affect the relation between lactate and blood pH. The
bicarbonate concentration and PCO2 (Hasselbach-Henderson equation) will predominantly
lead to a different blood pH for the same lactate concentration.
Moreover, during interval training at low to moderate intensity, muscle lactate will
increase and muscle pH will decrease in the first part of the set (fig 7). As the set progresses

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 266 Jan Olbrecht

and the intensity slightly decreases, it may then be possible for a swimmer to maintain his
muscle pH and muscle lactate, despite a further decrease of blood pH and a continuous
increase in blood lactate even to high values. In such a case the increasing blood lactate does
not reflect any increase in muscle acidosis.

Figure 7. An increasing blood lactate does not always reflect an increasing muscular acidosis. A strong
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

decrease of muscle pH and a strong increase of muscle and blood lactate occur during the first and
second repetition of a 4x4min run with 1min rest. During the next repetitions the workload is slightly
lower and muscle lactate and pH will remain constant while blood lactate increases and consequently
blood pH will decrease. Values are simulated based on methodology described in ref. 44 (data not
published)..

This might be an explanation to the observation that some athletes, especially some open
water swimmers or long distance triathletes, are able to reach higher lactate values after a
submaximal 10-20min training exercise than after a 100m all-out swim (ca 60sec). But, these
higher lactate values at the end of the submaximal long lasting exercise do certainly not
reflect a higher metabolic acidosis than the lower lactate after the 100m all-out, except for
those athletes with a very low anaerobic capacity (VLamax).
If, though, any estimation of the metabolic acidosis based on blood lactate is aimed for, at
least intensity and duration of effort should be taken into account. Indeed, as in the
observations above and within a certain ranges, the same blood lactate may reflect different
degrees of muscular and blood acidosis or identical stages of acidosis may correspond to
different blood lactate concentrations.
Acidosis will therefore depend more directly on the glycolytic activity combined with the
athlete‘s capacity to buffer H+, than on the accumulated blood lactate as such.

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 Lactate Production and Metabolism in Swimming 267

Other theories claiming that metabolic acidosis has other origins than lactic acid
production, such as mitochondrial ATP-transfer ([69]), seem rather unrealistic ([4]). If a
metabolic acidosis could occur without lactic acid playing a decisive role, subjects (nearly)
unable to produce lactate such as McArdle patients or subjects with a phosphofructokinase-
deficiency, should also be able to achieve acidosis during intensive exercises which is
contradicted by findings ([85]) in exhaustive exercises.
Another lactate test derivative has intrigued coaches and scientists for a long time: the
lactate threshold. It was introduced by Wasserman et al. ([86]) in 1964 as the point at which a
change from exclusively aerobic to partially anaerobic energy supply occurs in a graded
exercise tests by formation and accumulation of lactic acid. A number of different definitions
and redefinitions of thresholds with their specific determination methodology, such as the fix
―aerob-anaerobe Schwelle‖ and ―4mmol/l threshold‖ ([28], [47]), the ―onset of blood lactate
accumulation - OBLA‖ ([32], [73]), the ―lactate breakpoint‖ ([22]), or different individual
anaerobic thresholds ([39], [40], [72], [78], [79]), are comprehensively described in literature.
A huge discussion about their validity and use/benefit in training followed ([28]), with the
main outcome that all of the thresholds depended on the methodology rather than set a
biomedical standard for the evaluation of the aerobic and anaerobic performance ([27]).
For the validation of the anaerobic threshold, studies appeal to the ―maximal lactate
steady state (MLSS)‖ as standard reference. MLSS is the highest blood lactate concentration
that can be identified as maintaining a steady state during a prolonged submaximal constant
load and is metabolically characterised by the highest lactate elimination that still equals its
productions. It is assumed that MLSS can be used to establish the highest work load that can
be maintained over time without continual blood lactate accumulation ([1], [28]). Due to its
clear metabolic definition, MLSS rather than the anaerobic threshold can be used as a
biomedical standard for the aerobic power of the athlete.
It can however be demonstrated that in trained athletes, MLSS occurs at different blood
lactate concentrations for different exercise modes such as the motor pattern of exercise ([3])
and/or the time course of changes in lactate ([2]) incurred during either 30min where lactate
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increase is limited to no more than 1mmmol/l between 10 and 30minutes (MLSS I, [1]) or
20min where lactate increase is limited to 0.5mmol/l (MLSS II, [28], [83]) or to 0.2mmol/l
(MLSS III, [26]) between the 10 and 20min.
An MLSS test lasting for at least 30min and a blood lactate increase of no more than
0.05mmol/l*min after the 10th testing minute (MLSS I) appears to be the most reasonable
with respect to valid testing results ([1], [2]). MLSS II, a constant load test lasting 20min with
also no more than 0.05mmol/l*min after the 10th testing min trends to lower lactate and
workload but the difference was statistical not significant. MLSS III, 20min test with no more
than 0.02mmol/l*min lactate increase after the 10th testing minute however ended in
significant lower lactate and workload.
While the determination of the anaerobic threshold is based on a single graded step test,
defining the MLSS requires several constant submaximal load tests performed on separate
days. A valid determination of MLSS is therefore not only very time consuming but also risks
to interfere adversely with the periodisation (e.g. such efforts may not be appropriate in some
training phases). Moreover, since the determination of MLSS not really provides better or
more usable information for training than other lactate tests, its added value is rather low and
will enjoy very low priority in praxis.

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All these findings together with the application examples not only provide us with a
better understanding of the meaning of lactate in exercise, but also help us to find out how we
can optimise training by taking lactate. It‘s now obvious that the interpretation of lactate must
be founded on the characteristics of the oxidative and anaerobic processes behind and leading
to the observed lactate, rather than by the intensity (power) coupled with the observed lactate
(lactate curve). Similarly, the targeting of training adaptations must also be aligned with the
intended changes in these characteristic, rather than with the changes in position of the lactate
curve. Repeated lactate tests should clarify whether the adaptations of the oxidative and
anaerobic characteristics aimed at, took place or not. Based on these control tests training
content and structure can then be adjusted to improve the realisation of the expected
adaptations.
One of the first questions to answer is whether training should be focused on metabolic
capacity or power (aerobic and/or anaerobic). If a swimmer‘s competitive performance is
very good despite poor metabolic capacities, it‘s clear that a long term improvement of these
capacities will be required for a further long term competitive improvement. A swimmer with
high metabolic capacities but with poor competitive performances, on the other hand,
certainly needs another approach as enough metabolic potential is already available but, for
one reason or the other, he‘s not able to appeal to it.
Mechanisms linking training exercise with specific training effects remain unclear.
Scientific findings to support the relation between training elements such as volume,
intensity, rest and fraction (interval distance) and the structural and functional adaptations in
cells in vivo are hard to find because the criteria for valid scientific research mostly impose a
study design far away from the real top training, the kind of measures (e.g. muscle biopsies)
restricts the study to non-athletes or animals and training programs are only roughly
described. When, though, these studies anyhow reveal interesting findings, the question
remains whether they can be transferred to the training of top athletes.
Donovan and Brooks ([13]) described in rats that lactate clearance and not lactate
production is affected by endurance training. This not really fits with observations in elite
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

swimmers (see above) and findings of Linossier et al. ([41]) showing a higher oxidation rate
of pyruvate and a lower metabolic acidosis enabling a better glycolytic functioning in
students.
High intensity aerobic interval training during 2 weeks in recreational active women
increases fat oxidation ([81]) by an increase of mitochondrial –hydroxyacyl-CoA
dehydrogenase, of citrate synthase and of total muscle plasma membrane fatty acid-binding
protein content while the content of cytoplasmic hormone sensitive lipase protein and fatty
acid translocase/CD36 were unaffected. It is hard to believe that in elite athletes similar
results can be expected in 7 sessions over 2 weeks. The group of Saltin and Pedersen ([23])
found similar results in untrained young men after a 10 week training program. However they
focused the study on whether it is more effective to train twice a day every 2 days, provoking
a low muscle glycogen content (LOW), or once a day but each day, keeping muscle glycogen
at a higher content (HIGH). This study was triggered by the recent finding that gene
transcription was enhanced at low muscle glycogen ([64]) and speculates on a better training
adaptation due to exercising at low muscle glycogen content. One leg of each subject
underwent the LOW and the other leg the HIGH program. Both LOW and HIGH showed an
increased maximal work load and citric synthase concentration, but LOW could maintain a

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 Lactate Production and Metabolism in Swimming 269

90% Pmax performance till exhaustion for a longer period, showed more resting muscle
glycogen and higher mitochondrial enzyme activity 3-Hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase.
With respect to lactate transport by monocarboxylate (MTC) transporters, a quick
increase of the expression of MTC1 ([14]), but a variable and more or less transiently increase
in MTC4 ([14], [87], [21], [63]) were found in healthy sedentary men after endurance
training. After a 6week strength training program too an increase in MTC1 and MTC4 has
been reported ([37]) in trained versus untrained legs.
As far as the anaerobic performance is concerned, coaches generally believe that it can
barely be trained. In praxis, though, we found improvements of VLamax but often it takes a
very long time (a few months) for adaptations to be recorded ([58]). Medbo ([50]) found in 2
groups of joggers both completing an anaerobic program by respectively 8 x 20sec and 3 x
2min during each session, a 10% increase of anaerobic capacity, quantified by the maximal
O2-deficit during 2-3min exhausting runs.
One of the studies related to the training of top level swimmers is published by Mujika, et
al. ([51]). Competitive performance, dry land training, swim training volume, intensity and
frequency were statistically evaluated in 18 elite 100-200m swimmers. To a certain extent the
physiological validity of recording the intensity can be questioned based on the interpretation
of lactate measures, but it nevertheless remains obvious that intensity is the important training
element to improve competitive performance. Moreover, they also found that the positive
effect of training volume and frequency as shown for untrained subjects, was not observed for
these highly trained swimmers, indicating so a volume-threshold beyond which the intensity
would be the main training element to produce a training effect.
With the exception of the Mujika study, the transfer of all these interesting findings to a
high level of competitive training is questionable. Because of the lack of evidence based
training in elite competitive swimmers basic findings of metabolic research currently have to
be combined with empiric observations. This already resulted in a hypothetic description of
the 4 training elements (volume, intensity, fraction and rest) according to a main positive
training effect in one of the 4 conditioning areas: the aerobic or anaerobic capacity and the
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

aerobic or anaerobic power ([58]). Beside a main effect, side effects (synergic or
counteracting) can not be excluded. This 4-area classification allows a simple overview of
training key points in a periodisation and therefore facilitates the evaluation and the
adjustments of the periodisation depending on training responses (e.g. measured by lactate
tests).
Finally, as now more evidence is brought forward for its transport through the whole
body, lactate gets gradually granted with signalling properties. Beside its metabolism
regulating properties ([62]), a recent study even assigned to lactate the function of a signal in
gene expression ([25]). A transient rises in lactate and mitochondrial O2-consumption induce
reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, which activate a transcriptional network signalling
adaptive cell responses. Among these are increases in MCT1 protein expression,
mitochondrial biogenesis and an up-regulation of antioxidant enzymes and moieties of Ca2+
signalling. Moreover lactate, be sensed by either the ventromedial hypothalamus ([15]) or
elsewhere via neuronal metabolism signalling abundant fuel supply, has been described to
govern an autoregulatory loop in sympathetic drive and so to control cathecholamines. This
finding as well as the neural metabolism of lactate elsewhere in the brains, such as its
utilisation via the astrocyte-neurone, lead to the hypothesis of coupling affecting substrate
delivery with neurone function ([61]) and could feed the hypothesis that the ultimate control

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 270 Jan Olbrecht

of exercise performance resides in the brain ([53]). However, all these ideas still need more
research before evidence can be provided on its use to optimise training.

3. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
The need to seek for the concealed story behind lactate is the most important
consequence of the increasing knowledge about lactate during and after exercise. A same
lactate concentration in two swimmers may have a different metabolic origin, even for the
same performance. Therefore, avoid any evaluation of the athlete‘s aerobic and anaerobic
performance directly from primary observations, such as a shift/change of the blood lactate or
lactate-speed curves, but use the primary observations to unravel the activity (power) and
potential (capacity) of the aerobic and anaerobic processes behind and resulting in these
primary observations ([56], [2][1], [24], [7]).
We also need to recognize different lactate affecting factors. Blood lactate is not only
affected by training but also by non-conditioning factors such as pool length, time of test, test
protocol and muscle glycogen. As it is mainly the training effect coaches are interested in,
lactate tests should carefully be planned in the training process to exclude or at least
neutralise as much as possible non-conditioning interactions. Scientific findings about
training effect in top athletes are still very scarce but very much needed.
Beside the metabolic mirror provided by lactate, any other application in praxis of its
property as signalling molecule for communication between the metabolic, nervous, and gene
expression systems will certainly need more research.

CONCLUSION
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The application of lactate tests has gone through ups and downs, mainly due to a lack of
scientifically supported interpretations. Although, for the last 20 years, we gradually get more
insight in the meaning of blood lactate during and after exercise, this, however, is still often
overlooked in lactate testing and training praxis.
Today lactate is more than a metabolic waste product. It is upgraded to an important
intermediate that, together with other factors, governs the metabolic activity. Moreover,
signalling properties of lactate are now described, allowing the communication between the
metabolic and nervous system and even between metabolic processes and gene expressions.

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World Book of Swimming : From Science to Performance, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 In: World Book of Swimming: From Science to Performance ISBN: 978-1-61668-202-6
Editors: L. Seifert, D. Chollet and I.Mujika ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 14

ASSESSING AEROBIC
ENDURANCE IN SWIMMING

Jeanne Dekerle1,2 and Patrick Pelayo1

1
Chelsea School, University of Brighton, United Kingdom
2
Laboratory of Human Movement Studies, University of Lille 2, France

ABSTRACT
Lactate threshold, Maximal Lactate Steady State (MLSS), and Critical Swimming
Speed (CSS) represent distinct measures of endurance fitness. Each parameter can be
used to assess a discrete aspect of swimming endurance. The lactate threshold can be
identified from changes in the capillary blood lactate concentrations during an
incremental step test. Alternative and non-invasive methods using open indirect
calorimetry have recently been applied in swimming. Several 30-min sub-maximal
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constant speed tests need to be performed to determine MLSS, seen by some

physiologists as the criterion measure of aerobic endurance. However, CSS is perceived
in swimming as a more practical method for assessing aerobic endurance as it only
requires the performance of several shorter maximal efforts to exhaustion. For coaching
purposes, the 60-min and 30-min time trial tests could be effective for estimating MLSS
and CSS. For any of these methods, both validity and reliability have to be established
before being applied in research or practical settings. Given the narrow spectrum of sub-
maximal speeds in swimming, good precision in the estimation of endurance speeds is a
priority.

Key words: Critical speed, Maximal Lactate Steady State, lactate threshold, exercise
tolerance, blood lactate responses.

1. INTRODUCTION
Aerobic endurance has been defined as the capability to maintain a high percent of
maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) for a long time (see [15] for review). Endurance is one of
the main factors explaining swimming performance and is influenced by VO2max, swimming

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 278 Jeanne Dekerle and Patrick Pelayo

economy and anaerobic capacity. Historically, VO2max has been the main determinant of
athletic performances. However, aerobic endurance, sometimes referred as to aerobic
capacity, has been shown to discriminate long-duration performances of athletes of similar
VO2max and has then been a major focus of interest within the communities of scientists,
coaches and athletes interested in long duration performance [15].
Aerobic contribution to the total energy production during all-out swimming exercise
across the spectrum of Olympic swimming distances is higher than previously thought.
Likewise, among a group of swimmers of similar swimming economy and anaerobic
capacity, those with highly developed aerobic potential (i.e. including VO2max and aerobic
endurance) should be faster in the longer-distance events (400-m and over). Therefore,
swimming training has to target an enhancement of aerobic endurance. A valid and reliable
assessment of aerobic endurance in swimming is fundamental to ascertaining the benefits of
training programs, and defining training intensities according to a swimmer‘s physiological
profile.
After a brief introduction on the challenges in exercise testing in the aquatic field, this
chapter reviews common methods of assessing aerobic endurance in swimming. Methods
based on the monitoring of physiological responses during incremental protocols to determine
an initial ―threshold‖ are examined. The concepts of Maximal Lactate Steady State (MLSS)
and Critical Swimming Speed (CSS) are also reviewed. Some practical implications for
coaching practice complete the chapter.

2. THE CHALLENGE OF EXERCISE TESTING IN SWIMMING

2.1. Meaningfulness of a Physiological Measure

Since aerobic endurance is defined as the capability to maintain a high percent of

maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) for a long time [15], the use of sub-maximal swimming
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speeds, of longer than a 30-min race pace, can be used as criterion measures of aerobic
endurance. The assessment methods presented below provide a measure of a singular
physiological entity. The lactate or ventilatory threshold (part 1), MLSS (part 2) and CSS
(part 3 of the present chapter) are all useful markers of aerobic endurance but represent
different entities within the spectrum of swimming speeds. Consequently, these markers
cannot necessarily be used interchangeably. The usefulness of each marker depends not only
on the physiological principles upon which the experimental design has been developed (e.g.
incremental test vs. constant-speed exercise vs. exhaustive efforts), but also the methodology
used for their identification (e.g. mathematical fitting of curve; objectivity vs. subjectivity).
We address these fundamental issues in the following section.

2.2. Validity and Reliability of a Method

Some methods used to determine aerobic endurance have been empirically generated on
the pool-side, while others have evolved through scientific experimentation. However, in
some cases the ―degree to which the test measures what it purports to measure‖, i.e. the
validity of the methodology [60], was not systematically questioned. Some physiological

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 Assessing Aerobic Endurance in Swimming 279

markers such as the lactate threshold or MLSS have logical validity [60] as measure directly
aerobic endurance [15]. For instance, both methods rely on the detection of clear changes in a
blood marker (lactate) that is evidence of pronounced physiological stress. Some other
measures of aerobic endurance have only been validated against discrete criteria and lack
logical validity (e.g. based simply on correlations with the lactate threshold). This
shortcoming is often the case for some practical methods developed on the pool-side such as
the 30-min or 60-min test. However, practical methods always have strong ecological
validity, i.e. they reflect the real condition of swimming (as opposed for instance, to
laboratory testing). It is appropriate to question the logical, criterion, ecological validity of a
method prior to its application in testing of highly trained swimmers.
A method cannot be considered valid if it is not reliable. Whenever possible, the degree
of reliability [60] in a scientific method should be evaluated. Source of variability in the
measurement technique such as human error or equipment errors, learning effect or biological
variance should be accounted for. In this chapter we report the degree of reliability for each
method (see [60] for further reading on validity and reliability).

2.3. Sensitivity of a Test is Crucial in Swimming

Given the biomechanical properties of swimming, i.e. an increasing energetic cost with
increasing speed (see Chapter 13), the spectrum of sub-maximal speeds from the lactate
threshold to the fastest speeds is relatively narrow for swimming. For instance, the average
speed over the current men‘s 1500-m world record (14:34.56; Grant Hackett; 29/07/2001) is
only 6% slower than the current 400-m world record speed (3:40.08; Ian Thorpe;
30/07/2002). Similarly, the speed-time relationship in swimming is flatter than in running or
cycling, with its asymptote identified at higher levels [24]. It is therefore important to
consider the sensitivity of the method used to assess aerobic endurance in swimming. A few
percent above or below the ―true‖ value would induce a substantial over- or under-estimation
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of the speed associated with a physiological entity. The levels of precision (or accuracy) in
methods developed in swimming to assess aerobic endurance are typically around 5% [23,
41]. Later, we explain the lactate threshold occurs at a lower speed than MLSS. Interestingly,
some recent data on a homogeneous group of long distance swimmers demonstrates that
although the lactate threshold (7 x 200-m incremental step test; 3% increment in swimming
speed) was indeed lower than MLSS (2.5% increment in swimming speed), the tests yielded
similar swimming speeds for some of the swimmers tested [17]. Although the precision in the
measures of the two was relatively low, the difference between lactate threshold and MLSS
can be so little in trained athletes that routine methods may not have sufficient sensitivity.

3. INCREMENTAL TEST AND THE FIRST THRESHOLD

3.1. Blood Lactate Responses during an Incremental Test

The gold standard physiological parameter associated with pool-based assessment of

aerobic endurance is the lactate threshold, defined as the first sudden increase in the lactate

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 280 Jeanne Dekerle and Patrick Pelayo

responses during an incremental test [59]. A lactate threshold test typically includes a series
of three to seven constant-speed stages, preferably of similar duration, performed at
increasing speed. A sample of capillary blood is taken at the end of each stage for the
determination of blood lactate concentration ([La]B). According to the concept of lactate
threshold, the plot of the [La]B against speed shows no sustained rise in [La]B up to the lactate
threshold beyond which [La]B increases substantially above the resting value (Figure 1).
Lactate accumulation at low speeds, where muscle contraction is predominantly supported by
a sub-maximal rate of aerobic energy, remains a focus of scientific interest [18]. It is
important to note that lactate should not be seen as a ―waste or end product causing fatigue‖
but rather a useful metabolic by-product of the last stage of glycolysis.
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Figure 1 . Determination of a lactate threshold from the performance of 7 x 200-m swimming test.
Capillary blood lactate was measured at the end of each stage.

Lactate threshold typically occurs at ~80% of maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) or

swimming speeds up to 90 % of the 200-m pace in trained to elite swimmers [41, 46, 52]. The
lactate threshold is very sensitive to endurance training [15] and can be used as a means of
monitoring progress of a swimmer‘s condition through a season [41]. The lactate threshold is
highly correlated (r=0.91) with middle- and long-distance performance [16].

3.2. General Methodological Recommendations

A number of recommendations for the design of a lactate threshold test can be made:

 The initial speed needs to be slower than the swimmer‘s lactate threshold speed,
with at least three stages before its attainment;

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 Assessing Aerobic Endurance in Swimming 281

 The stage duration should preferably be of 3 to 5 minutes so that the [La]B response
reaches a steady state during the stages preceding the lactate threshold;
 The test duration of the test should not exceed 30 minutes especially in sprint
swimmers;
 The increment in speed between stages be small enough to elicit precise estimates
(<5%) of the lactate threshold (the bigger the increment, the lower the precision);
 [La]B and possibly other additional measurements such as the rate of perceived
exertion (RPE; [14]) will have to be made during a passive recovery period of 30-45
seconds following each stage.
 The test does not need to be performed to exhaustion and can be terminated when
[La]B exceeded 4 mmol.L-1, or heart rate exceeded 90% of the known or age-
predicted maximum heart rate.

The [La]B responses are plotted against speed and the threshold speed is identified by one
of several different methods: (1) from mathematical modelling of the [La]B – speed
relationship; (2) as the speed associated with a fixed [La]B value (generally 2 or 2.5 mmol.L-
1
); or (3) as the first sudden and sustained increase in [La]B above resting concentrations (see
[2, 15] for a review of each method and their limitations). The third method should be
prioritized due to stronger logical validity.

3.3. Protocols Developed in Swimming

The design of a lactate threshold test in swimming depends on whether the testing is
conducted in a swimming flume or a 25- or 50-m swimming pool. Physiological responses
are also different between 25- vs 50-m pools with higher [La]B and heart rate values observed
at a given swimming speed in a 50-m pool [32]. In a swimming flume, since the swimmer's
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speed is controlled externally, speed and duration of each stage are easily and accurately
controlled irrespective of the distance swum. Keeping the duration of each stage the same
while incrementing consistently the swimming speed is recommended for a lactate threshold
test. In this setting the change in [La]B from one stage to the next should reflect the
underlying rate of lactate accumulation over a given time (mmol.L-1.min-1). Unfortunately,
this methodological approach is difficult to set up in a 25- or 50-m pool. In this setting the
lactate threshold tests generally includes stages of given distance performed in shorter and
shorter pre-determined times so that speed increases throughout the test. The progression and
variability in the performance time (speed) should be considered when both between- and
within-swimmer comparisons are conducted.
When the speed is self-paced, swimmers should be instructed to pace evenly both within
(e.g. by 100 m splits) and between individual stages. Audio- or visual-pacers can assist
swimmers pacing their effort and experimenters controlling the speed. External pacing
options include aquatic MP3 players; Aqua-Pacer™ or similar audio device; and investigators
walking on both sides of the pool at the pre-defined speed with swimmers instructed to keep
their feet at the level of the feet of the investigators. Irrespective of the method chosen to
facilitate the pacing, the actual speed during the test should be measured using a manual stop-

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 282 Jeanne Dekerle and Patrick Pelayo

watch or post-testing video analysis. The precision in these methods should be evaluated
beforehand for an optimal interpretation of the results.

Table 1 . Lactate threshold protocols and results recently published in the swimming
literature. A schematic placed in the last row of the Table illustrates the range of lactate
threshold speeds reported for children to world-ranked swimmers. Speeds are expressed
in absolute values (m.s-1 / 400-m time).

Protocol Criteria for the identification of theSample and results Study

lactate threshold
5 x 300-m swims Visual inspection by two independent Elite triathletes [37]
Use of an aquapacer observers of the point of first inflection LT=1.9 ± 0.4 mmol.L-1
-10, -5, 0, +5 and +10% of of the lactate-work rate curve
maximal 1500-m pace
1-min rest between stages
7 x 200-m step test Mathematical modelling: Elite swimmers [41]
7th stage performed maximally s-LT (100-m pace) = -0.03 x LT~2.9-3.6 mmol.L-1
~ 5 s faster on each repetition. (intercept/slope) of the blood lactate-
speed curve.
5 x 200-m step test Mathematical modelling: Water-polo players [51]
Start every 5 minutes s-LT (100-m pace) = -0.03 x LT=3.9 ± 0.7 mmol.L-1
(intercept/slope) of the blood lactate-
HR-LT = 154 ± 7 bpm
speed curve. VO2=83 ± 2%
peakVO2
5 x 200-m step test Non specified elite open-water [52]
Start every 5 minutes swimmers
4 x 200-m step test Mathematical modelling (interception Children [50]
80, 85, 90 and 100% of maximal of the lines connecting the two higher (12.9 ± 1.1 years)
200-m pace points and two lower points of the LT=3.16 ± 1.2
15 minutes of passive rest in- speed - [La]B curve) mmol.L-1
between
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Table 1 reviews the several lactate threshold tests recently published in swimming
research. The Australian Swimming, Inc. Sports Science Advisory Group (1997) developed
the 7 x 200 m lactate profile protocol [49]. Cardiovascular (heart rate), metabolic ([La]B), and
mechanical (stroke rate/stroke length) responses, and changes in the RPE are quantified for
practical application in training. Individualized target times based on the personal best time
for each swimmer are calculated prior to testing. The recommended difference between the
slowest and fastest 200-m times is 30 s (decrease by 5 s each stage) and 24 s (decrease by 4 s

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 Assessing Aerobic Endurance in Swimming 283

each stage) in trained males and females, respectively [49]. This procedures elicits a speed
increment of 3-5% per stage in world-ranked swimmers [41]. An increase in heart rate by
around 10 beats.min-1 per stage is expected [49]. The seventh and final swim is a maximal
effort and serves as a measure of maximal training performance. To the best of our
knowledge, there is very little published data on the test-retest reliability of this experimental
procedure. Test-retest typical errors in measures performed on the last stage of the test have
been shown to be lower than 3% for time, stroke rate, stroke rate, heart rate, with a 16%
typical error for the maximal [La]B value [3].

3.4. Ventilatory Threshold in Swimming

Open indirect calorimetry is more and more accessible with portable breath-by-breath
systems providing data within acceptable levels of accuracy (see [44] for more references). In
swimming, the measure of expired gases continuously during exercise is now possible with a
respiratory snorkel and valve system (Cosmed K4 b2@; Cosmed S.r.l., Roma, Italy) that have
proven reliability [31, 44]. There is a growing interest investigating swimming physiology
using open indirect calometry.
The identification of the lactate threshold from expired gases measurement is not recent
(see [2] and [15] for review). The so-called ventilatory threshold was originally thought to
occur during an incremental test because of the production of non-metabolic CO2 in muscle
from lactic acid buffering, and was therefore associated with the lactate threshold [59].
Although heavily criticized for the absence of a comprehensive explanation for the control of
ventilation in response to exercise below or above the ventilatory threshold, it is now
generally agreed that the hyperventilation and increase in CO2 output (VCO2) at the level of
the mouth occurs above the ventilatory threshold [39].
The protocol for the identification of the ventilatory threshold is very similar to the
lactate threshold protocol. The blood samples taken for [La]B measurements are replaced by a
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collection of expired air [11, 44, 46]. The ventilatory threshold can then be identified from the
plotting of four respiratory variables against oxygen uptake (VO2; L.min-1): VCO2 (L.min-1),
minute ventilation (VE; L.min-1) and the ventilatory equivalents in VCO2 (VE/ VCO2) and VO2
(VE/ VO2). The ventilatory threshold has been defined as a first non-linear increase in VE and
VCO2 against VO2 or a systematic increase in VE/ VO2 without a concomitant increase in VE/
VCO2 [59].
Some examples of protocols applied in swimming and associated results are presented in
Table 2. Ventilatory threshold are usually expressed in VO2 values (L.min-1 or % of VO2max).
No data have been published on the reliability of the measure of the ventilatory threshold in
swimming, and the relationships between ventilatory threshold and swimming performance
are unclear. The ventilatory threshold is sensitive to four weeks of intermittent hypobaric
hypoxic exposure additional to sea level training [45]. When determined in the swimming
pool, the ventilatory threshold test has to be swum with a snorkel device inducing a change in
swimming stroke and turn technique (touched vs. tumble turns). Consequently, the speed
corresponding to the threshold has to be corrected if determined for training purposes. It
appears the measurement of ventilatory threshold is best suited to research projects and is not
practical for routine testing of high level swimmers.

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 284 Jeanne Dekerle and Patrick Pelayo

Table 2. Ventilatory threshold studies published in the swimming literature.

Protocol Criteria for the Sample and results Study

identification of the
ventilatory threshold
[25-m swimming-pool] v-slope method [7] Trained swimmers [11]
5 x 200-m step test Speed eliciting the 1st
Threshold not reported
5-10% speed-increment deflection from linearity in
Trained swimmers and [46]
15-s in-between VE/ VO2 triathletes
Last stage at maximal effort VO2max of 60-65 ml.min-
1
5-s faster from one stage to the .kg-1
other. VT of 80-85% of VO2max
[swimming flume] VO2 at the ventilatory Trained swimmers [45]
Maximal test to volitional threshold (l/min) 400-m performance of 4:45
exhaustion Increase of 0.2 m.s-1 in determined using a VO2max of 50-55 ml.min-
flume speed every minute, with commercial software (First 1.kg-1
the initial speed being 0.9 and 1.0 Breath, Marquette, VT of 70-75% of VO2max
m.s-1 for women and men, Milwaukee, WI) according
respectively. to standard criteria [2].
s-VT: Speed at ventilatory threshold; HR-VT: Heart Rate at ventilatory threshold; []$ : 400-m pace

4. MAXIMAL LACTATE STEADY STATE

4.1. Maximal Lactate Steady State

Exercise at a constant pace at an intensity above but close to the lactate threshold induces
a slight increase in the [La]B in the first couple of minutes of exercise, with a subsequent
stabilisation near resting levels (1-2 mmol.L-1). The steady state in [La]B is a function of a
balance between appearance and disappearance of lactate in and out of the blood
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compartment [8]. The higher the exercise intensity, the higher the stable level of [La]B in the
blood (concentration up to 3-5 mmol.L-1). This level can rise up to the Maximal Lactate
Steady State (MLSS) defined as the intensity above which appearance of lactate exceeds its
disappearance from the blood compartment [8]. Above MLSS, lactate accumulates in the
blood (Figure 2), as illustrated by a drift in the [La]B values during constant-intensity exercise
(severe intensity). The tolerance to exercise becomes compromised [5].
MLSS is therefore higher than the lactate threshold but correlates highly to time trial
performance [30]. The MLSS is typically higher as a percent of VO2max in highly trained
(85-90%) compared with trained (70-80%) athletes [12, 20]. Only limited data are available
on MLSS in swimming. In trained swimmers whose 400-m time was 4:41.4 at the beginning
of a competitive season, MLSS was estimated at 86% of VO2max [23] or 88% of the 400-m
maximal speed [23]. This level is close to the speed a swimmer would spontaneously choose
during the first 15 minutes of a 2-hour test [4].

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 Assessing Aerobic Endurance in Swimming 285

Figure 2 : Determination of Maximal Lactate Steady State from the performance of several 30-min
constant-speed tests. Capillary blood lactate was measured at minute 10, 20 and 30 of each test (from
Dekerle et al., 2005). MLSS equals 3.28 mmol.L-1.
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The estimated MLSS occurs at a lower lactate concentration (~2.8-3.3 mmol.L-1) in

swimming than other cyclic activities (4 to 7 mmol.L-1) [20]. This difference could be due to
the higher muscle mass involved [10]. The 30-s break for blood sample to be taken every 10
minutes in swimming protocols [9] could also explain the lower [La]B at MLSS. Heart rate as
well as the rate of perceived exertion [14] can drift when cycling at MLSS (drift of 10
beats.min-1 between minute 10 and 60 of exercise; RPE from 3/10 ―moderate‖ to 6/10 ―hard-
very hard‖ [6]) with maximal HR not attained at exhaustion (~86%). Similar findings have
been found in swimming [22, 23].

4.2. Direct Measurement of MLSS in Swimming

The gold standard method used by scientists since the work of Londeree [33] to directly
determine MLSS involves serial [La]B measurements during several 30-min constant intensity
tests. These authors define MLSS as the highest [La]B that increases by no more than 1.0
mmol.L-1 during the final 20 min of net working time and is calculated as the average [La]B
value (Figure 2). Similar to the lactate threshold, MLSS has a real physiological meaning, and
the precision of its measurement is mainly dependent on the pacing of the swimmer during

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 286 Jeanne Dekerle and Patrick Pelayo

the constant speed tests. The precision also depends on the reliability of the blood sampling
technique and [La]B measurement. The precision in the determination of MLSS will improve
as the speed increment between two tests is reduced.
The method for determining MLSS originally developed in rowing [8] has been applied
in swimming ([23]; Figure 2); the speed corresponding to MLSS (s-MLSS) was estimated in
trained swimmers with a precision of ~5-6% [23]. When the testing is carried out in a
swimming pool, audio- or visual-pacers are required. MLSS is usually expressed in mmol.L-1
and its corresponding speed in m.s-1 or in secs/100 m. No more than one test should be carried
out per day. It is important to note that the criterion of an increase by 1.0 mmol.L-1 in the
[La]B values during the constant-speed tests seems high relative to the average MLSS values
of ~ 3 mmol.L-1 [22, 23]) recorded in swimming. This criterion increase (0.5 mmol.L-1 or
10% increase in blood lactate concentration from the 10th to the 30th minute) could be worth
considering.

4.3. Onset of Blood Lactate Accumulation

The Onset of Blood Lactate Accumulation (OBLA) corresponds to the speed at 4

mmol.L-1 extrapolated from the [La]B – speed relationship (Figure 3). Estimation of OBLA
has been very popular in swimming since the 1980‘s, mainly because the experimental
procedure originally developed for its determination was very practical (2 x 400-m front
crawl) and the determination of OBLA is relatively easy [34]. OBLA is sensitive to
swimming training [54], and highly correlated to swimming performance ranging from the
400-m front crawl performance [43] to the 30-min performance [38]. OBLA occurs at 89-
92% (400-m pace: 4:30 - 5:11; 1.25 – 1.37 m.s-1) and ~ 93% of the 400-m performance (400-
m pace: ~ 4:17 ; ~1.39 m.s-1) in trained [43] and well-trained swimmers, respectively [55].
Similar to the lactate threshold procedure, OBLA determination relies on the performance
of a progressive incremental swimming (step) test. A minimum of two stages is required for
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OBLA to be extrapolated from a linear modelling of the [La]B – speed relationship. A

capillary blood sample is taken at the end of the two stages for [La]B measurement. The
smaller the difference between the intensity of the two stages, the more precise the estimation,
as it is known that the [La]B – speed relationship is not linear. Ideally, the intensities of the
two stages are just below and above OBLA, for interpolation rather than extrapolation of
OBLA. This is not always the case in the Mader 2 x 400-m ‗2-speed test‘ [43] where the two
stages are swum at 85-90% and 100% of maximal performance with 20-min of rest in-
between [38]. Interestingly, the reliability of this ‗2-speed‘ method has never been assessed. It
is likely to be poor as OBLA is extrapolated from a linear [La]B - speed relationship plotted
from only two swimming speeds and two [La]B values. Test-retest typical error in the
measure of OBLA associated variables (stroke rate, stroke rate, heart rate) from the
performance of the above mentioned 7 x 200m lactate profile protocol was recently reported
to be lower than 4% in elite swimmers [3].

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 Assessing Aerobic Endurance in Swimming 287

Figure 3 : Determination of the Onset of Blood Lactate Accumulation derived from the performance of
an incremental swimming test. OBLA equals 1.26 m.s-1.

The inclusion of more stages within the step test (5 x 400-m stages; 85, 90, 95, and 100%
of maximal effort; 20 minutes of rest in-between; Madsen and Lohberg [36]) allows for the
[La]B responses to be modelled exponentially which is known to better fit the [La]B response.
This analytic approach should increase both precision and validity of the method. However,
the [La]B – speed curve is affected by factors that can be difficult to control (e.g. glycogen
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levels, stage duration and sampling site) and assessing a threshold using a fixed [La]B value is
heavily questionable [15].
Moreover, although originally seen as an easy way of estimating MLSS [28], and unlike
MLSS, OBLA has no logical validity. [La]B responses are not systematically steady when
exercising at OBLA and can increase depending on individual‘s [La]B value at MLSS; OBLA
can over- or under-estimate the MLSS [26]. Therefore, both the reliability and validity of
OBLA has been criticised in the sports science literature [15].

4.4. Indirect Measurement in Swimming: the 60-Min Test

Despite the substantial theoretical interest in determining MLSS, the requirement of

performing several sessions of testing and collecting several blood samples in this timeframe
is not attractive for scientists, coaches, and swimmers. This practical shortcoming has
prompted physiologists to investigate other methods for estimation of MLSS. In cycling [5]
and running [12], MLSS can be maintained for approximately one hour. Assuming similar
results in swimming, MLSS could potentially be estimated from the performance of a 60-min
test [35]. Further studies are needed to clarify the validity and reliability of this test.

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 288 Jeanne Dekerle and Patrick Pelayo

5. CRITICAL SWIMMING SPEED

5.1. Theoretical Background

Critical Swimming Speed (CSS) is an extension of the critical power concept originally
introduced by Monod and Scherrer fifty years ago [47]. Figure 4 provides a graphical
representation of the distance-time and speed-time relationships for a given swimmer
alongside the equations used for the modelling. The higher the swimming speed, the shorter
the duration that speed can be maintained for (time to exhaustion); the speed-time relationship
is hyperbolic in nature (Panel B). When modelled using a 2-parameter model, CSS can be
identified as the asymptote of the curve, where the curvature is thought to reflect the
magnitude of the anaerobic contribution (Anaerobic Distance Capacity). The CSS construct is
mathematically defined as the maximal speed that can be maintained, in theory, indefinitely.
Since speed is a ratio of distance over time, the 2-parameter model can also be used to model
a linear distance-time (Figure 3; Panel A), with the slope and y-intercept representing CSS
and anaerobic distance capacity, respectively. The distance-time relationship is predominantly
linear in swimming (r>0.99; [53]) and used primarily to estimate CSS.
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Figure 4 : Determination of Critical Swimming Speed from the performance of four maximal efforts
over fixed-distances of 200, 400, 600, and 800m (ADC, Anaerobic Distance Capacity; t, time; d,
distance; s, speed). Critical Swimming Speed (CSS) equals 1.31 m.s-1

The power equivalent of CSS, critical power, was initially thought to represent a
sustainable and tolerable intensity above which fatigue and ensuing exhaustion occurs [47,
58]. Powers lower than CSS can indeed be maintainable for a very long time with no major
physiological stresses [40]. Accordingly, the 2-parameter model assumes that when

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 Assessing Aerobic Endurance in Swimming 289

exercising below critical power, [La]B as well as oxygen uptake (VO2) remain steady, while
when exercising above critical power, drifts in [La]B and in VO2 (to the attainment of
VO2max) can be observed [40]. According to the concept, the anaerobic work capacity should
only be taxed when exercising above critical power.

5.2. Application in Swimming

The application of the critical power concept in swimming is very attractive as the
determination of CSS only requires the measurement of several performances that can easily
be modelled using simple accessible software. Conducting [La]B measurements or several
constant pre-set speed tests for MLSS determination is not always practical, especially in
special populations such as children where the CSS determination could be even more
attractive [27, 50]. The main aim of competitive swimming is to improve the personal bests of
a swimmer so a shift of the speed-time relationship to the left is the intrinsic objective of
training [48]. As critical power is sensitive to aerobic training [15], it follows that the CSS
should also be a useful measure. Although based on a few assumptions, CSS is seen as a
useful tool for swimming training [19]. By its nature, the CSS is an index of aerobic
endurance, and correlates highly with the lactate threshold [37], OBLA [53, 55], and MLSS
[23] in competitive swimmers. CSS values of 92- 96% of the 400-m pace (4:15 up to 4:45)
have been reported in trained swimmers [23, 24].
However, for swimming, the modelling of the speed-time or distance-time relationship
using the critical power model remains under debate because it assumes a constant swimming
energetic cost (Cs) above CSS [25]. It appears that Cs increases as a function of swimming
speed. This uncoupling of energy requirements and speed distorts the distance-time
relationship, and the speed corresponding to the slope of the distance-time relationship may
not accurately represent the CSS as previously thought [25]. While this concept needs further
investigation, the usefulness of the modelling of the distance-time relationship is well
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

received in the swimming community.

5.3. Methodology and Reliability of CSS in Swimming

Three similar models can be used to calculate CSS in swimming as illustrated in Figure 4.
The third model is the linear speed-inverse of time relationship, with the y-intercept
representing CSS (Panel C). At least two tests are needed to determine CSS from the linear
models (Panel A and C). However, the more tests performed the higher the accuracy in the
CSS estimates: three to five tests are recommended for research purposes. There are three
main ways of measuring maximal performance in swimming [1]: covering a given distance as
fast as possible and time is recorded (closed-loop), covering the longest distance in a pre-set
time (closed-loop), and maintaining a pre-determined swimming speed for as long as possible
and the time to exhaustion is measured (open-loop; visual and audio-pacers would have to be
used; see lactate threshold test). Performance measurement using the first method has been
shown to be more reliable than the other two in competitive swimmers [1] highlighting its use
for CSS determination. However CSS determination has been shown to be reliable even if
exhaustion times are variable [29].

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 290 Jeanne Dekerle and Patrick Pelayo

Because CSS estimates depends on the duration of the performances used to model
human endurance, durations of at least 2 minutes and for up to 20 minutes (intensity < CSS),
with a time difference of at least 10 minutes between the shortest and longest performance are
recommended. This approach enables VO2max to be attained during each trial. Accordingly,
competitive distances ranging from the 200-300m to the 1500m can be prescribed depending
on the level of the swimmers. In a wish to ease the CSS determination, the suggestion of
recording only the 200-m and 400-m performances seems acceptable for coaching purposes
[24, 55] although the level of reliability using this approach is questionable.

5.4. Definition and Validity

According to its mathematical definition, CSS is thought to correspond to a sustainable

intensity and comparable to parameters such as MLSS or OBLA. Wakayoshi et al. [56]
obtained steady [La]B values during several 400-m blocks performed at CSS (around 3-4
mmol.L-1). However the 30-45 s of rest taken for collection of blood samples could have
fostered some degree of lactate oxidation [9] limiting the drift in [La] B while maintaining a
‗relatively‘ high efficiency.
Despite these initial findings, it seems more likely that CSS does not correspond to a
sustainable intensity. CSS can be higher than MLSS [23] and OBLA [56, 57] and
accordingly, close to the speed of a 30-min test [24]. In a more recent study, swimmers had
difficulty in maintaining their CSS for longer than 20-40 min with high variability between
swimmers [21]. Times to exhaustion of around 25 minutes were recorded at CSS with an
increase in RPE and [La]B, peak VO2 reached at exhaustion. Time to exhaustion increased by
two-fold when the speed was lowered by 5% while [La]B, VO2, and RPE remained stable.
Time to exhaustion decreased substantially at a higher speed (+ 5%; ~ 9 min), with final [La]B
and VO2 values of ~10 mmol.L-1 and 96 ± 7% of peak VO2, respectively. Exercising at CSS is
not tolerable for a long time. In swimming, CSS relates to a 2000-m or 30-min performance
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

[24].

6. PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS
6.1. The Swimming Speed Domains

Lactate threshold, MLSS and CSS can be seen as landmarks demarcating distinct
domains of speeds, sometimes referred as to ―training zones‖. Each domain is characterised
by specific acute physiological responses. As illustrated in Figure 5, the lactate threshold can
be maintained for a very long duration (open water swimming for example) and occurs at a
lower speed compared to MLSS (1-hour performance), the latter appearing to be lower than
CSS (30-min performance). While these three physiological variables are useful indices of
aerobic endurance, they are not directly interchangeable.
The lactate threshold is the first threshold within the spectrum of intensity, or more
precisely, the boundary between the lowest two swimming speed domains (moderate vs.
heavy). MLSS is the second boundary within the spectrum of swimming speeds representing

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 Assessing Aerobic Endurance in Swimming 291

the upper limit of the heavy swimming speed domain (Figure 5). Since MLSS is not
detectable from the [La]B – speed curve, and to avoid any confusion or misunderstanding, the
term ―threshold‖ should therefore not be associated with MLSS. Interestingly, in swimming,
there is no equivalent of walking within the walking – running speed spectrum. In other
words, it is a difficult task to swim at extremely low speeds (< 0.4-0.5m.s-1 or 50-60% of a
400-m pace). Therefore, the lowest speed that can be adopted by swimmers using good
technique is likely to be close to the lactate threshold.
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Figure 5 : VO2 and [La] changes during an incremental exercise performed in swimming (central
panel). Domains of swimming speeds from below the lactate threshold (LT) up to maximal speeds are
also represented. [La] and VO2 steady states would be observed when exercising continuously at a
moderate intensity, i.e. below LT (Panel A) or a heavy intensity (Panel B), i.e. above LT but below
Maximal Lactate Steady State (MLSS). The two variables would be drifting when exercising
continuously at a very heavy intensity (between MLS and Critical Swimming Speed, CSS; Panel C)
with VO2max being attained when swimming above CSS (Panel D). Extreme intensities are so high
than exhaustion occurs before reaching VO2max (Panel E).

6.2. Two or Three Domains above MLSS?

By definition, MLSS represents the upper boundary of the heavy speed domain [6] with a
drift of [La]B, heart rate and VO2 (‗slow component‘) observed when exercising above this

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 292 Jeanne Dekerle and Patrick Pelayo

domain. Originally, the drift of VO2 at these intensities was suggested to reach VO2max
before exhaustion, which characterises the severe intensity domain [40]. This assertion
remains controversial and is difficult to investigate due to the low reliability of long times to
exhaustion [29]. The equivalent severe speed domain would include performances lasting
from around 2 to 60 minutes (attainment of VO2max at end of exercise), with the 400-m
maximal performance, Maximal Aerobic Speed (MAS), and CSS lying within this domain
[13, 21]. A final domain of ―extreme‖ swimming speeds includes performances of very short
duration (<2 minutes). Due to the limitations in the VO2 responses, VO2max would not be
attained during the exercise, although the test would be performed to exhaustion (Figure 5).
Accordingly, the range of swimming speed within the severe speed domain is large (2-60
minutes) and associated with various chronic responses to training. The physiological
adaptations following a period of heavy training at severe swimming speeds close to MLSS
are different to the training adaptations induced by a period of heavy training at or above
MAS. Moreover, the physiological responses when swimming at and just above MLSS
remain unclear; it is uncertain whether VO2max is attained. There is a rationale for setting at
least one additional training speed zone between CSS and MLSS: the ―very heavy‖
swimming speed domain (Figure 5). When exercising within this domain, a drift of [La]B
would be observed alongside a VO2 slow component but without attainment of VO2max
before the end of exercise [21]. VO2max would be attained if the exercise was performed at
an intensity above CSS and was continued till exhaustion (i.e. severe intensity). CSS would
represent the upper and lower boundary of the very heavy and severe training speed zones
(Figure 5). This model however requires future experimentation before definitive guidelines
for coaches and swimmers can be established.

CONCLUSION
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Lactate threshold, MLSS, and CSS are all useful measures of aerobic endurance. Given
how the spectrum of (endurance) swimming speeds is relatively narrow compared with other
sports, it is crucial to obtain precise estimates of these measures. Although reliable, extended
duration time trial tests (30-min and 60-min tests) lack validity. Questioning validity,
reliability and precision in a physiological test is critical for an adequate application into the
field.

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 In: World Book of Swimming: From Science to Performance ISBN: 978-1-61668-202-6
Editors: L. Seifert, D. Chollet and I.Mujika ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 15

SWIMMING ECONOMY (ENERGY

COST) AND EFFICIENCY

Pietro Enrico di Prampero1, David Pendergast2 and Paola Zamparo3

1
Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Udine, Udine, Italy
2
Center for Research and Education in Special Environments,
NY University at Buffalo, Buffalo, USA
3
Department of Neurological Science, University of Verona, Verona, Italy

ABSTRACT
The energy cost per unit distance (i. e. the economy of swimming, C) is given by the
ratio E / v where E is the net (above resting) metabolic power and v is the swimming
speed. The contribution of the aerobic and anaerobic energy sources to E in swimming
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competitions differs according to the distance covered; it is independent of swimming

style, gender or skill and depends essentially upon the duration of the exercise. In
swimming, C increases with the speed with a non linear function; for a given speed, C is
the lowest for the front crawl, followed by the backstroke, the butterfly and the
breaststroke. C is essentially determined by the hydrodynamic resistance (Wd): the higher
Wd, the higher C; and by the propelling efficiency (P): the higher P the lower C. Hence,
all factors influencing Wd and/or P will result in proportional changes in C. The concepts
of economy and efficiency are strictly related; hence, this chapter is also devoted to an
analysis of the efficiencies in swimming; a summary of the values reported in the
literature is also presented from a ―historical point of view‖. Last but not least, the factors
setting performance ( E max and C) are briefly reviewed in view of a proper planning of
swim training.

Keywords: energy expenditure; swimming economy; swimming efficiency; best performance

times.

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 298 Pietro Enrico di Prampero, David Pendergast and Paola Zamparo

1. INTRODUCTION
This chapter is devoted to an analysis of the factors affecting the energy cost of
swimming which is a major determinant of swimming performance, along with the maximal
metabolic power derived from both aerobic and anaerobic energy sources. The concepts of
economy and efficiency are strictly related; hence, this chapter is also devoted to an analysis
of the efficiencies in aquatic locomotion.

2. METABOLIC ENERGY EXPENDITURE

Swimming competitions can be disputed over a wide range of distances (e. g. in the pool,
from 50 to 1500 m), the corresponding world records ranging from about 20 s to 15 min (for
the front crawl). Accordingly, the contribution of the aerobic and anaerobic energy sources to
total metabolic energy expenditure differs widely according to the distance covered (or more
correctly, as a function of the duration of the exercise), as schematically indicated in Figures
1a and 1b (from 17).
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Figure 1. (a): Maximal metabolic power ( E max) for a top athlete, as a function of the exhaustion time
(for 40 < t > 360 s). Lower curve ( E aer) represents the average contribution of the aerobic energy
sources to the overall metabolic power. (b): Percentage aerobic contribution to maximal metabolic
power (for 40 < t > 360 s). From di Prampero 17.

The 400 m distance is generally taken as the competition eliciting the V O2max of the
swimmer (it lasts indeed about 4 min in the front crawl); hence, competitions over longer
distances (800 and 1500 m) rely essentially on aerobic energy sources and are swum at a
fraction of V O2max which is smaller the longer the duration. In long-distance competitions
(endurance open water swimming), this fraction could be as low as 60-65% (over the 25 km

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 Swimming Economy (Energy Cost) and Efficiency 299

distance, at speeds of about 1.4 and 1.25 m . s-1 in male and female swimmers, respectively)
41.
On the other hand, the energy expenditure over the shorter distances (50, 100 and 200 m)
necessarily implies a greater contribution of the anaerobic (lactic and alactic) energy sources,
the more so the shorter the duration of the exercise.

2.1. Sub-Maximal Speeds

The energy expenditure of swimming at a constant, sub-maximal (aerobic) speed can be

easily calculated by measuring the steady state oxygen consumption ( V O2, l . min-1) by
standard open circuit techniques. In these conditions energy expenditure is based on ―aerobic
energy sources‖ and the rate of ATP utilization is equal to the rate of ATP re-synthetized by
lipid and glucid oxidation in the Kreb‘s cycle 15.

2.2. Maximal Speeds above Distances of 400m

Since V O2 attains a steady state value (at muscular level) with a time constant () of 24 s
3 the method indicated above could also be applied to measure the aerobic contribution in
maximal swimming trials lasting at least 2-3 min (e. g. more than 4-5) which is the typical
case of races over the 400 m distance.
During swimming races (covered at maximal speed) the contribution of the anaerobic
lactic energy sources could play an important role, the more so the shorter the distance. The
lactic contribution (Anl) can be estimated from the net increase of lactate concentration
(∆Lab) assessed at the end of the swimming trial by assuming an energy equivalent of lactate
of 0.0627 kJ . mM-1 . kg-1 (or 3 mlO2 . mM-1 . kg-1, as proposed by di Prampero 15).

2.3. Maximal Speeds below Distances of 400 m

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During an all-out test, total metabolic energy expenditure (Etot, kJ) can be calculated as
the sum of three terms, as originally proposed by Wilkie 38 and later applied to swimming
by Capelli et al. 4 and Zamparo et al. 40:

Etot = AnS +  V O2max . t -  V O2max .  (1 - e - (t /)) (eq. 1)

where  is the energy equivalent of O2 (e. g. 20.9 kJ . lO2-1 consumed, for a QR of 0.96),  is
the time constant (s) wherewith V O2max is attained at the onset of exercise at the muscular
level (see above), AnS is the amount of energy (kJ) derived from anaerobic energy utilization,
t is the time of performance (s) and V O2max is the net maximal oxygen uptake (above resting
values). The third term of Equation 1 is a measure of the O2 debt incurred at the onset of
exercise. Therefore, the aerobic contribution to total energy expenditure (Aer, kJ) can be
calculated as the sum of the second and third term of Equation 1, whereas the anaerobic
contribution is represented by the term AnS. In turn, this is given by the sum of the energy
derived from lactic acid production (Anl, kJ) plus that derived from maximal phosphocreatine
(PCr) splitting in the contracting muscles (AnAl, kJ):

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 300 Pietro Enrico di Prampero, David Pendergast and Paola Zamparo

AnS = AnL + AnAl = (Lab + PCr (1-e –t/)) M (eq. 2)

where Lab is the peak accumulation of lactate after exercise (above resting values),  is the
energy equivalent for lactate accumulation in blood (see above),  (24 s) is the time constant
of PCr splitting at work onset 24 and M (kg) is the mass of the subject. The implicit
assumption is also made that the time constant of PCr breakdown at work onset is the mirror
increment of the V O2-on response at the muscle level. The energy derived from complete
utilisation of PCr stores (AnAl) can be estimated assuming that, in the transition from rest to
exhaustion, the PCr concentration decreases by 18.5 m-mole . kg-1 muscle (wet weight) in a
maximally active muscle mass (e. g. let‘s assume it corresponds to 30% of body mass).
Assuming further a P/O2 ratio of 6.25 and an energy equivalent of 20.9 kJ . lO2-1, AnAl can be
calculated as: (18.5/6.25) . 0.3 . 468.2 = 416 J . kg -1 body mass.
Finally, the three terms (Aer, Anl and AnAl, kJ) can be divided by the exercise duration (t,
s) to yield the corresponding metabolic powers ( E Aer, E Anl and E AnAl, kW), averaged
throughout the exercise duration.
This approach to estimate the energy demands in swimming is discussed in detail by
Capelli, et al. 4 and should be strictly applied only to ―square wave‖ exercises of intensity
close or above maximal aerobic power where a true steady state of oxygen uptake can not be
attained and where energy contributions other than the aerobic one can not be neglected.
The contributions of the three energy sources to swimming at sub-maximal and maximal
speeds in the four strokes over different distances are reported in Table 1 (adapted from 4).

Table 1. Percentage contribution of aerobic (Aer), anaerobic lactic (Al) and anaerobic
alactic (AnAl) energy sources to the overall energy expenditure during maximal
swimming trials in the four strokes over three distances (adapted from 4).

Distance Stroke Speed E Aer E Al E AnAl

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(m) (m . s-1) (%) (%) (%)

45.7 Crawl 1.97 15.3 58.9 25.8
Backstroke 1.73 17.4 59.4 23.1
Breaststroke 1.50 27.1 43.7 29.3
Butterfly 1.85 16.9 57.3 25.9
91.4 Crawl 1.75 33.3 47.2 19.6
Backstroke 1.64 36.4 43.6 20.0
Breaststroke 1.34 46.5 34.8 18.7
Butterfly 1.63 33.3 47.5 19.2
182.9 Crawl 1.62 61.5 24.7 13.8
Backstroke 1.52 59.2 28.2 12.6
Breaststroke 1.23 67.9 21.7 10.4
Butterfly 1.41 61.1 26.6 12.3

The percentage contribution of the aerobic and anaerobic energy sources is almost
independent of swimming stroke, gender or skill and depends essentially upon the duration of
the exercise (4, 40).
It must be pointed out that the majority of the studies in the literature report data of sub-
maximal energy expenditure after steady state conditions are attained, a condition for which is

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 Swimming Economy (Energy Cost) and Efficiency 301

not necessary to estimate the contribution of the AnS sources, the determination of which, as
indicated above, is based on several (and sometimes debated) assumptions.
For an analysis of the contribution of the different energy sources in swimming races see
also Toussaint, et al. (37).

3. THE ENERGY COST (THE ECONOMY) OF SWIMMING

The energy cost per unit distance (C) is defined as:

C = E . v-1 (eq. 3)

where E is the net metabolic power expenditure and v is the speed of progression 16. At
sub-maximal and maximal speeds, over different distances, E can be calculated as described
above (Metabolic energy expenditure). If the speed is expressed in m . s-1 and E in kJ . s-1, C
results in kJ . m-1: it thus represents the energy expended to cover one unit of distance while
swimming at a given speed and with a given stroke.
In order to express net E in kJ . s-1 one should know the energy equivalent of O2 (, see
above).  (kJ . lO2-1) depends on the type of fuel that has been utilized and therefore can be
expressed as a function of the respiratory exchange ratio:  = 15.87 + 5.26 RER (e. g. for
RER = 0.96,  = 20.9 kJ . lO2-1). The energy equivalents as a function of RER are reported, as
an example, by 22.
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Figure 2. Energy cost of swimming the front crawl, the backstroke, the butterfly and the breaststroke as
a function of the speed, in competitive swimmers. Thin descending lines represent iso-metabolic power
hyperbolae of 4, 2, 1 and 0,5 kW, respectively. With a metabolic power input of 1 kW, with the
breaststroke is possible to swim at 0.85 m . s-1, the butterfly and the backstroke at 1.1 m . s-1 and with the
front crawl it is possible to attain 1.2 m . s-1. Adapted from Capelli, et al. 4.

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 302 Pietro Enrico di Prampero, David Pendergast and Paola Zamparo

3.1 The Determinants of C

Since the relationship between metabolic power ( E ), power to overcome drag ( W d) and
the propelling (P) and overall/gross (O) efficiency of swimming (described later in more
detail) is given by:

E = W d / (P . O) (eq. 4)

(e. g. 37) and since, for any given speed, C = E / v and W d = Wd . v, it follows that:

C = Wd / (P . O) (eq. 5)

Equation 5 indicates that at any given speed and for a specific O, an increase in P
and/or a decrease in Wd lead to a decrease in C (e. g. allowing the swimmer to spend less
energy to cover a given distance, or to cover the same distance at a higher speed).
As an example, the use of fins and paddles leads to an increase in propelling efficiency
and thus to a decrease in C e. g. 35, 42; a decrease in hydrodynamic resistance occurring
while drafting behind a leading swimmer or when using a swimming suit leads to a
proportional decrease in C e. g. 9, 10 and so on.

3.1.1. The Effect of Speed and Stroke on C

In swimming C increases with a non linear function of the speed (e. g. C = a + vn where
n > 1). As indicated by Figure 2 (adapted from 4), the energy cost of swimming, for a given
speed, is the lowest for the front crawl, followed by the backstroke and the butterfly; the
breaststroke being the more demanding stroke (see also 2, 19).
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3.1.2. The Effect of Training and Technical Skill on C

At variance with other sport activities (e. g. cycling) where minimal differences in
efficiency are observed among subjects with different technical abilities, skill deeply
influences the energy cost of swimming, as indicated by Figure 3 (adapted from 19): the
lower the skill level, the higher the energy cost for a given swimming speed and stroke.
Training is expected to improve technical skills. As shown by Termin and Pendergast
31, 4 years of training resulted in both a decrease in the energy requirements of swimming
at a given speed and to a right and upward shift in the stroke frequency (SF) vs. speed
relationship, e. g. to an improvement in the distance travelled per stroke (Ds). Ds is an index
of propelling efficiency e. g. 12, 36, 43; its increase, according to Equation 5 is therefore
expected to lead to a decrease in C, as experimentally found by these authors. On the other
hand, training could lead to a decrease in water resistance (active drag, as reported by 29);
according to Equation 5 this reduction contributes to the decrease in the energy cost of
swimming observed after a training period.

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 Swimming Economy (Energy Cost) and Efficiency 303

Figure 3. Energy cost of swimming the front crawl, as a function of the speed, for three subjects with
different capabilities: recreational swimmer, good swimmer, elite swimmer. Thin descending lines
represent iso-metabolic power hyperbolae of 4, 2, 1 and 0,5 kW, respectively. With a metabolic power
input of 1 kW, a good swimmer can reach 0.75 m . s-1, a competitive swimmer about 0.95 m . s-
1
whereas a recreational swimmer can sustain a speed lower than 0.5 m . s-1. Adapted from Holmer
19.

3.1.3. The Effect of Age and Gender on C

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Both P and Wd depend on the anthropometric characteristics of the swimmer and change
during growth (along with body development and training). C is thus expected to differ
between children and adults and between males and females.
Women have indeed a lower C (10-30%) than men e. g. 7, 8, 11, 26, 27, 28, 40,
particularly so in swimming events over long distances. This higher economy is traditionally
attributed to a smaller hydrodynamic resistance due to their smaller size, larger percentage fat
and more horizontal position in comparison to male swimmers e. g. 28, 39.
Only few studies have investigated, so far, the determinants of swimming economy in
children and adolescents. These indicate that, at comparable speed, the energy cost is indeed
lower (10-50%) in children than in adults 21, 30, the more so the younger the subjects 44.

4. SWIMMING EFFICIENCY
The concepts of efficiency and economy (energy cost) are not interchangeable: indeed, as
pointed out by Minetti 25 an efficient locomotion is one where most of the metabolic power
is transformed into mechanical power, but it is possible that some of this mechanical power is
not necessary for propulsion, resulting in a worse economy. If the mechanical power output is

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 304 Pietro Enrico di Prampero, David Pendergast and Paola Zamparo

close to the minimum necessary and most of it contributes to progression, locomotion is also
economical.

4.1. Mechanical Power Output in Aquatic Locomotion

As indicated by Cavagna and Kaneko 6, the total mechanical power of locomotion ( W
tot) is the sum of two terms: the power needed to accelerate and decelerate the limbs with

respect to the centre of mass (the internal power, W int) and the power needed to overcome
external forces (the external power, W ext):

W tot = W ext + W int (eq. 6)

In aquatic locomotion W ext can be further partitioned into: the power to overcome drag
that contributes to useful thrust ( W d) and the power that does not contribute to thrust ( W k):

W ext = W d + W k (eq. 7)

Both W d and W k give water kinetic energy but only W d effectively contributes to
propulsion e. g. 1, 13. A schematic representation of the flow of energy in aquatic
locomotion is reported in Figure 4 (adapted from 13).
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Figure 4. A flow diagram of the steps of energy conversion in aquatic locomotion. Adapted from Daniel
13. See text for abbreviations and details.

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 Swimming Economy (Energy Cost) and Efficiency 305

4.2. Aquatic Locomotion Efficiencies

The efficiency with which the overall mechanical power produced by the swimmer is
transformed into useful mechanical power is termed propelling efficiency (P) and is given
by:

P = W d / W tot (eq. 8)

The efficiency with which the overall mechanical power produced by the swimmer is
transformed into external power is termed hydraulic efficiency (H) and is given by:

H = W ext /W tot (eq. 9)

The efficiency with which the external mechanical power produced is transformed into
useful mechanical power is termed Froude (theoretical) efficiency (F) and is given by:

F = W d / W ext (eq. 10)

It follows that:

P = F . H (eq. 11)

Hence, if the internal power is nil or negligible (and if the hydraulic efficiency is close to
1) P = F. On the other hand, the propelling efficiency will be lower than the Froude
efficiency the higher the internal power and the lower the hydraulic efficiency.
Whereas the Froude, propelling and hydraulic efficiencies refer to the mechanical
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partitioning only, the performance and the overall efficiency take into account also the
metabolic expenditure.
The efficiency with which the metabolic power input ( E ) is transformed into useful
mechanical power output is termed performance (or drag) efficiency (D) and is given by:

D = W d / E (eq. 12)

The efficiency with which the metabolic power input ( E ) is transformed into mechanical
power output ( W tot) is termed overall (or gross or mechanical) efficiency (O) and is given
by:

O = W tot / E (eq. 13)

It follows that:

O = D / P (eq. 14)

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 306 Pietro Enrico di Prampero, David Pendergast and Paola Zamparo

Combining equations 8 and 13 one obtains equation 4, which relates the metabolic power
input ( E ) with the power needed to overcome hydrodynamic resistance ( W d) and propelling
efficiency (P), as shown in the previous section (The energy cost of swimming). For further
details see Zamparo et al. 42.
A similar description of the power partitioning and the efficiencies in human swimming
is reported in the papers of Toussaint and co-workers e. g. 32, 37. These authors, however,
do not take into account the contribution of internal power to total power production;
therefore, in their calculations the implicit assumption is also made that hydraulic efficiency
is 100% and hence F = P.

4.3. Efficiencies in Swimming: an Overview

The first attempts to quantify efficiency in human swimming were made in the 1930‘s by
computing the ratio W d / E (e. g. by calculating D, see Equation 12). Indeed, at the time, it
was assumed that the power to overcome drag was the majority of total power output in
aquatic locomotion; it was hence assumed that DO. The values of D range from about
0.01-0.02 20 to 0.03-0.09 e. g. 14, 18, 28, 32 indicating that less than 10% of the
metabolic power input can be transformed into useful mechanical power output (to overcome
drag forces). Among others, an obvious source of difference in the values of D reported in
the literature is the method with which the power to overcome drag is measured (active or
passive drag).
The first estimates of P for human swimming were reported by Toussaint and co-
workers in the 1980‘s, with a series of experiments in which the MAD (Measuring Active
Drag) system was utilized. As pointed out by these authors the power wasted to impart non
useful kinetic energy to the water is not negligible (hence W d ≠ W tot and D ≠ O). Thus,
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they were the first to underline that, besides the conversion of metabolic power input to
mechanical power output, it is important to investigate the partitioning of this power output
into its useful ( W d) and non useful components ( W k). The values of P reported by these
authors range from 0.45 to 0.75, i. e. about 50% of the available mechanical power generated
by the muscles is bound to be wasted in aquatic locomotion. Further experiments by this
group e. g. 33, 34, 35 have shown that differences in propelling efficiency do exist
according to gender, skill (e. g. triathletes vs competitive swimmers) and propelling surface
(e. g. swimming with or without hand paddles). It must be pointed out, however, that with this
method the legs are floated by a pull buoy, and no measurements of internal power are made
so that the reported values of P are, strictly speaking, values of Froude efficiency of the arm
stroke (see Equation 10).
Other data of P reported in the literature were obtained by modelling the arm stroke like
a paddle wheel motion: the values of P calculated with this method range from about 0.25
23 to 0.45 42, 43) in competitive swimmers. Thus, the mechanical power used for
propulsion ( W d) is smaller (and W k larger) than that reported by Toussaint and co-workers.

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 Swimming Economy (Energy Cost) and Efficiency 307

According to Zamparo 43 P of the arm stroke is almost the same in male and female
swimmers of the same age and swimming skill: it amounts to about 0.30 before puberty, 0.38-
0.40 at 20 years of age to further decline to 0.25 in swimmers older than 40 years.
Zamparo and co-workers 42 attempted to compute a complete energy balance of the
front crawl: 1- by taking into account also the contribution of the legs to total propulsion and
2- by taking into account also the contribution of internal work to total work production. They
reported values of P of about 0.4 and of O of about 0.2. The values of O are larger than
those reported by Toussaint and co-workers (about 0.1) because: 1 - of the different method
utilized to determine active drag; and 2 - the contribution of the legs and of internal work to
total work production were taken into account.
A summary of the values of swimming efficiency reported in the literature is presented in
Table 2.

Table 2. A schematic overview of the values of swimming efficiency reported in the

literature. O: overall efficiency; P: propelling efficiency; H: hydraulic efficiency; D: drag
efficiency; F: Froude efficiency; P = F . H; O = D / P. In the early papers (1930-1970s)
the drag efficiency was erroneously identified with the overall efficiency. The importance of
the “wasted power” for the energy balance in swimming was pointed out in the 1980s-1990s.
In those papers, focused on the arm stroke, the internal work was not computed. The
differences in the efficiency values reported by different authors depend on: 1- the methods
employed to assess hydrodynamic resistance; 2- whether the contribution of the internal work
was taken into account; 3- whether the contribution of the leg kick was taken into account. On
the average, the data reported in this table (P and F) indicate that about 50% of external
mechanical power input is wasted in giving water kinetic energy not useful for propulsion. On
the other hand, these data consistently show that less than 10% of metabolic power input is
transformed in useful thrust in humans (D).
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Reference subjects style gender v O P H D F

(m . s-1)

Karpovich and Front crawl M 0.7-1.6 0.01-0.02

Pestrecov 1939 Backstroke
di Prampero et al. University Front crawl M 0.5-0.9 0.03-0.05
1974 swimmers
Pendergast et al. Competitive Front crawl M/F 0.4-1.2 0.03-0.09
1978 swimmers
Martin et al. 1981 Model adapted to Arm stroke M 1.0-1.8 0.20-0.25
competitive
swimmers
Toussaint 1990 Competitive Arm stroke M 0.7-1.3 0.08 0.44-0.61
swimmers and
triathletes
Zamparo et al. University Leg kick M 0.6-1.0 0.11 0.36 0.59 0.04 0.61
2003 swimmers
Zamparo et al. University Front crawl M 1.0-1.4 0.21 0.40 0.87 0.08 0.46
2005 swimmers
Zamparo 2006 Children, adolescent Arm stroke M/F 0.9-1.3 0.25-0.40
and master
swimmers

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 308 Pietro Enrico di Prampero, David Pendergast and Paola Zamparo

5. THE INTERPLAY BETWEEN C AND E MAX IN DETERMINING

SWIMMING PERFORMANCE
Swimming performance (as determined by the shortest time needed to cover a given
distance, i. e. by the maximal attainable speed) is given by the ratio:

vmax = E max / C (eq. 15)

where E max is the maximal metabolic power derived from both aerobic and anaerobic energy
sources and C is the energy cost of swimming at that speed 16.
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Figure 5. Best performance times (BPTs) in the 400 m front crawl race. E max: maximal metabolic
power of the swimmer; E : requested metabolic power input for this race. The arrow with the
continuous line indicates the BPT of this subject in this condition (i. e. the time at which these two
function cross). The arrow with the dotted line indicates the BPT that can be estimated, for the same
subject, were its E reduced by 20% (as an example by means of a reduction in his/her energy cost of
swimming) as indicated by the dotted curve (80% E ).

It necessarily follows that, for a given E max, a swimmer with a good propelling
efficiency and a low hydrodynamic resistance (and hence with a low C) will out-swim a
swimmer with a poor P and a large Wd (and hence with a high C). On the other hand, a
swimmer with an elevated E max could out-swim a peer with a better C but characterized by a
lower maximal aerobic and/or anaerobic power.

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 Swimming Economy (Energy Cost) and Efficiency 309

The role of C and E max in determining swimming performance was discussed by Capelli
5. The metabolic power required to cover a given distance (d) in the time t, is set by: E = C
.
v = C . d / t. Since, for any given d, v is a decreasing function of t and C increases with the
swimming speed, it necessarily follows that E is larger the smaller the value of t. For any
given distance the shortest time will then be achieved when E is equal to the individual
maximal metabolic power ( E max). Since also E max is a decreasing function of t it is possible
to estimate the best performance time (BPT) of a swimmer by solving the equality E max (t) =
E (t) (see Figure 5). As shown by Capelli 5, an improvement in a subject‘s BPT can more
easily be obtained by a reduction of C rather than by an (equal) increase in E max (in either of
its components, aerobic or anaerobic) (Table 3).

Table 3. Percent decrease of theoretical best performance times (BPT’s) obtained by

increasing by 1% maximal aerobic power (MAP), anaerobic alactic capacity (Al) and
anaerobic lactic capacity (AnAl) or by decreasing by 1% the energy cost of swimming (C).
Time values in s (second column) indicate the BPT’s obtained utilizing values of MAP, Al,
AnAl and C of an hypothetical elite athlete (adapted from 5).

Distance Time t/MAP t/Al t/AnAl t/C

(m) (s) (%) (%) (%) (%)
50 25.2 - 0.034 - 0.044 - 0.160 - 0.251
100 55.3 - 0.084 - 0.042 - 0.110 - 0.241
200 117.1 - 0.141 - 0.303 - 0.069 - 0.237
400 238.2 - 0.187 - 0.017 - 0.038 - 0.233
800 485.8 - 0.215 - 0.008 - 0.021 - 0.233
1500 926.7 - 0.229 - 0.005 - 0.012 - 0.233

A similar analysis of the BPT‘s was proposed by Toussaint et al. 37. These authors also
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showed that an improvement in propelling efficiency (e. g. a decrease in the energy cost of
swimming) give the highest performance gain, as compared to an (equal) improvement in the
aerobic or anaerobic power.

6. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSION

The practical applications of the results summarized in this chapter are the following:

1. A decrease in the energy cost of swimming yields the highest performance gain, as
compared to an (equal) increase in maximal aerobic or anaerobic power;
2. A decrease in the energy cost of swimming can be obtained either by improving the
propelling efficiency or by decreasing the hydrodynamic resistance; and
3. Since the latter is quite difficult to manipulate, this analysis underlines the
importance of focusing on efficiency for reducing the energy cost (increasing the
economy) of swimming.

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 310 Pietro Enrico di Prampero, David Pendergast and Paola Zamparo

REFERENCES
[1] Alexander, R. McN. (1977). Swimming. In R. McN. Alexander & G. Goldspink (Eds.),
Mechanics and energetics of animal locomotion (pp. 222-248), London, Chapman et al.
[2] Barbosa, T.M., Fernandes, R., Keskinen, K.L., Colaco, P., Cardoso, C., Silve, J., &
Vilas Boas, J.P. (2006). Evaluation of the energy expenditure in competitive swimming
strokes. Int J Sports Med, 27, 894-899
[3] Binzoni, T., Ferretti, G., Schenker, K., & Cerretelli, P. (1992). Phosphocreatine
hydrolysis by 31P-NMR at the onset of constant-load exercise in humans. J Appl
Physiol, 73, 1644-1649
[4] Capelli, C., Termin, B., & Pendergast, D.R. (1998). Energetics of swimming at
maximal speed in humans. Eur J Appl Physiol, 78, 385-393
[5] Capelli, C. (1999). Physiological determinants of best performances in human
locomotion. Eur J Appl Physiol, 80, 298-307
[6] Cavagna, G.A., & Kaneko, M. (1977). Mechanical work and efficiency in level walking
and running. J Physiol (Lond), 268, 467-481
[7] Chatard, J.C., Lavoie, J.M., & Lacour, J.R. (1990). Analysis of determinants of
swimming economy in front crawl. Eur J Appl Physiol, 61, 88-92
[8] Chatard, J.C., Lavoie, J.M., & Lacour, J.R. (1991). Energy cost of front crawl
swimming in women. Eur J Appl Physiol, 63, 12-16
[9] Chatard, J.C., & Wilson, B. (2003). Drafting distance in swimming. Med Sci Sports
Exerc, 35, 1176-1181
[10] Chatard, J.C., & Wilson, B. (2008). Effect of fastskin suits on performance, drag, and
energy cost of swimming. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 40, 1149-1154
[11] Costill, D.L., Kovalesky, J., Porter, D., Kirwanm, J., Fielding, R., & King, D. (1985).
Energy expenditure during front crawl swimming: predicting success in middle distance
events. Int J Sport Med, 6, 266-270
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[12] Craig Jr., A.B., & Pendergast, D.R. (1979). Relationships of stroke rate, distance per
stroke and velocity in competitive swimming. Med Sci Sports Exer, 11, 278-283
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[14] di Prampero, P.E., Pendergast, D.R., Wilson, D., & Rennie, D.W. (1974). Energetics of
swimming in man. J Appl Physiol, 37, 1-5
[15] di Prampero, P.E. (1981). Energetics of muscular exercise. Rev Physiol Biochem
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[16] di Prampero, P.E. (1986). The energy cost of human locomotion on land and in water.
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[18] Holmer, I. (1972). Oxygen uptake during swimming in man. J Appl Physiol, 33, 502-
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[19] Holmer, I. (1992). Swimming physiology. Ann Physiol Anthrop, 11, 269-276
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[21] Kjendlie, P.L., Ingjer, F., Madsen, O., Stallman, R.K., & Gunderson, J.S. (2004).
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[22] MacArdle, W.D., Katch, F.I., & Katch, V.L. (2005). Sports & Exercise Nutrition (p.
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[24] Medbø, J.I., Tabata, I. (1993). Anaerobic energy release in working muscles during 30 s
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[25] Minetti, A.E. (2004). Passive tools for enhancing muscle-driven motion and
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[26] Montpetit, R.R., Lavoie, J.M., & Cazorla, G.A. (1983). Aerobic energy cost of
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medicine in swimming (pp. 228-234), Champaign, Human Kinetics
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[28] Pendergast, D.R., di Prampero, P.E., Craig, Jr. A.B., Wilson, D.R., & Rennie, D.W.
(1977). Quantitative analysis of the front crawl in men and women. J Appl Physiol, 43,
475-479
[29] Pendergast, D.R., Mollendorf, J., Zamparo, P., Termin, A., Bushnell, D., & Paschke, D.
(2005). The influence of drag on human locomotion in water. Journal of Undersea &
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[30] Poujade, B., Hautier, C.A., & Rouard, A. (2002.) Determinants of the energy cost of
front crawl swimming in children. Eur J Appl Physiol, 87, 1-6
[31] Termin, B., & Pendergast, D.R. (2001). Training using the stroke frequency-velocity
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relationship to combine biomechanical and metabolic paradigms. J Swim Res, 14, 9-17
[32] Toussaint, H.M., Beleen, A., Rodenburg, A., Sargeant, A.J., De Groot, G., Hollander,
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swimming. J Appl Physiol, 65, 2506-2512
[33] Toussaint, H.M. (1990a). Differences in propelling efficiency between competitive and
triathlon swimmers. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 22, 409-415
[34] Toussaint, H.M., Knops, W., De Groot G., & Hollander, A.P. (1990b). The mechanical
efficiency of front crawl swimming. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 22, 408-402
[35] Toussaint, H.M., Janssen, T., & Kluft, M. (1991). Effect of propelling surface size on
the mechanics and energetics of front crawl swimming. J Biomech, 24, 205-211
[36] Toussaint, H.M., & Beek, P.J. (1992). Biomechanics of competitive front crawl
swimming. Sports Med, 13, 8-24
[37] Toussaint, H.M., Hollander, A.P., van den Berg, C., & Vorontsov, A.R. (2000).
Biomechanics of swimming. In W. Garrett & D.T. Kirkendall (Eds.), Exercise and
Sport Science (pp. 639-659) Philadelphia, Lippincott Williams and Wilkins
[38] Wilkie, D.R. (1980). Equations describing power input by humans as a function of
duration of exercise. In P. Cerretelli & B.J. Whipp (Eds.), Exercise bioenergetics and
gas exchange (pp. 75-80), Amsterdam Elsevier

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[39] Zamparo, P., Antonutto, G., Capelli, C., Francescato, M.P., Girardis, M., Sangoi, R.,
Soule, R.G., & Pendergast, D.R. (1996). Effects of body size, body density, gender and
growth on underwater torque. Scand J Med Sci Sports, 6, 273-280
[40] Zamparo, P., Capelli, C., Cautero, M., & Di Nino, A. (2000). Energy cost of front crawl
swimming at supramaximal speeds and underwater torque in young swimmers. Eur J
Appl Physiol, 83, 487-491
[41] Zamparo, P., Bonifazi, M., Faina, M., Milan, A., Sardella, F., Schena, F., & Capelli, C.
(2005). Energy cost of swimming of elite distance swimmers. Eur J Appl Physiol, 94,
697-704
[42] Zamparo, P., Pendergast, D.R., Mollendorf, J., Termin, & A., Minetti, A.E. (2005). An
energy balance of front crawl. Eur J Appl Physiol, 94, 134-144
[43] Zamparo, P. (2006). Effects of age and gender on the propelling efficiency of the arm
stroke. Eur J Appl Physiol, 97, 52-58
[44] Zamparo, P., Lazzer S., Antoniazzi, C., Cedolin, S., Avon, R., & Lesa, C. (2008). The
interplay between propelling efficiency, hydrodynamic position and energy cost of front
crawl in 8 to19-year-old swimmers. Eur J Appl Physiol, 104: 689-699
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 In: World Book of Swimming: From Science to Performance ISBN: 978-1-61668-202-6
Editors: L. Seifert, D. Chollet and I.Mujika ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 16

STRENGTH AND POWER TRAINING IN SWIMMING

Andrei Vorontsov
Russian State Central University of Physical Education, Russia

ABSTRACT
The primary goal of this chapter is to familiarize the readers with areas and results of
research on strength training in swimming. Analysis of modern studies on relationship
between different manifestations of strength and swimming performance demonstrates a
high specificity of strength application in aquatic locomotion. This specificity requires
adequate methods of strength training, which focus on utilization of strength developed in
dry-land training in swimming motor patterns. Authors propose to use the values of
pulling force and power recorded in tethered, semi-tethered swimming or acquired with
the MAD-system as criteria of specific strength and reliable predictors of swimming
performance. Materials of the chapter suggest that despite the growing value of aquatic
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strength training, dry-land training will remain an important form of supplementary

preparation. At the same time the content and objectives of dry-land training are changing
in accordance with demands of swimming sport. In this respect, contribution into
competitive performance of the strength of stabilizing muscles and core body as well as
efficiency of injury preventing strength training require further investigation. The chapter
also contains recommendations on strength training for age group swimmers, methods of
testing of strength and organization of research.

Key words: motor patterns, specific strength, pulling force, power, swimming performance.

1. INTRODUCTION
Strength is the ability of a human to produce muscle force in order to overcome or sustain
external resistance, inertial forces or opposition of opponents. In cyclical locomotion like
swimming the application of muscle forces results in spatial displacement of an athlete over
the distance course at velocity proportional to the magnitude, direction and duration of the

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 314 Andrei Vorontsov

applied resulting force. Strength is a neuro-muscular phenomenon [9, 28, 40]. Its production
depends on structural, neural, metabolic and biomechanical factors such as [28]:

 cross-sectional area of the muscle

 density of muscle fibers per unit cross-sectional area
 number of muscle fibers contracting simultaneously
 rate of contraction of muscle fibers
 efficiency of synchronization of firing of the muscle fibers
 conduction velocity in the nerve fibers
 degree of inhibition of muscle fibers which do not contribute to the movement
 proportion of large diameter muscle fibers that are active
 efficiency of cooperation between different types of muscle fiber
 efficiency of the various stretch reflexes in controlling muscle tension
 excitation threshold of the nerve fibers
 efficiency of mechanical leverage across the joint
 initial length of the muscles before contraction
 power, capacity and efficiency of energy delivery systems as well as the amount of
energy substrates available for maintenance of prolonged dynamic strength exercises.

A swimmer performs mechanical work predominantly against the forces of hydro

dynamic resistance. The higher the swimming velocity, the greater the hydrodynamic
resistance, which swimmers must overcome. As it was shown in Chapters 1 and 2, the
hydrodynamic resistance increases proportionally with the square of the swimming velocity,
while metabolic power increases with velocity cubed. An increase in swimming velocity
requires a proportional enlargement of applied muscle force, resulting in an increase of
propelling force as well as an increase in power as well as capacity and efficiency of the
energy delivery systems. This suggests a strong logical relationship between strength abilities
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

of swimmers and their competitive performance. Sharp [26] reviewing the results of own
research on the role of strength in swimming concluded: ―Considering relationship between
active drag and propulsive force it seems rather obvious that muscle strength should be an
important component of success in swimming.”
Over the last 20-30 years swimming coaches and swimmers considered strength training
as the major form of supplementary training. The recent wave of growing interest in strength
training for swimming was initiated by the introduction of 50 m events in all four competitive
swimming strokes and the vast number of international short course competitions (annual
multi-stage World Cup events, European and World short course Championships). Changes
in competition programs, in turn, stimulated a revision of training programs and methods. In
addition, it seems that the use of new technologies and materials for full body and ―neck-to-
ankles‖ swimming suit compensate for the lower buoyancy of swimmers with a high muscle
bulk, while compression created by the suit eliminates the oscillation of core body muscles
and thus provides better support for prime movers – muscles of the arms and legs. It is
possible that these effects improve the precision of movements and application of pulling
force, increasing the magnitude of propelling forces. These factors may increase the potential
contribution of strength abilities to swimming results.

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 Strength and Power Training in Swimming 315

Another reason for the growing interest in strength/resistance training among coaches and
swimmers is the fact that strength is a very ―plastic‖ motor ability, highly responsive to
training. It may be increased in untrained individuals and junior athletes very rapidly by 100-
200% relatively to its pre-training level and significant improvement occurs already after a
few weeks of strength training [28, 36].
Due to the apparent logical relationship between strength and swimming velocity, and the
fact that strength and gains in strength induced by training are relatively easy-to-measure
characteristics, strength and related training has always remained one the most popular
subjects of swimming studies. Investigators usually try to relate numerous manifestations of
strength and power in dry land or swimming-like aquatic exercises to swimming velocity over
different distances (usually, ―short‖ sprint velocity over 25, 50, 100 meters or yards), or
attribute an improvement in swimming velocity and competitive performance to increased
strength under purposeful training.

2. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STRENGTH AND POWER

AND SWIMMING PERFORMANCE

2.1. Relationship between Upper Body Dry Land Strength and

Swimming Velocity

Due to the view of coaches and scientists on the predominant role of arm actions in
swimming propulsion, most studies on the contribution of dry land strength and power to
swimming performance were mainly focused on the role of arm and upper body strength in
sprint swimming. Miyashita and Kanehisa [18] found significant relationships between peak
iso-kinetic torque during imitation of arm pull and swimming results in 100 m freestyle
swimming in male (r = 0.73) and female-swimmer (r = 0.52) aged 11 to 21 years. Strass [30]
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found a correlation between maximum dynamic strength on land and speed for 50 m freestyle
(r = 0.57-0.80). Sharp et al. [24] reported significant correlations between the power-per-arm
pull on a bio-kinetic swim bench and the time over 25 yards using 41 non-elite swimmers (r =
0.93).
Analysis of bibliographic sources shows that the strongest relationship between strength
and swimming achievements was detected in studies employing groups of individuals with
wide variation in swimming performance, strength, age and anthropometric characteristics. .
In swimmers with noticeable variation in age (and therefore in height and muscle mass)
almost any manifestation of strength in dry land exercises correlates with the body weight,
height and swimming velocity. Studies performed on subjects of similar age or performance
level yielded lower correlation between dry land strength and swimming velocity [8, 38] or
even the absence of such correlation. For instance, Sharp et al. [24] revealed a reduced
correlation between power and swimming velocity for the group of national and international
swimmers (r = 0.62), while in a group of sprinters swimming at a velocity higher than 2.1
m.s-1 no significant relationship was found (r = 0.25).
Vorontsov et al. [38] studied the relationship of body build, strength, power and strength
endurance in dry land tests to the swimming velocity during freestyle swimming over
distances 50, 100, 200 and 400 m in 24 young female swimmers (age = 16.0 + 0.4). As may

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 316 Andrei Vorontsov

be seen in table 20.1, only maximal pulling force and power in bench test of 16-year old
female swimmers correlated significantly with performance in sprint swimming (V50 and
V100). The magnitude of the correlation decreased below significance level with an increase
in swimming distance. The values of the coefficients of determination suggest that only 20-
25% of the swimming performance variance is explained by dry land strength in sprint
swimming, while the contribution of strength and power to achievements over longer events
is even smaller (Table 1).

Table 1. Correlation of height, mass and strength characteristics with swimming

velocity in female-swimmers aged 16 years (n = 24).

V 50 m V 100 m V 200 m V 400 m

Height 0.206 0.304 0.031 -0.224
Mass 0.247 0.385 0.399 0.141
PF max (land) 0.452 0.439 0.362 0.339
PF max/Mass 0.276 0.151 0.067 0.262
Power (30 s test) 0.493 0.445 0.350 0.388
SE (3 min test) 0.304 0.250 0.256 0.183
r 0.05 = 0.404, r 0.01 = 0.515
PF max – maximal isometric pulling force of double arm pull in bench test;
PF max/Mass – ratio of maximal pulling force on land related to body mass;
Power – power in 30-second maximal bench test with resistance 80% of PF max;
SE – strength endurance in 3-min bench test with resistance 50% of PF max.

Sharp [26] reasoned that in groups of athletes with uniform age, training experience and
performance levels significant correlations between strength/power characteristics and
swimming performance may not be found. Nevertheless, the relationship between strength
and swimming velocity may be proven by assessing the difference in strength and power
levels between elite and collegiate level swimmers.
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Sharp et al. [25] studied power levels among participants of 1982 US Nationals in respect
to their performance level. In agreement with earlier findings on importance of power in
sprinting, they found that sprint freestylers were most powerful in a swim bench-test (men
522 W, women 281 W), middle distance freestylers somewhat less powerful (men 482 W,
women 264 W) and distance freestylers were least powerful (men 411 W and women 207 W).
However, there was no correlation between power and performance for men and women.
Even when the data were grouped according to those who finished among the top 8 and those
who finished below the 32nd place there were no significant differences in power. It was
concluded from this study that high levels of maximum power output are an important
characteristic of elite performers but that power alone is incapable of discriminating among
these athletes‘ performance capabilities.
These findings support the multi-factorial nature of swimming performance. Other
factors, such as swimming skills, body size and composition, aerobic and anaerobic abilities,
flexibility may be important contributors to sport achievements in swimming. Nevertheless,
we should recognize an important input of strength abilities into swimming velocity and
competitive performance in swimming.

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 Strength and Power Training in Swimming 317

2.2. Relationship between Lower Body Dry Land Strength and

Swimming Velocity

The majority of studies on strength in swimming focus on upper body strength/power,

while insufficient attention has been paid to trunk and leg strength. Wilke [39] suggested that
the leg kick plays both propelling and stabilizing function and is extremely important to
sprinters in order to maximize swimming velocity. Without doubt, since the FINA rules
allowed swimmers to perform underwater movements up to 15 m after starts and turns, the
contribution of leg kick and lower body motions to swimming performance increased even
further. As has been shown through competitive practice, underwater swimming using
butterfly kick on the front or on back may be as fast and even faster than full stroke
swimming on the water surface.
A retrospective analysis of the publications for the last 20-25 years revealed very low
interest of investigators in the problem of lower body and leg strength and power. It was
found that very few studies were performed in this area and that they usually related leg
strength/power to the efficiency of the starting dive. Miyashita et al. [19] found significant
relationship between diving distance and leg extension power in 69 swimmers using freestyle,
butterfly and breaststroke (r = 0.76). However, attempts to relate leg and lower body strength
and power measured in dry land tests to swimming propulsion and competitive performance
were very rare and usually not successful due to the difficulty in finding adequate exercises
for measuring strength. The classical biomechanical approach of measuring maximal
isometric strength in isolated joint movements seems to be inefficient because leg kick is a
multi-joint movement. Some methods of measurements used to simulate the kicking
movements on land look artificial and are very far from real leg kick action during swimming.
A few studies used a bio-kinetic swim bench and Huttel-Mertens and other devices for
measuring the swimmers‘ strength and power. Barzdukas et al. [2] found a significant
correlation between leg power during knee extension measured by leg power machine and
front crawl swimming velocity over 200 m in age group and junior swimmers (boys r = 0.73,
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

girls r = 0.59). Due to significant variation in subjects‘ in age (boys aged 14.4-17.5, girls
13.4-16.4 years), the strength of the correlation apparently reflects the effect of growth and
maturation upon both strength and swimming performance (in the same sample of girl-
swimmers the correlation of body mass index, biological age and chronological age to
swimming performance in 200 m was 0.86, 0.91 and 0.79, respectively). Hence, the
relationship of dry land leg strength/power to swimming performance needs further
confirmation. Inconclusive results of studies on swimmers‘ dry land strength/power allow us
to suggest that the focus of research should be on the leg and lower body strength and power
exerted during aquatic locomotion.

2.3. Particularities of Strength Application during Aquatic Locomotion:

Specific Strength and Power in Swimming and Swimming-Like Exercises

The swimmer overcomes a hydrodynamic resistance by producing propulsive forces by

means of arm, leg and body segment movements in the water medium. The magnitude of
propulsive forces depends on movements‘ velocity and direction, position of distal arm and

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 318 Andrei Vorontsov

leg segments relative to the direction of pulling and kicking actions and direction of
locomotion. This means that application of propulsive forces during swimming requires
highly specific and complex technical skills and also explains why different manifestations of
dry land strength and power may not be directly related to swimming performance.
Sharp [26] suggested that proper application of propulsive force during swimming
motions and reduction of resistive forces may be more important determinants of success in
competitive swimming than maximum strength. Therefore, one of the major questions for
swimming specialists is what kind of strength does a swimmer need and how this strength can
be measured. It follows from the analysis of research that strength and power measured on
land do not accurately reflect the strength and power in the water and do not relate to
swimming velocity and competitive performance as closely as strength and power measured
during swimming or swimming-like activity [3, 24, 26, 29, 34]. We may suggest that the
main manifestations of strength abilities in swimming can be:

 maximal and average pulling force during tethered (pulling force at zero velocity)
and semi-tethered swimming in pool or swimming flume;
 power which a swimmer is capable of developing during limited time or number of
swimming cycles.
 impulse of force developed by a swimmer during arm pull (leg kick) which is
characterized by the rate of force development, magnitude of peak force, average
force of the pull, power of a single pull (relation of average force to duration of its
application).

The measurement of pulling force during tethered and semi-tethered swimming has a
relatively long history. Numerous efforts were made to modify the methods of measurement
and apply advanced technologies in order to obtain characteristics of strength and power
which would be more closely related to swimming velocity; we are able to list here only a
few studies performed during the last two decades which are, in turn, supported by results of
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

studies performed in the 1950s-1970s.

Christensen and Smith [10] reported the correlation between arm power during tethered
swimming and 25 m speed for men (r = 0.68) and women (r = 0.57). Schnitzler et al. [23]
studied the relationship between pulling force during resisted backstroke swimming over 50
m and free swimming velocity. They found that the speed was correlated with the pulling
force (r = 0.86).In the above mentioned study of Vorontsov et al. [38] the pulling force during
tethered swimming at zero velocity using arm pull only and using full stroke showed a higher
correlation with performance in 50, 100, 200 and 400 freestyle swimming than characteristics
of dry land strength and power (compare Tables 1 and 2).

Table 2. Correlation of pulling force during tethered swimming with swimming velocity
in female-swimmers aged 16 years (n = 24).

V 50 m V 100 m V 200 m V 400 m

F V=0 kick only 0.229 0.244 0.253 0.145
F V=0 pull only 0.614 0.513 0.300 0.369
F V=0 full stroke 0.572 0.629 0.595 0.450
n = 24, r 0.05 = 0.404, r 0.01 = 0.515

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 Strength and Power Training in Swimming 319

Shimonagata, Taguchi and Miura [27] applied an iso-kinetic towing device to examine
the relationship between swimming velocity and maximal swimming power and swimming
power endurance. They found a significant correlation between swimming velocity and
maximal swimming power and swimming power endurance (r = 0.92 and 0.85), while power-
endurance measured on dry land using a bio-kinetic bench was not related to the swimming
performance.
It follows from the analysis of scientific studies that strength and power measured during
tethered or semi-tethered swimming are more reliable predictors of swimming velocity and
competitive performance than strength characteristics measured in dry land exercises.
In this respect it is very important to identify the swimming-specific strength abilities and
the methods of measurement for such abilities.
Vorontsov et al. [34] studied the relationship of pulling force during tethered swimming
(PFW) at eight different flow velocities with competitive swimming speed (CSS) over 100 m
front crawl, maximal pulling strength in bench test (PFL) and working capability in 30-second
pulling test (WCL). The authors found a statistically significant correlation between PFW over
the full range of studied flow velocities and CSS in 100 m freestyle (Table 20.3). They
established that PFW values during semi-tethered swimming in the flume are more closely
related to the swimming performance in 100 m freestyle than values of PFW at V=0 or
strength abilities measured in dry land exercises. Correlation between PFL and CSS (r=0.484)
and WCL and CSS (r=0.453) was of a low significance level (p < 0.05) and much weaker than
correlation of PFW and CSS. It was also found that an increase in the CSS is strongly
associated with an increase in PFW.

Table 3. Correlation of pulling force (PFW) at different flow velocities

with competitive swimming speed (CSS), pulling force in bench test (PFL),
working capability in bench test (WCL).

Flow Velocities (m·sˉ¹) in the flume

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Related
parameters 0.0 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7
PFw : CSS 0.662 0.754 0.744 0.735 0.613 0.815 0.816 0.811 0.840
PFw : PFL 0.605 0.649 0.582 0.558 0.614 0.576 0.521 0.543 0.453
PFw :WCL 0.586 0.604 0.620 0.508 0.637 0.676 0.640 0.583 0.647
n = 18, r .05 = 0.468; r .01 = 0.590

Toussaint and Vervoorn [32] studied the relationship of pulling force measured using
measure active drag (MAD) system during front crawl swimming and performance (Table 4).
They found significant correlation between pulling force and swimming performance in 50,
100 and 200 m. The value of correlation coefficients decreased with increasing distance,
which is in good agreement with the data of Costill (1986) and Vorontsov et al. [34, 38]
suggesting that the effect of strength on swimming performance decreases with the increase
of competitive distance.

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 320 Andrei Vorontsov

Table 4. Correlation coefficients between strength as measured on measure active drag

(MAD) system and freestyle swimming performance (n = 22)

Time 50 m Time 100 m Time 200 m

Power -.83 -.74 -.59
Velocity -.93 -.89 -.75
Force -.82 -.70 -.56
r .01 = 0.537

The results of studies in this subject indicate that the strength (pulling force) and power
developed during tethered and semi-tethered swimming bear closer relationship to swimming
performance than do power and strength measured in dry land tests, including those
developed to simulate swimming actions (such as bench test employing Bio-kinetic or Huttel-
Mertens machine [8, 26, 38].
A review of research on both dry land and swimming specific leg and lower body
strength shows insufficient attention paid to this subject. We found only a few studies focused
on the importance of leg kick in swimming. Keskinen and Komi [13] compared
biomechanical parameters between normal (full stroke) swimming and arm pull only
swimming. They concluded that the supporting role of leg kick could be seen in distance per
stroke (stroke length) values at swimming velocities around and above ―anaerobic threshold‖,
as well as in stroke rate value at higher intensity levels. Clarys [7] in a study on electrical
activity of muscles during swimming found that despite the fact that main propulsive force
during the front crawl swimming is derived from the arms and shoulders, trunk and hip
muscles had clearly higher electrical activity that the arm and shoulder. Moreover, results of
the studies suggest that the contribution of trunk, pelvic and leg muscles to generation of
propulsive forces increases with increased swimming intensity (velocity), and that the
difference between good and elite swimmers is partly due to a better use of trunk muscles in
elite swimmers. The activity of trunk muscles creates a solid base for efficient movements of
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limbs. Thus all body parts work in accord as a whole [39].

Vorontsov, et al. [38] examined specific strength of female swimmers during freestyle
tethered swimming. According to their data, leg kick only demonstrated a low relationship
with average swimming velocity over competitive distances of 50-400 m. At the same time
the correlation of pulling force using full stroke was higher than using arm pull only.
Koygerov and Lipsky [15] used tethered swimming to examine the relationship of
physical and technical parameters with competitive performance in elite male breaststroke
swimmers (n = 16). They found a significant correlation between pulling force during leg
kick only (r = 0.82) and full stroke swimming (r = 0.84) with average swimming velocity
over 100 m. The correlation of pulling force using arm pull only with swimming velocity was
not significant. Although the contribution of the breaststroke kick to performance is widely
recognized, the value of these findings is limited due to the age range of the subjects (15-20
years of age).
Here we must stress that the majority of studies on specific swimming strength were
performed before the introduction of the new underwater kicking technique and did not
reflect the importance of this technique and lower body strength for overall competitive
performance in swimming. Without doubt, this area of swimming research is very prospective
and awaits implementation of new methods and ideas.

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 Strength and Power Training in Swimming 321

3. STRENGTH TRAINING FOR SWIMMING

3.1. The Objectives of Strength Training for Swimming

Strength training targets a wide variety of non-specific and specific manifestations

(types) of strength usually called in the specific literature “strength abilities”. Some types of
strength are related to each other very distantly and require different methods and training
regimes for their development [33, 40]. The type of strength and its level of utilization in
competitive exercise determine the objectives and methods of strength training in every sport.
The objectives of strength training for swimming are:

 To increase the strength potential of athletes (the level of general and specific
strength), preferably without significant gain in body mass
 To form specific body type with specific muscle topography (as result of multi-year
training)
 To create a specific time-space and rhythmic structure of strength application in
swimming motions.
 To improve metabolic provision for the dynamic strength in propelling actions (the
ability to reproduce repeatedly high propelling force from cycle to cycle of
swimming movements without significant decrease of its magnitude)
 To develop core body strength as a pre-condition for efficient transfer of propelling
forces created by limbs onto the body‘s centre of mass
 To prevent injuries via developing muscle groups surrounding joints, strengthening
ligaments and tendons and eliminating muscular unbalance.

The subjects of the purposeful strength (resistance) training are [9, 28, 33, 40]:
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 Neuro-regulatory adaptations: increase of the ―firing number‖ of motor units (MU)

switching on to a contraction, mobilization of additional MU during prolonged
exercises, improvement of intra-muscular coordination and coordination of synergist
and antagonist muscles during exercise. The first rapid increase of strength during
training occurs due to regulatory adaptation (just a few days after the beginning of
strength training).
 Structural adaptations: increase of contractile filaments within muscle fibers, increase
in thickness of a single fiber, increase of the cross-section of the entire muscle. It
takes a minimum of 3-4 weeks to achieve a notable gain in muscle mass. This
increase is induced by stimulating activity of hormonal systems responsible for
growth and repair of body tissues (human growth hormone –hGH, testosterone,
epinephrine (adrenaline), insulin-like growth factor - IGF, etc.).
 Metabolic adaptations: an increase in the ability of muscle to produce energy
anaerobically as well as aerobically, an increase in the ability of the cardio-
respiratory system to provide consistent energy supply during prolonged dynamic
exercise. Adaptation to strength training is always specific to the training stimuli –
type of overload (resistance), training methods and regimens. Character of exercise
(static or dynamic, concentric or eccentric, iso-kinetic), amount and type of

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 322 Andrei Vorontsov

resistance used determine a required power of muscle contraction and predominant

type of muscle fibers engaged into exercise while the rate and duration of exercise
determines the dominant energy system and other particularities of energy supply.

3.2. Development of Strength in Dry Land Training

Dry land strength training is an important supplementary type of training for swimmers.
It aims to create premises for competitive success - so called ―reserve of strength”, which
may be transferred into swimming specific pulling strength through aquatic training. It was
stated in the beginning of this chapter that one of the main reasons for coaches‘ and athletes‘
interest on strength training is a rapid and easily measurable increase of strength and power
from the beginning of a strength training program. At the same time this type of training has a
few serious limitations, which must not be disregarded. Common limitations attributed to
strength training are:

 Rapid accommodation to training workloads: after a swift gain of strength following

a few weeks of training the rate of gain dramatically slows down
 Necessity to use maximal workloads that creates a high risk of injuries [28, 33, 40]
 Specific limitations associated with the nature of aquatic locomotion [29, 17, 9, 34,
37] are:
 Limited transfer of strength developed in land training into specific pulling force
(only a small fraction of an individual‘s maximal strength may be utilized during
swimming).
 Complicated periodisation of strength training in conjunction with endurance
training.
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Despite these limitations the majority of coaches and athletes relate recently observed
leap-like growth of swimming records across the entire range of competitive events both in
female and male swimmers to purposeful development of strength and power. Dry land
weight (resistance) training is an important means of strength development. It targets the
following strength abilities, which are not specific to swimming but fundamental for the
athletes‘ conditioning:

 Maximal isometric strength, which an athlete is able to apply to an immobile support

without changing of muscle length;
 Maximal dynamic strength applied by an athlete to a moving object or support;
 Explosive strength – the ability to produce significant force in minimal time
 Speed strength - the ability to perform dynamic movements lasting up to 30 seconds
against significant resistance with high speed of muscle contraction.
 Strength Endurance – the ability to perform dynamic physical work for a duration of
30 sec -3-5 min (sometimes - up to 15 min) against significant external resistance
without decrease in power and efficiency of working movements.

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 Strength and Power Training in Swimming 323

Development of these types of strength in swimmers is known as General or

Conditioning Strength Training. It employs a vast variety of the conventional exercises,
which use as resistance free weights, different machines or the athlete‘s own body weight. In
this category should be also included exercises strengthening the core body muscles as well as
stabilizing exercises aiming to protect muscles and connective tissues surrounding joints from
overuse stress and impacts.
Practical experience and results of scientific research show the rapid increase in dry land
strength especially in the early stages/periods of training and in less experienced athletes (age
groupers, female swimmers). This increase of strength is usually accompanied by significant
improvement in swimming performance. It was also noticed that the longer swimmers use dry
land training – the smaller is the gain of strength. Moreover, further gain of non-specific
strength in dry land exercises may not be accompanied by improvements in swimming
performance.
The problem of how to use the positive aspects of dry land strength training (such as
rapid increase in strength abilities, selective development of muscles or muscle groups) in
order to improve swimming performance will always remain as one of the major problems for
coaches and science support staff [20, 29]. For decades they tried to approximate the land
drills and routines to specifically address the demands of swimming in accordance with the
―principle of dynamic affinity” or ―dynamic similarity‖ [28, 33, 40]. This principle suggests
that in order to maximize the transfer of trained physical abilities (usually strength or
endurance) into specific competitive event in cyclical locomotion like swimming training
exercise should engage:

 the same muscle groups which create propulsive forces in specific locomotion,
 the same patterns of neuro-muscular activity,
 the same form, magnitude and duration of the impulse of force (peak force value,
time of peak force achievement, etc.) created by working movement and applied to
support or medium,
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 the same rate of movements and duration of cyclical exercises and prevailing
mechanism of energy supply must be similar to those occurring during competitive
exercise.

Attempts were made to make the dry land training more ―swimming friendly‖ and
specific by the use of resistance exercises simulating double or single arm pulling movements
similar to those used during front crawl, back crawl and butterfly swimming. As a result of
the efforts of coaches, scientists and engineers iso-kinetic and other pulling machines were
created, which are used in training practice of swimmers together with more simple frictional
devices, stretch cords and pulley weights.
Absaliamov [1], Clarys [7], and Klauk and Daniel [14] examined the efficiency of these
devices with respect to the principle of dynamic affinity. They found that although some
pulling devices allow reproducing distinctive spatial, time-spatial and dynamic characteristics
of swimming movements none of them reproduces the neuro-muscular patterns similar to
those in swimming. In terms of proximity of neuro-muscular patterns and force dynamics,
iso-kinetic devices were recognized as the closest to swimming [1, 7, 24]. Second ―best‖,
accordingly to Absalyamov [1], was the Huttel-Mertens device. Exercises utilized stretch-

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 324 Andrei Vorontsov

cords and pulleys weights demonstrated visual likeness to pulling movements and were
recognized as useful for motor learning and initial training of novice and age group swimmers
since they allow visual control of hand and elbow position during the movements.
The main conclusion following from research data is that since land exercises cannot
accurately reproduce specific neuro-muscular patterns of swimming motions the best way to
develop specific strength in swimmers would be to work on it during swimming training.
Nevertheless, it should be recognized that dry land training remains a very important part
of the overall preparation of swimmers. The focus of land training should be shifted towards
development of the so-called functional strength including:

 Strength potential of the muscle groups responsible for generation of high propulsive
forces during swimming,
 Core body strength and strength of the muscle groups responsible for joint support
and stability.

Development of functional strength in dry land training uses the same methods and
exercises as weight lifting and conventional conditioning training. The types of strength,
corresponding specific adaptation induced by training, and the most common methods and
regimes for development of those abilities are represented in the Table 5.

Table 5. Development of the general and functional strength abilities (dry land training)

EXPLOSIVE
MAXIMAL STRENGTH
SPEED STRENGTH (POWER) STRENGTH
STRENGTH ENDURANCE
& POWER
PREDOMINANT TYPE OF ADAPTATION TO TRAINING
NEURO- NEURO-
NEURO-REGULATORY METABOLIC
REGULATORY REGULATORY
STRUCTURAL METABOLIC STRUCTURAL
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STRUCTURAL NEURO-REGULATORY
TRAINING METHODS/REGIMENS, TYPES OF EXERCISE
Interval method -
Method of Maximum
Isokinetic High Speed interval training in submaximal resistance Impact (Plyometric)
Weights/Maximum
anaerobic alactic regimens duration of a single effort Method
Resistance
30 sec – 3-5(10) min
Eccentric efforts with Repeated-Interval Sets with Resistance 50- Maximally Rapid
Super maximum 80% of Fmax and maximal rate of Circuit Training Resisted Movements
Weights movements and duration up to 30 seconds (60-80% Fmax)
Isokinetic Low ―Contact‖ speed leading using assisting
Endurance Sports: cross- Isokinetic/Maximal
Speed/High Resistance towing force Short maximal sprints like: 3-8
running, Nordic skiing, Rapid Singular
Method: 1-3 sets x (5-6 x 15-30 seconds (sprint runs for dry land
rowing Movements
movement x 5-8‖) training)
Isometric Method
NUMBER OF REPEATS IN A SINGLE SET AND NUMBER OF SETS IN A SESSION
Duration of a single effort 3-5 sets x 5-8
1-6 repetitions in a set, 10-20 repeats in a set/1-5 sets in a single
from 30-40 sec to 5-10 movements in a single
3-4 sets in a session session
min session
WEIGHTS AND TYPES OF RESISTANCE USED WITHIN TRAINING METHOD
Free weights: barbell, Free weights: barbell, dumbbells, medicine Free weights: barbell,
Deep jumps
dumbbells balls dumbbells, medicine balls
Isokinetic Machines (Mini-Gym, Biokinetic
Isokinetic Machines Isokinetic Machines Isokinetic Machines
Swim Bench)
Resistance machines: pulleys, swim-bench,
Strength Machines Resistance machines Resistance machines
Huttel-Mertens

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 Strength and Power Training in Swimming 325

3.3. Core Strength Training to Maximizing Performance in Swimming

The core strength training is focused on the development of back, abdominal and hip
muscles, which stabilize the spine, pelvis and shoulder girdle and, thus, provide a support for
prime movers - big muscles of arms and legs. Such training has the following potential
benefits:

 It improves the working posture and alignment of the body – which means a better
streamlining for a swimmer,
 It improves control over propelling movements of arms and legs and their timing,
 It increases the magnitude of pulling force and improves the efficiency of its
application,
 It helps to prevent injuries of the lower back and shoulders.

Core strength training includes a few major groups of exercises:

 Static- and slow motion floor exercises (yoga, pilates) to develop a basic level of
lumbar and pelvic stability, working front, rear and side muscles of the trunk.
 Floor dynamic exercises – to develop strength endurance in the major trunk muscles.
 Swiss-ball (―physio ball‖) - static and dynamic exercises (physio ball reduces the
stability of trunk and thus increases the difficulty of exercise. Athlete trying to
control the posture and alignment of the body while executing exercises).
 Exercises employing pulley machines, medicine ball, etc.

Although core strength training is very popular nowadays and is considered by coaches
and swimmers to be very important, it did not attract much attention of sports scientists so far.
We attribute the lack of scientific data to difficulties in measuring the direct effect of dry land
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core strength training on production of propulsive forces during swimming.

3.4. Strength Training for Injury Prevention and Rehabilitation

Usually the imbalance in development of muscle groups is a result of excessive

development of the prime movers at the expense of antagonist muscles. As the prime movers
become stronger, their antagonists are placed under increased stress as joint stabilizers and
supporters. Cadrone et al. [6] measured torque value in swimmer‘s shoulder abduction,
adduction, external and internal rotation movements using iso-kinetic dynamometer. They
suggested that individual torque ratios between abductors/adductors and external/internal
rotators reflect predisposition to injuries, such as impingement syndrome and tendonitis.
Becker and Havriluk [3] found that anterior-posterior differences are not only common in
swimmers but also related to injuries such as shoulder impingement and can inhibit
swimming performance. The authors suggested a three-component strategy for dealing with
muscular imbalance:

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 326 Andrei Vorontsov

 qualitative or quantitative evaluation of imbalance and anterior/posterior differences,

 remedial specific aquatic or land base strength training to strengthen abductors and
adductors,
 adjustment of training distance and stroke – reduction of total training distance for
the frontal strokes and increase of proportion of backstroke.

Injury preventing strength training for swimmers focuses on shoulder, elbow and knee
joints and employs moderate resistance (30-40% of 1RM). Exercises with rubber bands and
small dumbbells are widely used by swimmers both for general strength and conditioning and
rehabilitation or injury prevention. These exercises can be easily incorporated into a warm up
or circuit training format, helping to activate the cardiovascular system as well as accelerate
rehabilitation after injuries.

4. DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIFIC STRENGTH

(TRAINING IN THE WATER)
The studies on active hydrodynamic resistance during swimming [16] as well as
computational assessment of pulling forces [22] demonstrate that in order to swim at a
velocity of 2 m·s-1 a swimmer should create an average efficient pulling force just from 7-9 to
12-17 kg (depending on swimming stroke used) while the total pulling force applied by a
swimmer to the water medium may be approximately 10-15% higher.
It becomes apparent that the rate of strength development and direction of the resulting
force over the pull trajectory, rather than the absolute magnitude of the applied force,
determine the efficiency of propulsive actions and swimming velocity. To utilize the strength
potential developed from dry land training in both elite and age group athletes, aquatic
strength training must be conducted as a part of their swimming training. The subjects of such
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training are specific strength abilities, which may be measured during aquatic activities such
as free, semi-tethered and tethered swimming and related to performance in competitive
swimming. They are:

 Maximal pulling force, measured during tethered swimming at zero velocity (V=0),
 Pulling force measured in a swimming flume at different flow velocities,
 Rate of force development during pulling/kicking action (form and magnitude of the
impulse),
 Average intra-cyclic pulling force,
 Specific speed-strength/power measured as the time of resistance-added maximal
swim over short laps like 15, 20, 25, 30, 35 and 50 m,
 Specific strength endurance as the ability to maintain a target average pulling force
during a fixed time period (from 30 seconds to 3-5 min) as an important component
of specific working capability for swimming over distances 100-400 m,

It has been suggested [20, 29, 34, 37], that for the efficient development of specific
strength swimming exercises should be used exceptionally. In order to create overload and

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 Strength and Power Training in Swimming 327

thus induce specific neuro-muscular adaptations at least one of following conditions should
be satisfied:

 The speed of a swimming exercise should significantly exceed the speed of

individuals over competitive distances (V exercise > V race pace) or
 The magnitude of the resistance experienced by a swimmer during specific strength
exercise should be significantly higher than the resistance during swimming at racing
pace (R exercise > R at race pace).

These conditions may be created during the following aquatic activities (Table 6):

 Non-assisted/non-resisted sprint swimming over training laps shorter than the race
distance (10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35 m),
 Sprint swimming with assistance of paddles, fins or both paddles and fins,
 Resisted sprint swimming on the same laps with the use of additional resistance like
pulley systems (power rack, swim stuck), belts, resistance swimsuits with pockets,
stretch-cords,
 Assisted swimming using towing devices (power reel, stretch-cords, etc.),
 Swimming at ―super-maximal‖ velocities in a swimming flume without and with the
use of paddles, paddles and fins.

Contemporary research confirms a higher efficiency of aquatic strength training

employing a variety of resistance-adding and assisting devices in comparison with
conventional dry land resistance training for development of strength and power of swimming
movements and competitive performances. The reason for such efficiency is the high
similarity of biomechanical and neuromuscular patters between resisted or assisted and
normal swimming. Thus, Bollens et al. [4] found that during tethered and semi-tethered
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swimming muscular patterns of 25 investigated muscles were similar to those of free

swimming.
Maglischo et al. [17] suggested that both sprint assisted and sprint-resisted swimming
training may increase stroke power and, although the increases may not transfer totally, the
amount of transfer may be greater than what can be achieved by other methods.
Bulgakova, Vorontsov and Fomichenko [5] demonstrated a higher efficiency of aquatic
resistance-added training than dry land resistance training simulating arm pull in respect to
stroke technique and competitive performance in freestyle swimming in 11-12 years-old
swimmers.
Toussaint and Vervoorn [32] used a fixed Push-Off Point (POP) training device derived
from the MAD system, providing fixed push off points in the water for swimming the front
crawl. During ten weeks the training group (n = 11) followed the same program as the control
group (n = 11) except that 3 times per week sprints performed on the POP were substituted
for normal swimming sprints. At the end of the training period, the training group showed a
significantly greater improvement in force (from 91 to 94 N, 3.3%), velocity (from 1.75 to
1.81 m.s-1, 3.4%), and power (from 160 to 172 W, 7%) as measured on the MAD system,
and an increase in distance per stroke in free swimming. Subjects also displayed a significant
improvement in race times for 50 m (from 27.2 to 26.6 s), 100 m (from 59.3 to 57.4 s), and

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 328 Andrei Vorontsov

200 m (from 129.6 to 127.3 s). It was concluded that the POP should be considered as
specific training device for increasing maximal power output during swimming and
maximizing competitive swimming performance.
The results of studies on resisted/assisted swimming are in favor of high specificity and
efficiency of such training. Having, in general, a positive attitude to aquatic strength training,
both coaches and scientists express concern that an excessive assisted or resisted force may
cause a deterioration of swimming technique and, thus, reduce the positive effect of aquatic
training on specific strength and swimming performance. Maglischo et al. [17] found that
training with added resistance caused in subjects to take shorter, slower arm strokes, while
during assisted-sprint training subjects increased stroke rate by reducing stroke length rather
than increasing hand velocity. Hence the question of optimal values of resisting/assisting
forces is of great practical importance.
Stichert [29] reported that added resistance 3-7 kg created by pulley weights was
sufficient to create an overload during maximal sprint swimming and was not accompanied
by deterioration of swimming technique. According to Bollens et al. [4], the specificity of
muscular patterns during semi-tethered swimming is maintained up to a resistance of 10-12
kg. At a higher resistance the kinematics of swimming movements and character of neuro-
muscular coordination change and muscular action becomes less specific.

5. PERIODISATION OF STRENGTH TRAINING FOR SWIMMERS

5.1. Dynamics of Strength in a Macro-Cycle

Sharp, Costill and Thomas [26] tested swimmers every two weeks over an entire training
season for power output using a single double-arm pull on the Biokinetic Swim Bench.
Swimmers were engaged in strength/power training with weights and with the swim bench.
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Investigators observed the greatest gains in power output during the first 6 weeks of training,
after which there was relatively slow improvement over the next 4 weeks. At this initial stage
of the training macrocycle, the gain in power occurred as the total swimming volume was
gradually but consistently increased. Despite continued overload in the strength/power
training, a 10% decline occurred over the next 4-week period and power remained at this
lower level for another 6 weeks.
During the 3-week taper there was a significant increase in power above any previous
level during the season. Power reached a peak immediately prior to the championship
competition for which swimmers were trained. One week following the championship meet,
power had returned to a level greater than pre-season but markedly less than during the
middle of the season. It might be expected that during a period of reduced training power
would normalize to levels somewhat higher than would be seen during heavy training. The
findings on increased maximum power during the taper were in accordance with the results of
studies by Costill et al [9].
Vorontsov et al. [34] described similar tendencies in dynamics of specific strength over
the training macro-cycle. In their study, 7 elite swimmers underwent three repeated
measurements of pulling force in a swimming flume at different flow velocities (Table 7).
After a period of specific pre-competitive training an increase in PFW at every flow velocity

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 Strength and Power Training in Swimming 329

during tethered swimming in the flume was found in all subjects. It was greater (in %) at flow
velocities 1.5-1.7 m·s-1. After a month of extensive aerobic training, a decrease in PFW
occurred. The greatest loss in pulling force was at the same flow velocities.

Table 7. Changes in pulling force (PFW) values at different flow velocities after 4 weeks
of specific training and taper and after 3 weeks of extensive aerobic training in well-
trained male-swimmers (n=7), * p<0.05.

PFW at different flow velocities in the flume

PF V 1.0 m·sˉ¹ 1.2 m·sˉ¹ 1.4 m·sˉ¹ 1.5 m·sˉ¹ 1.6 m·sˉ¹ 1.7 m·sˉ¹
1st test Initial measurement
Mean 125.3 109.6 86.0 73.2 66.3 49.4
+12.0 +11.7 +11.6 +11.5 +11.3 +11.1
2nd test After 2.5 weeks of race-specific training followed by 1.5-week taper
Mean 126.2 112.2 87.9 81.2 73.7 61.4
+12.0 +12.0 +11.5 +11.0 +10.9 +11.1
Δ Mean, % (2nd/1st ) +0.9 +2.4 +2.2 +11.0* +11.2 +24.2*
3rd test After 1 week of recovery and 3 weeks of extensive aerobic training
Mean 119.6 105.5 85.0 74.0 63.5 48.9
+12.6 +11.6 +12.0 +11.9 +11.7 +11.7
Δ Mean, % (3rd/2nd) -5.5 -6.4 -3.5 -9.8 -16.9* -23.0*

The values of PFW at V=0 and flow velocities 0.6-1.0 m·sˉ¹ experienced the least
fluctuation under the influence of both training and detraining. Authors concluded that
changes in individual PFW values are related to content of training at every given stage and
swimming specific strength requires maintenance during the periods of extensive aerobic
training as well as during periods of reduced training.
Girold et al. [11] suggested that both resisted and assisted sprint training might be used
throughout the season. During periods of high training volume, resisted sprint can develop
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strength endurance in the water, while assisted sprint may improve hydrodynamic position
and increase stroke rate and swimming speed at moderate intensities. During the competitive
period, resisted sprint can be used to increase strength and power, and assisted-sprint to
increase stroke rate and strength at high velocity. This idea of permanent aquatic strength
training supplementary to mainstream (endurance) training throughout a macro-cycle of
preparation sounds very reasonable.

5.2. Concurrent Development of Strength and Endurance

In swimming, a combination of endurance and strength training is required to improve

performance. In this situation, which requires simultaneous strength and endurance training,
the biggest problem is an interference of endurance training with strength development and
vice versa.
Strength training induces an increase of muscle strength and power through improvement
of neural and hormonal regulation of muscular contraction and inter-muscular coordination
and substantial gain of muscle mass. Endurance training facilitates metabolic adaptation
leading to increase in the power and capacity of the energy delivery systems (aerobic and

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 330 Andrei Vorontsov

anaerobic) and neural mechanisms providing coordinated response of cardio-vascular,

respiratory and other functional systems to workloads during prolonged exercises. The need
to replenish the energy and repair worn structures may be subject to competition between
muscular tissue and tissues of other functional systems [28, 40].
Another reason for concern is that neuro-muscular patterns of dry land resistance
exercises may interfere into swimming motor patterns affecting the fine mechanism of neuro-
muscular control and efficiency of propelling movements. Sharp [26] noticed that large
amounts of endurance training cause a decrease in levels of strength. Costill [9] reported that
high volume swimming training decreases maximal speed and explosive power. Hence, we
may suggest that some workloads for maintenance of maximal speed and power should be
included in blocks of high volume aerobic training. In a situation requiring improvement of
both strength and endurance, the following questions need to be answered:

 -What type of strength needs to be developed?

 What is an optimal sequence of strength and endurance sessions and cycles?
 -What is an optimal number of dry land sessions a week?
 -What is the optimal duration of each land session including the number of exercises,
sets within a session and repeats within each set?

The experimental data and analysis of practical experience [20, 31] showed that dry land
training of maximal strength and speed strength is compatible with aerobic swimming
training at sub-threshold swimming velocities engaging predominantly fat metabolism (heart
rate 40-50 beats below maximum, VO2 = 50-60% of VO2 max), while training of explosive
strength (power) requires the ―rested‖ state of the organism and is most efficient in the
beginning of training week or after a day‘s or half-day‘s rest. The experience of the Soviet
National swimming team [20] on massive use of dry land strength-endurance training in
1974-1983 demonstrated that strength endurance developed in dry land training is not
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applicable to competitive swimming. Resistance-added or assisted swimming training is

served that purpose much better. In elite swimmers, the goals of dry land training are:
development of strength and power of prime movers, development of stabilizing and
supporting muscles. At the same time, dry land training of strength endurance may be
efficient for general conditioning of swimmers at the early stages of the sport season and for
training of age group, junior and female swimmers.

5.3. Planning of Strength Training within the Annual Cycle

Recently, as one possible solution for the problem of concurrent strength and endurance
training, the idea of the Block (BP) or Polycyclic Periodisation was suggested. It assumes the
administration of highly concentrated workloads directed toward a minimal number of
abilities-targets within relatively short training cycles/training blocks. Thus, each block is
focused on optimal combination of athletic abilities, which are developing consecutively
rather than concurrently [12]. According to the BP, the whole annual cycle is subdivided into
a number of training stages (macro-cycles), each of which contains meso-cycles of three
types: accumulation, transmutation and realization (Table 8). The number of training stages in

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 Strength and Power Training in Swimming 331

an annual cycle depends on the age and sporting qualification of swimmers, calendar of
important competitions, etc., and usually varies from four to seven.

Table 8. Content and sequencing of the targeted strength abilities

in three types of meso-cycle-blocks [33].

Main Meso-cycle type

characteristics Accumulation Transmutation Realization
Targeted strength Muscular strength Event-specific strength Maximal power,
abilities (hypertrophy and neural endurance individualized fitness
mechanism)
Predominant Fitness machines, free Fitness machines, Individual choice of dry
training means weights, high resistance simulators, power/ and in-water exercises
drills resisted swimming
Compatible Aerobic endurance, Event-specific Individualized taper
swimming exercises basic coordination, endurance, proper program
alactic bouts technique
Fatigue-restoration Reasonable restoration No possibility to provide Full restoration, athletes
to provide anabolic full restoration, fatigue should be well rested
adaptation accumulated
Follow-up Monitoring the level of Monitoring the level of Monitoring maximal
particularities maximal strength sport-specific strength power, speed and event
abilities endurance specific strategy.

The block (polycyclic) periodisation allows optimal interaction of training residuals -

retention of changes in motor abilities after the cessation of training over a given time period,
so as to allow competitive performance at a high level for all motor and technical abilities. BP
considers the fact that training residuals of maximal strength last much longer than residuals
of specific strength endurance, while residuals of maximal speed and event-specific readiness
are the shortest [12]. The rational sequencing of the meso-cycles within the training stage
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

allows obtaining an optimal interaction between strength workloads and the appropriate
swimming program. The typical annual cycle following the Block Periodisation Concept is
shown in figure 1. Practical implementation of the BPC facilitates a number of benefits in
comparison with the traditional model:

 The Block Periodisation model allows a reduction in total mileage and time
expended on training without substantially changing the total number of workouts;
 Monitoring of strength abilities is more purposeful and effective; reduced number of
targeted abilities requires appropriate tests;
 The athletes can focus on a reduced number of targets, consequently allowing more
effective maintenance of mental concentration and motivation level;
 Nutritional aspects can be more carefully taken into account; a high protein diet can
be offered to enhance the anabolic effect of strength training; carbohydrates are
particularly important in meso-cycles for special and strength endurance.

The Block Periodisation Concept has been successfully implemented by swimming

expert Gennadi Touretski [31] in preparation of multi-fold Olympic and world champions

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 332 Andrei Vorontsov

Alexander Popov and Michael Klim. His model of BP reasonably separated maximal strength
workloads combined with aerobic and diversified technical drills; high-resistance glycolytic
exercises combined with an event-specific program; and an original model of taper that
included maximal strength workloads to prevent catabolic responses and impairment of the
immune system. Unlike the traditional model, the Block Periodisation concept allows for
successful implementation of a multi-peak annual plan; the intermediate peaks can be planned
for mid-season and even for the early part of the season.

Targeted
event

International World
Spring Short- meet (continental) Cup
Winter Short- Course Trials
Course Trials

R R R
Realization R

T T Transmutation T T

A Accumulation A A
A A

Stage I Stage II Stage III Stage IV Stage V

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Competition period
Preparation period

Figure 1. The concept-scheme of Block Periodised annual plan, where specialized strength training
programs are administered in appropriate mesocycle-blocks (adapted from [12])

6. PARTICULARITIES OF STRENGTH TRAINING IN AGE

-GROUP SWIMMERS
The physical potential of future swimming champions is a result of properly organized
and conducted Multi-Year Training (MYT), which is superimposed on the process of natural
growth and development of young athletes over four periods of individual development: late
childhood, pre-pubescent, pubescent and post-pubescent periods.

 Late childhood (the age between 6 and 9-10 years) is characterized by a slow growth
and absence of differences in growth patterns and functional development between

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 Strength and Power Training in Swimming 333

boys and girls. Any improvement in motor performance in children aged 6-9 years
should be attributed to motor learning. .
 In the pre-pubescent period (age boundaries 9-12 years for girls and 10-13 years for
boys) individual growth and development are controlled predominantly by the human
growth hormone. At this stage, the growth acceleration begins and the maximal rate
of growth occurs. Girls start the growth acceleration and have a height spurt, on
average, two years earlier than boys (respectively at the age 11-12 ♀ and 13-14 years
♂). Before the onset of puberty children increase strength without an increase in
muscle circumference and mass. This increase is a neuro-regulatory response, the
effect of ―motor learning‖ of more efficient muscular patterns. Therefore, training of
younger age group swimmers should target the learning of motor skills, development
of core body strength and flexibility, health improvement. Towards the age of 11-12
years, the ―adult‖ kinematics and dynamic structure of swimming technique
establishes both in girls and boys [5, 36].
 During the pubescent period or puberty (average age boundaries – 12-14 years for
girls and 14-16 years for boys) a rapid rise in production of sexual hormones induces
growth of muscle mass, maturation of all physiological systems and creates the
optimal biological background for development of the anaerobic energy system,
maximal power, specific muscular endurance, and speed-strength abilities. Peak
increase in body mass occurs between 12-13 for females and 14-15 years of age for
males (1-1.5 years after the height spurt). Peak increase in maximal power and
majority of other strength abilities is observed 1-2 years after the peak gain in body
mass.

Girls enter the pubescent period on average at the age of 11-12 years. Two very important
characteristics of maturation and development in girls are: the age of menarche, when the first
menstruation occurs (Me+) and the age when the regular menstrual cycle (MC) is established.
On average, Me+ occurs between 13 and 14 years of age. A regular MC usually establishes
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12-18 month after Me+ (at the age 14.5-15 years). Up to the age of Me+ young females
achieve 97-98% of adult height and muscle mass [36]. The set up of regular MC means the
ending of natural growth and motor development for girls. Any further increase in motor
abilities will occur only due to training.
In boys a maximal growth rate of the muscle mass in the average population occurs
between 13-15 years of age, while the most rapid development of maximal strength and other
strength abilities takes place at the age of 14-15 years [36].
It should be stressed here that during the pre-pubescent and pubescent periods significant
intra-individual variations take place in the rate of growth and biological age (maturation).
The maximal difference in biological age (+ 1-3 years with respect to the average) for girls of
the same chronological age is observed between 12-14, and for boys – 13-15 years of age.
Therefore, planning and practical application of strength training for age group and junior
athletes require consideration of the individuals‘ biological age (maturity). Vorontsov et al.
[35, 36] examined the impact of maturity on the physical development and strength in young
swimmers (117 boys aged 14, 15 and 16 years and 72 girls aged 13, 14 and 15 years). The
subjects of each age group were subdivided into three groups according to their maturity
score: early developers or ―accelerates‖ (A), ―normotypes‖ (N) and late developers or
―retardants‖ (R). The findings (Table 9) confirmed the impact of biological age.

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 334 Andrei Vorontsov

Table 9. Physical development and strength in girl-swimmers 13 years of age

with different level of maturity.

T y p e of M a t u r i t y
Characteristics A (n= 4) N (n= 7) R (n=14) Difference
Height, cm Mean 168.33 165.16 160.66 A>R p<0.05
+ 4.50 + 5.45 + 5.74
Weight, kg Mean 55.33 52.51 44.80 A>R p<0.01
+ 6.80 + 5.22 + 6.01 N>R p<0.05
PFLAND , N Mean 280.57 272.05 236.28 A>R p<0.01
+10.98 +23.22 + 28.52 N>R p<0.05
PF V=0, N Mean 151.21 135.34 134.36 A>R p<0.05
full stroke +13.98 +17.34 +16.37
PF V=0, N Mean 136.51 123.97 110.74 A>R p<0.05
pull only +7.54 +5.49 +17.05
Peak force, N Mean 128.09 133.28 115.25 A>R p<0.05
power setting "0" +13.92 +12.74 +11.46
Peak force, N Mean 70.07 67.72 57.72 A>R p<0.01
power setting "5" +5.88 +10.97 +6.76 N>R p<0.01
Peak force, N Mean 38.61 31.46 22.93 A>R p<0.001
power setting "9" +2.74 +8.72 +6.66 N>R p<0.05
Endurance, 3-min Mean 18672 16715 15919 A>N p<0.01
Bench-test, c.u. +863 +810 +1465 A>R p<0.01

(maturity) on the physical development and strength both in girls and in boys. The
greatest effect of maturity was found for girls 13-14 and boys 14-15 years-old. In those age
groups, as a rule, A surpassed their peers N and R in physical development, strength, speed
endurance, strength endurance and pulling force during swimming at zero velocity, while N
in their turn were superior to R. The ―superiority‖ of early developers in physical
development and athletic performance disappears when their less mature mates achieve full
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

maturity.

 Post-puberty (average age boundaries for girls 14-17, for boys 16-19 years) is
marked by deceleration of growth and achievement of full maturity. During this
period, a gender dimorphism, the maximal difference between males and females in
physical and motor development, is established. Males surpass females in height,
muscle mass, strength and power, aerobic and anaerobic endurance. After the age of
15-16 years, females lose a significant amount of strength and power, aerobic and
anaerobic abilities if they are not trained.

For decades, the necessity of strength (resistance) training in pre-pubescent and

pubescent athletes was a highly debated subject. Modern studies show that properly organized
strength training in pre-pubescent and pubescent athletes not only improves their strength
abilities but also assists in learning of more efficient motor patterns. Thus, Bulgakova, et al.
[5] investigated the effects of dry land and aquatic resistance training on strength, dynamic
structure and performance of 11-12 years-old swimmers and found that gains in strength
attained through aquatic resistance training are associated with performance improvement in
age group swimmers on an even greater scale than in adult athletes. It their studies, two

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 Strength and Power Training in Swimming 335

groups of young swimmers performed similar interval training sets twice a week over a six-
month period: one group used a swim bench on land, another group performed tethered
swimming with stretch-cords. Both groups displayed a significant improvement in strength on
land and in the water. However, the ―in-water‖ group improved to a greater degree in actual
freestyle swimming speed over distances 50-200 m. The greater improvement achieved by the
―in-water‖ group was attributed to a significantly better application of strength during
swimming in comparison with the ―dry land‖ group (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Changes in the form and magnitude of the impulse of Hydrodynamic Reaction Force (P) on
the hand during freestyle swimming in 11-12 years old boy-swimmers after 6 months of strength
training [5]: Group A underwent resistance-assisted swimming training using rubber stretch-cords.
Group B performed dry-land training employing resistance exercises simulating double arm pull on
swim bench.
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7. TESTING OF FUNCTIONAL AND SPECIFIC STRENGTH IN SWIMMING

Testing of strength abilities is an important component of effective control and
management of the training process in swimming. Information on different aspects of strength
during distinct stages of a training macro-cycle allows assessing the efficiency of training
methods and regimes, and design individually tailored programs of strength training for
swimmers. The purposes of testing are:

 Assessment of athletes‘ abilities

 Monitoring of dynamics of different aspects of strength during different stages of the
training macro-cycle
 Assessment and comparison of efficiency of training methods and tools
 Assessment and comparison of validity and reliability of testing methods, hardware
and software.

The choice of testing methods and types of strength to be tested depends on the period of
training and accessibility of testing equipment and facilities.

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 336 Andrei Vorontsov

7.1. Dry Land Testing of Strength Abilities (Preparedness) in Swimmers

 Measurement of maximal dynamic strength of the upper body and whole body
employs traditional exercises with free weights, such as bench-press, Olympic lifts
and squats. The purpose of testing with free weight is to determine a one repeated
maximum strength (1-RM), the weight which the athlete can lift only one time.
 The maximal height of a vertical jump is used to assess the explosive power of leg
muscles. Direct measurements of the vertical jump height require a simple measuring
tape or more sophisticated equipment including dive pads with a computer interface.
Related software calculates the height of a jump by the time athletes spent off the
ground.
 Examination of maximal isometric force developed by isolated muscle groups in
isolated joint movements requires the force unit and specially designed equipment
that limit the direction and amplitude of force application and is usually conducted
by sport science specialists or physiotherapists for the specific purpose of muscle
balance assessment and injury prevention.

7.2. Dry Land Testing of Functional Strength and Power

The maximal isometric pulling force is usually assessed using a bench test. A swimmer
applies force in postures simulating the transition points from ―catch to pull‖ or ―pull to push‖
phases during double arm pull [1, 35]. Pulling force is measured with the help of mechanical
dynamometers fixing the value of the peak force or force units connected to computational
devices or a PC. A more simple way is to determine 1-RM in a bench test using pulley
machines.
As it was shown earlier in this chapter, the most adequate tools for the measurement of
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

dynamic strength/power of swimming prime movers are devices with accommodating

application of force (iso-kinetic and Huttel-Mertens machines), since they employ motor
patterns similar to those of swimming motions [1, 20, 7] and measure strength and power
related to sprint performance in swimming [8, 24, 26]. These devices may also be easily
modified in order to measure leg strength/power.
Computerized iso-kinetic devices with a digital display (Biokinetic Swim Bench, VASA
ergometer – Figures 3 and 4) are used to test swimmers, some modifications of which have
special software for processing and storage of the data. Biokinetic Swim Bench and VASA
allow using a huge variety of power and strength endurance sets for routine control of training
efficiency. Sharp et al. [24, 26] proposed to use for measurements of maximal power
(strength) in double arm pull on Biokinetic speed settings 0-2, while to test the power specific
to swimming at speed setting 4-6 since, at that setting, the hand velocity closely corresponds
to that during arm pull in swimming. Absalyamov et al. [1] recommend measuring iso-kinetic
strength/power over the entire range of speed settings 0-3-6-9.

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 Strength and Power Training in Swimming 337

Figure 3. Testing of strength and power on Biokinetic Swim Bench: a) general view, b) change in PF
during 2 min maximal pulling test
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Figure 4 . VASA Egrometer: 1) resistance generating device, 2) measuring system, 3) display

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 338 Andrei Vorontsov

8. TESTING OF SPECIFIC STRENGTH DURING SWIMMING

OR SWIMMING-LIKE EXERCISE (FULLY-TETHERED,
SEMI-TETHERED SWIMMING)
The analysis of scientific literature shows that strength and power measured in swimming
(tethered or semi-tethered swimming) are more reliable predictors of swimming performance
than strength and power measured in land tests.
The most common method of assessment of specific strength in swimmers is the
measuring of pulling force during fully tethered swimming or ―PF at zero velocity‖. Many
modifications were described in related literature. A general view of methods and sample of
PF recordings are given in figure 5. A common recommendation based on numerous studies
is to use elastic cords or inserts in order to eliminate interference from dynamic impacts. The
measurement of peak PF or average PF over the time periods 10-30 s at V=0 demonstrate
satisfactory relationship with swimming performance in sprint events [20, 34, 37]. The
attempts to measure the intra-cyclic value of pulling force in fully tethered swimming using
non-elastic connection (ropes or cables) are not productive due to interference from dynamic
impacts in the beginning of every swimming stroke (cycle). These impacts result in extremely
high ―values‖ of peak ―intra-cyclic‖ force.
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Figure 5. Method of measurement of the maximal pulling force (PF at V=0) during tethered swimming
and the sample of recording of PF.

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 Strength and Power Training in Swimming 339

Figure 6. Method of measurement of pulling force and power during semi-tethered swimming (adapted
from [8]): a) The bio-kinetic apparatus and computer system to measure, velocity, force and power, b)
A graphic recording of the force curve during front crawl swimming (note the difference in height of
force curves for the subject‘s right and left arm pulls).
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Conventional methods of measurement of pulling force during tethered swimming may

be used in the swimming flume for assessment of PF developed by swimmers over the range
of different flow velocities. This type of pulling force demonstrates very strong and consistent
correlation with swimming performance in competitive events both in elite and junior
swimmers [34,37]. Toussaint and Vervoorn [32] accumulated a multi-year experience in
administrating of the MAD system for assessment of strength abilities in elite swimmers (the
method is applicable only to front crawl swimming).
Costill et al. [8] adopted a computerized bio-kinetic system for measurement of the force
and power during semi-tethered swimming against added resistance (Figure 6). The force
applied by a swimmer to a transducer via a bio-kinetic device was converted and processed
by a computer. As a result, force, work and power were calculated. The system also provided
a table summary and graphic illustration of swimmer‘s performance during the test. It was
found that the ability of the swimmers to generate force against iso-kinetic resistance steadily
declined with increasing velocities. These authors reported the measured peak power during
front crawl swimming correlated strongly with maximal swimming velocity (r = 0.84, p <
0.01), while no relationship was found between dry land bio-kinetic arm strength and sprint
performance (r = 0.24). Since iso-kinetic resistance eliminates dynamic impact, this method

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 340 Andrei Vorontsov

allows the intra-cyclic force curve to be recorded. The values of peak intra-cyclic force, as
measured by the methods of Costill et al. [8], corresponded to those obtained with the use of
the MAD-system. For practical individual assessment and monitoring of training progress,
resistance devices employed in swimming training such as power rack (swim stalk) and other
equipment creating the added resistance may be used. As criteria for specific strength, times
of resisted swimming over short (15, 25, 50 m ) and long distances (100, 200, 400 m) may be
used.

9. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSION

1) Analysis of swimming performance and scientific data demonstrates an increasing
contribution of strength abilities and strength training to swimming performance. The
goal of strength training is to assist the mainstream swimming training in developing
the best possible swimmer. Therefore it should focus on requirements of swimming
and individual swimmers.
2) Dry land strength training for swimming becomes more complex with new accents
and objectives (strengthening of stabilizing muscles, improving muscular balance,
injury prevention and rehabilitation after injuries). Dry land strength training must be
considered as an important additive type of training, but not a substitute for
swimming training.
3) No land exercises can reproduce aquatic environments and swimming motor
patterns. As a result, the strength attained through dry land training does not
transform directly into specific swimming strength and swimming performance. That
transformation requires specific forms and methods of aquatic resistance training as
well as specially designed assessment methods for strength abilities in swimmers.
4) The values of pulling force and power recorded in tethered, semi-tethered swimming
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

or acquired with the MAD-system demonstrate stronger relationship with swimming

velocity and may be recommended as criteria of specific strength and predictors of
swimming performance.
5) Training of age group and junior swimmers should be conducted is accordance with
the natural rhythm of growth and development:

 In pre-pubescent and pubescent athletes the skeleton, tendons and ligaments

are not mature. Therefore, a heavy weight resistance training may stunt the
growth and impair motor development in junior athletes
 Core strength and stability training at early stages of MYT may contribute to
performance by preventing injuries or reducing the risk of injuries in older
ages
 Pre-pubescent and pubescent athletes are capable of coping well with
strength and strength endurance training against low and moderate resistance
(stretch-cords, light dumbbells, own body weight)


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 Strength and Power Training in Swimming 341

6) All aspects of strength abilities and strength training in swimming require further
investigation. The prime areas for future research may be the contribution of leg kick
and core body strength to swimming performance, and the relative efficiency of
different methods of dry-land and aquatic strength training.

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[28] Siff, M.C. (2001). Biomechanical Foundations of Strength and Power Training. In V.
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[34] Vorontsov, A., Popov, O. & Chupakhin, B. (1982). Added pulling force in swimming
flume as criterion of specific swimming strength. Theory and Practice of Physical
Culture, Vol. 9, 3, 7-9.
[35] Vorontsov, A.R., Binevsky, D.A., Filonov, A.Y. & Korobova, E.A. (1999a). The
impact of individuals maturity upon strength in young swimmers. In K.L. Keskinen,
P.V. Komi, A.P. Hollander (Eds.), Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming VIII (pp.
331-326), Jyvaskyla, University of Jyvaskyla.
[36] Vorontsov, A. (2005). Periodisation of multi-year preparation of young swimmers. –
The Programme of Long Term Athletic Development. In A. Petriaev (Td.), Swimming-
III: Research, training, hydro-rehabilitation (pp. 194-207), St.-Petersburg, Science
Research Institute for Physical Culture and Sport.
[37] Vorontsov, A., Popov, O., Binevsky, D. & Dyrko, V. (2006). The assessment of
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

specific strength in well-trained male athletes during tethered swimming in the

swimming flume. Portuguese Journal of Sports Sciences, 6, (Suppl. 2), 275-277.
[38] Vorontsov, A., Bulgakova, N., Solomatin, V. & Filimonova, I. (1987). Development of
specific working ability and competitive performance of swimmers. Research Report,
VNITIC 77 - Physical Culture and Sport, Moscow, State Central Institute of Physical
Culture.
[39] Wilke, K. (1992). Analysis of sprint swimming: the 50 m freestyle. In D. MacLaren, T.
Reilly & A. Lees (Eds.), Swimming Science VI (pp. 33-46), Cambridge, University
Press.
[40] Zatsiorsky, V.M. (1995). Science and practice of strength training. Champaign, IL:
Human Kinetics.

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Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

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 In: World Book of Swimming: From Science to Performance ISBN: 978-1-61668-202-6
Editors: L. Seifert, D. Chollet and I.Mujika ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 17

THE TAPER: PHYSIOLOGY,

PERFORMANCE, AND PLANNING

David B. Pyne1 and Iñigo Mujika2

1
Australian Institute of Sport, Australia
2
University of the Basque Country, Basque Country

ABSTRACT
The taper forms the final part of the swimming training program prior to a major
competition. The aim of the taper is to enhance competitive performance by reducing the
degree of residual fatigue and optimizing physiological and psychological capacities.
Various studies have reported cardiorespiratory, metabolic, hormonal, and neuromuscular
changes during the taper. The expected mean improvement in competitive swimming
performance with an effective taper is ~0.3-5% although individuals will respond
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

differently. The three primary types of taper are the linear taper (systematic reduction in
training volume and load), exponential taper (with either a fast or slow decay), and the
step taper (substantial standardized reduction in training volume and load). Training
frequency is maintained or only a modest reduction of one or two training sessions per
week should be made by the end of the taper. The intensity of training in main sets is held
relatively constant. The typical reduction in training volume is ~50-75% of the peak
volume achieved during the training season. Tapers should be individualized according to
the specific circumstances of swimmers (e.g. time required for elimination of residual
fatigue and optimization of adaptations).

Key words: tapering, recovery, performance, volume, intensity, swimming.

1. INTRODUCTION
Swimming is a quantitative sport in terms of the training prescription undertaken by
coaches. Training volume is easily prescribed in multiple laps of 25 m or 50 m in most indoor
and outdoor swimming pools. The prescription of training involves the development of
training programs for the season (or annual plan), training week (often Monday to Saturday),

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 346 David B. Pyne and Iñigo Mujika

individual sessions and main sets within training sessions. The season plan is typically
divided into different phases of training encompassing general and specific elements of
varying volume and intensity culminating in the main competition or series of local, national
and international competitions. The taper is the critical link between the main volume and
intensity phases of the annual training plan and the end of macrocycle or end of season major
competition. The purpose of the taper is to convert hard-earned improvements in fitness,
technique, pacing and tactical elements into optimal race speed.
Coaches, swimmers, and sports scientists recognise the importance of the taper and are
keen to explore various approaches to identify the most effective taper design for a given
swimmer. This interest in the taper has prompted experimental investigations that have
examined the physiological and performance effects of various tapers in swimming. The
swimming-specific investigations can be combined with the general literature on tapering and
sports performance to develop practical guidelines for coaches and swimmers. Detailed
information on the training of elite swimmers is often difficult to obtain given the natural
tendency for nations, coaches and swimmers to protect confidential information and their
competitive advantage. In this chapter we briefly describe the physiological and
psychological bases of the taper, performance outcomes of the experimental investigations on
tapering in swimming, and present practical planning guidelines for the swimmer, coach, and
sports scientist.
The taper is widely accepted by coaches and scientists as the final few weeks of the
training program leading into major competition. The simple aim of the taper is to enhance or
improve competitive performance. Both swimming coaches and sports scientists need a
working definition of the taper to plan and evaluate their programs before, during and after
the competitive season. Swimming coaches manipulate the type, frequency, duration and
intensity of training during the taper to elicit optimal performance in the competition. Sports
scientists are interested in basic questions on training prescription and also the underlying
physiological and non-physiological factors that influence the taper. An operational definition
that encapsulates the various elements of training prescription is: a progressive reduction of
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

the training load during a variable period of time, to reduce the physiological and
psychological stress of daily training and optimize sports performance [18,19]. The taper is
progressive in nature and involves a linear or non-linear reduction in training load depending
on the individual characteristics of the swimmer. The variable duration of the taper is highly
debated by coaches and scientists with most swimmers tapering from as little as a few days up
to several weeks before a major competition. The reduction in physiological and
psychological stress is a consequence of the reduced workload, although swimmers often
experience transient physical and mental fatigue well into the taper. The gradual reduction in
fatigue is accompanied by an increase in power and speed [13,21]. Good swimming technique
must be maintained for the physiological adaptations to transfer effectively into enhanced
maximal swimming velocity (performance).
Several different tapers have emerged through trial and error in the pool in combination
with ideas and approaches emanating from sports science and academic research (Figure 1).
The three main types of taper are: the linear taper, exponential (non-linear) taper, and step
taper [19]. The linear taper involves a sequential reduction in training volume or training load
and is probably the most common in elite swimming. Most coaches and swimmers would be
familiar with progressive reductions in total training volume, the volume of individual
training sessions, and main training sets, over the last 2-4 weeks of the season. An

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 The Taper: Physiology, Performance, and Planning 347

exponential or non-linear taper involving a fast or slow constant of decay (reduction) in

training load has also been widely used. A recent meta-analysis grouped the linear and
exponential tapers together as progressive tapers [4]. The step taper involves a sudden
standardised reduction of the training load for the duration of the taper. This form is less
common in the international swimmer, although some older male sprinters have employed
this type of taper with success. Most coaches employ one of these types of taper albeit with
small and subtle variations in the planning or execution stages. It is not uncommon for an
individual swimmer to adjust or refine their taper as they move through their international
careers, particularly if it spans several years.

100

90

80
% of Normal Training

Ex
70 po
n en Lin
ear
Normal Training

ti al
60 T Ta
ap p er
er
(S l
50 ow
De
cay)
40

30
Ste p Taper
20 (i.e . Reduce d Tr aining)
E xpon e
n tial T
ape r (F
10 as t Dec ay
)
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Days of Taper
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Figure 1. Schematic diagram showing the different forms of the taper as a function of the percentage of
normal training and the number of days of the taper [19](reproduced with permission).

The outcome of the studies conducted to date indicates that a fast decay taper is more
likely to enhance subsequent competitive performance than a slow decay taper [2].
Presumably a fast decay taper provides more time for dissipating the fatigue accumulated
during the last few weeks of intensive and extensive training prior to the taper.

2. SCIENTIFIC BASES OF THE TAPER

The physiological and non-physiological bases of tapering in athletes have been explored
in many experimental investigations in the laboratory and field (see reviews [19,21]).
Collectively these investigations have addressed various physiological changes during
observational or controlled trial studies in the areas of cardiorespiratory, metabolic, hormonal,
and neuromuscular responses. Some but not all studies show favourable improvements in
submaximal and maximal cardiorespiratory measures such as oxygen uptake. Junior male and
female swimmers showed between 5 and 17% improvements in the oxygen uptake –

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 348 David B. Pyne and Iñigo Mujika

swimming velocity curve with a 2 to 4 week taper [8]. Another study reported improvements
of 5-8% in the oxygen cost of swimming after 10 to 14 days of tapering in collegiate
swimmers. However, Van Handel and co-workers failed to observe substantial changes in
oxygen cost of highly trained swimmers with a taper [37]. The inaccessibility of oxygen
uptake measurement in routine training limits the application of these experimental findings.
Similarly changes in the muscle function and architecture such as oxidative enzyme
activity, metabolic and contractile properties are thought to underpin taper-induced
improvements in performance. Many of these physiological changes cannot be easily
measured in the field (pool), as coaches and sports scientists are often limited to simple
measures of heart rate and blood lactate [30]. Submaximal heart rates are commonly
measured in swimming yet most studies have failed to demonstrate substantial changes with a
taper [6,8]. Increased peak blood lactate concentration and reduced submaximal blood lactate
concentration obtained with a progressive incremental 7 x 200 m swimming step test are
useful indicators of metabolic adaptations to swimming training both within and between
seasons [1].
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Figure 2. Swim force (SF) and maximal performance (Pmax) improvements after the 11-day taper
period [23] (reproduced with permission).

The taper usually elicits favorable changes in neuromuscular measures such as muscular
strength and power. Strength and power can decline during periods of high volume and
intensity training mid-season but usually recover during the taper. A number of studies using
a swim bench or tethered swimming have demonstrated substantial increases in strength and
power with tapering in swimmers [23] (Figure 2). Swim bench power was improved 18% and
tethered swimming power in the pool improved by 25% in collegiate swimmers after a two
week taper [6]. Similarly a 7-20% increase in swim bench power, a 13% increase in
swimming power, and a 4% enhancement in performance was observed after a three week
taper in collegiate swimmers [34]. No study has investigated the effect of a swimming taper
on elastic properties of skeletal muscle thought to play an important role in sports
performance. Other physiological changes possibly associated with taper-induced

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 The Taper: Physiology, Performance, and Planning 349

performance gains are a positive balance between red blood cell production and destruction as
suggested by observed increases in hematocrit, hemoglobin, haptoglobin, and reticulocyte
counts, and increased anabolic and/or decreased catabolic hormone concentrations [4]. These
changes, however, are not consistently observed during swim taper periods and individual
swimmers‘ responses may be highly variable.
Most people acknowledge that sports performance is influenced by both physiological
and psychological factors. It follows that an effective taper incorporates psychological factors
that promote enhanced training and competition performance. The psychological factors that
contribute to better training likely include control of mood states, perception of effort and
quality of sleep [21] . In general, a taper induces positive changes to an athlete‘s mood state
that accompany reductions in fatigue and enhanced performance. The Profile of Mood State
(POMS) questionnaire has been used to show these changes, particularly in the psycho-
physiological measures of perceived fatigue and vigour [9,16,28]. Positive changes in these
measures correlate with improvements in swimming power [10] and time trial performance
[11]. A reduction in the perception of effort during the taper is certainly welcomed by
swimmers. A number of studies have provided evidence to support these anecdotal reports
from the pool [10]. Other studies indicate that the heart rate – rating of perceived exertion
ratio is a useful practical guide for monitoring the progress of the taper. In cyclists, a 4.5%
decline in this ratio was observed after a 7-day taper where training volume was reduced by
50% and performance enhanced by 5% [22]. Simple measures of heart rate and rating of
perceived exertion are readily available in the field for coaches and swimmers.

3. PERFORMANCE ISSUES
Although a swim taper will most likely elicit some degree of physiological and/or
psychological benefit, a key question is the magnitude of improvement required with training
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

and the taper to substantially enhance performance. Estimates of progression and variability
of athletic performance in competitions are useful for researchers and practitioners interested
in factors that affect performance [26]. A total 676 official race times of 26 US and 25
Australian Olympic swimmers in the 12-month period leading up to the 2000 Olympic Games
were studied retrospectively. To stay in contention for a medal, an Olympic swimmer needs
to improve his or her performance by ~1% within a competition and by ~1% within the year
leading up to the Olympics; and an additional enhancement of ~0.4% (one-half the between-
competition variability) substantially increases a swimmer‘s chances of a medal.
Three studies on tapering have been conducted on progressions in performance and the
influence of the taper in Olympic swimming competitions. The influence of the taper on 99
performances (50 male, 49 female) was analysed at the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games [20].
The overall performance improvement with the final three weeks of the Olympic taper for all
swimmers was 2.2 ± 1.5% (mean ± standard deviation). The pre-Olympic taper elicited a
performance improvement of 2.6% for male and 1.8% for female swimmers. The magnitude
was similar for all competition events, and achieved by swimmers from different countries
and performance levels. These data provide a quantitative framework for coaches and
swimmers to set realistic performance goals based on individual performance levels before
the final training phase leading to important competitions. At the Athens 2004 Olympic

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 350 David B. Pyne and Iñigo Mujika

Games a study of 301 swimmers from 42 countries revealed the mean change in performance
between the Olympic qualification races and Olympic competition was an 0.6 ± 1.3%
impairment [14]. However medallists and finalists improved their performances by 0.35 and
0.12% respectively. Swimmers who were required to take part in formal Olympic selection
trials were more successful than those who were pre-nominated for performance at any
competition [14]. The chances of winning an Olympic swimming medal are seemingly
improved by an effective taper that has been tried and tested under pressure at a major
competition.
Another study examined the relationship between world-ranking and Olympic
performance at the 2000 Olympic Games for 407 top-50 world-ranked swimmers [35].
Analysis of log transformed times yielded within-athlete and between-athlete coefficients of
variation and percent changes in performance from world-rankings to Olympics. Variations
and performance progressions were compared across sex, stroke, distance, nation, and medal
status. Most Olympic medallists (87%) had a top-10 world-ranking. Overall performance time
at the Olympics was slower than world-ranking time by 0.3% (95% confidence limits: 0.2 to
0.4%), medallists improved by 0.6% (95% confidence limits: 0.4 to 0.9%) and non-medallists
swam 0.6% slower (95% confidence limits: 0.5 to 0.7%) [35]. It appears a top-10 ranked
swimmer who can improve performance time by ~0.6% will substantially increase their
chance of an Olympic medal (the difference between first and fourth place). Collectively
these studies of performance progressions for the Olympic Games show that improvements of
between 0.3-5% are required with training and the taper.

4. PLANNING
Swimming coaches typically employ a 12-20 week preparation for competitions and
generally follow the traditional sequence of early season general endurance and preparatory
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phases, mid-season higher volume and intensity training, and the taper prior to the main
competition or competition series. An alternative approach, sometimes referred to as reverse
periodisation, starts the season with a mesocycle of speed rather than general endurance, but
also finishes with a pre-competition taper. In recent years the emergence of the World Short
Course Championships, the FINA World Cup series, and other commercially-sponsored
meets, have added to a busy international swimming calendar. One consequence of this
change is the need for multiple tapers rather than a single or twin-peak season. In the United
States the National Collegiate Association of America (NCAA) has required coaches and
swimmers to maintain competitive fitness or shape for long periods during the well-
established dual meet format. Coaches and swimmers have to be adaptable in their training
and tapering programs to ensure the best possible preparation for the highest priority
competitions.

4.1. Training Volume and Intensity

Training volume (meters per set, meters per session, meters per day, and meters per
week) is the universal measure in contemporary swimming for the prescription and evaluation

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 The Taper: Physiology, Performance, and Planning 351

of training. The reduction of volume in the taper is generally 50-75% of the peak weekly
training volume achieved during the season or preparation [19]. Bosquet and co-workers
showed in their meta-analysis that a reduction of training volume between 40-60% seemed
most effective (Figure 3). Typically this peak occurs some 6-9 weeks prior to the competition
in the mesocycle prior to the commencement of the taper. However, the weekly mean training
volumes (averaged over the season) in most internationally competitive swimmers are: sprint
swimmers in 50 and 100 m events (20-50 km), middle-distance swimmers in 200 and 400 m
events (40-60 km) and distance swimmers (50-70 km) [17,31]. There are probably swimmers
who train outside these limits and individual circumstances need to be considered. On this
basis a 50-75% reduction elicits a final taper week training volume of 5-10 km (sprints), 15-
30 km (middle-distance) and 20-40 km (distance). The different elements that could be
reduced in volume are the warm-up and swim-down (recovery), drills and supplementary
work, and/or the main set within each session. Conventional wisdom holds that the warm-up
and swim-downs are generally maintained in their usual format. Consequently, the elements
most likely to be reduced in volume are the drills and supplementary work and the main set.
For example, the main volume of an endurance set would be reduced from ~2000-3000 m
down to ~800 - 1200 m, and a sprint set from ~600-800 m down to ~300-600 m.
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Figure 3. Dose-response curve for the effect of % decrement in taper volume on the magnitude of the
improvement on competitive performance. The improvement is shown as a standardized effect size
interpreted with the following criteria: <0.2 trivial, 0.2-0.6 small, 0.6-1.2 moderate [4] (reproduced with
permission).

A number of methods have evolved to prescribe training intensity, including the repeat
time of each interval, % of personal best over various race distances, rating of perceived
exertion (RPE), heart rate, blood lactate concentration, and stroke rate. The general consensus
from the exercise literature is that training intensity should be maintained during the taper
period [2,3,5]. Using swimming performance times, primarily maximal effort swims over

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 352 David B. Pyne and Iñigo Mujika

race distances, the level of performance should increase (i.e. a reduction in times as the speed
increases) during the taper. For middle-distance and distance swimmers the improvement is
best monitored as the mean 100 or 200 m time in endurance sets, while for sprinters a timed
dive 25 or 50 m is the most common approach. The expected rate of improvement in interval
time or training intensity is of the order of 5% (with smaller increments of ~1% sought every
few weeks during the major phases of training [25]). For example, a middle-distance freestyle
swimmer might reduce repeat times for quality 100 m intervals (in a set such as 3 x 6 x 100 m
on 1:40 cycle), from 66 to 62 sec per 100 m (an improvement of ~6%). Similarly, a male
sprint swimmer could expect to improve their 50 m maximal effort dive time (in training) by
~1 sec (e.g. from 23.9 to 22.9 sec equivalent to a 4% improvement) over the season. The
coach and sprint swimmer would expect small improvements of 0.1 – 0.2 sec in each phase of
training.

4.2. Training Load and Frequency

Training load is the product of training intensity and training volume (duration). Another
important element to consider is the prescription of dry-land training, and the combined
effects of pool and dry-land training on the pattern of progression in fitness and performance.
While the level of fitness is likely to be more stable (less labile), experience shows that
fatigue and perceptions of fatigue can vary substantially even from day to day during heavy
training and the taper. In contrast to marked reductions in training volume and load the
general approach is to maintain the frequency of training during the taper [2,17]. In our
experience most international swimmers train approximately 8-10 sessions through the main
part of the season. This number is substantially reduced during a 3-4 week taper such that the
final week leading into competition often comprises only 4-5 sessions. The sequencing of
sessions is important so the swimmer doesn‘t have too long a break between sessions. The
number of sessions deleted from the weekly plan will depend on the type of taper employed.
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

A linear taper will generally see one or possibly two sessions per week being dropped. A fast
exponential taper often requires 3 or 4 sessions dropped from the weekly schedule in the first
week. A slow exponential taper would keep the number of sessions the same until the very
last week of the taper.
The major influence of manipulating the above training variables was confirmed in a
recent meta-analysis [4], which indicated that performance improvement was more sensitive
to reductions in training volume than manipulation of other training variables. After
controlling for all other variables, a reduction in training volume elicited a moderate (effect
size 0.72 ± 0.36 (mean ±95% confidence limits) improvement in performance (Table 1). This
magnitude of improvement was approximately twice that of modifying training intensity
(0.33 ± 0.14) or training frequency (0.35 ± 0.17) [4]. The practical application of these
findings is that coaches should give the highest priority to prescription of training volume
during the taper. The reduction in training volume is likely to have a moderate, but
meaningful effect on performance, whereas modifying training intensity or training frequency
have only a small effect.

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 The Taper: Physiology, Performance, and Planning 353

Table 1. Effects of moderator variables on effect size for taper-induced changes

in performance

Categories Effect Size p-value

± 95% CI
Decrease in training volume
< 20% -0.02 ± 0.30 0.88
21-40% 0.27 ± 0.23 0.02
41-60% 0.72 ± 0.36 0.0001
>60% 0.27 ± 0.30 0.07
Decrease in training intensity
Yes -0.02 ± 0.35 0.91
No 0.33 ± 0.14 0.0001
Decrease in training frequency
Yes 0.24 ± 0.27 0.08
No 0.35 ± 0.17 0.0001
Duration of the taper
<7 d 0.17 ± 0.22 0.14
8-14 d 0.59 ± 0.23 0.0005
15-21 d 0.28 ± 0.30 0.07
> 22 d 0.31 ± 0.45 0.18
Pattern of the taper
Step taper 0.42 ± 0.53 0.12
Progressive taper 0.30 ± 0.14 0.0001
Effect size: trivial <0.2; small 0.2-0.6; moderate 0.6-1.2
(Bosquet et al. 2007. reproduced with permission)

Table 2. Summary of tapering studies in swimming showing the magnitude

of improvements in time trial or competitive performance as a function of
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

the duration of taper (days).

Study Taper duration Performance measure Range of

(days) Improvement in (%)
Costill et al. 1985 [6] 14 days 50-1650 yard competition 2.2-4.6%
Cavanaugh & Musch 1989 [5] 28 days 50-1650 yard competition 2.0-3.8%
Costill et al. 1991 [7] 14-21 days Competition ≈3.2%
D‘Acquisto et al. 1992 [8] 14-28 days 100, 400 m time trial 4.0-8.0%
Johns et al. 1992 [15] 10-14 days 50-400 yard competition 2.0-3.7%
Flynn et al. 1994 [10] 21 days 25, 400 yard time trial ≈3%
Mujika et al. 1996 [17] 28 days 100-200 m competition 0.4-4.9%
Raglin et al. 1996 [27] 28-35 days competition 2.0%
Taylor et al. 1997 [32] Not reported competition 1.3%
Hooper et al. 1998[ 32] 14 days 100, 400 m time trial Unchanged
Hooper et al. 1999 [12] 14 days 100 m time trial Unchanged
Bonifazi et al. 2000 [3] 14-21 days 100-400 m competition 1.5-2.1%
Trappe et al. 2001 [35] 21 days competition 3.0-4.7%
Trinity et al. 2006 [36] 21days 50-1500 m competition 4.5%
Papoti et al. 2007 [23] 11 days 200 m time trial 1.6%

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 354 David B. Pyne and Iñigo Mujika

4.3. Duration of the Taper

The length or duration of the taper is generally defined in the number of days or weeks
[4,19]. Given that most coaches use the training week (microcycle) as the basic unit of
training prescription, it follows that taper is described as ‗x‘ days or weeks in length. The
duration of the taper for a major swimming competition such as the Olympic Games or World
Championships is typically 2-4 weeks or 14-28 days (Table 2). Conventional wisdom in the
swimming community holds that sprint swimmers enjoy a longer taper than their distance
counterparts that males need a longer taper than females, and swimmers short of fitness need
a shorter taper if they are still building fitness in the final few weeks of the preparation.
However, there is no scientific evidence to support these contentions. At the elite level for an
individual swimmer, it is problematic to simply apply these recommendations without
experimentation, and taper programming depends largely on individual rates of adaptation
[17].

4.4. New Perspectives

Mathematical modeling and computer simulations can be used to describe and make
predictions about the consequences of tapering strategies used by highly trained athletes.
Simulations of the performance outcomes of given training manipulations, or the necessary
training input for a desired performance output allow to gain insight into new taper planning
strategies [23,27,28]. The simulations are based on model parameters obtained from real
training and performance data. This theoretical approach shows promise and could be a useful
preliminary step to assess the theoretical consequences of a tapering intervention. However
real-life experimental manipulations will always be needed to confirm, modifty or reject the
predictions made through mathematical modeling.
Traditional training reduction strategies during the taper, whether linear, exponential or
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

step, are characterized by their single phase design. However, insight gained from
mathematical modelling on the effects of the taper on athletes‘ adaptation suggests that
―complex‖ taper designs could be at least as efficient as traditional approaches [4]. A recent
mathematical modelling study indicated that an alternative tapering strategy consisting of an
advanced reduction in the training load followed by a subsequent increase in the lead-up to
competition could be an effective method to optimize performance. The rationale behind this
tapering design is that the swimmer would take advantage of reduced fatigue levels to
enhance training tolerance and respond effectively to the training undertaken during the taper
[33]. Using computer simulations, Thomas, et al. [33] recently tested the hypothesis that a
two-phase taper characterized by a final increase in the training load during the final three
days of the taper is more effective than a traditional linear taper, and concluded that a 20-30%
load increase during those final three days would optimize performance. This outcome would
be achieved through additional adaptations elicited by enhanced training, without
compromising the elimination of residual fatigue. As mentioned previously, this prediction
needs of course to be verified experimentally.

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 The Taper: Physiology, Performance, and Planning 355

4.5. Implementation and Evaluation of the Training and Tapering Program

The planning of the taper is initially part of the process of preparing the annual or season
training plan, complemented by adjustments made to the program (often on individual basis
for elite level swimmers) on a week-by-week or session-by-session basis. The specific nature
of the training program will depend on the age and experience of the swimmer, the initial
fitness level at the start of the season, the need for technical improvement to stroke
mechanics, access to training equipment, facilities and venues, access to specialist sports
science and sports medicine support, and the time that can be allocated to pool and dry-land
training. The evaluation of the training should involve both fitness and performance testing.
Fitness tests using standardised testing protocols specific for sprint, middle-distance and
distance swimmers can be completed at key milestones through the season [24].
Improvements in technique can be monitored with video analysis [29]. Progression in
performance can be assessed with a combination of routine training sets, time trials in
training, and race performance in major and minor competitions. The coach, senior level
swimmer and scientist can all be involved in the planning, execution and review of the
training program and taper.

5. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
 The expected magnitude of improvement in competitive performance with an
effective taper is ~0.3-5%. The magnitude of individual response can vary
substantially within a squad.
 The three primary types of taper are the linear taper (systematic reduction in training
volume and load), exponential taper (with either a fast or slow decay), and the step
taper (substantial initial reduction in training volume and load).

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The intensity of training during the taper is typically maintained.

 The typical reduction in training volume is ~50-75% of the peak volume achieved
during the training season.
 Tapers should be individualized according to the specific circumstances and
adaptation profiles of swimmers, which may or may not depend on age, experience,
fitness, and specific event.
 The coach, senior level swimmer, and scientist should all be involved in the
planning, execution and review of the training program and taper.

CONCLUSION
The taper forms the final part of the training program prior to a major national or
international swimming competition. The taper aims to enhance competitive performance by
reducing the degree of residual fatigue and optimizing physiological capacities. Coaches
should identify, implement and evaluate the effectiveness of various types of taper, and
individualize the frequency, intensity and volume of training in the last 2-4 weeks prior to
competition. A taper for a given swimmer should reflect their specific circumstances and

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 356 David B. Pyne and Iñigo Mujika

adaptation profile, which may or may not depend on age, experience, fitness, and the specific
event. A successful taper should elicit an improvement between 0.3 and 5.0% in competitive
performance. Some of the physiological and non-physiological bases for the taper have been
studied and described, but others require further investigation.

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[1] Anderson, M., Hopkins, W., Roberts, A. and Pyne, D. (2008). Ability of test measures
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[2] Banister, E. W., Cartner, J. B. and Zarkadas, P. C. (1999). Training theory and taper:
validation in triathlon athletes. Eur J Appl Physiol, 79, 182-191.
[3] Bonifazi, M., Sardella, F. and Lupo, C. (2000). Preparatory versus main competitions:
differences in performances, lactate responses and pre-competition plasma cortisol
concentrations in elite male swimmers. Eur J Appl Physiol, 82, 368-373.
[4] Bosquet, L., Montpetit, J., Arvisais, D. and Mujika, I. (2007). Effects of tapering on
performance: a meta-analysis. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 39, 1358-1365.
[5] Cavanaugh, D. J. and Musch, K. I. (1989). Arm and leg power of elite swimmers
increase after taper as measured by biokinetics variable resistance machines. J Swim
Res, 5, 7-10.
[6] Costill, D. L., King, D. S. and Thomas, R. (1985). Effects of reduced training on
muscular power in swimmers. Phys Sportsmed, 13, 94-101.
[7] Costill, D. L., Thomas, R. and Robergs, R. A. (1991). Adaptations to swimming
training: influence of training volume. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 23, 371-377.
[8] D'Acquisto, L. J., Bone, M., Takahashi, S., Langhans, G., Barzdukas, A. P. and Troup,
J. P. (1992). Changes in aerobic power and swimming economy as a result of reduced
training volume. Swim Science, VI, 201-205.
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[9] Faude, O., Meyer, T., Scharhag, J., Urhausen, A. and Kindermann, W. (2008). Volume
vs. intensity in the training of competitive swimmers. Int J Sports Med, 29, 906-912.
[10] Flynn, M. G., Pizza, F. X. and Boone J. B. (1994). Indices of training stress during
competitive running and swimming seasons. Int J Sports Med, 15, 21-26.
[11] Hooper, S. L., Mackinnon, L. T. and Ginn, E. (1998). Effects of three tapering
techniques on the performance, forces and psychometric measures of competitive
swimmers. Eur J Appl Physiol, 78, 258-263.
[12] Hooper, S. L., Mackinnon, L. T. and Howard, A. (1999). Physiological and
psychometric variables for monitoring recovery during tapering for major competition.
Med Sci Sports Exerc, 31, 1205-1210.
[13] Houmard, J. A. and Johns, R. A. (1994). Effects of taper on swim performance.
Practical implications. Sports Med, 17, 224-232.
[14] Issurin, V., Kaufman, L., Lustig, G. and Tenebaum, G. (2008). Factors affecting peak
performance in the swimming competition at the Athens Olympic Games. Journal of
Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 48, 1-8.
[15] Johns, R. A., Houmard, J. A. and Kobe, R. W. (1992). Effects of taper on swim power,
stroke distance and performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 24, 1141-1146.

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[16] Morgan, W. P., Brown, D. R. and Raglin, J. S. (1987). Psychological monitoring of

overtraining and staleness. Brit J Sports Med, 21, 107-114.
[17] Mujika, I., Chatard, J. C. and Busso, T. (1996). Modeled responses to training and taper
in competitive swimmers. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 28, 251-258.
[18] Mujika, I. and Padilla, S. (2000). Detraining: loss of training-induced physiological and
performance adaptations. Part II: long term insufficient training stimulus. Sports Med,
30, 145-154.
[19] Mujika, I. and Padilla, S. (2003). Scientific bases for precompetition tapering strategies.
Med Sci Sports Exerc, 35, 1182-1187.
[20] Mujika, I., Padilla, S. and Pyne, D. (2002). Swimming performance changes during the
final 3 weeks of training leading to the Sydney 200 Olympic Games. Int J Sports Med,
23, 582-587.
[21] Mujika, I., Padilla, S., Pyne, D. and Busso, T. (2004). Physiological changes associated
with the pre-event taper in athletes. Sports Med, 34, 891-927.
[22] Neary, J. P., Bhambani, Y. N. and McKenzie, D. C. (2003). Effects of different
stepwise reduction taper protocols on cycling performance. Can J Appl Physiol, 28,
576-587.
[23] Papoti, M., Martins, L. E., Cunha, S. A., Zagatto, A. M. and Gobatto, C. A. (2007).
Effects of taper on swimming force and swimmer performance after an experimental
ten-week training program. J Str Res Cond, 21, 538-542.
[24] Pyne, D. B., Goldsmith, W. G. and Maw, G. J. (2000). Swimming. in C. J. Gores,
Physiological testing of the elite athlete. Human Kinetics, Champaign,
[25] Pyne, D. B., Lee, H. and Swanwick, K. (2001). Monitoring the lactate threshold in
world-ranked swimmers. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 33, 291-297.
[26] Pyne, D. B., Trewin, C. and Hopkins, W. G. (2004). Progression and variability in
competitive performance of Olympic swimmers. J Sports Sci, 22, 613.
[27] Raglin, J. S., Koceja, D. M., Stager, J. M. and Harms, C. A. (1996). Mood,
neuromuscular function and performance during training in female swimmers. Med Sci
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Sports Exerc, 28, 327-377.

[28] Raglin, J. S., Morgan, W. P. and O'Connor, P. J. (1991). Changes in mood states during
training in female and male collegiate swimmers. Int J Sports Med, 12, 585-589.
[29] Seifert, L. and Chollet, D. (2008). Modelling spatial-temporal and coordinative
parameters in swimming. J Sci Med Sport, Jun 9. (Epub ahead of print),
[30] Sharp, R. L., Vitelli, C. A., Costill, D. L. and Thomas, R. (1984). Comparison between
blood lactate and heart rate profiles during a season of competitive swim training. J
Swim Res, 1, 17-20.
[31] Stewart, A. M. and Hopkins, W. G. (2000). Seasonal training and performance of
competitive swimmers. J Sports Sci, 18, 873-884.
[32] Taylor, S. R., Rogers, G. G. and Driver, H. S. (1997). Effects of training volume on
sleep, psychological, and selected physiological profiles of elite female swimmers. Med
Sci Sports Exerc, 29, 688-693.
[33] Thomas, L., Mujika, I. and Busso, T. (2008). A model study of optimal training
reduction during pre-event taper in elite swimmers. J Sports Sci, 26, 643-652.
[34] Trappe, S., Costill, D. L. and Thomas, R. (2000). Effect of swim taper on whole muscle
and single fiber contractile properties. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 32, 48-56.

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 358 David B. Pyne and Iñigo Mujika

[35] Trewin, C. B., Pyne, D. B. and Hopkins, W. G. (2004). Relationship between world-
ranking and Olympic performance of swimmers. J Sports Sci, 22, 339-345.
[36] Trinity, J. D., Pahnke, M. D., Reese, E. C. and Coyle, E. F. (2006). Maximal
mechanical power during a taper in elite swimmers. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 38, 1643-
1649.
[37] Van Handel, P. J., Katz, A. and Troup, J. P. (1988). Oxygen consumption and blood
lactic acid response to training and taper. in B. E. Ungerechts, K. Reischle , & K.
Wilkes, Swimming Science V. Human Kinetics, Champaign, 269-275.
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

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 In: World Book of Swimming: From Science to Performance ISBN: 978-1-61668-202-6
Editors: L. Seifert, D. Chollet and I.Mujika ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 18

TRAINING LOAD AND PERFORMANCE IN SWIMMING

Jean-Claude Chatard1 and Andrew M Stewart2

Laboratoire de Physiologie Clinique et de l‘Exercice,
1

Faculté de Médecine de Saint-Etienne, France,

2
Department of Osteopathy, Faculty of Social and Health Sciences Unitec New Zealand

ABSTRACT
More than three quarters of all competitive swimming events are completed in less
than two and a half minutes by athletes of at least national class. To prepare for these
events, coaches manipulate training load (usually described as a combination of volume,
intensity, frequency, and dry-land training) at various times of the season in an attempt to
prepare their swimmers to peak just at the right time. Leading into competition, there is
usually a phase of high load training followed by some kind of tapering (reduced load)
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program. Scientific data support bigger performance gains through a program based on
high intensity and low volume prior to a high-load phase and taper phase leading into
competition. Individual athletes will respond differently to such fluctuations in training
load and will depend on parameters such as training status at the time and performance
level. Individual responses can be monitored using simple observational or monitoring
techniques, regression analysis, or with the help of a systems model. These analytical
processes may be useful tools to establish individualized training programs.

Key words: fatigue, fitness, taper, super compensation, mathematical model

1. INTRODUCTION
Most competitive swimming events are completed in a relatively short period of time
(less than two and a half minutes by athletes of national standard or better). Preparation for
competing in these events usually involves varying the training load at various times during
the season to have the swimmer peak at the desired moment. This training load is usually
described as a combination of volume swum, intensity of effort, frequency of workout, and
dry-land training (30). The premise of most traditional coaching programmes has been to lay

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 360 Jean-Claude Chatard and Andrew M Stewart

down an initial base of fitness at the start of the season, then to gradually increase the training
load to accelerate fitness gains and stress the athlete to a point close to breakdown, then to
back off the training load through a tapering phase that allows recovery in time for optimum
performance at the chosen competition. The aim of this chapter is twofold: First, to discuss
the most effective combination of each of the factors contributing to training load during
various phases of the season that may lead to an optimum enhancement in performance.
Second, to indicate that training load and performance data can be useful tools for estimating
the individual adaptation profiles either by means of simple observations, statistical analyses,
or a systems model.

2. MEASUREMENT OF TRAINING LOAD

Training load is ultimately the combination of volume swum, intensity of effort,
frequency of workout, and dry-land training. The volume of training undertaken by elite
swimmers ranges usually from around 10-12 km.d-1 during light-load periods up to 15-20
km.d-1 during high-load phases over either two or three sessions per day (11, 25, and 48).

80

I Speed < B.L.A.T .

70
II Speed = B.L.A.T .
% of total swimming distance

III Speed > B.L.A.T .

15
IV Lactic swimming
V Sprint swimming
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10

0
I II III IV V
T raining Intensity

Figure 1. Mean ± SD percentage of total swimming distance covered at each intensity level (30).

For example, it has been reported that the Sydney and Athens 1500 m Olympic
Champion, Grant Hackett, swam between 2400 km and 2800 km per year from 1995 to 2004.
Training intensity has been measured in several ways; including heart rate, oxygen uptake,
swim pace, percent effort, and blood lactate concentration. The most valid and reliable of
these measures appears to be swimming pace as most physiologically-based measures are too
slow to react to non steady-state conditions. One exception appears to be the use of blood

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 Training Load and Performance in Swimming 361

lactate concentration, even though its response time to changing intensity is somewhat slow
(minutes). Several authors have used such a measure to beneficial effect during progressive
incremental step tests (16, 30, and 35). In particular, Mujika et al. (30) have defined five
ranges of blood lactate concentration: intensity I is swimming speed close to 2 mM; intensity
II is speed close to 4 mM; intensity III speed close to 6 mM; intensity IV highly lactic
swimming (10 mM); and intensity V maximal intensity sprint swimming. Training frequency
can be quantified either by the number of training sessions or the number of half days of rest.
One hour dry-land training has been empirically considered equivalent to 1 km swum at
intensity I, 0.5 km at intensity IV, and 0.5 km at intensity V using a stress index scale of
training load and blood lactate concentration over different training sets (30).
Using the above training load factors, Mujika et al. (30) measured a mean (± SD) training
volume of 1126 ± 222 km, a training frequency of 316 ± 44 half days of rest (range from 264
to 370), and 1108 ± 828 min (range from 0 to 2415) of dry-land training in a group of 18
international French swimmers for a complete season of training. The percentages of the total
distance covered over the season at each intensity are presented in Figure 1.

3. VOLUME OF TRAINING AND PERFORMANCE

In competitive swimming, it is generally assumed, though unsubstantiated, that
improvements in strength and endurance are proportional to the volume of work performed
during training (14). It is the general belief (particularly among coaches) that increased
volume produces an adaptive response that directly leads to an improvement in performance.
This belief is indoctrinated in most swim coaches to the extent that a progressive increase in
training volumes over years is the norm. For example, from 1968 to 1980, a regular increase
in training volume from around 1,300-1,700 km per year to around 1,900-3,500 km was
observed for elite swimmers (33). In contrast to this approach, the French Swimming
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Academy recommends an increase in volume only as the swimmer matures, but beyond such
an age there is a ‗ceiling effect‘ when other factors (primarily intensity) become more the
focus to provide the training stimulus (Table 1).

Table 1. Recommended daily and weekly training volume for age groups swimmers

10 years 11-12 years 13-14 years 15-16 years > 17 years

daily 3.5 - 4 km 4 - 4.5 km 4.5 - 5.5 km 5.5 - 10 km 6 - 10 km
weekly 20 km 25 km 30 km 35-40 km 45 - 60 km

Rigorous scientific investigation over the last 20 years or so, has questioned this volume-
based philosophy. In 1995, Mujika et al. (30) found that training volume, ranging from 749
km to 1475 km for a season did not significantly correlate with performance in 18
international sprint swimmers. Stewart and Hopkins (42) followed the training practices of 24
highly-qualified coaches and 185 of their national age-group swimmers over two consecutive
seasons. This study concluded that periodization of training and differences in training
between sprint and middle-distance events were broadly in accord with principles of
specificity, but that strong effects of specificity of training on performance were not apparent.
Stewart and Hopkins (42) also noted that the majority of training for most of the season was

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 362 Jean-Claude Chatard and Andrew M Stewart

freestyle-based (on average from 46% to 62%), which is counterintuitive to stroke or distance
speciality (43). This result highlights the practice of ‗filler mileage‘ within training
prescription (additional slow to moderate pace swimming to make up the target volume for
the session). Costill et al. (14) investigated the effects of doubling training volume for a group
of swimmers from 5 km.d-1 to 9.4 km.d-1 for six weeks, while another group continued to
train normally. The results showed that the larger training volumes neither increased aerobic
or anaerobic capacities, while maximal sprinting velocity and performance were decreased.
Moreover, a 50% reduction in training volume (4.5 km.d-1 vs 8.7 km.d-1) over two
competitive seasons resulted in improved swimming power and performance, with no
changes in VO2max or blood lactate concentration after a standardized swim (11). In a more
recent study (15), Faude et al. implemented a randomized cross-over trial of 10 weeks.
During this time national-level age-group swimmers performed a four-week period consisting
of either high-volume or high-intensity workouts. The intervention period was then followed
by an identical taper in each group. Results clearly showed no advantageous effect of
additional volume on performance in 100m or 400m swims and similar performance gains
were noted for both groups three months post-study. Taken together, these results agree with
previously reported data concerning the influence of training volume on the adaptation to
training in competitive swimmers (11, 12, 13, and 24). In all these studies, the authors suggest
that in highly trained swimmers, increased volume ultimately loses its capacity to stimulate
adaptation beyond some critical training threshold, while training intensity becomes the key
parameter to produce a further positive response.
It might be concluded from previous observations that low intensity training is not useful
for short distance swimmers. It may be possible that a high volume of low intensity training
could improve the recovery process and thus make high intensity training easier to tolerate
(39), however, such a possibility has yet to be rigorously studied. Gliding ability in the water
could also be developed with increased low intensity training, with a consequent reduction in
the energy cost of swimming (9, 39).
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After several weeks or months of high volume training, a short period of gradually
reduced training load of around two to four weeks (taper) results in vastly improved
performances (11, 22, 25, and 28). Mujika, et al. (30) found that the reduction in training
volume during the taper was related to performance improvements (Figure 2A). Studies by
Stewart et al. (41) and Stewart and Hopkins (42) found similar results. The key question here
relates to what aspect(s) of overall training load should be reduced. Banister and Calvert (5)
indicated that training impulse engenders fitness states, but also fatigue that limits the
performance. As fatigue has a shorter time constant than fitness, reducing the quantity of
training over the tapering period improves the performance as the body learns to
―supercompensate‖ in a classical biological adaptive response. It is suggested that the key
element of training load that has to be retained is that of intensity to maintain fitness levels.
The overall load could still be reduced by a combination of less frequency and lower
volumes. The ‗art‘ of coaching is to manipulate this load to suit the individual needs of the
swimmer and in time for peak performance to occur at the desired moment at the end of the
taper (45).

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 Training Load and Performance in Swimming 363

% Improvement in Performance
6 11

% Change in Performance
A B
r = 0.69
4 9 P < 0.01
N = 18

7
2 r = 0.61
P < 0.01
n = 17 5
0
5 15 25 35 45 1.42 1.47 1.52 1.57 1.62
% reduction in training volume during taper MIT S (arbitrary units)

Figure 2. A - Relationship between the improvement in performance and the percentage reduction in
training volume (mean pre-taper weekly volume vs. mean weekly volume during the taper) during a 3-
week taper. B - Relationship between the improvement in performance throughout the follow-up
training season and the mean intensity of training, MITS (30).

FS=12
Volume
Performance (% pace)
FS=25 (Arbitrary unit)
105 30
FS=30

101 25

20
97 Overreaching
Overtraining
15
93
10
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89 5

85 0

1 7 13 19 25 31 37 43 49 55 61

2002 Weeks 2003

Figure 3. Simple
Figure recording
3. Simple of the performances
recording and volumes
of the performances of training,
and volumes measured
of training, during normal
measured during
trainingnormal
sessions and averaged
training sessionsper
andweek (10). FS
averaged per=week
Fatigue Score.
(10). FS =When over
Fatigue 20 points,
Score. Whenitover
indicates
20 a
state ofpoints,
fatigue.itThese measurements
indicates allowed These
a state of fatigue. to distinguish a 3-wk allowed
measurements overreaching period (weeks
to distinguish a 3-wk19-21)
period period
and an 11-wk overtraining (weeks (weeks
19-21) and an 11-wk overtraining period (weeks 35-45).
35-45).

Tapering periods from four to 28 days may be linear or by steps (22, 28). A 14-day taper
consisting of a progressive reduction in swimming training volume from about 9 km.day-1 to
about 3 km.day-1 resulted in increased power on both a biokinetic swim bench (17.7%) and a
power swim apparatus (24.6%). The taper had no influence on acid-base balance after a
standardized 183-m swim and competition performance times improved by an average of
3.1% (9). Improvements in muscular power (≈ 5%) and performance (≈ 3%) after two to four

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 364 Jean-Claude Chatard and Andrew M Stewart

weeks of reduced volume taper have also been reported in other studies concerning
competitive swimmers (8, 14, and 22).
A number of different methods have been utilized to monitor individual responses to
training loads. These methods have included various enzyme markers, monitoring immune
status, endocrine assays, and heart rate variability (18, 36, and 34). None of these markers
though seem to temporally track training status and performance as accurately as the
swimmers‘ psychological response. As a consequence, regular and brief questionnaires of
fatigue and mood states may help to quantify the tolerance of swimmers to training (Table 2).
Such questionnaires have been demonstrated to relate to variations of training and
performance (10, 18, and 19) and are considered better markers than physiological assays. An
example of the use of such monitoring can be found in Figure 3.

Table 2. Description of the eight items of the questionnaire of fatigue in English, Arabic,
and French. A total score over 20 points indicates a state of fatigue (10).
Answer the 8 questions: The previous week….. ....‫ األسبىع المبضي‬:‫أجب عه األسئلة الحبلية‬
Repondre aux 8 questions: Cette semaine …

Rating Scale
No. Questions ____________________________________
‫األسئلة‬ No Average Yes
I found training more difficult than usual
1. ‫أجد أن الحدريب أكثر صعىبة مه المعحبد‬ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
J‘ai trouvé l‘entraînement plus difficile
I slept more ‫أوبم أكثر‬
2. J‘ai plus dormi 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
My legs felt heavy ‫شعرت بأن أرجلي ثقيلة‬
3. seM jambes étaient plus lourdes 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
I caught cold/infection/flue ‫ الزكبم‬/‫أصبث ببلبرد‬
4. J‘ai attrapé froid ou eu une infection 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
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My concentration was poorer than usual

5. ‫قدرجي على الحركيز كبوث أقل مه المعحبد‬ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Ma concentration était plus difficile
I worked less efficiently than usual
6. ‫عملي كبن أقل كفبءي عه المعحبد‬ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
J‘ai travaillé moins efficacement
I felt more anxious or irritable than usual
7. ‫شعرت ببلقلق والحىجر أكثر مه المعحبد‬ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Je me suis senti plus anxieux et irritable
I had more stress at home, school, training
8. ‫ أثىبء الحدريب‬،‫ المدرسة‬،‫شعرت ببإلجهبد في البيث‬ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
J‘ai été plus stressé à la maison ou à l‘école

4. INTENSITY OF TRAINING AND PERFORMANCE

Mujika et al. (30) found that mean intensity of the training season was the major
parameter influencing the improvement in performance throughout the season (Figure. 2B), in
international sprint swimmers. This relationship is in accordance with previous reports

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 Training Load and Performance in Swimming 365

indicating that the intensity of training is the key factor in producing a training effect in well-
trained athletes (1, 27, 32, and 38). Different experimental results suggest that specific high
intensity anaerobic training could be included in the training programs for short distance
swimmers; especially early to mid-season in preparation for the high-load phase prior to the
taper. When an exercise lasts from around one to two minutes (most 100m and 200m
swimming events), the relative part of anaerobic energy release varies approximately between
35% and 60% (26). It is questionable, however, whether this possibility could be extended to
apply to swimmers of longer distances (e.g. 400m, 800m, and 1500m), since training volume
could be much more important for those swimmers than for the short distance swimmers.
During the taper, maintenance of training intensity appears to be necessary to avoid
detraining, provided that reductions in other training characteristics allow sufficient recovery
to optimize performance (28). However, the taper should not be considered the time to
increase the total sprinting distance. As other components of training load (i.e. frequency and
volume) are reduced, the absolute amount of sprinting must be reduced during the taper in
order to allow time for recovery (25). The subtlety in the art of effective tapering is that the
percent of total training volume prescribed as high-intensity training may actually increase up
to (but not beyond) some critical threshold for the individual swimmer (41, 45).
Van Handel and co-workers (48) studied a group of elite swimmers during 60 days of
long-course training and 20 days of taper. Training volume dropped from 11 km.day-1 to 2.5
km.day-1 during the taper, while training intensity was held constant or increased. They
observed an absolute increase in V O2max and a shift to the right of the blood lactate versus
swimming velocity curve during training, with no further significant changes during the taper,
but a non significant curve shift back to the left. Based on their own data and previously
reported results (mainly those of Costill‘s group), these authors suggested that the absolute
volume of high-intensity training may also be reduced to further optimize the effects of taper
by allowing adequate rest and recovery. Unfortunately, data on swimming performance
during the different phases of training were not reported in the study.
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5. TRAINING PRESCRIPTION AND COMPLIANCE

There are a variety of means to prescribe and monitor training load. Volume swum,
number of repetitions, rest intervals, and frequency of training are straightforward (Figure 4),
but the intensity of training is somewhat problematic. Most physiological measures take
several minutes to attain steady state, whereas most swim training is conducted using repeat
short bouts (interval training) so the interval is usually completed before physiology has
accurately ‗tracked‘ the intensity. Incremental blood lactate step tests have been used (2, 3,
and 30) that work well, but the exact mechanism of how such a measure tracks non-steady
state intensity is little understood. Indeed, in the studies by Anderson et al. (2, 3) and Pyne et
al. (35), it was reported that while physiological monitoring was shown to be a useful means
to track performance during test sets, there was little relationship between the use of such
blood lactate testing and competition performance. Furthermore, it appears that only large
changes in competition performance are able to be predicted through the use of physiologic
monitoring and/or training prescription (2, 3, 30, and 42).

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 366 Jean-Claude Chatard and Andrew M Stewart

© 2001 A M Stewart & W G Hopkins training for… type

1 = sprint 1= 50 1 = even pace
Recording Form for a Set of Swimming Reps 2 = m.d. 2= 100 2 = alt
3 = desc
3 = both 3= 200
4= 400 4 = asc
1= free 5 = bro
Place: ______________________ Coach: ______________________ 5 = 800
2= fly 6 = pickup
6 = 1500
3= back 7 = paddles
4= breast 8 = fins
Swimmer: ______________________ Date: _________________ 9 = pads+fins
5= IM
97 = kick (no fins)
98 = kick (fins)
training for… prescription 99 = other
coach swimmer 1,2,3 free fly back breast IM no. of reps distance type

A X
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

rep no. stroke distance interval split rest split rest Px min:sec or ON min:sec intensity (%) or R,H,M,E PB for distance (or 400m)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

Figure 4. Part of a data coding sheet to quantify training (40).

From a practical point of view, training pace is a good (arguably the most valid) marker
of training intensity (47). In such a case, the best method for quantifying training is direct
observation of swimmers (40). An example of how to use training pace can be seen in Figure
5. Even though there exists a substantial body of knowledge relating to popular training
prescription and substantial evidence calling for greater application of the principles of
specificity in training, there is little mention in the literature of the compliance of swimmers
and coaches to such training practices and scientific intervention. One such study of
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

compliance (40) found that swimmers adhere closely to all aspects of training load, except
intensity. Considering that this aspect of training is arguably the most crucial, such a result is
somewhat of a concern. Similarly, coaches do not appear to comply strongly with scientific
intervention (41). Until coaches comply with the application of scientific interventions and
swimmers comply with training prescription, the effects of studies investigating the impact of
specificity on swim performance will remain somewhat unclear.

6. INDIVIDUAL RESPONSE TO TRAINING

The individual response to training depends, to a great extent, on the level of fitness and
practice of the subjects. Mujika et al. (30) found a highly significant correlation between the
initial level of performance and the improvement in performance during the season (Figure
6A). Furthermore, the percentage loss in performance between the end of the previous season
and the beginning of the new season was significantly different for the swimmers that
improved their personal best times (fast) than for the others (slow, Figure 6B). No significant
differences existed in training volume, intensity, frequency or dry-land training between
groups. From these results, it could be suggested that in spite of good adaptation to training,

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 Training Load and Performance in Swimming 367

the best performance achieved depended less on the effects of training than on the influence
of previous detraining. However, the reason why some swimmers were more detrained than
others was not explored.

CURRENT VERY HARD HARD MODERATE

PB 99% 98% 97% 96% 94% 92% 90% 88% 86% 84%
20 20.2 20.6 20.6 20.8 21.2 21.6 22.0 22.4 22.8 23.2
22 22.2 22.4 22.7 22.9 23.3 23.8 24.2 24.6 25.1 25.5
24 24.2 24.5 24.7 25.0 25.4 25.9 26.4 26.9 27.4 27.8
26 26.3 26.5 26.8 27.0 27.6 28.1 28.6 29.1 29.6 30.2
28 28.3 28.6 28.8 29.1 29.7 30.2 30.8 31.4 31.9 32.5
30 30.3 30.6 30.9 31.2 31.8 32.4 33.0 33.6 34.2 34.8
32 32.3 32.6 33.0 33.3 33.9 34.6 35.2 35.8 36.5 37.1
34 34.3 34.7 35.0 35.4 36.0 36.7 37.4 38.1 38.8 39.4
36 36.4 36.7 37.1 37.4 38.2 38.9 39.6 40.3 41.0 41.8
38 38.4 38.8 39.1 39.5 40.3 41.0 41.8 42.6 43.3 44.1
40 40.4 40.8 41.2 41.6 42.4 43.2 44.0 44.8 45.6 46.4
42 42.4 42.8 43.3 43.7 44.5 45.4 46.2 47.0 47.9 48.7
44 44.4 44.9 45.3 45.8 46.6 47.5 48.4 49.3 50.2 51.0
46 46.5 46.9 47.4 47.8 48.8 49.7 50.6 51.5 52.4 53.4
48 48.5 49.0 49.4 49.9 50.9 51.8 52.8 53.8 54.7 55.7
50 50.5 51.0 51.5 52.0 53.0 54.0 55.0 56.0 57.0 58.0
52 52.5 53.0 53.6 54.1 55.1 56.2 57.2 58.2 59.3 1.00
54 54.5 55.1 55.6 56.2 57.2 58.3 59.4 1.00 1.02 1.03
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56 56.6 57.1 57.7 58.2 59.4 1.00 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05
58 58.6 59.2 1.00 1.00 1.01 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07

Figure 5. Part of a pace chart used for prescribing and monitoring intensity (40).
% of Best Performance 91

11 105
r = 0.90 ***
Performance 92

9 P < 0.001
100
% Change in

N = 18 **
7 95

5 A fast
90 B
slow
86 90 94 98 85
Initial performance 92 Best 91 Initial 92 Best 92
(% of best 91)

Figure 6. Relationship between the improvement in performance throughout a follow-up training

season, the initial performance (A) and the best of the previous season (B) (30).

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 368 Jean-Claude Chatard and Andrew M Stewart

Individual adaptation profiles can be estimated from swimming training and performance
data either by means of simple and stepwise regression analysis or with the help of a systems
model. Mujika et al. (29) used regression analysis to indicate that for some swimmers, several
training variables were correlated with a decline in swimming performance, while for other
swimmers these relationships were very scant. This observation could indicate that the former
swimmers had a higher sensitivity to the training stimulus than the latter. The analysis of the
relationships between the training variables and the variations in performance for each
swimmer could thus be a helpful tool for coaches and swimmers in order to establish
individualized training programs based on individual adaptation profiles, especially during
periods of taper. Avalos et al. (4) and Hellard et al. (17) used mixed linear modelling instead
of the accepted Bannister (6) model to account for the residual effects of different training
loads at various times of the season. From these models, the authors concluded that the
training of individuals and groups of swimmers (by stroke and/or by distance) closely tracked
changes in performance over several seasons. In a practical sense, Stewart et al. (45) followed
the performances of 25 age-group swimmers (ranging from 14 to 17 yrs and seasonal best
performances of ≈ 80% world-record pace) over several seasons and monitored their
compliance to the training prescription. From this approach, it would appear that there may be
an additional positive effect (≈ 1 to 1.5%) of tapering for swimmers who comply strongly to
the training prescription throughout the season as opposed to those who comply moderately
or poorly. These results have yet to be rigorously verified.
Systems models assume that performance can be estimated from the difference between a
positive gain ascribed to the adaptation to exercise and a negative gain as a result of the
negative effects of the training load (5, 7, 29, and 31). Negative and positive influences may
represent respectively fatigue and fitness accumulated in response to training. The main
advantage of the mathematical models from a practical point of view is that they allow an
evaluation of the individual‘s adaptation processes. For example, the time required following
a training stimulus for the effect of fatigue to dissipate may be calculated and the optimum
duration of the taper for each subject estimated. In this respect, values ranging from 12 to 32
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

days were reported (28). An individual example of data analyzed by means of a systems
model is given in Figure 7.

Figure 7. Comparison between the real and modelled performances (A). Positive and negative influence
calculated by the systems model from the training load and the performance variations (B) (29).

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 Training Load and Performance in Swimming 369

7. PERFORMANCE PROGRESSION AND VARIABILITY

International competitive swimming has become essentially a year-round competitive
sport. Indeed, there is really little (if any) off-season as competitions (either short course or
long course) have sprung up around the world. In addition, the current format of heats, semi-
finals, and finals is relatively recent. It was not that long ago when the top eight swimmers
progressed direct from heat swims to a final, with those ranked 9 through 16 from the heats
entering the ‗B‘ final. These relatively recent changes within the sport have placed a
considerably different requirement on swimmers‘ preparation to such an extent that
progression through the various qualifying swims within a competition and consistency of
performance between competitions has now become the subject of research focus.
Pyne et al. (37), Stewart and Hopkins (43), and Trewin et al. (46) have conducted studies
that investigated the relationships between performance and rankings within and between
competitions for swimmers ranging in ability from junior age-group through to Olympic-level
athletes. These studies have stemmed from work by Hopkins (20) and Hopkins et al. (21) in
which it was found that the smallest worthwhile enhancement in performance that would
affect an athlete‘s chance of winning a medal was approximately 0.5 of the within-athlete
coefficient of variation (CV), the percent random variation in performance. It is not surprising
to note that the more experienced international swimmers are more consistent in their
performances (37, 46) than their junior national-level counterparts (43), but within a major
competition such as an Olympic final there appears to be negligible difference in consistency
between swimmers. Another interesting finding is that consistency of performance between
events within the same competition is greater for the more-experienced swimmer. The authors
of these studies (37, 43, and 46) conclude that while junior national-level swimmers appear to
cope better with the physiological challenge of a different distance (for a given stroke) rather
than the technical challenge of a different stroke (for a given distance), top international
swimmers (such as Olympians) are equally adept at alternating between events differing in
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

distance and stroke. Such a reality then presents a different challenge to the swimmer and
coach in terms of deciding which events to enter in any given competition and therefore how
to base their preparation in the season(s) leading into that particular ‗swim meet‘. The
phenomenal achievement of Michael Phelps at the 2008 Olympic Games is testimony to such
practice.

8. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
This chapter has discussed in depth many factors relating to training load and
performance in swimmers. From all the issues presented, there is overwhelming evidence to
indicate that workouts need to be structured in such a way as to train only the power systems
or skills required for a swimmer‘s specialty event(s) throughout the season. In light of this
evidence, several authors have suggested alternate and more-specific periodized training
regimes than have previously been utilized (23, 44). In the model proposed by Issurin et al.
(23), block periodization is suggested whereby specialized meso-cycles are designed in
sequence during which training is highly-concentrated and athletes focus on only a few
technical skills in any given cycle. The key difference from the block approach is that

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 370 Jean-Claude Chatard and Andrew M Stewart

physical attributes required for competition are developed sequentially as opposed to

simultaneously, which leads to superimposed training effects focussing on a singular
competition at the end of a given cycle rather than over a competition period. Stewart et al.
(44) have suggested that swimmers should be prepared close to the point of over-reaching
during a build-up phase. The training load during this phase should be such that swimmers
recover on a day-to-basis and there would be small gains in performance (which could be
measured in regular training sets) from week to week. Following this initial phase there
should be a short phase (one to two weeks) to overload the swimmers. During this phase there
would likely be a brief improvement in performance in the first few days, but the continuation
of such training over another week or two would eventually lead to a downturn in
performance (as measured by decrements in training set times and a change in mood states of
swimmers). During this overload phase, the focus is improving the relative fitness of the
swimmers, but such improvements are masked by the fatigue effects of the additional training
load. When such detrimental effects appear, swimmers should start tapering, through a
reduction in overall training load. Such a reduction should focus on a reduction in training
volume, not so much a reduction in intensity of workouts. To accommodate the practicalities
of such a shift in training philosophy, it is suggested that coaches look for areas in their
prescription where ‗filler mileage‘ could be reduced and focus more on the specific event
(stroke and distance) for which the swimmer is aiming to peak.

CONCLUSION
In swimming, scientific data indicate that in highly trained swimmers training intensity
becomes the key parameter to optimize performance rather than training volume. However,
the individual response to training depends, to a great extent, on the level of fitness and
practice of the individuals. This response can be calculated with the help of simple
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

observation, regression analysis, or a systems model, as a useful tool to establish

individualized training programs.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Authors wish to thank the swimming coaches Lucien Lacoste, Frédéric Barale,
Jacqueline Legrand, and Michel Paulin for their co-operation and for making valuable
suggestions.

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[30] Mujika, I., Chatard, J. C., Busso, T., Geyssant, A., Barale, F. & Lacoste, L. (1995).
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ranking and Olympic performance of swimmers. Journal of Sports Sciences, 22: 339-
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Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

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 In: World Book of Swimming: From Science to Performance ISBN: 978-1-61668-202-6
Editors: L. Seifert, D. Chollet and I.Mujika ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 19

OVERREACHING, THE OVERTRAINING

SYNDROME AND RECOVERY

Shona Halson
Australian Institute of Sport, Australia

ABSTRACT
The high volume nature of elite swim training can result in an increased
susceptibility to overreaching and the overtraining syndrome. Appropriate use of
recovery strategies during training and competition may result in reduced fatigue,
enhanced adaptation to training and reduced risk of developing the overtraining
syndrome. Appropriate monitoring of performance and mood state may provide early
indications of excessive fatigue. Biochemical, hormonal and immune system indicators
appear to be less promising as markers of overreaching and the overtraining syndrome.
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Both active and passive recovery can be beneficial to repeat performance when
considering the duration of the effort and the amount of recovery time. Further, evidence
regarding the effectiveness of various recovery strategies, including hydrotherapy and
sleep quality and quantity, is increasing. Research is supporting the role of recovery in
minimising fatigue associated with high intensity training. A careful balance of
appropriate high volume training and recovery can ensure maximum performance gains
are achieved by elite swimmers. Monitoring of the swimmers‘ performance and mood
state and incorporating recovery strategies can play a role in ensuring this balance is
maintained.

Key words: overreaching, overtraining, recovery

1. INTRODUCTION
As many of today‘s athletes continue to push the upper boundaries of training loads and
stress, the importance of minimising the risk of overreaching and overtraining becomes
critical. Two major means of achieving this are possible; 1) Monitoring indicators of fatigue

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 376 Shona Halson

and performance to detect early signs of overreaching and 2) to include appropriate recovery
strategies to minimise fatigue and enhance adaptation to training.
As elite swimmers often engage in high volume training, this may result in an increased
susceptibility to overreaching and the overtraining syndrome, illness and injury. Appropriate
means of monitoring the athlete‘s fatigue levels and identifying optimal recovery strategies
may reduce the risk of persistent fatigue in elite swimmers.

2. FUNCTIONAL AND NON-FUNCTIONAL OVERREACHING AND THE

OVERTRAINING SYNDROME
A combination of inappropriate training and inadequate recovery can result in
performance decrements and a number of other psychological and physiological signs and
symptoms. The process by which intensified training in combination with inadequate
recovery may lead to excessive fatigue is often considered a continuum. The continuum
begins with acute fatigue associated with a single training session and is thought to progress
with increasing severity of symptoms.
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Figure 1. The Overtraining Continuum. [23]

For the purpose of this Chapter, the definitions of Meeusen et al [26] will be used.
Overreaching (OR) is often used by athletes during typical training cycles and can result in
short term decrements in performance. If the decrease in performance is short-term this is
referred to as ‗functional overreaching‘ (FOR). If intensified training continues the athlete
may experience a decrease in performance which does not return to normal for several weeks
or months, this is then referred to as ‗non-functional overreaching‘ (NFOR). If recovery of
performance takes longer than several months, then overtraining syndrome (OTS) is
diagnosed.
As can be seen from the above definitions, diagnosis of OTS can only be performed
retrospectively. Therefore, monitoring of various physiological and psychological parameters

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 Overreaching, the Overtraining Syndrome and Recovery 377

become important tools for coaches and athletes in a bid to prevent the progression from
normal training-induced fatigue through to OTS.

2.1. Overreaching and the Overtraining Syndrome in Swimmers

There have been a number of studies which have attempted to identify various signs and
symptoms associated with intensified training in athletes. Due to the fact that swimming
performance is easily measured, swimmers typically engage in high volume training and that
swimmers anecdotally report a high incidence of FOR and NFOR, a number of studies have
investigated overreaching and overtraining in swimmers.

2.2.1. Performance
Hooper et al [20] monitored 14 elite Australian swimmers in preparation for Australian
Team selection trials. Training programs varied highly between the athletes, however
between 10 and 12 sessions were completed per week, with one scheduled rest day.
Swimmers were tested on 5 occasions (early-season, mid-season, late-season, taper and
competition), involving a maximal effort swim (using each subject‘s principal competitive
stroke) and subjective ratings of sleep, fatigue, stress and muscle soreness. Three of the 14
swimmers were classified as ‗stale‘, with performance in the maximal efforts 2.4±1.4%
slower than their previous best. In comparison, ‗non-stale‘ swimmers demonstrated a mean
improvement of -1.1±1.9%.
Mackinnon and Hooper [25] monitored 24 swimmers during a 4-week period of
intensified training. During this 4-week period training volume increased 10% each week,
with final swim volumes 36.5% higher and dryland resistance training 22% higher than at the
beginning of the 4-week training block. 200m time trial swim performance was measured at
the beginning, mid-way and end of the training block. Of the 24 swimmers 8 showed signs of
overreaching at the end of the training block, with a decrease in performance of 0.04 to 8.4%
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

by the mid-way point and 1.22 to 6.52% at the end of the 4 weeks.
Atlaoui, et al [1] studied 14 French national and international swimmers over a 12-week
period. Included in this 12-week block was an intensified training period lasting 4 weeks in
which a 72.2% increase in training volume occurred. Performance following the intensified
training block was significantly reduced (approximately 1%) when compared to performance
after the reduced training/taper period. Additionally, one swimmer was classified as
‗overtrained‘ as performance remained significantly lower than baseline throughout the
follow-up period.

2.2.2. Lactate
Routine measurement of blood lactate concentrations is common practice in elite
swimming. Numerous investigations have examined lactate concentrations in regards to
exercise intensity, adaptation to training and recovery. Hooper, et al [20] examined resting
lactate concentrations in swimmers who were classified as either stale or non-stale following
a 6-month training block. Resting lactates showed no relationship with performance, with no
differences between the stale and non-stale swimmers. However, one study has investigated
the relationship between blood lactate concentrations during recovery and performance [31].

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 378 Shona Halson

Six national and international level swimmers completed a maximal anaerobic lactic test
consisting of four maximal effort 50m freestyle sprints, with 10s rests on six different
occasions. Lactate recovery (%La-]recovery) was calculated as the percentage decrease in mean
lactate concentrations between the 3rd and 12th minute after each measurement, then divided
by time (9 min). This value was then divided by the lactate concentration at the 3 min time
point and multiplied by 100 to produce a fractional turnover rate. In this study, the lowest
%[La-]recovery of the season coincided with a significant decline in competition performance
and signs of overtraining (irritability, poor sleep and physical distress). Thus, monitoring
blood lactate recovery may be one practical method of monitoring fatigue and overreaching in
elite swimmers.

2.2.3. Endocrine System

A small number of investigations have been carried out in elite swimmers, examining
markers of endocrine function following intensified training that resulted in FOR or NFOR.
Hooper et al [20] reported higher plasma norepinephrine values in stale swimmers when
compared to non-stale swimmers over a 6-month training block. Concentrations were highest
late in the training season and during the taper before competition. Urinary concentrations of
catecholamines have been reported to be significantly lower in swimmers who were
asymptomatic but later developed signs of overreaching (Mackinnon et al 97). Research on
catecholamines in other sports is equivocal; however, it appears that urinary measures are a
better indicator of sympathetic function than plasma measures.
Resting cortisol concentrations and the testosterone:cortisol ratio have also been shown to
be unchanged in overreached swimmers [14, 21, 25]. However, Atlaoui, et al [1] reported that
24 hour urinary cortisol: cortisone ratio was moderately related to both training and
performance as well as self reported markers of fatigue.

2.2.4. Immune System

It is often anecdotally reported that fatigued athletes and/or those with the OTS
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experience a higher incidence of illness, particularly upper respiratory tract infections

(URTI). In 24 swimmers who increased their training volume for a 4-week period, 8 athletes
were classified as overreached and 10 athletes reported symptoms of URTI [24]. However,
more of the non-overreached athletes reported symptoms of URTI, suggesting that perhaps
these athletes modified their training load in response to illness and thus were prevented from
becoming overreached.
Overreaching has been shown to have little effect on leukocyte, neutrophil, lymphocyte,
and monocyte counts in swimmers [25] and no changes in cell-mediated immunity have been
observed after high intensity training in swimmers [15]. A decreased plasma glutamine
concentration after 2 weeks of training has been reported in swimmers who became
overreached at the end of 4 weeks of intensified training [24]. However, there was no
relationship between low plasma glutamine levels and the development of URTI.

2.2.5. Mood State

In the study of Hooper, et al. [20] described above, the swimmers who were classified as
‗stale‘, rated fatigue and muscle soreness significantly higher than ‗non-stale‘ swimmers and
they reported significantly poorer sleep and higher stress levels than the non-stale swimmers

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 Overreaching, the Overtraining Syndrome and Recovery 379

after the competition period. Similarly, Mackinnon and Hooper [25] reported alterations in
subjective scores of well-being (fatigue, stress, muscle soreness and sleep) in overreached
swimmers when compared to non-overreached swimmers after 4 weeks of intensified swim
and dryland training.
The Profile of Mood States (POMS) has been utilised by researchers examining mood
changes in response to intensified training and/or overreaching [28-30]. Increased global
POMS scores (indicating increased mood disturbance) have been reported in swimmers after
both 3 and 10 days of intensified training [28, 29]. O‘Connor, et al. [30] also reported greater
mood disturbance as measured by the POMS in swimmers who were classified as stale over a
5-month training period. It is important to note that mood disturbance may be increased in
response to intensified training that does not result in NFOR or OTS [28]; thus, concurrent
performance measures should also be taken.
The following Table is a summary of potential indicators of the Overtraining Syndrome
[23]:

2.3. Indicators of Overtraining Syndrome

Useful indicators

 performance on standard exercise test (e.g., time trial; time to fatigue)

 self-analysis of well being (e.g., fatigue, vigour, stress)

Potentially useful indicators

 changes in mood state (e.g., anxiety, depression, tension)

 physiological response to standardized exercise (e.g., maximum heart rate, RPE,
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

blood lactate, lactate:RPE ratio)

 stress hormones (e.g., blood cortisol, urinary catecholamine excretion)
 sleep disturbances

Not useful as indicators

 body mass
 early morning or resting heart rate
 haematological measures (e.g., red blood cell count, blood concentrations of ferritin
or creatine phosphokinase)
 immunological measures (e.g., IgA concentration)

3. RECOVERY
The aim of recovery is to return to a pre training/competition physiological and
psychological state as quickly as possible, to avoid residual fatigue from previous training
sessions or competition affecting subsequent training session/s or competition/s and to

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 380 Shona Halson

optimize chronic improvements in physiological capabilities. Although an important

consideration in designing a swimming training program, recovery has failed to receive the
critical research attention received by other areas of swimming research. As a result, the
opinions and practical recovery strategies of successful coaches and athletes are generally
based on anecdotal reports rather than actual scientifically based evidence.
Recovery techniques are used to assist the body in regulating homeostatic imbalance as
well as assisting in the removal of cellular debris. If recovery is inadequate the athlete may
be:

 Incapable of performing at the expected standard

 Increased risk of injury
 Increased risk of illness
 Increased susceptibility to OTS or non functional overreaching

There is a growing body of scientific literature supporting the benefits of recovery to

enhance athletic performance in a number of sports In a recent review article on recovery,
three terms were proposed to be encompassed within the broader field of recovery including:
―immediate recovery‖, ―short term recovery‖, and ―training recovery‖ [4]. ―Immediate
recovery‖ refers to the recovery that occurs between ‗rapid, time proximal finite efforts‘. An
example in elite swimming would be the recovery phase following the pull phase of a stroke.
―Short term recovery‖ however, refers to the recovery between sets or repetitions of a training
session. For example, the rest between two repetitions of a set of 6×100m or the rest period
between a set of 6×100m and a set of 6×200m. ―Training recovery‖ refers to the recovery
period between successive training sessions or competitions. For example, the period between
the morning training session and the evening training session, or the period between training
sessions from day to day. Both short term recovery and training recovery are the two areas of
recovery that scientists believe training adaptations can be maximised, thus research has
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focussed on these specific aspects of recovery. Recovery can be classified as active or passive
recovery, both of which have been shown to provide an athlete with performance
maintenance benefits, i.e. minimisation of fatigue.

3.1. Active Recovery

Active recovery refers to the act of engaging in low-intensity exercise after competition
or training. Low intensity activity following high intensity activity aims to increase blood
flow in a bid to return the body to a state of physiological equilibrium and allow faster
restoration of performance. There are two major occasions that active recovery may be used
by swimmers. Firstly, the cool down phase immediately after the training session or
competition. Secondly, it occurs during a training session or competition between repetitions
and sets of exercise, purportedly to allow for the removal of metabolites and regeneration of
ATP for restoration of performance in order to allow the intensity of a session to be
maintained. The application of active recovery appears to be distance, time, and intensity
specific [42, 44].

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 Overreaching, the Overtraining Syndrome and Recovery 381

The majority of literature investigating active recovery following exercise has focussed
on repeated sprint cycling and has found that low intensity active recovery can assist in the
restoration of performance for repeated sprints in certain circumstances [39]. It was reported
that active recovery at a low intensity (28% of V O2max) assisted in recovery of performance
during repeated maximal sprints [39]. The authors used a protocol of repeatedly completing
the 30 second Wingate test separated by four minutes of either active recovery or passive
recovery until subject‘s peak power was less than or equal to 70% of the first bout or until the
subjects were unable to continue. The recovery period of four minutes may not have been
long enough to properly restore PCr stores within the muscle which has been shown to have a
high correlation with 30s maximal cycling sprints [6]. Bogdanis, et al. [6] used muscle
biopsies to determine how long it takes for the resynthesis of PCr stores following a 30s all
out sprint and found that after 1.5 minutes stores had reached 65 ± 2.8% of resting levels and
after 6 minutes PCr stores had reached 85.5 ± 3.5% of resting levels. Straight after a 30-s
sprint, measured levels of PCr have been found to be as low as 19.7 ± 6.5% of resting levels
[6]. While there were no biopsies taken during the investigation by Spierer, et al. [39] we may
assume that if a longer time period was given for recovery, passive recovery might then be
the better recovery method for performance maintenance. It is hard to apply findings from a
cycling study directly to swimming as there are large differences in the muscle groups used
and the physical and physiological characteristics of the sports.
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Figure 2: Time to complete each 25-m sprint in each trial. aP<0.05 between the corresponding sprint in
trials at the same interval, bP<0.05 compared to the first sprint in the A120 and A45 trials, cP<0.05
compared to the first sprint in the P120 and P45 trials, (n=16, mean (SE)) [42].

There are several investigations that have directly examined repeated sprint swimming
and the effects of active recovery between repetitions [16, 42-44]. Toubekis, et al. [42] found
that when active recovery is applied between short repeated sprints with short rest intervals

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 382 Shona Halson

(8x25m sprints with 45s rest intervals), subsequent performance decrements were greater than
if passive rest was applied (See Figure 2). During repeated short duration sprints, the rate of
PCr resynthesis is crucial for maintenance of performance and is likely to be more important
than the removal of metabolites in maintaining intensity in subsequent performance trials.
Toubekis et al [42] supported this theory by showing that blood lactate concentration was not
correlated with sprint performance but could only speculate as to whether PCr resynthesis
was more likely to be the factor involved with performance maintenance as PCr measures
were not made.
As the distance of sprint intervals become longer it appears that active recovery starts to
play a role in the recovery period, and the removal of lactate appears to be more important.
Any method that can increase aerobic metabolism and increase the clearance of blood lactate
should also assist in the maintenance of longer distance high intensity performance when PCr
storage is limited and energy requirements exceed oxygen supply. In theory, active recovery
that elicits the highest level of aerobic metabolism without accumulating lactate should be the
optimal intensity for lactate removal which is more than likely to be at or just below the
lactate threshold [16, 19]. It is also important to distinguish the method of determining lactate
threshold, as one method will elicit a different intensity to another [32]. An investigation that
explored the intensity of exercise recovery, blood lactate disappearance, and subsequent
swimming performance concluded that repeated 200m swimming performance was enhanced
by active recovery at the speed associated with the lactate threshold for 10 minutes when
lactate threshold is defined as the highest speed attained before the curvilinear increase in
blood lactate with increasing speed [16]. Data from the investigation by Greenwood et al [16]
showed a significant correlation (r=0.49, P=0.0001) between lactate disappearance, from time
trial one to time trial two, and improved performance indicating that lactate accumulation and
disappearance plays an important role in the maintenance of performance when completing
repeated 200m sprints.
There is however recent evidence that active recovery may impair glycogen resynthesis
post exercise both with and without carbohydrate feeding [7, 9, 12]. Fairchild et al [12]
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

reported that active recovery (45 min at 40%VO2peak) following 3 minutes of high intensity
cycling, resulted in significantly lower muscle glycogen concentrations when compared to
passive recovery. However, active recovery resulted in net glycogen mobilization in Type I
muscle fibres, without affecting glycogen resynthesis of Type II muscle fibres [12]. Active
recovery was also associated with lower plasma glucose and insulin levels as well as higher
plasma catecholamine concentrations [12]. This may have implications for swimmers
competing in events involving multiple races across multiple days.

3.2. Passive Recovery

Passive recovery refers to resting with no activity following exercise. It is believed that
resting will allow the body to recover from previous efforts by allowing metabolite removal
and substrate resynthesis within the working muscles. Anecdotally, the use of passive
recovery is a common method of recovery during repeated sprint training of various distances
by many athletes and coaches. However, there is limited literature for the use of passive
recovery for swimming. As in active recovery, it appears that using passive recovery is
distance and time specific in that it may be important in the maintenance of performance

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 Overreaching, the Overtraining Syndrome and Recovery 383

when certain length rest intervals are provided, or when certain distance efforts are being
performed. Currently, very little scientifically based prescription for passive recovery exists
and limited conclusive statements can be made about the relationship of passive recovery and
the role it plays in maintaining performance during training or competition. The limited
conclusive statements for the use of passive recovery in the literature is due to the fact that
passive recovery is often used in conjunction with active recovery. The literature also presents
varying lengths of passive recovery from 45 seconds [42] up to 15 minutes [43], making it
difficult for athletes and coaches to apply to training and competition.
When completing short repeated sprints (25-50m), with a rest/recovery period of between
45 to 120s it appears performance is better maintained when passive recovery is used [42].
This might indicate that during short sprint intervals, the resynthesis of PCr plays an
important role in the maintenance of performance and the best method for allowing this is
passive recovery. Toubekis, et al. [42] also showed that when a longer period of rest was
given during a set of repeated sprints (8 × 25m) subsequent performance (50m) was
maintained better than if shorter duration rest intervals were given. Performance of short
repeated sprints also appears to be maintained better with passive recovery regardless of
lactate concentration indicating that muscle acidosis and increased accumulation of Pi are not
the only factors affecting performance [42]. When the distance of the performance interval is
increased (~200m) the advantages of passive recovery in the maintenance of performance are
diminished, potentially indicating the depletion of PCr stores. In the case of increased lactate
accumulation, the use of passive recovery is diminished and correct intensity active recovery
appears to be more important for performance [16].

3.3. Hydrotherapy

Hydrotherapy is becoming an increasingly popular means of enhancing post exercise

recovery. Concomitantly, there has been an increase in scientific publications examining both
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

performance outcomes and mechanisms associated with hydrotherapy. Various physiological

effects have been shown following whole body immersion in water, these include: changes in
cardiac response, peripheral resistance, changes in blood flow (arising from changes in
hydrostatic pressure) and skin, muscle and core temperature alterations [51].
There are three main forms of hydrotherapy currently utilised by elite athletes; cold water
immersion, hot water immersion and contrast water therapy. While no studies have been
conducted on elite swimmers, evidence is emerging highlighting the usefulness in a variety of
sports.

3.4. Cold Water Immersion

Cold water immersion (CWI) and other forms of cryotherapy have traditionally been used
by elite athletes to treat soft tissue injuries. This is due to its ability to reduce inflammation
and to alleviate spasm and pain [27]. The physiological response to CWI is well documented
and includes decreases in heart rate and cardiac output, an increase in arterial blood pressure
and peripheral resistance, decreases in core and tissue temperature and a reduction in acute
inflammation, pain, and muscle spasm [27, 51].

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 384 Shona Halson

CWI has typically been utilised as a tool to treat delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS).
Eston and Peters [11] investigated the effects of cold water immersion (15°C for 15 min)
following eccentric exercise of the elbow flexors. Relaxed elbow angle was greater for the
cold water immersion group suggesting that CWI may reduce the degree to which the muscle
and connective tissue unit becomes shortened after strenuous eccentric exercise. Similarly,
Bailey et al. [2] investigated the influence of CWI following high intensity running. Results
suggested that CWI is useful to enhance muscle recovery evidenced by a reduction in muscle
soreness, a reduced decrement of performance and a reduction in serum myoglobin
concentration one hour post-exercise [2].
The two aforementioned studies incorporated a degree of muscle damage, which is not
readily evidenced in elite swimmers. However, Lane and Wenger [22] investigated the effects
of active recovery (15 min at 30% VO2), massage (15 min massage of legs only), and cold
water immersion (15 min in 15°C water) on repeated cycling efforts. Two 18 minute high
intensity intermittent cycling efforts were performed 24 hours apart, with one of the four
above mentioned recovery protocols applied immediately after the first exercise bout. The
difference in work between sessions was 364J (active recovery), 1001J (massage), 2133J
(passive recovery) and -294J (cold water immersion). Thus, cold water immersion had a
greater effect compared to passive recovery, active recovery and massage on recovery
between exercise bouts, resulting in enhanced subsequent performance.

3.5. Hot Water Immersion

Hot Water Immersion (HWI) (temperature above normal resting core temperature;
approximately 37°C) is another strategy utilised by elite athletes in a bid to enhance recovery.
While not as clearly understood as CWI, it is believed that HWI results in increased
peripheral vasodilation, increased blood flow and increased skin, muscle and core
temperature [51].
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Only one study has investigated the effect of hot water immersion on post-exercise
recovery. Three 20-min warm (~37°C+) underwater water-jet massages per week were
included in the training program of young track and field athletes [49]. The results indicated
an enhanced maintenance of performance (assessed via plyometric drop jumps and repeated
bounding) following the underwater jet massage compared to passive recovery and the
authors concluded that combining underwater water-jet massage with intense strength training
increases the release of proteins from the muscle into the blood, while enhancing the
maintenance of neuromuscular performance [49].
As is evidenced by the lack of research attention in this area, this is not a commonly
utilised strategy in isolation, by elite athletes. It is more common to combine this strategy
with cold water immersion.

3.6. Contrast Water Therapy

During contrast water therapy (CWT) participants alternate between hot exposure and
cold exposure by immersion in warm and cold water respectively. Possible benefits of CWT
include a reduction in oedema (alternating peripheral vasoconstriction, and vasodilation),

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 Overreaching, the Overtraining Syndrome and Recovery 385

alterations in tissue temperature and blood flow, changes in blood flow distribution, reduced
inflammation and improved range of motion [51].
Contrast water therapy has been found to effectively decrease post-exercise lactate levels
[10, 18]. Coffey et al [10] investigated the effects of three different recovery interventions
(active, passive and CWT) on four-hour repeated treadmill running performance. Contrast
water therapy and active recovery reduced blood lactate concentration by similar amounts
after high intensity running. In addition, CWT was associated with a perception of increased
recovery. However, performance during the high intensity treadmill running task returned to
baseline levels four hours after the initial exercise task regardless of the recovery intervention
performed.
Increased recovery of explosive athletic performance has been demonstrated after CWT
following delayed onset muscle soreness [45]. Following CWT, isometric force production
was not significantly reduced below baseline levels throughout the 72 h data collection
period, with reductions of approximately 4-10% observed. However, following passive
recovery, peak strength was significantly reduced from baseline by 14.8 ± 11.4% [45].
Strength was also restored more rapidly in the CWT group. Thigh volume following CWT
was significantly less than following passive recovery, indicating that CWT may have
reduced tissue oedema. These results indicate that symptoms of DOMS and restoration of
strength are improved following CWT compared to passive recovery.

3.7. Comparison of Recovery Techniques

Two recent investigations by Vaile et al [46, 47] have highlighted the importance of
considering the type of exercise performed when designing recovery programs. In these
investigations recovery options were CWI, HWI, CWT, and passive recovery (PAS),
performed after eccentric exercise [47] or high intensity sprint intervals [46]. Results
suggested that CWI and CWT were significantly better than HWI and passive recovery in
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terms of maintaining performance over a 5-day period [46]. When examining the various
hydrotherapy strategies after eccentric exercise however, CWI and CWT were found to be
effective in reducing the physiological and functional deficits associated with DOMS,
including a reduction in localised oedema. While HWI was effective in the recovery of
isometric force, it was ineffective for recovery of all other measures compared to PAS [47].
Thus, when aiming to maximise the beneficial effects of recovery post-exercise, it is
important to consider the type of exercise performed.

3.8. Sleep

The relationship between sleep, recovery and enhanced athletic performance is increasing
in interest as the understanding of the function of sleep improves. A range of cognitive
impairments and metabolic, immunologic and physiologic processes are negatively affected
by sleep deprivation [37].
Although there is almost no scientific evidence to support the role of sleep in enhancing
recovery, elite athletes and coaches often identify sleep as a vital component of the recovery
process. In a recent study, athletes and coaches ranked sleep as the most prominent problem

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 386 Shona Halson

when they were asked about the causes of fatigue/tiredness [13]. Sleep characteristics ranked
first when athletes were asked about the aspects of the clinical history that they thought were
important.

Effects of Swim Training and Taper on Sleep

Only one study has examined the effect of normal training and taper in swimmers [41].
Athletes‘ sleep was recorded using standard polygraphic sleep recordings in a sleep
laboratory, at 3 month intervals (start of the season, peak training and following taper).
Significant changes were observed in amounts of slow wave sleep (SWS), with amounts of
SWS higher at the onset of training and peak training compared to taper. SWS is considered
the deepest stage of sleep and is often thought of as the most important phase for restorative
sleep [41]. This study supports the theory that SWS is restorative and is closely related to the
physical demands of training. It is important to note that the performance of the swimmers in
this study continued to improve throughout the testing period and thus, the athletes were not
overreached or overtrained. Whether athletes suffering from NFOR or the OTS have altered
SWS has not been examined.

Sleep Deprivation
There are a limited number of studies which have examined the effects of sleep
deprivation on athletic performance. From the available data it appears that two phenomena
exist. Firstly, the sleep deprivation must be greater than 30 hours to have a negative impact on
performance and secondly, that sustained or repeated bouts of exercise are affected to a
greater degree than one-off maximal efforts [5, 34].
Souissi, et al. [38] measured maximal power, peak power and mean power pre and post
24 and 36 hours of sleep deprivation in healthy males. Up to 24 h of waking, anaerobic power
variables were not affected; however, they were impaired after 36 h without sleep. Bulbulian
et al [8] examined knee extension and flexion peak torque before and after 30 hours of sleep
deprivation in trained men. Isokinetic performance decreased significantly following sleep
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

deprivation. In support of the contention that the effects of sleep deprivation are task specific,
Takeuchi et al [40] reported that 64 hours of sleep deprivation significantly reduced vertical
jump performance and isokinetic knee extension strength; however, isometric strength and
40m sprint performance were unaffected.
While the above studies provide some insight into the relationship between sleep
deprivation and performance, most athletes are more likely to experience acute bouts of
partial sleep deprivation where sleep is reduced for several hours on consecutive nights.

Partial Sleep Deprivation

A small number of studies have examined the effect of partial sleep deprivation on
athletic performance. Reilly and Deykin [33] reported decrements in a range of psychomotor
functions after only one night of restricted sleep, however gross motor function such as
muscle strength, lung power and endurance running were unaffected. Reilly and Hales [35]
reported similar effects in females following partial sleep deprivation, with gross motor
functions being less affected by sleep loss than tasks requiring fast reaction times. From the
available research it appears that submaximal prolonged tasks may be more affected than
maximal efforts particularly for the first two nights of partial sleep deprivation [36].

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 Overreaching, the Overtraining Syndrome and Recovery 387

Performance in maximal efforts may be unaffected by partial sleep deprivation, however

repeated submaximal efforts may be reduced. Reilly and Percy [36] found a significant effect
of sleep loss on maximal bench press, leg press and dead lifts, but not maximal bicep curl.
Submaximal performance however, was significantly affected on all four tasks and to a
greater degree than maximal efforts. The greatest impairments were found later in the
protocol, suggested an accumulative effect of fatigue from sleep loss.

Napping
Athletes suffering from some degree of sleep loss may benefit from a brief nap,
particularly if a training session is to be completed in the afternoon or evening. Waterhouse et
al [50] investigated the effects of a lunchtime nap on sprint performance following partial
sleep deprivation. Following a 30-minute nap, 20m sprint performance was improved
(compared to no nap), alertness was increased and sleepiness was decreased. Napping may be
beneficial for athletes who have to routinely wake early for training or competition and for
athletes who are experiencing sleep deprivation.

Mechanisms Behind Sleep Loss and Poor Performance

A link between sleep deprivation and impaired neuroendocrine and immune function [3]
has been proposed as a number of critical metabolic and immune processes are known to
occur during different stages of sleep. Daytime napping has recently been shown to result in
beneficial changes in cortisol and interleukin-6, which are associated with inflammation [48].
The neuroendocrine and immune systems are thought to be involved in fatigue the
overtraining syndrome [17] and thus a relationship between fatigue, sleep and
underperformance most likely exists.
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4. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
From the limited literature available on FOR and NFOR in elite swimmers, it appears that
routine monitoring of performance and mood state are the most sensitive tools to detect early
signs of persistent fatigue. Questionnaires that include measures of fatigue, sleep, soreness
and stress can all provide readily available information on the athletes‘ well-being.
There is little scientific information available on optimal recovery strategies for elite
swimmers, but research in other sports is providing emerging evidence for the benefits of
hydrotherapy in maintaining performance. Finally, sleep should be considered one of the most
important recovery strategies and athletes should be encouraged to optimise sleep quality and
quantity. Some guidelines to achieve this are included below:

Recommendations to Promote Sleep

 Maintain a regular sleep-wake cycle

 Create a comfortable, quiet, dark and temperature-controlled bedroom
 Avoid alcohol, caffeine, large meals and large volumes of fluid prior to bedtime

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 388 Shona Halson

 Skin warming/core cooling- through hydrotherapy or warm baths and cold fluid
ingestion
 Utilise a ‗to-do‘ list or diary to ensure organisation and unnecessary over-thinking
whilst trying to sleep
 Investigate relaxation/breathing techniques

CONCLUSION
While there is currently minimal literature on recovery strategies in swimmers, the
physiological and psychological demands placed on elite swimmers highlight the need for
managing fatigue to prevent excessive fatigue, illness, injury and underperformance.
Understanding the signs and symptoms of overtraining can be a useful tool to prevent
persistent fatigue that interferes with performance capability. Ensuring the athlete employs
appropriate recovery strategies, including maximising sleep quality and quantity can
minimise fatigue associated with high volume training.

REFERENCES
[1] Atlaoui, D., Duclos, M., Gouarne, C., Lacoste, L., Barale, F., and Chatard, J. C. (2004).
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Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

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 In: World Book of Swimming: From Science to Performance ISBN: 978-1-61668-202-6
Editors: L. Seifert, D. Chollet and I.Mujika ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 20

ALTITUDE AND HYPOXIC TRAINING IN SWIMMING

Martin J. Truijens1 and Ferran A. Rodríguez2

1
Faculty of Human Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam,
Amsterdam, The Netherlands
2
Institut Nacional d‘Educació Física de Catalunya,
Universitat de Barcelona, Spain

ABSTRACT
Altitude/hypoxic training is today a common practice among swimmers although its
benefits are still controversial in scientific literature. Traditional altitude training (―live
high-train high‖) is still the most frequently used method in swimming, even though from
a physiological perspective the ―live high-train low‖ strategy appears to be a more
promising alternative. While acute hypoxia deteriorates swimming performance, chronic
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hypoxia may induce acclimatization effects, mainly through the acceleration of red blood
cell production, which could improve aerobic capacity and therewith performance upon
return to sea level. Other potential benefits such as improved exercise economy,
enhanced muscle buffer capacity and pH regulation, and improved mitochondrial
function have also been postulated. In order to get a better picture of the potential
usefulness of altitude and hypoxic training in swimming this chapter will (i) briefly
review the acute and chronic effects of hypoxia, (ii) describe traditional and current
methods of altitude/hypoxic training, (iii) discuss the scientific evidence on the effects of
altitude/hypoxic training on sea level swimming performance, and (iv) give some
practical guidelines for altitude/hypoxic training.

Key words: Altitude training, hypoxia, hypoxic training, intermittent hypoxia

1. INTRODUCTION
Checking the records of several swimming organizations and altitude/hypoxic training
facilities around the world it becomes clear that altitude/hypoxic training plays an important
role in preparing elite and subelite swimmers all over the world [59, 57, 60]. They devote

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 394 Martin J. Truijens and Ferran A. Rodríguez

considerable amounts of time, effort, and material resources to train in real or simulated
altitude, with the expectation of improved performance at sea level.
Unfortunately, there is a remarkable lack of controlled studies on altitude training in
swimming in the scientific literature, and the scientific evidence supporting most approaches
to altitude/hypoxic training in general is inconclusive [59, 57]. Moreover, in spite of the
important amounts of research carried out over the last decades the physiological mechanisms
through which altitude/hypoxic training should be effective in enhancing performance are still
controversial. Field observations and also research studies show that altitude/hypoxic training
may work for some athletes and not for others [8].
It has been estimated that an Olympic swimmer should improve his or her performance
by about 1% within the year leading up to the Olympics to stay in contention for a medal
[37]. Interestingly, a recent forthcoming meta-analysis concluded that the expectable
performance benefit from altitude/hypoxic training for elite athletes can be as high as 1.6%
[6]. Perhaps a worthy strategy if a medal is just some tenths of a second away. The right
question today may not be if altitude training works, but how, when, and for whom it works.
This chapter aims to provide the reader with an overview of peer-reviewed scientific research
on altitude training in swimming for the improvement of performance at sea-level, together
with a physiological rationale for altitude training in general.

2. HYPOBARIC AND NORMOBARIC HYPOXIA

Altitude is defined as ‗the circumstance of a reduced partial oxygen pressure in ambient
air‘. This condition can be created by a decrease in barometric pressure, leading to a reduction
in the inspired partial pressure of oxygen, known as hypobaric hypoxia [5], or by a decrease
in the inspired oxygen fraction without changes in barometric pressure; this is known as
normobaric hypoxia [4]. Hypobaric hypoxia can be obtained by 1) an ascent to
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

natural/terrestrial altitude, and 2) at sea level using a hypobaric chamber. Examples of devices
that provide normobaric hypoxia are nitrogen houses, hypoxic tents, and special breathing
apparatuses.
Noteworthy, recently it has been shown that these two types of hypoxia do not evoke
identical physiological responses. Hypobaric hypoxia leads to greater hypoxemia (decrease of
partial O2 pressure in the blood), hypocapnia (less CO2 partial pressure), blood alkalosis
(increase pH), and a lower O2 arterial saturation, compared to normobaric hypoxia. These
physiological differences could be the consequence of an increase in pulmonary dead space
ventilation, probably related to the barometric pressure reduction [47].

3. ACUTE AND CHRONIC EFFECTS OF ALTITUDE/HYPOXIC

EXPOSURE AND TRAINING
Having the definition of altitude in mind the obvious problem the human body has to
overcome when at altitude is the maintenance of an acceptable high scope for aerobic
metabolism in the face of reduced oxygen availability in the atmosphere. In general, on acute
exposure to hypoxia the human body reacts immediately with an integrated reaction of both

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 Altitude and Hypoxic Training in Swimming 395

the autonomic nervous system and cardiovascular system to overcome the drop in arterial
oxygen content. Increased ventilation, sympathetic neural activity, cardiac output, and
diuresis, among other mechanisms, constitute the acute response to hypoxia. Maximal values
for heart rate and cardiac output are either similar to sea level values or slightly reduced.
Maximal anaerobic capacity is reported to be unchanged.
If the hypoxic stimulus is maintained (i.e. chronic hypoxia) a complex multi-systemic
response is developed, leading to complete or partial acclimatization to hypoxia within a few
days or weeks (Figure 1). The most prominent adaptation that has been observed with
continuous altitude exposure that has the clearest link to improved sea-level performance is
an increase in red blood cell mass (RCM), which increases the oxygen-carrying capacity of
the blood and improves aerobic power [29]. Although some studies in elite athletes have
failed to show an increase in RCM with chronic altitude exposure [2], the sum of
experimental evidence in favor of this response is quite compelling. Several other adaptations
to long term hypoxic exposure have been reported in literature.

Hypoxia

Sao2 Pao2

 Sympathetic tone  HIF-1 Endocrine  VEGF

 Vagal tone/withdrawal  EPO system  Protein synthesis

 Chronotropism  Ventilation Erythropoiesis  2,3-DPG  Renin/  Catecholamines  Angiogenesis  Buffering

 Inotropism  Perfusion  Blood Aldosterone  Capillarity capacity
 SV Resp. alcalosis pH  Diuresis  Myoglobin
 Oxidative enzymes
 Mitochondria
 Cardiac  Pulmonary  RBC Hb-O2  Plasma volume  Fat oxidation
output gas exchange
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 Hb right Hemoconcentration
mass shift

 O2 Delivery  O2 Extraction/Utilization

 Aerobic  Anaerobic
performance performance
Health status
Genetic endowment
Training Integrator Technical factors
Placebo Psychology
effect
 Swimming performance

Figure 1. Summary of the purported physiological mechanisms involved in the use of hypoxia for
performance enhancement. Adapted from [44].

Conflicting evidence exists for changes in anaerobic capacity with altitude

acclimatization. Some studies have reported that buffer capacity of skeletal muscle may be
increased [31], even with discontinuous altitude exposure [18], which may lead to
improvements in anaerobic capacity, whereas other studies reported no change in anaerobic
capacity after acclimatization [28]. Furthermore, it is suggested that hypoxic training could
induce local adaptations at the molecule (augmented transcription for HIF1-alpha, as well as

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 396 Martin J. Truijens and Ferran A. Rodríguez

increased mRNA for myoglobin and vascular endothelian growth factor) and muscle level
(increased myoglobin and oxidative enzymes) that would be beneficial for performance [51].
The above mentioned adaptations and the degree in which they take place depend on
several factors, some characterizing the ―dose‖ of hypoxia (e.g. degree of hypoxia, duration
of the exposure to hypoxia), some related to training (e.g. training goals, training program,
normoxic or hypoxic training), and some related to nutrition and clinical status (e.g. iron
stores, diet, oxidative stress, immune function). This disparity makes research on this topic
particularly complex. Another important limitation is the fact that not all subjects respond the
same to a certain combination of factors. In fact, some authors have investigated the effects in
―responders‖ and ―non-responders‖, to underline the wide individual response to altitude
training [8].

4. HOW HIGH? OPTIMIZING THE LEVEL OF ALTITUDE

FOR ALTITUDE TRAINING

It is well-known that the erythropoietin (EPO) response to acute altitude is proportional

to the degree of hypoxic stress, i.e. the higher the altitude, the more EPO is produced [12].
Therefore, in terms of the EPO response, the general rule for altitude training would be ―the
higher, the better‖. However, living at higher altitudes increases the likelihood of suffering
symptoms of acute mountain sickness (AMS): headaches, poor sleep, fatigue, nausea,
vomiting, dizziness and loss of appetite, being characteristic symptoms. The incidence of
symptoms of AMS increases dramatically when unacclimatized individuals ascend to
altitudes above 3,000 m [21]. Moreover, highly trained individuals may even be more
susceptible to the onset of AMS than moderately fit individuals [48]. In general, moderate
AMS symptoms in swimmers may appear at or above 1,800 m, increasing in frequency and
severity above 2,400 m (personal observations).
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Figure 2. Individual values for percent change in EPO from baseline (after 6 and 24 h of exposure) in
subjects at different simulated altitudes in a hypobaric chamber. Note marked individual variability that
increases with increasing altitude. From Ri-Li et al. [38] by permission.

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 Altitude and Hypoxic Training in Swimming 397

On the other hand, the study conducted by Ri Li et al. is of great interest [38]. They
looked at the change in erythropoietin concentration ([EPO]) at four different altitudes, 1,780,
2,085, 2,454 and 2,800m, during the first 24 hours of exposure (Figure 2). The report
concluded that the altitude-induced increase in [EPO] is ―dose‖ dependent, 2,100–2,500 m
appearing to be a threshold for stimulating sustained EPO release in most subjects.
Noteworthy, most altitude training sites for swimming are located at altitudes between 1,700
and 2,500m.

5. HOW LONG? OPTIMIZING THE DURATION

OF ALTITUDE EXPOSURE

Although EPO concentration ([EPO]) increases within hours of exposure to a significant

level of hypoxia, substantially more time is necessary to obtain an increase in red cell mass
sufficient to improve VO2max and exercise performance. To obtain more insight in this area
Levine et al. monitored [EPO] before, during and after a four-week altitude training camp
(2,500m) [28]. Plasma [EPO] almost doubled after one night but returned to normal,
prealtitude levels after three to four weeks of exposure. Moreover, at the end of the four
weeks RCM was significantly increased demonstrating successful altitude acclimatization.
These data indicate that in terms of an erythropoietic response at least three and preferably
four weeks is the typically recommended duration for an altitude training camp at 2,500m.
However it remains unknown whether this period of three to four weeks is optimal for other
adaptations (for example, changes in muscle morphology or metabolism) as well.

6. ALTITUDE/HYPOXIC TRAINING: CURRENT

METHODS AND STRATEGIES
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Variations in the combination of exposure to hypoxia (degree and duration of hypoxia)

and exercise (in normoxia or hypoxia), and therewith variations in the use of acclimatization
and training effects, have led to the different altitude training strategies applied in sports
practice today (Table 1).
Conventional altitude training consists in living and training in hypoxia (―living high,
training high‖, LH-TH). More recently, Levine and Stray-Gundersen introduced the strategy
of living at moderate altitude (2,500 m) and training at a lower altitude (―living high-training
low‖, LH-TL). From this standpoint, hypoxic training can be described as a ―living low,
training high‖ (LL-TH) strategy. Finally, hypoxia can be achieved by living or staying in a
hypoxic environment on a continuous basis or intermittently, i.e. combining periods of
hypoxia and normoxia. Table 1 presents a summary of the hypoxic methods and strategies
most commonly used in sports.

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 398 Martin J. Truijens and Ferran A. Rodríguez

Table 1. Hypoxic methods commonly used in sports. Adapted from [46].

Method Physical principle Type of Facilities / Common strategiesa

hypoxia
Moderate altitude Natural reduction of Hypobaric, Altitude resorts at the mountains (altitude training
atmospheric and O2 continuous or centers)
pressure (PO2) intermittent Continuous or intermittent sojourns at altitude (LH-TH,
LH-TL, LL-TH)
Hypobaric Artificial reduction Hypobaric, Hypobaric chambers (decompression or low pressure
chamber of atmospheric and intermittent chambers)
O2 pressure (PO2) Intermittent exposure, passive (LH-TL) or combined
with training exercise (LL-TH)
Hypoxic gas Artificially Normobaric, Hypoxic gas mixture (cylinders)
mixtures decreased O2 intermittent Intermittent exposure, usually with training exercise
concentration in (LL-TH)
inspired air (FIO2)
Hypoxic houses, Artificial FIO2 by Normobaric, Houses, portable chambers or tents with external N2
portable chambers N2 addition to intermittent addition to atmospheric air
and tents atmospheric air Intermittent exposure, usually during sleep or resting
time (LH-TL)
Respiratory Artificial FIO2 by Normobaric, Portable respiratory devices (with breathing masks)
hypoxic devices O2-filtering intermittent producing a hypoxic gas mixture
membranes in Intermittent exposure, usually combined with training
atmospheric air exercise (LL-TH)
a
L= live; T = train; H = high; L = low (e.g. ―Live High-Train Low‖ = LH-TL)

7. HYPOXIC TRAINING: “LIVE LOW-TRAIN HIGH”

AND CONTROLLED BREATHING

Combining the physiology of swimming, in most events being a high intensity sport
requiring high rates of anaerobic metabolism, and the proposed effect of hypoxic exercise
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training, enhanced anaerobic metabolism, Truijens et al. hypothesized that high intensity
intermittent hypoxic training would improve sea level swimming performances more than
equivalent training at sea level [55]. Sixteen well-trained collegiate and master swimmers
were matched for gender, performance level and training history, and assigned to either
hypoxic (simulated altitude of 2,500 m) or normoxic (sea-level) interval training in a
randomized, double blind, placebo controlled design. All subjects completed a five week
training program, consisting of three high intensity training sessions in a swimming flume
and supplemental low to moderate intensity sessions in a pool each week. Although both
groups of athletes improved performance (100 and 400 m freestyle) and VO2max, no
differences between groups could be demonstrated. Moreover, neither swimming economy
nor anaerobic capacity improved with this training. Interestingly, using a similar training
regimen Ogita and Tabata found a 10% increase in anaerobic capacity, as measured by the
accumulated oxygen deficit (AOD) after only two weeks of hypoxic training in nine
competitive Japanese male swimmers [34]. However, no control group was included.
Therefore, the question remains whether this improvement was an effect of the added hypoxic
stimulus or solely an effect of the training itself.
The key issue in the interpretation of the results of hypoxic training studies seems to be
the control of training intensity. In order to make an honest comparison between hypoxic and

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 Altitude and Hypoxic Training in Swimming 399

normoxic exercise training and draw conclusions regarding the occurrence of hypoxia
specific effects, both groups should train at similar relative intensities. The study of Truijens
et al. demonstrated that when both groups train at similar relative intensities the hypoxic
group trained at significantly lower swimming speeds and thus lower power outputs
compared to the normoxic controls [46]. At the metabolic level this was indicated by
significantly lower VO2 in the hypoxic (71.5%) compared to the normoxic group (91.8% of
pre-test VO2max) (Figure 3). Thus, although hypoxic exercise may feel harder, the power
output generated by the muscle is less, and the stimulus for muscle hypertrophy and myosin
synthesis must be equivalently less. Moreover, although in the study of Truijens et al. both
groups significantly improved their flume training speeds, this improvement tended to be
smaller in the hypoxic group compared to the normoxic group [46]. This suggests that in the
long run hypoxic exercise training might even lead to a relative state of detraining.
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Figure 3. Percent change in VO2max (top) and anaerobic capacity (bottom) swimmers training in
normoxia (A), hypoxia (B), and absolute changes for all subjects together (C), before and after the
training period. See text for details. From Truijens et al. [55] by permission.

Controlled frequency breathing (CFB) is a frequently used training technique in which a

swimmer voluntarily restricts breathing which, theoretically, limits oxygen availability and
may stimulate anaerobic metabolism. In fact, breath-holding or reduced breathing frequency
during exercise has been reported to result in alveolar hypoxia, increased arterial pressure of
carbon dioxide (hypercapnia), substantial hypertension, and heart rate depression
(bradycardia) [1] Very high intensity cycling exercise has also shown significant hypoxemia
and arterial oxygen de-saturation [30].
However, during tethered swimming training (4:4 min intervals at three different loads),
estimated saturation of arterial blood with oxygen was found essentially undiminished, so that

World Book of Swimming : From Science to Performance, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 400 Martin J. Truijens and Ferran A. Rodríguez

the major response to exercise was hypercapnia, rather than real hypoxemia [11]. Research
has not confirmed either higher blood lactate accumulation or accelerated glycolytic
metabolic activity as compared to high-intensity training [22]. In a recent study [56], during
swimming graded exercise (3-min trials at 55, 65, 75, and 85% of peak intensity), CFB
reduced ventilation, VO2, and heart rate when compared to normal breathing, but it did not
alter blood lactate concentration.
Hence, based on the available information it seems unlikely that breath-holding during
exercise will enhance the effects of training or provide a physiological advantage that may
enhance performance. On the other hand, the cardiovascular and neural responses elicited by
breath-holding may be potentially hazardous to general health, as it may result in a decrease
in cerebral circulation (with sudden loss of consciousness), acutely high blood pressure or
arrhythmia.

8. ALTITUDE TRAINING: “LIVE HIGH-TRAIN HIGH”

AND “LIVE HIGH-TRAIN LOW”

The traditional and most common altitude training strategy among swimmers is LH-TH.
The prevailing paradigm which supports this practice is that living and training at moderate
altitude (about 2,000-3,000 m) is directly linked to an accelerated production of red blood
cells, which leads to an increase in VO2max, ultimately resulting in improved endurance
performance. However, it is important to note that controlled studies of LH-TH have not
shown to improve sea level performance. This failure has been attributed to reduced training
loads at altitude, particularly concerning intensity [29]. Only two studies have tested LH-TH
for sea-level performance in swimmers. In the only study with a sea-level control group, 10
male and female Korean elite swimmers lived and trained for 21 days at 1,890 m [9].
Although statistical analysis was not reported, the little increase in performance in 100- and
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

200-m races (0.1-0.7%) fell within inter-race variability for swimmers (~0.5%). In the second
uncontrolled study, male collegiate swimmers spent 14 days at 2,300 m [13], failing to show
any significant changes in 200- and 500-yd swimming performance.
A more recent approach, first developed by Levine and Stray-Gundersen and known as
"living high-training low" (LH-TL), has been shown to improve sea level performance in
runners of different levels over events lasting 8-20 minutes [28, 49, 50]. In essence, LH-TL
allows athletes to ‗‗live high‘‘ for the purpose of facilitating altitude acclimatization, while
simultaneously allowing athletes to ‗‗train low‘‘ for the purpose of replicating sea-level
training intensity and oxygen flux [28]. Analysis of 15 LH-TL studies has recently indicated
that moderate altitude exposure of more than 12 h per day increases hemoglobin mass by
about 1% per 100 hours of exposure [20]. This would imply a minimal duration of 21 days of
intermittent exposure to attain about 5% an increase in hemoglobin.
Concerning the LH-TL strategy, proven useful in endurance trained athletes which
performance time is over 8 minutes, it has never been successfully applied to swimming, in
which most events last for less than 5 min. In fact, the only controlled study in which
swimmers were tested, red cell production was effectively stimulated (+8.5%) after 13 days at
2,500-3,000 m, 16 h per day of simulated altitude, but neither VO2max nor 2,000-m
performance improved [40]. In another, uncontrolled study, even if total haemoglobin mass

World Book of Swimming : From Science to Performance, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 Altitude and Hypoxic Training in Swimming 401

significant increases by 6% on average, the change in sea level performance after altitude
training was not related to this hematological change [14].
Consequently, based on available research, altitude/hypoxic training has failed to prove
useful for the enhancement of sea level performance in swimmers [57]. This fact is
particularly remarkable bearing in mind that swimmers are among the most frequent users of
high altitude training facilities.

9. INTERMITTENT HYPOXIA AND SEA-LEVEL TRAINING

Another promising strategy is the use of intermittent hypoxia (IH), artificially achieved in
a hypobaric or in a normobaric environment (nitrogen houses, hypoxic tents, or hypoxic
breathing apparatuses) (Table 1). The practical reasons for IH being an alternative to
conventional altitude training would be the availability of an artificially created environment
located at low altitude areas, and the shorter hypoxic stimuli needed, which can be more
compatible with normal living conditions and lower risk of acute mountain sickness in
unacclimatized subjects.
IH combined with sea-level training should theoretically induce physiological adaptations
without hampering training workload, thus allowing a comparison with the LH-TL paradigm.
In a series of studies a short-term IH model with a higher degree of hypoxia (1.5 to 5 h at 4,000
to 5,500 m of simulated altitude) and shorter duration of the chronic exposure (2-3 weeks) has
been investigated. A significant increase in exercise time at sea level related to lower lactate
accumulation during incremental exercise [7, 42], and improved ventilatory threshold [7, 45] in
trained individuals have been reposted, with no significant changes in VO2max.
Two IH studies have been performed with swimmers. In a first study [43], 8 swimmers of
high national level combined sea-level training with exposure to IH over 2 weeks (3 h/d) at a
simulated altitude of 4,000-5,500 m, and were compared to a control group following an
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

identical training program. The IH swimmers significantly improved swimming performance

in a 200-m trial (-1.3 s), associated with an increase in VO2peak in the same distance
(+9.3%), and VO2max measured at a 400-m all-out test (+5.4%).
In a second, double blind, placebo-controlled study, (Rodriguez et al., 2007) 4 weeks of
4,000-5,500 m IH was administered to 23 subjects, 13 swimmers and 10 runners, distributed
in two groups (IH, and controls). Swimmers performed duplicated 100 and 400 m time trials,
and VO2max tests on a swimming flume within three weeks before, and during the first and
third week after the intervention. No significant changes in time trials or physiological
markers of performance were observed for either the runners or swimmers. However, when
runners and swimmers were considered separately, IH swimmers, and not controls, showed a
significant increase in VO2 at the ventilatory threshold (VT, +8.9) and maximal minute
ventilation (+10.6%) immediately after the intervention, and also a significant increase in
VO2max relative to body mass (+7.5%) and VO2 at VT (12.1%) two weeks after, following a
pre-competition taper (Figure 4). Intriguingly, these changes could not be attributed to
increased red blood cell or haemoglobin mass [19], submaximal swimming economy [54],
nor to hypoxic and hypercapnic ventilatory control changes [53], neither of which changed in
this experimental model. The hypothesis was raised that these changes could have been the

World Book of Swimming : From Science to Performance, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 402 Martin J. Truijens and Ferran A. Rodríguez

combined effect of IH and tapering, thus suggesting that this strategy can be useful
immediately before competition.
B A
15 20
HYPO Mean swimmers HYPO
HYPO
% Change in VO2max / Body Mass

10
+7.5%, p = 0.006 10

% Change in ATvent
+9.1%, p = 0.04
5

0
0

-5 Mean swimmers HYPO

-10

-10
15
ANOVA RM: Group x Test F(1,10) = 3.61, p = 0.046 B 20
ANOVA RM: Group x Test F(1,10) = 9.15, p = 0.002

Mean swimmers NORM

NORM
NORM
% Change in VO2max / Body Mass

10 Mean swimmers NORM

10

% Change in ATvent
5
+1.9%, p = 0.07 +0.1%, p = 0.06

0
0

-5
-10

-10
Pre Post 1 Post 2 Pre Post 1 Post 2

Figure 4. Changes in VO2max relative to body weight (left panel) and VO2 at ventilatory threshold
following intermittent hypoxia and sea-level training (HYPO group: 3 h/d, 5 d/wk during 4 weeks at
4,000-5,500 m) or sea-level training controls (NORM group) in competitive swimmers (n=13). See text
for details. Adapted from Rodríguez et al. [44].
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

In a different approach, also short-term moderate normobaric IH has been investigated in

athletic subjects. Some indications of erythropoietic stimulation were observed, such as
increased serum EPO, 2,3 DPG and transferrin receptor concentration, and reticulocyte counts
[25]. However, no significant changes in hematological parameters such as hemoglobin
concentration or hematocrit were found, nor enhancement of performance indicators were
reported. Altogether, the efficacy of various strategies of IH in swimmers deserves further
investigation.

10. WHEN TO COMPETE AFTER RETURNING FROM ALTITUDE?

The scientific literature on the optimal time of competition after altitude training is
scarce. However, just as the process of acclimatization to altitude occurs as soon as exposure
to altitude begins, the process of deacclimatization occurs immediately upon return to sea
level. In the athlete population both acclimatization and deacclimatization always occur in
combination with exercise training, and thus the optimal time to compete after an altitude
training camp depends on the response of the individual athlete and the training design upon

World Book of Swimming : From Science to Performance, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 Altitude and Hypoxic Training in Swimming 403

return to sea level. The increased oxygen carrying capacity of the blood and VO2max that are
observed as a result of altitude acclimatization will start to diminish upon return to sea level
as red cell mass returns to its sea level equilibrium. However, these adaptations may also
allow higher training work loads during the first few days at sea level [8]. This suggests that
the overall advantage of altitude training for sea level performance, when achieved, can be
maintained as long as the positive effects of the improved post altitude sea level training
response cancel out the negative effects of deacclimatization. Interestingly, Levine, et al. [28]
observed no slowing of 5,000m running performance in the first four weeks after a four-week
altitude training camp [28].
In contrast to relative small scientific evidence on altitude deacclimatization and sea level
performance, there is a large amount of anecdotal evidence on this topic [10]. Overall, it is
suggested that optimal performance can be reached as soon as a few days after cessation of
altitude exposure, until about four weeks after return to sea level. Clearly, more research is
necessary in this area.

11. HEALTH AND NUTRITIONAL ISSUES

IN ALTITUDE/HYPOXIC TRAINING

Hypoxia is a remarkable physical and psychological stressor. Despite the scarcity of

studies focused on the health and nutritional aspects of altitude/hypoxic training, it is well
established that the cardiac output and the blood flow to skeletal muscles diminish, thus
reducing the capacity of tolerating high intensity training [27]. This condition may deteriorate
the athlete‘s training status and performance capacity, besides increasing the risk of
overtraining.
As mentioned before, one of the most frequent negative effects of altitude/hypoxic
training is the early appearance of symptoms of acute mountain sickness, even if generally
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

transient and of low or moderate intensity [28, 36, 39]. These symptoms typically include
headache, sleep disturbances [24], appetite and weight loss [23]. Their appearance may
require medication or even the disruption of altitude exposure in some cases. Also mental
disturbances may affect well-being and performance at altitude. In fact, exercising and
performing at altitude can produce a stress response characterized by increased negative
mood and relatively poor performance [26].
Other potential negative effects are depression of the immune system and increased risk
for infections, particularly of the upper respiratory airways [15, 16, 52], and cellular damage
due to increased oxidative stress induced by exercise in hypoxia [35]. Active prevention
measures include the use of antioxidants and, particularly, an adequate prescription of training
intensity.
Another importance issue is iron balance and utilization. Since altitude/hypoxic training
will optimally accelerate red blood cell production, iron stores should be determined prior to
exposure to hypoxia, and eventually iron supplements should be prescribe by a physician
before, during, and/or after it [27, 33, 41].

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 404 Martin J. Truijens and Ferran A. Rodríguez

12. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSION

Based on the available scientific evidence, the following general guidelines can be
drawn:
 There is no objective evidence for the conductance of low-moderate, short duration
(less then 3 weeks) altitude training camps (LH-TH) in order to improve sea level
performance in highly trained swimmers. Using traditional altitude training (LH-
TH), at least 2,100 to 2,500 m of altitude for at least 3 to 4 weeks appears necessary
to acquire a robust acclimatization response (primarily red cell mass) with lower risk
of altitude disturbances in the majority of athletes.
 The optimal altitude training strategy for improvements in sea level swimming
performances is likely to be the ―living high-training low‖ (LH-TL) strategy, in
which one ―lives high‖ (i.e. 2,100-2,500 m) to get the benefits of altitude
acclimatization and ―trains low‖ (1,250 m or less) to avoid the detrimental effects of
hypoxic exercise. Whether the performance benefits would be equally large for
swimmers compared to cyclists and runners remains questionable and requires
further research.
 When using intermittent LH-TL at real or simulated altitude it is likely that fewer
hours of hypoxic exposure (i.e. at least 12 h/day at 2,100–3,000 m maintained during
3 to 4 weeks) may suffice to achieve significant similar erythropoietic effects;
training is to be carried out at a lower altitude (1,250 m or less). Short duration
exposures to more severe hypoxia (e.g. 4,000 to 5,500 m, 3 hours/day for 2 to 4
weeks) combined with sea-level training may enhance VO2max, ventilatory threshold
and middle-distance swimming performance (e.g. 200 m) when combined with a pre-
competition taper, although the mechanisms for this improvement are unclear.
 Hypoxic exercise (as in LH-TH or LL-TH) does not appear to provide any
physiologic advantage over normoxic exercise, regardless of training intensity.
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Moreover, absolute work load and oxygen flux are reduced suggesting that, if
anything, hypoxic exercise might be detrimental effect to sea level performance.
 The optimal time to compete after an altitude training camp depends on the
individual deacclimatization response and the training design upon return to sea
level. The scarce evidence available suggests that the obtained performance
advantage, if attained, can be maintained up to four weeks after the altitude training
camp.
 There is substantial individual variability in the outcome of every hypoxic/altitude
strategy. Moreover, since none of these strategies has undoubtedly proven to enhance
swimming performance, more research is warranted to further unravel and optimize
the individual dose-response relationship.
 In any case, altitude/hypoxic training needs to be implemented under medical and
nutritional supervision in order to minimize the potential negative effects on health,
nutritional status, training status, and performance. Particular attention should be
paid to carefully-designed training programs, appropriate rest, and nutrition; iron and
antioxidants supplements may be required but should be prescribed by a physician.

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 Altitude and Hypoxic Training in Swimming 405

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synthesis of oxidative enzymes and mioglobin? J Appl Physiol, Vol. 68(6), 2369-72.
[52] Tiollier, E., Schmitt, L., Burnat, P., Fouillot, J. P., Robach, P., Filaire, E., Guezennec,
C., & Richalet, J. P. (2005). Living high-training low altitude training: effects on
mucosal immunity. Eur J Appl Physiol, 94(3), 298-304.
[53] Townsend N.E., Gore C.J., Stray-Gundersen J., Rodríguez F.A., Truijens M.J., &
Levine B.D. (2004). Ventilatory acclimatization to intermittent hypoxia in well-trained
runners and swimmers. J Appl Physiol, Vol. 36(5), S337.
[54] Truijens, M. J., Rodriguez, F. A., Townsend, N. E., Stray-Gundersen, J., Gore, C. J., &
Levine, B. D. (2008). The effect of intermittent hypobaric hypoxic exposure and sea
level training on submaximal economy in well-trained swimmers and runners. J Appl
Physiol, 104(2), 328-37.
[55] Truijens, M. J., Toussaint, H. M., Dow, J., & Levine, B. D. (2003). Effect of high-
intensity hypoxic training on sea-level swimming performances. J Appl Physiol, 94(2),
733-43.
[56] West, S. A., Drummond, M. J., Vanness, J. M., & Ciccolella, M. E. (2005). Blood
lactate and metabolic responses to controlled frequency breathing during graded
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swimming. J Strength Cond Res, 19(4), 772-6.

[57] Wilber, R. L. (2004). Altitude training and athletic performance. Champaign, Illinois:
Human Kinetics.
[58] Wilber RL, Stray-Gundersen J, Levine BD (2007). Effect of hypoxic "dose" on
physiological responses and sea-level performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 39(9): 1590-
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[59] Wolski, L. A., McKenzie, D. C., & Wenger, H. A. (1996). Altitude training for
improvements in sea level performance: is there scientific evidence of benefit? Sports-
Medicine, 22(4), 251-263.
[60] http://www.carsierranevada.com/en/deportes/natacion.php (visited 30/10/2008).

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 SECTION III
PERFORMANCE AND TESTING
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

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Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

World Book of Swimming : From Science to Performance, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 In: World Book of Swimming: From Science to Performance ISBN: 978-1-61668-202-6
Editors: L. Seifert, D. Chollet and I.Mujika ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 21

COMPETITION ANALYSIS

Bruce R. Mason and Danielle P. Formosa

Australian Institute of Sport, Canberra, Australia

ABSTRACT
Competition race analysis in swimming has evolved significantly over the past two
decades. In the early 2000s FINA (swimming‘s international governing body) passed a
resolution to make competition race analysis obligatory in all FINA International
competitions. This was potentially a very progressive initiative; however it was not
successfully implemented due to a lack of financial support from FINA. The following
chapter investigates the history of international competition race analysis in swimming. It
describes the function of race analysis and what it attempts to achieve. The chapter
provides a description of how race analysis is performed and how race analysis results are
presented to the swimmer and coach. Finally, it illustrates what the swimmer will gain
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

from utilizing race analysis, as well as it investigated the possible future directions of
competition race analysis in the sport.

Key Words: swimming, competition, race, analysis, championships

1. INTRODUCTION: HISTORY OF ANALYSIS

IN SWIMMING COMPETITIONS

Rein Haljand from Estonia has been involved in race analysis at European Swimming
Championships since 1986. Patrick Kennedy, Peter Brown, Somadeepti Chengalur and
Richard Nelson from Penn State University carried out analysis in the swimming events at the
1988 Seoul Olympics. Raul Arellano, Peter Brown, Jane Cappaert and Richard Nelson were
responsible for competition analysis in swimming at the 1992 Barcelona Olympics. Rein
Haljand performed analysis of finalists at the 1994 World Swimming Championships in
Rome. In the above championships the analysis information was not available until after the

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 412 Bruce R. Mason and Danielle P. Formosa

completion of the competition. Several publications resulted from the analysis at these
Olympics [1].
David Smith and University of Calgary colleagues with an international research team
including Bruce Mason from Australia, Young-Hoo Kwon from South Korea, Jane Cappaert
and Jaci Vanheest from the USA performed swimming race analysis at the 1996 Atlanta
Olympics. This was the first Olympics that an analysis report was available from the heats
and distributed prior to the commencement of the finals. A detailed analysis from the finals
was provided to national swim teams the day following the competition for those events
swum the night before. The method by which the analysis information, including lap times,
was incorporated into the analysis process at these Olympics involved manual entry. The
analysis of the 1998 World Swimming Championships in Perth was performed by Bruce
Mason, Jodi Cossor and Ross Sanders together with teams from the Australian Institute of
Sport and Perth‘s Edith Cowen University. This analysis project marked the first time in
international competition that lap splits were automatically transferred from the competition
timing system into the analysis computing system. The Australian Institute of Sport team
performed similar analyses at the 1999 Pan Pacific Championships in Sydney. At the 2000
Sydney Olympics, Bruce Mason, Jodi Cossor with a team from the Australian Institute of
Sport, together with international researchers David Wilson from New Zealand, Raul
Arellano from Spain, Scott Riewald from USA, Jean-Claude Chatard from France and
Yasushi Ikuta from Japan performed the competition analysis in the swimming events. By
this stage much of the analysing process had been automated which was made possible as a
consequence of the video being available for analysis in digital format in the analysis
computer. However, the video race footage was still transferred from the camera capture
system to the analysis computer system using digital tapes. Many papers from this Sydney
Olympic swimming competition analysis project were presented at the ISBS2001 conference
in San Francisco [2-6].
At the 2001 World Swimming Championships in Fukuoka a Japanese team comprising
Yasushi Ikuta, Keisuke Okuno, Futoshi Ogita, Hideki Takagi, Kohji Wakayoshi, Teruo
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Nomura and Mitsumasa Miyashita performed the race analysis [7]. By this stage a few of the
top swimming nations including the USA and Australia had developed portable systems to
analyse their own swimmers. By then, FINA had required that all major FINA championships
have a competition analysis system in operation to benefit all nations competing. At the 2003
World Championships in Barcelona, a Spanish team headed by Josep Escoda and Raul
Arellano performed competition analysis. Here much of the analysis process had become
automatic.
At the 2004 Athens Olympics for swimming and in the 2005 Montreal World Swimming
Championships a small French team performed the analysis. During this period, the analysis
at the championships for all nations competing had become less important as many of the
major swimming nations employed their own portable analysis systems. After 2005, full
competition analysis disappeared off the international scene and national swim teams relied
upon their own portable analysis systems. By the 2008 Beijing Olympics, most national
swimming teams relied on their own portable systems for race analysis.

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 Competition Analysis 413

WHAT IS SWIMMING RACE ANALYSIS?

The purpose of competition race analysis is to provide the coach and swimmer with a
clear and concise summary of swimmer‘s performances in each event during the meet. The
analysis is designed to identify where, why and how some swimmers perform better than
others. The primary reason why the coaches of elite swimmers use competition analysis is to
develop and progressively refine the competition model for the swimmer. Prior to swimming
competition analysis, the coach had only lap splits available and subjective impressions to
analyse the swimmer‘s performance. Competition analysis breaks down the event into the
various components. This includes start times, turn times, finish times and for the free
swimming component; stroke length (m.stroke-1), stroke rate (stroke.min-1), interval velocities
(m.s-1) and possibly stroke counts per lap. Some race analysis systems further subdivide the
start and turn phases of the competition analysis into component elements. For starts this may
include: time on the block, time and velocity in the airborne phase, entry distance, underwater
distance and time to 15 m. In turns the components may include: in turn time and mean
velocity, out turn time and mean velocity, resurface distance as well as the overall time for the
turn. The output results from the analysis generally include both a comparative summary for
all swimmers in the event as well as an individual swimmer report detailing each swimmer‘s
performance. Often graphs are provided to illustrate trends that may be present as some
parameters are more easily identified with a graph than with a numerical table.

3. WHAT DOES SWIMMING RACE ANALYSIS ATTEMPT TO ACHIEVE?

The race analysis provides an objective and quantifiable summary of a race. This
provides objective comparisons that may be made between different swimmers in the race. It
also provides a comparison between the individual swimmer‘s performance and the
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

competition model that had previously been developed by the coach and athlete, to define
what should be executed by the swimmer in the race. If reliable race analysis is available, the
coach may concentrate on observing the swimmer in the race and get a better feel of the
swimmer‘s performance by watching the race rather than attempting to gather stroke counts,
lap times as well as to record such information. Race analysis enables identification of
specific aspects of a swimmer‘s performance that may be improved during future training
sessions. It also establishes a database of factors that provides evidence of the characteristics
that are necessary to compete at the elite level.

4. HOW IS RACE ANALYSIS PERFORMED?

The system incorporating data capture and analysis of performance progressively became
more refined over the period in which competition analysis was conducted. Frequently,
advances in technology enabled this to be achieved. The systems that were first developed
attempted to gather data on all swimmers in a race and were referred to as Big Systems. These
systems incorporated so much equipment that they were difficult to transport, often requiring
a truck in the transportation to competition venues. The need for competition analysis when

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 414 Bruce R. Mason and Danielle P. Formosa

swimming teams travelled overseas resulted in the development of portable single swimmer
analysis systems.
Initially race analysis involved measuring objective parameters from all the swimmers in
a race. The intra lap timing components were obtained by way of a time coded stationary
camera system that provided the elapsed time from the start of the race to when each
swimmer passed through an imaginary line drawn across the pool‘s surface. To enable the
time coding, the exact moment of the starting signal needed to be captured by the camera
system. Cameras were positioned to view in a perpendicular direction across the pool, with an
imaginary line in the centre of the camera view. For every imaginary line that was required,
there was a distinct camera to capture this view. Generally, the event time was taken when the
centre of the swimmer‘s head passed through the imaginary line. There were a number of
such events required during each lap. These included: the location in the lane that
discriminated the starting phase of the event or the completion of a turn from that of the first
free swim phase, the midpoint of the pool that discriminated between the two free swim
phases and the termination of the second free swim phase from the commencement of the turn
or the finish phase. Initially, the start phase was from the gun to the 15 m mark, each turn
phase began at the 7.5 m mark on the way into the wall and extended to the 7.5 m mark on the
way out from the wall, the finish phase commenced 5 m from the wall at the completion of
the race and the two free swim phases occupied the remainder of the lap, with the 25 m mark
as the separation between the two free swim phases. In later analyses (after 2003) the
commencement of the turn was revised to the 5 m mark on the way in and completed at the
10 m mark on the way out. Stroke rates were obtained from two additional stationary cameras
that captured a view of the swimmers during each free swim interval. The time taken to swim
a specific number of strokes was used to calculate stroke rate. Swim velocity was determined
from the time taken to swim each entire free swim phase. Stroke length was computed as the
product of free swim interval velocity by the reciprocal of stroke rate in the free swim phase,
expressed in seconds per stroke. The time for each lap was entered at the completion of the
swimming session from the official timing sheet. In the early analysis systems the various
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

parameters were typed into a spreadsheet making the process very manual and time
consuming. These initial systems relied upon analogue video to obtain analysis data and the
video footage needed to be advanced manually. This resulted in long periods after the
swimming sessions before the analysis process was finished.
Later analysis systems enabled split times to be captured directly from the competition
timing system. With the introduction of digital video, the transport of tapes from the camera
recording systems to the computer analysis system was no longer required and the video
information was able to be transmitted through data cables or optical fibre directly to the
computer analysis system. To speed the analysis process, the analysis programmes were able
to anticipate where specific events for each swimmer occurred during the race. Hence, the
operator needed only to adjust the time of an event opposed to finding it through viewing the
entire video footage of the race. Rather than having to type into the computer, the time that a
particular event occurred, the operator only needed to press a button at the specific event to
have that time automatically recorded by the analysis system. The system used in Barcelona
at the 2003 World Championships was able by pattern recognition to automatically identify
specific events. However, due to splashes and poor visibility, the automatic nature of the
system could not be relied upon throughout all the analysis process and for much of the
analysis, manual recognition of various events still needed to be utilized.

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 Competition Analysis 415

5. THE OUTPUT FOR SWIMMING RACE ANALYSIS

The spreadsheet output of the competition analysis report permitted an easy comparison
between the performances of the different swimmers in a race. This enabled a comparison to
be made between swimmers competing in a single race or between the performances of an
individual swimmer at different times (heats and finals) or even in different competitions
(Tables 2 and 4, Figure 2). Most analysis systems produced a report containing a specific
swimmer‘s parameters during each phase of the competition. This was provided to enable the
coach to more closely identify changes from the competition model and areas of inefficiency
that occurred throughout the swimmer‘s race. Usually comparative graphs of a number of
swimmers were provided to more easily highlight differences between the swimming
performances of the various competitors. Individual graphs were also produced for each
competitor that indicated the relationship between stroke length, stroke rate and velocity
through the various free swim phases of the event (Table 3 and figure 1). Usually, Big System
analysis did not provide any supporting video footage of the event analysed. However, Big
System analysis generally resulted in having spreadsheets for the finals and semi finals being
provided in booklet or CD form at the conclusion of the meet.
The information provided for the free swim phases of the event included stroke length
(m.stroke-1), stroke rate (stroke.min-1), swim velocity (m.s-1) and a stroke index (m2.s-1).
Stroke length is the distance the swimmer‘s head moves down the pool during a complete arm
stroke from right hand entry to the next right hand entry. Stroke rate refers to the number of
these cycles that occur in a minute if the same stroke rate were to continue over the duration
of a minute in free swimming. Stroke rate should not be confused with stroke count which
refers to the number of strokes taken during an entire 50 m lap. Velocity, as implied, denotes
how far the swimmer‘s head travels in a second, based upon an average value for the entire
free swim interval. The stroke index is obtained by multiplying the swimmer‘s free swim
phase velocity by the stroke length for that phase.
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

The stroke index places the emphasis on having a longer stroke length and a lower stroke
rate as being more efficient than having a shorter stroke length and a higher stroke rate, to
swim at the specific swim velocity. This principle applies only to evaluating the same
swimming stroke over the same event distance. Stroke length and stroke rate are the two
factors that determine swim velocity. Multiplying the stroke rate and the stroke length
produces the swimmer‘s velocity.
The starting phase is initiated with the starting signal and continues through until the
swimmer‘s head crosses the 15 m distance marker from the starting wall and is measured in
seconds. Depending upon the system used to analyse the competition, additional parameters
may have also been provided to fully discriminate between the starting performances of the
swimmers. Additional parameters may include: off block time, flight time and flight velocity,
entry distance, entry time, distance and velocity spent under the water and distance travelled
above water.
The turn phase is initiated when the swimmer‘s head crosses a specific distance marker
from the wall during the in turn direction and is terminated by the head crossing a specific
distance marker during the out turn direction. The distance that these markers are from the
wall has varied with different competition analysis systems. In early competition analysis
systems, the markers tended to be 7.5 m from the wall in both directions. In later systems this

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 416 Bruce R. Mason and Danielle P. Formosa

tended to be 5 m during the in turn direction and 10 m during the out turn direction.
Additional parameters may include: in turn time and in turn velocity, out turn time and out
turn velocity as well as time and distance of resurface at breakout during the out turn phase.

Table 1. Individual analysis sheet from Big System analysis - Pieter van den
Hoogenband 100 m Freestyle Final Olympics Sydney 2000.

First 50m

First 25m
On block time = 0.86 s
Start time-Gun to 15m out = 6.07 s (V= 2.47 m.s-1)
-1
Stroke Length (SL) = 2.28 m.stroke
Stroke Rate (SR) = 56.2 strokes.min-1 = 1.067 s.stroke-1
Interval Velocity (V) = 2.14 m.s-1 (V= 2.14 m.s-1)
-1
Interval Stroke Index (SL*V) = 4.89 m².s
Progressive 25m Split = 10.74 s
Time for this 25m Split = 10.74 s (V= 2.33 m.s-1)

Second 25m
Stroke Length = 2.38 m.stroke-1
Stroke Rate = 51.3 strokes.min-1 = 1.170 s.stroke-1
Interval Velocity = 2.04 m.s-1 (V= 2.04 m.s-1)
-1
Interval Stroke Index = 4.86 m².s
Progressive 50m lap time = 23.32 s
Time for this 50m lap = 23.32 s (V= 2.14 m.s-1)
Time for this 25m Split = 12.58 s (V= 1.99 m.s-1)

Second 50m
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First 25m
Turn time 7.5m to 7.5m = 7.28 s (V= 2.06 m.s-1)
In = 3.99 s
Out = 3.29 s
In/(In+Out) = 54.8 %
Stroke Length = 2.28 m.stroke-1
Stroke Rate = 52.2 strokes.min-1 = 1.150 s.stroke-1
Interval Velocity = 1.99 m.s-1 (V= 1.99 m.s-1)
Interval Stroke Index = 4.54 m².s-1
Progressive 25m Split = 35.42 s
Time for this 25m Split = 12.10 s (V= 2.07 m.s-1)

Second 25m
Stroke Length = 2.30 m.stroke-1
Stroke Rate = 49.6 strokes.min-1 = 1.210 s.stroke-1
Interval Velocity = 1.90 m.s-1 (V= 1.90 m.s-1)
-1
Interval stroke Index = 4.37 m².s
Finish Time (from 5m out) = 2.35 s (V= 1.91 m.s-1)
Progressive 50m lap time = 48.30 s
Time for this 50m lap = 24.98 s (V= 2.00 m.s-1)
Time for this 25m Split = 12.88 s (V= 1.94 m.s-1)

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 Competition Analysis 417

Table 2. Summary Spreadsheet analysis from Big System – Females 100 m Breaststroke
Final Olympics Sydney 2000. SL: Stroke length, SR: Stroke rate, V: Velocity, SI: Stroke
index (SL*V), Turn Time calculated from 7.5 m in towards the wall and 7.5 m out from
the wall, Av SwimV: Average swimming velocity, Av SR: Average stroke rate, Av SL:
Average stroke length, Av SI: Average stroke index, Turn Time (adj): Turn time
adjusted to official timing, Finish time (adj): Finish time adjusted to official timing,
Accounted Time: the amount of time calculate from the analysis output, Free Swim
Time: Time spent in free swimming phase, Result (m:s.s): Official time

Name M.QUANN L.JONES P.HEYNS S.POEWE A.KOVACS M.TANAKA T.WHITE S.GERASCH

Country U.S.A. AUST. S.AFRICA S.AFRICA HUNGARY JAPAN AUST. GERMANY
Lane 5 6 2 4 3 1 7 8
25m Lap 1
StartTime15m(s) 8.15 8.19 7.45 7.81 8.17 8.05 8.35 8.55
SL(m.stroke-1) 1.69 1.77 1.71 1.51 1.85 1.56 1.76 1.67
SR(stroke.min-1) 53.6 49.6 54.5 61.5 50 57.1 50.4 53.2
V(m.s-1) 1.51 1.47 1.55 1.55 1.54 1.48 1.48 1.48
-1
SI (m².s ) 2.55 2.6 2.65 2.34 2.85 2.31 2.6 2.47
25m Split(s) 14.98 15.34 14.72 14.68 15.06 15.12 15.4 15.78
50m Lap 1
-1
SL(m.stroke ) 1.74 1.7 1.82 1.47 1.94 1.68 1.77 1.62
SR(stroke.min-1) 51.7 51.7 50.7 59.7 45.9 51 49.2 52.6
V(m.s-1) 1.49 1.46 1.54 1.47 1.48 1.43 1.45 1.42
SI (m².s-1) 2.59 2.49 2.8 2.16 2.88 2.4 2.56 2.29
25m Split(s) 16.67 16.8 16.38 16.88 16.66 17.3 17.16 17.39
Lap Time(s) 31.65 32.14 31.1 31.56 31.72 32.42 32.56 33.17
25m Lap 2
TurnTm 7.5*2 9.84 10 9.85 10.17 10.21 9.85 10.36 10.28
SL(m.stroke-1) 1.69 1.73 1.65 1.52 1.91 1.5 1.71 1.59
SR(stroke.min-1) 50 49.2 50.9 53.8 43.9 55.1 48.4 51.7
-1
V(m.s ) 1.41 1.42 1.41 1.36 1.4 1.38 1.38 1.37
SI (m².s-1) 2.39 2.46 2.32 2.07 2.68 2.07 2.36 2.17
25m Split(s) 17.37 17.48 18.94 18.06 17.84 17.5 17.98 18.03
50m Lap 2
-1
SL(m.stroke ) 1.69 1.66 1.55 1.41 1.67 1.4 1.68 1.46
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SR(stroke.min-1) 48.4 50 50.8 57.7 47.8 57 47.6 54.5

V(m.s-1) 1.37 1.38 1.32 1.36 1.33 1.33 1.34 1.33
-1
SI (m².s ) 2.31 2.29 2.04 1.91 2.22 1.86 2.25 1.94
FinTime(5m) 3.38 3.38 3.62 3.36 3.48 3.4 3.58 3.59
25m Split(s) 18.03 17.87 17.51 18.23 18.53 18.45 18.55 18.66
Lap Time(s) 35.4 35.35 36.45 36.29 36.37 35.95 36.53 36.69
Reslt(m:s.s) 1:07.05 1:07.49 1:07.55 1:07.85 1:08.09 1:08.37 1:09.09 1:09.86
Place 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th
Av V 1.43 1.43 1.44 1.42 1.42 1.39 1.4 1.39
Av SR 50.5 50.2 51.4 57.8 46.6 54.9 48.7 53
Av SL 1.7 1.71 1.67 1.47 1.84 1.53 1.72 1.57
Av SI 2.44 2.44 2.41 2.09 2.62 2.13 2.42 2.18
StartTime (s) 8.15 8.19 7.45 7.81 8.17 8.05 8.35 8.55
Turn Time(adj) 9.84 10 9.85 10.17 10.21 9.85 10.36 10.28
Finish Time(adj) 3.38 3.38 3.62 3.36 3.48 3.4 3.58 3.59
Free Swim Time(s)45.38 45.61 45.38 45.93 45.86 46.71 46.43 46.89
Accounted Time(s) 66.75 67.18 66.3 67.27 67.72 68.01 68.72 69.31

The finish phase is initiated when the head is at the 5 m distance from the finishing wall
and terminates at hand touch. The time and velocity are produced for this phase. However, in
calculating the finish velocity, 4.5 m rather than 5 m is divided by the finish time in order to
provide a velocity that can be compared to the previous free swim phase velocity, to identify
if the swimmer slowed upon approaching the wall. 4.5 m is used rather than 5 m to take into

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 418 Bruce R. Mason and Danielle P. Formosa

account the arm reach on the finish wall which approximates to the distance the head is
behind the hand at the wall touch. The tables 1 to 4 and figures 1 to 2 provide an example of
result sheet printouts produced by various competition analysis systems.

Table 3. Individual analysis from portable analysis system – Brenton Rickard 200 m
Breaststroke Final Australian Championship 2006.

Swim Stroke Number of 25m 50m Start Turn In Turn Out Turn Finish
Race Section Velocity Stroke Rate Length Strokes Splits Splits (15m) Time Time Time (5m)
(m.s-1) (stroke.min-1) (m.stroke-1) (stroke.lap-1) (s) (s) (s) (s) (s) (s) (s)
Start (15m) 6.65
15m-25m 1.54 39.5 2.35 13.13
25m-42.5m 1.48 36.3 2.44 16 16.53 29.66
Turn 1
(15m) 8.7 4.68 4.02
57.5m-75m 1.44 38.6 2.23 16.19
75m-92.5m 1.45 36.2 2.4 18 17.23 33.42
Turn 2
(15m) 9.7 5.13 4.57
107.5-125m 1.43 39.8 2.15 16.81
125-142.5m 1.37 38.3 2.15 19 17.96 34.77
Turn 3
(15m) 8.94 5.18 3.76
157.5-175m 1.32 42.4 1.87 16.98
175m-195m 1.3 43.4 1.8 23 19.09 36.07
Finish (5m) 3.75
Averages 1.41 39.4 2.16 19 16.74 33.48 6.65 9.11 5 4.12 3.75
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Figure 1. Individual analysis from portable analysis system – Brenton Rickard 200 m Breaststroke Final
Australian Championship 2006.

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 Competition Analysis 419

1.8 WCT05-Final

WCT05-Semi
1.7
WCT05-Heat

Velocity (m.s-1)
1.6

1.5

1.4

1.3

1.2
0-25m 25-50m 50-75m 75-100m

50
48
Storke Rate (stroke.min-1)

46
44
42
40
38
36 WCT05-Final
34 WCT05-Semi
32 WCT05-Heat
30
0-25m 25-50m 50-75m 75-100m
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WCT05-Final
2.2
WCT05-Semi
2.1
Stroke Length (m.stroke-1)

WCT05-Heat
2

1.9

1.8

1.7

1.6

1.5
0-25m 25-50m 50-75m 75-100m

Figure 2. Comparison of velocity, stroke rate and stroke length between heat, semi-final and final for
Jade Edmistone 100 m Breaststroke in 2005.

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 420 Bruce R. Mason and Danielle P. Formosa

Table 4. Individual comparison analysis from portable analysis system – Jade

Edmistone 100 m Breaststroke in 2005.

Race Velocity Stroke rate Stroke length Number In/Out Turn time Split Lap time
section (m.s-1) (stroke.min-1) (m.stroke-1) of strokes 7.5m (s) (s) (ss.00) (ss.00)
0-25m 1.73 47.5 1.85 14.47
25-50m 1.42 42.9 1.98 20 6.06/4.06 10.12 17.56 32.03
50-75m 1.42 48 1.73 17.55
75-100m 1.33 48.6 1.61 25 18.83 36.38

Key Times Averages Pacing

Block Time (s) NA Average velocity (m.s-1) 1.48 1st 50m (s) 32.03
Start Time (s): 7.64 Average Stroke rate (stroke.min-1) 46.75 2nd 50m (s) 36.38
Finish Time (s): 3.53 Average Stroke length (m.stroke-1) 1.79 Drop-Off (s) 4.35
Total Time (s): 1.08.41 Average Turn Time (s) 10.12 Out % 46.82
Back % 53.18

Comparisons
Time Diff (s)
World Record 1.06.20 2.21
Commonwealth Record 1.06.21 2.2
Australian Record 1.06.21 2.2
Jade PB
Total Time (m.ss.00) 1.08.16 -0.51
Start Time (s) 8.2 -0.04
Time Lap 1 32.09 0.11
Time Lap 2 36.07 -0.62
Finish Time (s) 3.74 -0.19
Average velocity (m.s-1) 1.42 0.09
Average SR (stroke.min-1) 43.23 1.9
Average SL (m.stroke-1) 1.98 -0.07
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Turn Time 1 10.14 -0.06

6. WHAT CAN THE SWIMMER AND COACH GAIN FROM

SWIMMING ANALYSIS?
Competition analysis provides the coach with strategies to make a swimmer a winner.
Everything a swimmer does in the daily training environment must have a close link with
competition and what the athlete hopes to achieve. Through competition analyses,
weaknesses in strategy and inefficiencies of a technical nature in the execution of skills
during competition are able to be identified. The primary objective in training is to refine a
swimmer‘s skills and develop strategies to be successful in competition. Most coaches
develop a competition model for each of their swimmers in each event in which the swimmer
seriously competes. For swimmers to achieve the best results in major competition, the
swimmer must keep as close as possible to a scientifically prepared race strategy, which is
based upon free swim, turn, start and finish velocities. This is commonly referred to by
coaches as the competition model. In order to keep the average free swim velocity as high as

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 Competition Analysis 421

possible, the optimal stroke length and stroke rate should be implemented. This combination
is personalised for the swimmer. Competition analysis information should be used by the
coach to further refine the combination of stroke length and stroke rate for future
competitions. Such strategies should be employed by the coach over the duration of a
competition season.
Information gained from competition analysis can be utilised effectively by the coach
within a meet. Analysis from heat performances can disclose weaknesses in a swimmer‘s
performance. Many of these weaknesses may be able to be addressed before the final
competition. An example of this was demonstrated at the 1996 Atlanta Olympic Games in the
men‘s 1500 metres freestyle event. In the heats of this event, Kieren Perkin‘s performance
was such that he qualified 8th in the final. The analysis of the heats identified Kieren‘s major
problem in the heat performance was in his turns, which fell far behind the turn times of the
other finalists. John Carew, Kieren‘s coach, claimed that by knowing this, he and Kieren were
able to address much of the problem which was also caused to some extent by a stomach
complaint. John Carew stated that this knowledge, about Kieren‘s poor performance in the
turns during the heats, contributed significantly to his gold medal success in that event. Four
years later at the 2000 Sydney Olympics, Kieren was competing against Grant Hackett in his
goal to win three gold medals in successive Olympics in the 1500 metres men‘s freestyle
event. The competition analysis performed on the final of the event, which was won by Grant
and where Kieren won the silver medal, indicated that Kieren actually swam faster than Grant
in the race, but this effort was overshadowed by Grant‘s ability to effectively execute turns.
Statistical analysis performed on the data that was derived from competition analysis
provides the coach with a method to determine the important aspects of particular events.
Research performed on competition analyses provides insight into factors which coaches
should concentrate upon to improve swimming performance. Competition analysis also
provides coaches with a method to identify changing trends that are occurring in competition
strategies. For example faster turns that are occurring as a consequence of a rule change or a
new technique that is being used by swimmers.
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

7. WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT SYSTEMS USED IN RACE ANALYSIS?

The person who takes responsibility for the operation of race analysis systems is most
frequently the developer of the system they use. As there are no swimming race analysis
systems available for purchase on the open market, people who developed the system often
had to utilise what equipment was available to them and what they had available in terms of
technical support in the development of the system. Quite often the system was first
developed to be used only within club and in national swimming meets. As the system
became more essential to coaches, the analysis system was refined to incorporate more
complex setups with a greater emphasis on technical equipment.
The investigations by the authors disclosed that Big System analysis system units were
developed by groups in Estonia, Canada, Australia, France, Japan and Spain. They were used
effectively in these nations for various periods from the mid 1980s until the early 2000s. Most
of these systems utilised camera systems which filmed directly across the pool from only a
slight elevation to identify when the swimmer passed through the central axis of the camera

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 422 Bruce R. Mason and Danielle P. Formosa

lens. The Australian system relied upon 5 cameras, generally mounted high above the pool or
on the pool venue walls, which focussed upon particular sections of the pool‘s surface. The
image from these cameras was calibrated using a series of lines across the pool‘s surface
which were utilised to identify when the swimmer‘s head passed from one phase to another.
The systems that were developed earlier relied on the manually inputting of event and lap
times into a spreadsheet and the primary use of the computer was to then produce the analysis
report. As these systems were further refined, official lap timing was automatically
transferred directly from the competition timing system to the computer that analysed the
race. The initial systems used analogue video tapes, however with the evolution of digital
video, the race images were transferred via data cables and optical fibre. Initially the analysis
systems relied upon viewing the entire race to identify specific events, however in the later
systems the race analysis computer was able to present views of the race which approximated
the event times that were needed. The operators then had only to make small adjustments to
receive accurate timing data, saving an immense amount of analysing time. The latest Big
System was developed in Spain for the 2003 Barcelona World Championships in which
pattern recognition was able to be used by the analysis computer during the analysis of some
events. However, due to the expense in developing and operating these Big Systems, the
organisers of international swimming championships were unable to support the analysis of
all competitors with a single Big System. This resulted in the various swimming nations
developing their own portable analysis systems in which a single competitor could be
analysed. Some nations including Australia relied on using eight such portable analysis
systems combined together, to produce information on all competitors at national
championships. The national swim team thus relied on just a single portable analysis system
when completing overseas.
It is unfortunate that FINA did not support the Big System concept, as the Big Systems
provided some definite advantages over the use of numerous national portable systems. By
evaluating the rate of development in the Big Systems, it is believed that within the next few
years they would have become almost automatic, using pattern recognition, and would only
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

have required a handful of operators to complete the entire analysis of all competitors at a
meet. A major advantage of the Big System is that it would have produced consistent analysis
data for all competitors, making the data more relevant for statistical analysis and this would
advance the sport of competitive swimming. The Big Systems would also have provided
analysis for all competitors, whereas now only competitors from the more successful
swimming nations are able to access competition analysis information. The major advantage
of the portable systems is that they are able to be transported overseas with teams and
provided video footage of the athlete performance along with the analysis report of the
swimmer being analysed.
The portable systems began to be developed in the mid 1990s. Two distinctly different
types of systems evolved. The first type of portable system relied only on capturing
reasonable video footage of the competition. Basically, the footage could be accessed through
either the television network or by a single hand held panning camera. Whereas the data
capture was simple, the analysis process became difficult, time consuming and the accuracy
was questionable. Often the location of the swimmer in the pool is only identified by counting
discs on the lane ropes. However,when the lane markers are not always positioned where they
should be, such analysis is unable to be performed with any degree of accuracy.

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 Competition Analysis 423

The other type of portable system relied upon setting up the panning camera very
accurately so that the exact location of the panning camera was known. When the exact
location of the camera is known and the direction that the camera is pointing is monitored,
this will provide immediate information about the exact location of the swimmer‘s path in the
lane, if the camera is directed at and follows the swimmer‘s progression in the pool. If the
starting signal and the lap times are automatically transferred to the analysis computer and the
operator is able to input immediate information concerning stroke rate, the competition
analysis for the particular swimmer is able to be performed in real time. Such a system is not
only viable but exists at present. The camera itself may be located high on the pool wall and
operated remotely from a position away from competition view. If high quality machine
vision cameras are utilised in the development of the system, the video image of the
swimmer‘s performance will be a high quality, 100 hertz progressive scan image. The
preliminary analysis report may be printed out within minutes of the race completion.

8. WHAT DOES THE FUTURE HOLD IN SWIMMING RACE ANALYSIS?

The immediate future of race analysis will result in the use of a number of portable
competition analysis systems operating together. A panning camera will be used to achieve
quality slow motion view of the swimmer‘s performance. There will be stationary cameras to
verify the exact time when swimmers pass through event markers in the lane. The long term
solution to Big System analysis will rely on the use of several high resolution video cameras
operating at 100 progressive scan frames per second. The computer associated with the
system will in real time identify when strokes are occurring and when all swimmers pass
markers in the lanes. This will be achieved in real time using pattern recognition to identify
not only stroke rate, stroke length, velocity as well as start, turn and finish time but other
specific parameters associated with the start and turns. This system will be reliable, accurate
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

and provide immediate feedback without the labour intensive processing required by the
swimming competition analysis systems previously used. The analysis report will be
supplemented with high definition slow motion video footage when required, by utilising
machine vision panning cameras.

9. PRACTICAL APPLICATION AND CONCLUSION

Since the mid 1980s, competition analysis has been progressively utilised by coaches and
swimmers to improve performance outcomes. The competition analysis provides relevant
objective and quantifiable information about a swimmer‘s performance in competition in
relation to that of other competitors. The information gained from the analysis is essential for
the development of race strategies and identification of areas of weakness in the swimmer‘s
race performance. The results of the competition analysis provide the cornerstone of the
swimmer‘s training focus and are a significant contributor to the development of the
swimmer‘s competition model. Whereas, Big Systems analysis was used extensively up until
the early 2000s this has since been replaced by smaller, single lane, portable competition
analysis systems.

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 424 Bruce R. Mason and Danielle P. Formosa

REFERENCES
[1] Kennedy, P., Brown, P.,Chengalur, S. N., & Nelson, R. C., Analysis of male and female
Olympic swimmers in the 100-meter events. International Journal of Sport
Biomechanics, 1990. 6(2): p. 187-197.
[2] Chatard, J., Caudal, N., Cossor, J., & Mason, B., Specific strategy for the medallists
versus finalists and semi finalists in the Men's 200 m Breaststroke at the Sydney
Olympic Games. In Proceedings International Symposium of biomechanics in
Swimming XIX, San Francisco, USA, 2001.
[3] Chatard, J., Girold, S., Cossor, J., & Mason, B., Specific strategies for the medallists
versus finalists and semi finalists in the Women's 200 m Backstroke at the Sydney
Olympic Games. In Proceedings International Symposium of biomechanics in
Swimming XIX, San Francisco, USA 2001.
[4] Cossor, J.M. and B.R. Mason, Swim start performances at the Sydney 2000 Olympic
Games. In Proceedings International Symposium of biomechanics in Swimming XIX,
San Fransisco, USA, 2001.
[5] Girold, S., Chatard, J., Cossor, J., & Mason, B., Specific strategy for the medallists
versus finalists and semi finalists in the Men's 200 m Backstroke at the Sydney Olympic
Games. In Proceedings International Symposium of biomechanics in Swimming XIX,
San Francisco, USA, 2001.
[6] Mason, B.R. and J.M. Cossor, Swim turn performances at the Sydney 2000 Olympic
Games. In Proceedings International Symposium of biomechanics in Swimming XIX,
San Francisco, USA, 2001.
[7] Ikuta, O., Ogita, Takagi, Wakayoshi, Nomura & Miyashita A comparison of finalists to
semi finalists in the 50 m swimming races at the 9th FINA world swimming
championships Fukuoka 2001. In IXth World Symposium biomechanics and medicine
in swimming, St-Etienne, France, 2002.
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

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 In: World Book of Swimming: From Science to Performance ISBN: 978-1-61668-202-6
Editors: L. Seifert, D. Chollet and I.Mujika ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 22

A REVIEW OF SWIMMING DIVE STARTING

AND TURNING PERFORMANCE

Andrew Lyttle1 and Brian Blanksby2

1
Western Australian Institute of Sport, Biomechanics Department, Australia
2
School of Sport Science, Exercise and Health, UWA, Australia

ABSTRACT
Dive starts generate the fastest velocities in swimming races. With 50m events
lasting for just over 20s, a starting gain of 0.1s could very likely mean the difference
between winning and losing. As the length of races increases, any proportionate gain
from the start diminishes, but remains important. Research remains ambivalent regarding
the complex manoeuvres required for an effective start and, despite the introduction of
several new techniques; none have demonstrated superiority.
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Turning generates the second fastest velocities in swimming and can represent up to
30% of distance covered. Efficient turns increase in importance with the race distance;
especially in short course pools. Changes have occurred with turn techniques but
superiority is again equivocal. However, rules no longer requiring hand touches have
altered freestyle and backstroke turns; and underwater kicking has altered turns for all
four competitive strokes.
This chapter reviews sport science research of swim starts and turns to provide
evidence based information that coaches could use with swimmers.

Key Words: dive starts, glide phase, underwater kicking, turns

1. STARTS
The evolution of the swim start since swimming competitions began has led to the dive
into water generating the fastest velocity one can achieve while swimming. Contrary to the
block starts in athletics events where the athlete has to then accelerate to full running speed,
the starts in swimming are an important time saver. In current elite competition, the swim

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 426 Andrew Lyttle and Brian Blanksby

start is seen as a crucial component of the race in all strokes and distances, especially in the
sprint events where it can contribute up to 30% of the total distance. A 0.1s improvement in
start performance would have led to 65 Olympic medals changing hands in Olympic
swimming sprints from 1972–2004 (15). This fact, and countless other examples in modern
competitive swimming, highlights the importance of maximising starting performance. But,
swimmers and coaches alike need definitive, objective information rather than selecting start
techniques by mimicking successful swimmers.
The grab and the track starts with weight either forward or backwards, are the most
commonly used competitive starting techniques used for freestyle, butterfly and breaststroke.
The major difference is how the feet are placed on the block to propel the body forward.
Backstroke begins in the water, while breaststroke has different underwater arm pull and kick
rules; and these will be briefly addressed separately. Research involving the basic deviations
of the block starts used in the relay start will also be covered.

1.1. Dive Starts

Grab Start (Figure 1): The grab start resembles a two-legged jump with both feet about
0.15-0.30m apart and toes curled over the front of the block. Both hands grasp the front edge
of block (either between or outside the feet). Thus, the swimmer‘s centre of gravity (CG – a
single point representing the total mass of the swimmer) is placed as far forward as possible.
The arms provide stability and support for maintaining balance. Then, on the start signal, only
a small forward movement is required to move the CG forward of the block with the hands
initially pushing back against the blocks to generate forward propulsion before letting go.
Both arms swing straight out towards the far end of the pool, and both legs drive powerfully
and simultaneously off the block.
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

Figure 1. Grab Start

Track Start (Figure 2): The swimming ‗track start‘ derives its name from the similarity of
the departure in track and field. The traditional front-weighted track start simulates a sprint
running bunch start and requires an initial rear leg drive followed by a front leg drive. On the

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 A Review of Swimming Dive Starting and Turning Performance 427

starting block, one foot is placed near the rear of the block, while the other is positioned with
the toes curled around the front edge. Because the front leg provides more of the total
propulsive force, it is logical that this tends to be the dominant leg of the swimmer (3). The
swimmer grasps the front with both hands with the CG positioned towards the forward edge.
On the starting signal, the swimmer initially actively pushes back against the block with the
arms (19) and drives forward using the rear foot. When the CG passes the front edge of the
block, the front leg should dominate force production.

Figure 2. Front-Weighted (Traditional) Track Start

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Figure 3. Rear-Weighted (Slingshot) Track Start

Slingshot or Rear-Weighted Track Start (Figure 3): This technique modifies the
traditional track start with the swimmer leaning well back, thereby placing tension on the
shoulders and the front leg. Unlike the grab or front-weighted track start, the swimmer‘s CG
is positioned towards the rear of the blocks creating a longer block time than other dive starts.
This disadvantage is offset by an increased potential to generate greater impulses (a product

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 428 Andrew Lyttle and Brian Blanksby

of force x time) and, subsequently, greater take-off velocities (39). Also, leaning back enables
pre-tension of the arm and shoulder muscles, which can enhance force production capability
(40). The arms are important for initialising horizontal propulsion and then, once the body is
moving forward, the back leg, followed by the front leg, are activated to further accelerate the
swimmer forward. As with the front-weighted track start, the dominant leg should be
positioned forward as it produces most force (3).

1.2. Dive Start Comparisons

Regardless of the block start used, the ultimate goal is for the swimmer to react to the
starting signal and leave the blocks, at an appropriate take-off angle and with as much
forward velocity as can be generated. Previous studies comparing dive start techniques have
produced conflicting results. Some found that the grab start was superior to the track start
(8,19); others found no difference between the grab and track starts (2,5,27,35); and some
have concluded that the front-track start (14,38,39) and rear-weighted track start (39) are
superior to the grab start. The ambivalent findings are due to factors such as different levels
of performers, swimmer morphology, swimmers‘ inherent familiarity with one of the dive
techniques selected, and the criteria used to signify a successful starting performance.
Comparisons between dive start techniques are difficult when swimmers have their
preferred starts that they have practised almost exclusively. Hence, most results
demonstrating any superiority could be due to the swimmer‘s preference/familiarity rather
than any mechanical advantage. It is only when a new technique will yield better results,
despite being less practised than the technique currently adopted, that useful information can
be drawn. For example, a recent study found that experienced female swimmers performed
rear-weighted track starts as well as, or better, than the more traditional grab and front-
weighted track start, despite most swimmers having little or no previous experience with this
start technique (39). Blanksby and associates (5) found no significant difference in start times
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

between the track and the grab starts, before and after a training intervention, although both
starts improved significantly. Hence, the amount of start practice that swimmers received,
rather than the dive technique influenced the starting performances. Thus, the adage of ‗what
one does most, one does best‘ often holds true.
While there appears no clear-cut superior starting technique, individual characteristics
could also be important when determining an optimal starting technique. Swimmers with a
pronounced dominance in one leg might best use a track start technique, while swimmers
with a strong upper body could be predisposed toward the rear-weighted track start. Others,
who are explosive and symmetrical, could be better suited to the grab start. Such possibilities
need to be considered before settling on a swimmer‘s start technique. The range of starting
block styles also presents another barrier to optimising swimmer‘s starting technique. Under
FINA guidelines, starting blocks can vary in height by up to 0.25m and up to 10° in slope
(29), reinforcing the need for swimmers to familiarise themselves when travelling to pools
with different starting block types.

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 A Review of Swimming Dive Starting and Turning Performance 429

1.3. Block Start Force Development Characteristics

As a swimmer pushes off the blocks, force is generated according to Newton‘s 3rd law;
that for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction force. The applied force can be
divided into vertical, antero-posterior (horizontal) and lateral (side-to-side) components.
Downwards force application will accelerate the body vertically (increased height) and force
applied directly backwards is used to generate propulsion in the forward direction. The lateral
component is essentially a wasted force and should be minimised. The way these three
components of force are generated over time dictates the take-off velocity and the resultant
momentum the swimmer carries through the air. The interplay of the horizontal and vertical
forces also determines the angle at which the swimmer‘s CG leaves the block. Generating
more vertical force makes the angle of take-off steeper; while an increase in horizontal force
will create a flatter take-off angle.
Kinetic (force) analyses of dive starts have typically focused on the force development
profiles of the grab and traditional track start (1,2,19,27,35). A study utilising concurrent
registration of kinetic data with muscle activity (EMG) in the grab and track start has
provided an indication of the timing of the prime muscles involved in these starts (19).
Unfortunately, limiting the EMG recording to one side of the body did not provide an
indication of differences in muscle activation between the front and rear legs in the track start.
Benjanuvatra and associates (2) added a new dimension by using a bilateral force-plate to
enable factors such as symmetry in the grab start and force development strategies of the
track start to be determined.

Vertical GRF (N) Horizontal Antero-Posterior GRF (N)

2000 2000 1200 1200

1000 1000
1500 1500 1
Grab Start

800 800

1000 1000 600 600

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400 400
500 500 1
200 200

0 0 0 0
a b
20002000 12001200

10001000
15001500
R
1
Track Start

800 800
R F
10001000 600 600

F 400 400
500 500 1
200 200

0 0 0 0
c d

Figure 4 – Total vertical and horizontal force profiles for the grab start (a & b) and track start (c & d).
For the track start, R marks the first peak corresponding with the rear foot propulsion and F marks the
peak corresponding with the front foot propulsion (2).

Sample profiles of the grab and front-weighted track starts reveal that the grab start was
characterised by a gradual development of propulsive (horizontal) force, which peaked prior
to the swimmer leaving the block (2). In contrast, the horizontal force for the front-weighted
track start was developed earlier, and was followed by two separate peaks. The first peak
corresponded to the initial push-off from the rear leg and the second peak from the front leg

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 430 Andrew Lyttle and Brian Blanksby

push-off after the CG passed in front of the blocks (Figure 4). The dominance of the front foot
in the track start is highlighted in Figure 5, with a greater initial vertical force experienced
from the front leg likely to result from the forward CG position. The rear leg motions
generate forward momentum in the early part of the dive, but the major propulsive force was
developed from the front leg when the CG has passed in front of the blocks.

Vertical GRF (N) Horizontal Antero-Posterior GRF (N)

1200
1200 550
550

1000
1000 450
450
350
350
Track Start

800
800
250
250
600
600
150
150
400
400
5050
200
200 -50
-50

00 -150
-150
A b
Front f oot R ear fo ot Net Force

Figure 5. Vertical and horizontal track start force profiles of the rear and front foot (2)

An analyses of asymmetric force production in the grab start in elite swimmers have
found varying levels of contributions from left and right legs, leading to potentially sub-
optimal grab starts (2). In this study, 7 of the 16 subjects recorded >10% difference in the
average vertical force between the left and right sides, and 9 showed >10% difference in
vertical impulse. An example of an asymmetric vertical force profile with the corresponding
impulse plot is illustrated in Figure 6.

Vertical GRF (N) Vertical Impulse (Ns)

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1200 140

1000 120

100
800
80
600
60
400
40
200 20

0 0

Figure 6. Vertical force and impulse profiles for a grab start by an asymmetric subject (2)

1.4. Take-Off and Water Entry Angles

There has been a paucity of research focussing on optimal block take-off and water entry
angles for swimmers to increase potential flight distances and the effective transfer to the
underwater phase. The dive entry has implications for the underwater glide by dictating the
initial drag conditions experienced by the swimmer and will be partly determined by the take-
off angle and body movements while in flight. Studies of elite swimmers have generally

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 A Review of Swimming Dive Starting and Turning Performance 431

found take-off angles to be -5 to +10º, indicating that a relatively flat take-off is beneficial
(1,14,27). Other research has focussed on the dive entry and demonstrated that elite
swimmers tend to enter the water at angles of 30-40º (8,14,27). A study using simulated CG
trajectory from empirical block take-off information found that, for a group of well trained
swimmers, maximum flight distance occurred at a dive angle of 11.8º, whereas maximum
horizontal velocity occurred at a dive angle of -18.7º (34). Further research is required to
refine these take-off and entry angles across the different starting techniques and individual
athletes.
Another crucial factor is the body position upon entry because variations in the
streamlined position impact upon the rate of deceleration experienced by the swimmer.
Despite the importance of a streamlined entry, this is an area sometimes performed poorly,
even at the elite level. Common technique flaws include dropping the head, a separation of
the hands or feet, and flexion about the ankles or knees; all or any of these can dramatically
increase drag upon entry and decelerate the swimmer rapidly (25).

1.5. Relay Starts

The relay block starts typically involve a grab start technique with the arms used to
‗track‘ the incoming swimmer. In recent years, some relays have incorporated an approach, or
stepping motion, into the start for the non-lead-off swimmers. The rationale of this technique
was to maximise the swimmer‘s momentum from the block. Studies investigating the
effectiveness of variations of these approach relay starts have found no significant differences
in start time compared to traditional relay starts (9,26). However, given the complex timing
required to master these types of starts, it is possible that a greater familiarisation time may
have resulted in different findings.
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

1.6. Backstroke Starts

The backstroke starting technique is unique in swimming, being the only start initiated in
the water (Figure7). The unique starting position has received little biomechanical research
and exhibits considerable variation at the elite level. The backstroke start can be subdivided
into four phases: the initial reaction phase from the starting signal until movement; pressure
phase from first movement until hands off; jump phase from hands off to feet off; flight phase
from feet off until hip entry (13). Muscle activation studies of elite backstrokers have shown
that the reaction and pressure phases tends to produce repeatable patterns, while the jump and
flight phases tends to show greater intra- and inter-individual variability (13). In a further
study of nine elite backstrokers, the resultant force against the wall correlated significantly
with the time to 7.5m, with higher wall push-off forces leading to reduced start time (19). In
this study, significant positive correlations were also found between the time of hands off and
take-off, and hands off and hip entry, although these were not related back to starting
performances.

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 432 Andrew Lyttle and Brian Blanksby

Figure 7. Backstroke Start

2. TURNS
As turn times can account for up to a third of total race time, minor improvements can
influence results significantly. There are two main types of turns across the four strokes that
have been developed and refined to fit within the framework of the official rules. These are
the tumble turn used in freestyle and backstroke and the two-handed touch and pivot turn
used in breaststroke and butterfly. In addition, there are various specialist turns used between
the stroke changes in the individual medley events. The majority of research conducted on the
turns has focussed on the freestyle tumble turn. However, the mechanics of aspects of this
turn are similar across the differing techniques, especially the wall push-off and subsequent
underwater phase, allowing for information to be extrapolated to other turn types.

2.1. Tumble Turn Technique

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The tumble turn has evolved largely because rule changes no longer require any hand
touch for both freestyle and backstroke turns. Major differences between the freestyle and
backstroke turns are exhibited at the approach and underwater phases of the turn. The present
backstroke turn rules allows a swimmer to rotate onto his/her front on the penultimate arm
stroke before initiating the forward somersault, with a further stipulation that they push-off
the wall on his/her back.
The distance out from the wall where the forward somersault starts varies with skill level
and anthropometric considerations. Faster swimmers tended to initiate turns relatively further
from the wall which allows them to be more streamlined at push-off, rather than excessively
bunched-up from turning closer to the wall (4,12). The forward rotation speed in the tumble
turn somersault is maximised when the knees are tucked close to the chest to decrease the
moment of inertia. In freestyle turns, the degree of longitudinal rotation during the somersault
varies anywhere from 0-180º, with swimmers pushing off the wall either from their back, side
or front. No research has investigated the relative benefits of these different techniques.
Conversely, backstroke turns are limited to pushing off on their back by the event rules.

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 A Review of Swimming Dive Starting and Turning Performance 433

2.2. Pivot Turn Technique

The turning motion in the breaststroke and butterfly pivot turn techniques are essentially
the same action with differences only occurring in the subsequent underwater phase following
the push-off. The turn is initiated in both strokes with a simultaneous two-handed touch with
the shoulders parallel to the water surface, as dictated by the event rules. The timing of the
strokes leading into the turn is important to prevent an excessively long glide into the wall
and a loss of momentum (36). Using regression equations, Huellhorst and associates (17)
found that the important criteria for a fast breaststroke turn were a short pivot time and high
velocity at push-off.

2.3. Wall Contact Phase

The major difference across strokes in the wall contact phase is the orientation of the
body relative to the water surface, which is self-determined in freestyle and constrained by
event rules in the other strokes. The swimmer‘s feet should hit the wall at a depth of
approximately 0.3 to 0.4 m (21,30). Although the degree of hip and knee flexion at wall
impact varies between swimmers in current competition, research has found that a decreased
tuck was negatively correlated with turn times (4). This suggested that less knee flexion
resulted in faster turns. This concurs with the reported recommended optimal knee angle of
between 110-120, which has been shown to produce higher peak forces, smaller wall contact
times and shorter turn times in the freestyle tumble turn (28). Another advantage of less knee
flexion at the start of the push-off is that the swimmer travels less distance before turning on
each lap. This can result in significant savings on time and energy over multiple turns.
The wall contact phase is about maximising the trade-offs inherent with the wall contact
and push-off action. It is important to minimise the passive phase (impact forces and
countermovement) and maximise the active phase (wall push-off), while keeping the total
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

wall contact time to a minimum (22,30). The position of the feet during contact on the wall is
also important. It is common to see swimmers either over-rotating or under-rotating, which
will cause the foot placement on the wall to be either too low or too high, respectively (30).
Swimmers then misdirect their push-offs, requiring an over-compensation action such as
arching the back. The most effective use of the push-off forces occur when ankles, hip and
shoulders are aligned and the direction of the resultant force occur horizontally (11).

2.4. Wall Push-Off Force Development Characteristics

More detailed research on the turns has been performed using instrumented turning
boards to measure the forces applied against the wall. These studies have typically focussed
on the freestyle tumble turn (4,20,22,28,33) while the remaining three strokes have received
less attention (11,12,20). There has been a general trend for more experienced swimmers to
record an increased peak push-off force and impulse, and reduced wall contact times when
compared to novice swimmers (11,12,20,33). This is likely due to the experienced swimmers
refining their turning process due to the repetitive nature of swim training.

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 434 Andrew Lyttle and Brian Blanksby

Effective wall push-off is heavily influenced by examples of jumping studies out of the
water, where the effect of drag resulting from body position is not a consideration. In the
aquatic environment, body position presents a major factor to be considered when prescribing
an optimal push-off strategy. A large increase in force and acceleration early in the push-off
when the swimmer is in a non-streamlined position will create a large peak drag force. This is
a result of a greater volume of water being accelerated along with the swimmer, incurring a
higher energy cost (22). Research has shown that a balance is required between the peak
push-off forces; time spent pushing off the wall and the resultant peak drag that is produced;
with body position during push-off being a major determinant of these factors (11,12,22).
This is highlighted in Figure 8, which displays three representative push-off force profiles
incorporating different force production strategies (22). Key findings from this research were
that a high final push-off velocity was achieved by an optimal combination of a low peak drag
force, high peak propulsive force and a wall contact time of sufficient period to develop this
force. Of these variables, a lower peak drag force was found to be the best predictor of the
final push-off velocity.

1800

Final Velocity = 2.21 m/s

1600 Peak Drag Force = 1085 N
Rel. Push-off Time = 66% WCT
Push-off Impulse = 296 Ns
1400

1200 Final Velocity = 2.06 m/s

Propulsive Force (N)

Peak Drag Force = 929 N

Rel. Push-off Time = 47% WCT
1000
Push-off Impulse = 194 Ns

800
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600
Final Velocity = 3.03 m/s
Peak Drag Force = 235 N
400
Rel. Push-off Time = 90% WCT
Push-off Impulse = 206 Ns
200

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
Wall Push-off Time (s)
Figure 8. Representative wall push-off force profiles for three experienced swimmers (22).

3. UNDERWATER PHASE OF STARTS AND TURNS

3.1. Streamlined Glide

The glide phases of the starts and turns represent the highest velocity a swimmer
experiences in the water. Given that the drag forces will be directly related to the speed of the

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 A Review of Swimming Dive Starting and Turning Performance 435

swimmer, the less streamlined the swimmer, the greater the rate of deceleration, and the
slower the resultant glide. By maintaining a streamlined position at these higher velocities,
the deleterious drag experienced by swimmers during the streamlined glide will be
minimised. The reduced drag translates directly into improved start and turn times. Research
has shown that swimmers should aim to glide at approximately 0.5m underwater to benefit
from the reduced wave drag forces (21,25). This optimum depth is gradually decreased closer
to stroke resumption, as the drag experienced is related to the swimmer‘s velocity as well as
the depth underwater (21,25) (Figure 9). Further increases in glide depth produce no
substantial reductions in drag forces and, despite being a popular strategy for some elite level
swimmers, should be discouraged. Form drag and wave drag are important determinants of
the total drag forces swimmers experience. Therefore, swimmers must hold a good streamline
throughout the glide without excess body movements. Small deviations in body positions can
have a large impact on the drag characteristics (25).

250

200

Passive Drag Force (N)

150

100

Surface 50

0.2m
Deep
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0.4m
0
Deep
0.6m 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.5 2.8 3.1
Glide Depth Deep
Velocity (m/s)

Figure 9. Combined average passive drag force for streamlined glides at different velocities and depths
(21)

3.2. Underwater Kicking

Underwater kicking prior to the first stroke cycle following a dive start or turn is typically
used in the freestyle, backstroke and butterfly strokes, and a split-stroke manoeuvre used in
breaststroke. With the exception of the breaststroke, swimmers utilise either the flutter or
dolphin kicks (or a combination of both), with the swimmers either on their front, side or
back.
For freestyle, butterfly and backstroke, the dolphin kick has become the preferred
underwater kicking style in competitive swimming in recent years and the mechanism of the
motion has been the focus of recent research (10,37). Harmonic analysis on elite swimmers
has found sequential wavelike action dominates the underwater dolphin kick which raises the

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 436 Andrew Lyttle and Brian Blanksby

possibility that energy is transmitted from the hips to the feet (10). An increasing amplitude of
oscillation also occurred from the hip to ankle, signifying a whip-like action that may lead to
the creation of propulsive vortices (10). Higher peak angular velocities for the lower trunk,
thigh and shank segments have also been reported for elite compared to non-elite swimmers
(37). Clothier and associates (7) demonstrated that deceleration was less during underwater
dolphin kicking than flutter kicking, and the velocity above that of free swimming was
maintained longer when using the dolphin kick. Lyttle and associates (23) found no
significant difference in the net forces (propulsive minus drag forces) between the underwater
dolphin and flutter kicks for experienced swimmers in steady-state towing tests, although
there was a tendency for the dolphin kicks to produce better results.
Using fluid dynamics software to conduct computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analyses
of underwater kicking patterns, Lyttle and Keys (24) compared two different patterns of
underwater dolphin kicks (large/slow kicks versus small/fast kicks). Using a case-study
approach, the researchers determined that, for the approximate range of velocities
experienced during underwater kicking (2.40ms-1 down to 1.50ms-1), the large amplitude,
slow frequency underwater dolphin kick showed less momentum loss at the lower velocities
and no difference at the velocity of 2.40ms-1. In a follow up study, Keys and Lyttle (18)
compared these two underwater dolphin kicks to the underwater flutter kick at a single
velocity of 2.18ms-1. Results showed that, although the underwater dolphin kick generates
greater propulsion, the total net thrust was greater for the underwater flutter kick, as
evidenced by a lower total momentum loss. This resulted from more consistently applied
propulsive forces in the flutter kick than the dolphin kicks, which showed larger periods of
deceleration.
The optimum time to initiate underwater kicking presents another aspect for improving
starting efficiency. Observation of swimmers of all levels has shown that underwater kicking
is initiated at any stage from immediately upon entry from the dive or wall push-off, until
after arm stroke resumption. Research indicates that experienced swimmers should glide for
approximately one second before initiating any underwater kicking (23,31), although this will
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be determined by the swimmer‘s underwater kicking proficiency.

3.3. Stroke Resumption

The timing of the stroke resumption is also important. A study of Age-group swimmers
were found to frequently lose time by gliding and kicking too long, or too little before
resuming stroking (4,6,16). In the first case, swimmers decelerated to less than free
swimming velocity, and additional time and energy was required to regain race velocity.
Conversely, when stroking was commenced too early in the glide phase, the swimming
velocity was too high and any propulsive movements increased resistance before having fully
used the velocity advantage gained from the dive or turn.

3.4. Breaststroke Underwater Phase

The breaststroke event is unique in the rules governing the underwater phases of the race.
Breaststrokers spontaneously choose a time to execute an extended underwater pull to the

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 A Review of Swimming Dive Starting and Turning Performance 437

hips, followed by a single underwater breaststroke kick. Recently, rules also permit one
dolphin kick during, or following, the arm pull underwater. There has been a paucity of
research examining the breaststroke underwater phase, especially given the new rules.
However, in a recent investigation, it was found that international level breaststrokers
excelled in the underwater phase and recorded longer streamlined glide times than national
level breaststrokers (32). The breaststroke underwater and stroke resumption phases present
particular challenges as there are several freely chosen moments when swimmers must
execute different skills. Hence, there exists the opportunity to provide valuable information in
this area that can be used to optimise performance.

4. CURRENT TESTING OF ELITE SWIMMERS

The increasing level of professionalism of elite swimmers has been reflected by an
increased awareness of the roles that sports science can provide in assisting diagnosing and
prescribing technique modifications. Along with this has also been a concurrent increase in
the use of technology and video display within an elite swimmer‘s daily training environment.
At a simple level, this has consisted of video feedback systems that display above and/or
underwater video of swimmers. Specialised aquatic research centres and sports institutes
utilise higher level feedback systems that include instrumented starting blocks and turning
boards, as well as automatic timing systems to provide greater information on a swimmer‘s
technique (Figure 10).
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Figure 10. Sample image showing an example of high level feedback used in servicing elite swimmers
at the Australian Institute of Sport.

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 438 Andrew Lyttle and Brian Blanksby

5. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Refinement of starting and turning ability will improve the overall event time across all
events given the importance of these skills to the total swimming performance. This
necessitates dedicated training on all aspects of these skills within the swimmer‘s daily
training program. For the dive starts, the comparative research is ambivalent, with no single,
superior swim start technique being identified. The grab, track and slingshot dives all trade-
off between block time, take-off angle and velocity generated, and the research is confounded
by the inherent familiarity of a swimmer‘s preferred dive start technique. Irrespective of the
dive start used, an increase in dive practice in training has been shown to significantly
improve starts, even for a swimmer‘s preferred dive start technique. Individual swimmer
strengths and weaknesses may still dictate an appropriate dive start technique. As an example,
swimmers with greater upper body power may be better suited to a slingshot dive start
technique while swimmers who are asymmetrical in their lower limb force production may be
better suited to a track start with the dominant leg forward.
An optimal dive take-off and entry angle will vary slightly between dive techniques and
has not been quantified definitively, with research indicating that a relatively flat take-off is
beneficial. The take-off and body position in flight determine the entry angles, with
implications for the underwater glide by dictating the initial drag conditions on entry.
Streamlining is essential both at entry and throughout the glide phase, where the swimmer‘s
velocity is at its greatest. Deviating from a streamlined pathway can nullify any advantage
from the start by dramatically decelerating the swimmer.
Successful swim turns results from a complex series of manoeuvres designed to
maximise the velocity transfer from the inbound to outbound sections of the turn. The
majority of research has been conducted on the freestyle tumble turn but many aspects of
these research outcomes can be transferred to the other turn techniques. An effective rotation
or pivot will allow for an optimal body position at wall contact, with the feet at a 30-40cm
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depth, the arms and trunk fully extended and streamlined; and the knees flexed at around
120°. This body position will allow the line of action of the push-off forces to be in the
direction of travel, thereby avoiding the need to over-compensate for poor position during
push-off. Any passive phase of wall contact should be minimised and it has been reported that
maximum push-off forces should occur later in the wall contact when the swimmer is more
streamlined, to ensure an efficient transfer to glide velocity.
The glide and underwater kicking phases have been an increased focus of research
recently with the findings applying to both the starts and turns. Studies have shown that an
initial glide depth of approximately 0.5m underwater minimises the deleterious effects of
wave drag. The timing of the underwater kicking will depend on the swimmer‘s kicking
proficiency, with experienced swimmers gliding for approximately one second before
reaching an appropriate velocity for initiating the underwater kick. Despite the popularity of
dolphin kicking in current competition, research comparing the underwater dolphin to flutter
kicking has produced contrasting results and technique prescription should be applied on an
individualised basis. The breaststroke split stroke underwater is another area that has not been
sufficiently researched and provides opportunity for further optimisation.
The level of feedback provided to elite swimmers has increased dramatically over recent
years. Swimmers are now often exposed to qualitative underwater and above-water video

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 A Review of Swimming Dive Starting and Turning Performance 439

footage of themselves with which they can use to help determine technique progression.
Higher level quantitative information is also becoming an integral component in the training
of elite swimmers, by providing more pictures of the puzzle that the coach and sports scientist
can use to optimise starting and turning technique.

CONCLUSION
Swim starts and turns represent critical components of a swimming race. However,
research into starts and turns is usually confounded by interactions of the numerous
components that make up the performance. These interactions create trade-offs, where over-
emphasising one component can negatively impact other components. Isolating the optimal
combination of these variables that affect each of the starts and turning skills is the key to
providing useful, practical information to the coaches.
Despite the sometimes lack of definitive outcomes of the swim starts and turns research,
coaches and sports scientists can apply logical mechanical principles to assist with technique
prescription on a case study basis with each of their swimmers. The body of research can then
be used to support their rationale for technique change. An understanding that the swimmer‘s
inherent technique is likely to ‗feel‘ more comfortable should not dissuade the coaches from
attempting to optimise phases of the starts and turns. This should only be done if there is a
logical thought process behind the proposed change that has been geared to an individual
swimmer.

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(pp.469-471). Salzburg, Austria.
[38] Welcher, R., Hinrichs, R. & George, T. (1999). An analysis of velocity and time
characteristics of three starts in competitive swimming. XVII Congress of the
International Society of Biomechanics, Calgary, Canada.
[39] Welcher, R., Hinrichs, R. & George, T. (2008). Front- or rear-weighted track start or
grab start: which is best for female swimmers? Sports Biomechanics, 7(1), 100-113.
[40] Welshe, A., Wilson, G. & Ettema, G. (1998). Stretch Shorten Cycle compared with
isometric pre-load: contributions to enhanced muscular performance. Journal of
Applied Physiology, 84(1), 97-106.
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

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 In: World Book of Swimming: From Science to Performance ISBN: 978-1-61668-202-6
Editors: L. Seifert, D. Chollet and I.Mujika ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 23

STROKING PARAMETERS DURING COMPETITION

Michel Sidney1, Morgan Alberty1,

Hugues Leblanc² and Didier Chollet²
1
Laboratory of Human Movement Studies, Faculty of Sport Sciences,
University of Lille, Ronchin, France
² C.E.T.A.P.S. EA 3832, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Rouen, France

ABSTRACT
In cyclical activities, where the same motor structure is repeated, speed is the result
of a contradictory relationship between the amplitude or stroke length (distance per cycle)
and the frequency or stroke rate (a number of cycles per unit of time). In swimming, the
swimmer must find the optimal combination of stroke rate and stroke length parameters
to reach and maintain the highest possible speed according to the constraints of the task.
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

The swimmers swim more and more quickly, using different combinations of stroke
length and stroke rate, which relate to the type of race, the stroke, the gender, the training
program and the anthropometric characteristics of the swimmer.

Key words: Competitive events analysis, stroking parameters, stroke length, stroke rate

1. INTRODUCTION
Swimming like any other sport, has general requirements that the sportsmen must reach
during their performance. The most significant requirements are related to the aquatic
environment itself. On the one hand, its high density limits any locomotion. But in the other
hand, the aquatic environment, although primarily foreigner and even hostile to humans,
offers a broad range of techniques of displacement on the surface or under water, using
coordinated movements. Thus, one of the most important aspects that the technicians and the
scientists have to consider is dependent on the techniques and the styles used by the
swimmers during competitions.

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 444 Michel Sidney, Morgan Alberty, Hugues Leblanc, et al.

The general goal of this chapter is to try to find brief replies to one of the basic questions
of the swimmers and coaches: why the techniques of the swimmers vary in competition and
with the drive? In a more specific way, the goal is to study the effects of various conditions of
stroke on the space-time parameters related to the performance in swimming.

1.1. The Best Animal Performances

In order to study the best performances carried out into the aquatic environment, one
must refer to the studies undertaken in zoology. The majority of the studies on the aquatic
locomotion of the animals relates to fish. It was observed that the stroke of fish implies not
only variations in frequency but also in amplitude of the beat of fin, and when the speed of
stroke increases, there are as well an increase in the frequency and amplitude of the beat [1].
Moreover, Bainbridge [2, 3] found that a trout of 28 centimetres had a maximum speed of 2.8
m.s-1 with a frequency of beat of fin of 18 Hz (= 1080 cycles.min-1). A 1.90 m length trained
dolphin, comparable in size with human dimensions, is able to swim a distance of 60 meters
at an average speed of 8.3 m.s-1 [22]. The power this dolphin has to yield to propel itself at
this speed was estimated at 1700 W. Other observations show that at the same speed, humans
need 5 dolphin kicks to cover one body length as compare to cetaceans that only need 1.3
kicks [38]. These values are above of the human possibilities under the same conditions. In
arm only front crawl, the power delivered by a swimmer at near 2m.s-1, is ~ 220W [36]. The
highest human performance can be described while referring to the world records. The
official fastest race, the 50 meters freestyle males, is covered at a speed of ~ 2.35 m.s-1.

1.2. The Swimming Performances

In race conditions, the swimming performance can be divided into three principal parts:
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

the start, the turn(s) and the stroke [26]. Their relative importance depends on the distance to
swim during a race. Hay [16] reports results obtained in freestyle short course events from the
50 to the 1000 yards. Ads expressed in percentage of the total duration of the race, the starting
time varies from 11% (50 yards) to 0.5% (1000 yards), The turning time respectively
represents 21% (50 yards) and 37.5% (1000 yards). More of the third of the race time is used
to turn in all the distances starting from the 200 yards. The percentage for the stroke time
varies from 63% for the 1000 yards to 69% for the 50 yards. In long course, for the 100 yards,
the stroke time can reach 80%. Moreover, the stroke time accounts for 60% -70% of the total
time in the intermediate distances (200-400 yards).

1.3. The Stroking Parameters of Swimming Performances

In cyclical activities, where the same motor structure is repeated, speed is the result of a
contradictory relationship between the amplitude or stroke length (distance per cycle) and the
frequency or stroke rate (a number of cycles per unit of time). Indeed, as underlined by
Ballreich and Gabel [4]: ―In order to move quickly, one must produce at the same time full
and frequent actions, but the simultaneous increase in these two parameters is not firstly

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 Stroking Parameters During Competition 445

compatible for its motor system and thus requires a compromise. It is precisely this
incompatibility which determines motor strategies‖. To improve the performance in sprint
(running) these authors listed five possibilities: (1) to increase the stroke length while
maintaining constant the stroke rate, (2) to increase the stroke rate while maintaining constant
the stroke length, (3) to increase the stroke length and the stroke rate, (4) to increase the
stroke length and to decrease the stroke rate relatively and (5) to increase the stroke rate and
to decrease the stroke length relatively. In swimming, such contradictory relationships have
been extensively studied and are represented by the figure 1. In short term, the swimming
speed is increased by an increase in stroke rate while stroke length remains stable for the
lowest speed and decrease as the speed continues to increase.
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Figure 6: (a) Relationship between the Stroke Rate (SR) and the Stroke Length (SL) according to
swimming speed (adapted from [24]); (b) Representation of the reduction of possible SR usable (grey
area) with the increase in speed. This kind of relationship is for each swimmer (adapted from [10]).

In swimming, the swimmer must find the optimal combination of stroke rate and stroke
length parameters to reach and maintain the highest possible speed according to the
constraints of the task [37]. The systematic analysis of the performance in swimming
competition, pioneered by East [13], can help swimmers and coaches for this goal. This type
of step becomes not only rather systematic in the countries where swimming is well
established, but especially becomes essential within the framework of the biomechanical and
technical follow-up of the swimmers. The research team who made the analysis of the
competitive swimming events at the 18th World University Championship 1995 in Fukuoka
(Japan), specified that computations of stroke rates and stroke lengths along with swimming

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 446 Michel Sidney, Morgan Alberty, Hugues Leblanc, et al.

speed and split times for races were made ―to provide valuable data to coaches and
swimmers…We believe, also, that results of the present analysis will be useful for setting for
your goal, planning of your training schedule, execution of your training, making place of
your races and re-evaluation and examination of your races‖.
The first results of such analysis showed that unique values of stroke length and stroke
rate do not exist to swim at high speed. Two swimmers performing at a similar swimming
speed do not have necessarily the same stroke length - stroke rate combination [5]. Figure 2
presents the range of stroke length and stroke rate SR adopted by swimmers performing at a
similar swimming speed. A comparison of two swimmers is shown in Table 1 (2008 Olympic
final on 100-m freestyle males).

Figure 7. Range of stroke rate and stroke length mean values to perform at similar swimming speed
(based on data collected on the Olympic Games of Atlanta, 1996; adapted from [24]).

Table 1. Mean Speed, Stroke Rate and Stroke Length in the first two swimmers of 2008
Olympic 100-m freestyle males final (data used with permission of the French
Swimming Federation)
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Bernard Sullivan
Race time 47.21s Race time 47.32s
1st 50-m 2.12 2.11
Speed
2nd 50-m 1.92 1.91
1st 50-m 55.2 52.7
Stroke Rate
2nd 50-m 53.7 52.5
1st 50-m 2.31 2.40
Stroke Length
2nd 50-m 2.14 2.19

The comparative analysis of performances according to skill level or from a longitudinal

viewpoint [11] shows that the swimmers are improving their times while performing with
fewer strokes for a given distance. For performances of close level, we can notice that the
swimmers swim more and more quickly by using different combining resolutions. Found
resolutions differ in function, of the type of race, gender, training program, the level of form,
of characteristics of the swimmer. For example, Manaudou won her 2004 Olympic final (400-
m freestyle) with 367 arm strokes (4.05.34) and she broke the world record in 2006 during the
French national championships with 378 arm strokes (4.03.03).

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 Stroking Parameters During Competition 447

2. MEASUREMENT OF THE STROKING PARAMETERS

The first scientific reference which really related to the stroking parameters analysis
comes from East in 1970. To well understand the device evolution in 40 years, we refer to
East [13]: ―Two 16mm motion picture cameras were used to photograph each 110yd event
at the New Zealand Amateur Swimming Association's 1969 National Swimming
Championships held at the Olympic Pool, Auckland. One camera, a Reflex Palliard-
Bolex with a Bolex Motor Drive, was positioned approximately 50ft beyond the far end
of the pool (as viewed from the start for 110yd events), 20ft from the poolside and 25ft
above the pool. This position plus the use of a l0mm lens permitted the performance of
all competitors to be filmed throughout the full length of each race. These films were
taken at 16 frames /second. A second Palliard-Bolex camera filmed the starts and turns
some 20ft from the poolside and 13ft above the pool. Ferrania Panchromatic film was
used in both cameras except for events held during the evening when insufficien t pool
lighting necessitated the use of a faster film. Ilford Mark V Safety Negative film was
used for these events‖.
Currently, numeric data from video and computer are used in most of the protocols which
assess the stroking parameters in competition. The place of the cameras changes with the
condition of the competition (indoor or outdoor, short course or long course…). The
parameters commonly studied are [15]: the start time (15m), the speed during each part of
event (for example: first, second, third and last 50m lap for a 200m), the stroke length and
stoke rate during each part of event, turn time (or turn speed), time 5m before finish, finishing
time last 5m. Some analysis systems also compute the reaction time, the flight time and
distance during the diving start, the glide time and distance after start and turn. In this way,
some analysis systems [25] are also interfaced with the pool's timing system to get the start
pulse from the starter and this initiates the timer on the video. Split times from the touch pads
are also captured from the pool's timing system and this information also forms part of the
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competition analysis report. Using a common analysis system enables comparison between
the different events, races, championships through the world and the year for the whole
swimmers and for the same swimmer. In other words, this sort of comparison should consider
the analysis system and the methods used to compute and calculate the race components and
stroking parameters, as Chollet and Pelayo [7] showed significant effects of different
methodologies in calculating stroke length in swimming. When stroke length was calculated
from the average speed and average stroke rate, stroke length values were higher than those
calculated from the speed not taking into account start and turns (4.2±0.8% for males and
3.4±0.8% for females) [7]. When stroke length was calculated by dividing the distance swum
by the number of stroke cycles realized, the values increased by 16.7±3.3% for males and
13.8±2.4% for females [7]. Otherwise, knowing that all scientific measurements come with
some degree of imprecision, to measure these imprecisions, the Biomechanics department of
the Australian Institute of Sport used six groups of operator to analyze independently the
eight swimmers competing in certain events.

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 448 Michel Sidney, Morgan Alberty, Hugues Leblanc, et al.

3. EVOLUTION OF THE STROKING PARAMETERS

DURING COMPETITION
3.1. Distance Effect on Stroking Parameters: Comparison of 100-M and 200-
M Events in Elite Swimmers in the Four Strokes

Swimmers must find the optimal compromise between stroke rate and stroke length at the
highest mean swimming speed over the whole race. The following tables 2 and 3 present the
mean values for stroke rate, stroke length and speed in the four swimming styles over 100-m
and 200-m during the 2008 European Championship; this values could be compared to those
of Chollet et al. [9] recorded twelve years earlier.

Table 2. Mean Values ± Standard Deviation (Coefficient of Variation in %)

of swimming Speed (S in m.s-1), Stroke Length (SL in m.stroke-1), and Stroke Rate
(SR in stroke.min-1) for males and females in 100m and 200m for Butterfly, Backstroke,
and Breaststroke. These mean values corresponded to these observed in the 16 best
performances during the 2008 European Championship of Eindhoven
(data used with permission of R. Haljand).

Males Females
S 1.83 ± 0.02 (1.2) 1.63 ± 0.02 (1)
100m SL 1.93 ± 0.1 (5.2) 1.71 ± 0.08 (4.6)
SR 55.69 ± 2.63 (4.7) 56.19 ± 2.29 (4.1)
Butterfly
S 1.64 ± 0.03 (1.8) 1.49 ± 0.02 (1.4)
200m SL 2.01 ± 0.12 (6.2) 1.78 ± 0.14 (7.7)
SR 49.63 ± 2.96 (6) 51.13 ± 4.13 (8.1)
S 1.72 ± 0.02 (1.1) 1.55 ± 0.04 (2.6)
100m SL 2.12 ± 0.14 (6.4) 1.98 ± 0.13 (6.7)
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SR 48.06 ± 3.6 (7.5) 46 ± 3.31 (7.2)

Backstroke
S 1.58 ± 0.04 (2.3) 1.44 ± 0.05 (3.1)
200m SL 2.25 ± 0.14 (6.4) 2.15 ± 0.09 (4.1)
SR 42.63 ± 2.92 (6.8) 40.31 ± 2.18 (5.4)
S 1.54 ± 0.02 (1.5) 1.37 ± 0.02 (1.3)
100m SL 1.84 ± 0.11 (6) 1.78 ± 0.19 (10.5)
SR 49.94 ± 3.26 (6.5) 45.63 ± 4.06 (8.9)
Breaststroke
S 1.43 ± 0.02 (1.4) 1.29 ± 0.03 (2)
200m SL 2.15 ± 0.12 (5.7) 2.04 ± 0.17 (8.2)
SR 40.63 ± 2.53 (6.2) 38.56 ± 4.05 (10.5)

To maintain the highest swimming speed, adjustment in stroke length and stroke can be
observed.

3.2. Stroking Parameters Evolution during Swimming Events

In front crawl, many authors have reported different stroke rate evolution in the course of
a race in relation to the length of the pool (25- or 50-m) [20], to the distance of the race [23,

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 Stroking Parameters During Competition 449

27], to the gender [11], or to the performance level [8]. They concluded that highly skilled
swimmers were able to maintain higher stroke length and stroke rate throughout the course of
their race when comparing the average stroke rate values for each length of the pool [8, 11,
28]. In the 800 m event, both the skilled and unskilled swimmers showed a low inter-lap
variability of speed, stroke length and stroke rate; this race management being a strategy of
economy to preserve himself through the race [12].
A study [30] has analysed, step by step, the evolution of the stroke rate throughout the
race. In the course of the second lap of the 100-m and 200-m freestyle national male
swimmers events and during the third and the fourth laps for the 200-m event, stroke rate did
not decrease (Figures 3 and 4). Although the stroke rate values increased significantly in the
last lap, there was not significant rupture in the evolution over the course of the last three
laps. The highest level swimmers were characterised by the capacity to maintain these
parameters constant over the course of the race. This greater consistency was also observed in
200 m breaststroke events [33]. Stability at a high level of stroke rate throughout the race
seems to be a useful criterion of skill level.

Table 3. Mean Values ± Standard Deviation (Coefficient of Variation in %)

of swimming Speed (S in m.s-1), Stroke Length (SL in m.stroke-1), and Stroke Rate
(SR in stroke.min-1) for males and females for 50m, 100m, 200m, 400m,
and 1500/800m in Front Crawl. These mean values corresponded to these observed
in the 16 best performances for 50 to 200m and in the 8 best performances for 400
to 800/1500m during the 2008 European Championship of Eindhoven
(data used with permission of R. Haljand)

Males Females
S 2.11 ± 0.04 (2) 1.87 ± 0.04 (2)
50m SL 2.05 ± 0.14 (6.8) 1.83 ± 0.13 (6.9)
SR 60.13 ± 4.6 (7.7) 60 ± 3.93 (6.6)
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S 1.95 ± 0.03 (1.7) 1.75 ± 0.03 (1.8)

100m SL 2.25 ± 0.17 (7.7) 1.98 ± 0.1 (5)
SR 50.94 ± 4.36 (8.6) 52 ± 2.9 (5.6)
S 1.77 ± 0.02 (1) 1.61 ± 0.03 (1.6)
200m SL 2.35 ± 0.14 (5.8) 2.15 ± 0.09 (4.4)
SR 45.5 ± 2.58 (5.7) 45.06 ± 2.08 (4.6)
S 1.69 ± 0.02 (2.3) 1.55 ± 0.02 (1.5)
400m SL 2.34 ± 0.17 (7.2) 2.11 ± 0.15 (6.9)
SR 43.63 ± 3.46 (7.9) 44.25 ± 3.06 (6.9)
S 1.61 ± 0.03 (1.6) 1.52 ± 0.02 (1.2)
1500m
SL 2.18 ± 0.18 (8.5) 2.11 ± 0.13 (5.9)
800m
SR 44.6 ± 3.93 (8.8) 43.5 ± 2.51 (5.8)

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 450 Michel Sidney, Morgan Alberty, Hugues Leblanc, et al.

Figure 3. Evolution of mean stroke rate (SR) values throughout the 100-m front crawl event. a: interval
significantly different with the next previous step p<.01 [30].

SR (Hz)
0.84

0.82
b
0.8 b

0.78 b

0.76 turn3
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0.74
turn1 turn2
0.72

0.7

0.68
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Time (s)

Figure 4: Evolution of mean stoke rate (SR) values throughout the 200-m front crawl event. b :
interval significantly different with the second previous step p<.01 [30].

In breaststroke, Pai, et al. [27], Thompson et al. [33] and Kjendlie, et al. [21] show that
the main factor determining the final race time is the mid-pool speed. However, the speed
difference between the first and the fourth lengths of a 200-m (long course) is of 6-7%.
Thompson et al. [34] pointed out that this positive split strategy can lead to an early fatigue in
course of the race. During the race, the correlation between stroke length and stroke rate
deteriorates. In other terms, as the race progresses, the swimmers are losing speed because
their stroke length drop is not compensated enough by their stroke rate increase. Thompson et

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 Stroking Parameters During Competition 451

al. [33] observed that the stroke rate decreases during the second length of 200-m races. Then
it increases over the three successive lengths (Figure 5). This particular ―U‖ pattern of the
stroke rate changes has also been observed by Kjendlie, et al. [21]. These authors pointed out
that 42 medal winners out of 50 used this strategy during the 2002 European championships
(4 strokes 100-m short course events).

SR (M) SR (F) SL (M) SL (F)

45
SR (cycles.min -1) .

2.2

SL (m.cycle-1) .
2.0
40

1.8

35 1.6
1 2 3 4
lengths

Figure 5. Changes in stroke rate (SR) and stroke length (SL) during 200-m breaststroke male events at
national and international level; M: male, F: female (adapted from [33]).

Furthermore, comparisons have been made between the stroking parameters of given
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swimmers over two different races. Thompson and al. [34] reported that an improvement of
1.9% of the race time (200-m breaststroke) is mainly due to an improvement of the clean
swimming speed. This improvement results from a slight change in stroke rate and stroke
length, which both vary within a range of 0.4 - 1%, the stroke rate being possibly the more
important factor. The knowledge of the breaststroke stroking parameters changes are valuable
tools for the coach and the swimmer. This is of particular importance in breaststroke
swimming because this stroke features marked stroking parameters changes over 200-m races
as exposed in (Table 4).

Table 4. Relative differences in stroking parameters between the first and second 100-m
of 200-m female events during the semi-finals of the 2004 Olympics [17]

Butterfly backstroke breaststroke freestyle

Speed difference (%) 6.49 4.05 4.51 -1.83
SR difference (%) -1.60 -0.73 3.55 -1.35
SL difference (%) -4.86 -3.21 -7.80 -3.54

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 452 Michel Sidney, Morgan Alberty, Hugues Leblanc, et al.

These differences are even more noticeable when the different events are compared between
These differences are even more noticeable when the different events are compared
between them as exposed in Figures 6 and 7.
as exposed in figures 6 and 7.
F

2.15
stroke length (m.cycle-1) .

1.95
SL fly
SL back
1.75
SL breast
SL free
1.55

1.35 200-m 100-m 50-m

2.50
stroke length (m.cycle-1) .

2.30
SL fly
2.10
SL back

1.90 SL breast
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SL free
1.70

1.50
200-m 100-m 50-m

Figures 6 and 7. Comparison of the stroke length (SL) changes between the different strokes and for
three race events. Data obtained from the French swimming federation for the 2007 summer national
championships; F: females, M: males

The above data show that the marked stroke length drop seems a specific feature of the
breaststroke either within a race than when the race distance decreases. One question
immediately arises from this particularity of the breaststroke: what is causing this dramatic
change in terms of spatial-temporal characteristics? A study made by Takagi et al. [32] gives
some interesting clues about this question. These researchers have analyzed the evolution of
different stroke phase durations for the different breaststroke events at the 2001 world
championships. They observed that as the race distance decreased from 200-m to 100-m and
50-m, the arm glide time of the swimmers significantly decreased. Moreover they reported
that the better swimmers had longer arm glide duration and tended to lose less speed during

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 Stroking Parameters During Competition 453

the non-propulsive part of the stroke. From this study, it can be pointed out that (i) elite
swimmers are able to minimize their speed drop by being more streamlined during the
recovery and glide phase of the stroke and (ii) that the adjustment of the coordination pattern
according to the distance is a key factor of breaststroke success.
Finally, values and the way the stroking parameters change during maximal effort can be
influenced by several factors that scientist tried to discriminate.

4. WHICH PARAMETERS MAY INFLUENCE STROKING PARAMETERS ?

4.1. Anthropomorphic Characteristic and Gender Effects on Stroking
Parameters in High Level Freestyle Swimmers

Among the factors which may influence the relationship between stroke rate and stroke
length and affect swimming speed, the anthropometric parameters appear of some
importance. These factors have been shown to be related to stroke rate and, more importantly,
to stroke length. Pelayo, et al. [28] have shown that the difference in speed between males
and females primarily results in differences in stroke length. Since the magnitude of the
stroke length is related to the propulsive forces that a swimmer exerts while stroking, a
difference in strength and body size between male and female swimmers may account for the
observed differences in speed. According to the results obtained by Toussaint et al. [35] in an
investigation between two groups of different levels, the difference in stroke length between
males and females could be related to the lower body size values the latter. Pelayo, et al. [28]
also indicate the relativity and the non-discriminating aspect of anthropometric characteristics
such as height, arm-span, weight and foot-size in the achievement of performances, within a
group of pre-selected adults. Previous studies [19, 31] have reported low correlations between
anthropometric parameters such as height and final times for both male and female swimmers
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and even more so with females for Siders, et al. [29]. On the contrary, specific anthropometric
characteristics such as body form and size, surface area of propulsive segments and floating
capacity have been identified by Chatard, et al. [6], Grimston and Hay [14] and Toussaint et
al. [35] as factors whose influence on performance is capital and which also have an impact
on the stroke mechanics. In other terms, the success seems to be more dependent on the
swimming technique.

4.2. Skill Effect on Stroking Parameters in the 100-M Freestyle for Male
Swimmers of Different Skills

Many authors have reported that similar swimming performances are characterized by
greater variability in stroke length than in stroke rate. In homogeneous groups of top level
swimmers, Letzelter and Freitag [23] and Pai, et al. [27] have shown that the speed of the less
skilled swimmers decreased during the race more than the speed of the best swimmers.
Nevertheless, they did not find significant variations of stroke rate and stroke length
throughout the course of the race which can account for the decrease in speed. Chollet, et al.
[8] have studied stroking characteristics such as stroke rate and stroke length used by different

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 454 Michel Sidney, Morgan Alberty, Hugues Leblanc, et al.

skill level male swimmers in order to analyse the variations of speed, stroke rate and stroke
length during the course of the race. The performance of 442 subjects including 40 top level
swimmers competing at a 100-m freestyle event was videotaped and later analyzed to
determine speed, stroke rate and stroke length on each lap of the race. Stroke length seemed
to be one of the best predictor of the performance for the 100-m freestyle event. The results
furthermore emphasized the discriminating aspect of the variations of speed, stroke rate and
especially stroke length through the race in the assessment of different skill levels of
performance. Besides higher speed, stroke length and stroke rate values, and contrary to the
less skilled swimmers, the best swimmers were characterized by the capacity to maintain
these parameters constant throughout the course of the race. According to these results, it can
be sustained that in the long term, swimmers should mainly focus on increasing their stroke
length rather than their stroke rate in order to increase their swimming speed.

5. IMPROVEMENT OF STROKING PARAMETERS

5.1. Example of Variations of Stroking Parameters Associated with 200-M
Front Crawl Competitive Performance Improvement

Stroke length and stroke index cannot be considered as the only parameters linked to
improvement in a 200-m crawl in adult swimmers competing at high level [18]. Two races
completed by 17 swimmers were analysed in the 200-m freestyle final of French or European
championships, each final being separated by two years. All the swimmers‘ performances
have been bettered in the second race (113.44±2.50 s vs. 111.78±2.71 s) and were associated
with a significant increase of stroke rate without variation of average stroke length and stroke
index values. Swimmers emphasized the first part of the race, with higher speed in the first
three lengths, higher stroke rate in the first two lengths and lower stroke length in the first
one. ∆ stroke length and ∆ stroke rate were highly correlated (r=0.98). In 11 of the 17
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subjects, the improvement was concomitant with a decrease in stroke length and an increase
in stroke rate [18]. Only one swimmer‘s improvement was associated with a substantial
increase in stroke length. The present results highlighted that an increase in stroke rate
associated with a slight decrease in stroke length should not be considered as ineffective,
especially at top level.

6. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
The miniaturization of the video device and the improvement of the computer in
relationship to the decrease of the cost enable to a lot of scientific team to analyse the race
components and stroking parameters. The first consequence of this improvement is to permit
comparison between to the data of different competitions. Mason and Foxlie [25] noted that
the purpose of the competition analysis is to provide the coach and swimmer with a clear and
concise summary of each event in the meet. The analysis is designed to identify where, why and
how some swimmers performed better than others. The primary reason that coaches of elite
swimmers use the competition analysis is to develop and then progressively refine a

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 Stroking Parameters During Competition 455

competition model for the swimmer. Competition analysis is also used to identify relative
weaknesses in the swimmer's performance in competition so that these weaknesses may be
eradicated. The performances of different swimmers, which were swum on different days and at
different locations, can be compared if the competition analysis was completed for the races
concerned. During the meet, the competition analysis results for a session are provided for the
coaches before the next session begins. The competition analysis also provides coaches with a
means to identify changing trends that are occurring in competition strategy as a consequence of
a rule change or a new technique that is being used by swimmers.

CONCLUSION
The systematic analysis of the performance in swimming competition can help swimmers
and coaches to reach and maintain the highest possible speed according to the constraints of
the task, particularly to find the optimal combination of stroke rate and stroke length
parameters. The results of these analysis showed that unique values of stroke length and
stroke rate do not exist to swim at high speed. The comparative analysis of performances,
according to skill level or from a longitudinal viewpoint, show that the swimmers are
improving their times while performing with lesser strokes for a given distance. Swimmers
must find the optimal compromise between stroke rate and stroke length at the highest mean
swimming speed over the whole race in the four swimming styles over 100-m and 200-m.
Comparatively with non-expert, highly skilled swimmers were able to maintain higher stroke
length and stroke rate throughout the course of their race when comparing the average stroke
rate values for each length of the pool. In breaststroke, the spatial-temporal characteristics are
specific: when the race distance decreased from 200-m to 100-m and 50-m, the arm glide time
of the swimmers significantly decreased. That the better swimmers had longer arm glide
duration and tended to lose less speed during the non-propulsive part of the stroke. The
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

anthropometric characteristics such as body form and size, surface area of propulsive
segments and floating capacity are factors whose have an impact on performance.
Finally, the aim of the stroking parameters analysis during competition is to provide the
coach with detailed information about his or her swimmer's performance in competition. It is
designed to assist the coach in identifying optimal race strategy for a particular swimmer in a
specific event. For swimmers to achieve the best results in major competition, they must keep
as close as possible to scientifically prepared sound race strategy which is based upon set free
swimming, turn, start, and finish speeds.

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[13] East DJ (1970) Swimming: An analysis of stroke frequency, stroke length and
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16-27.
[14] Grimston, S.K., & Hay J.G. (1986). Relationships among anthropometric and stroking
characteristics of college swimmers. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 18,
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[15] Haljand, R. (2009). Evaluation of Swimming Technique. Methods of Evaluation for
competition Analysis and Technique in Swimming. http://www.swim-city.com /library
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[16] Hay J.G. (1987) Swimming biomechanics : a brief review. Swimming Technique, 23, 3,
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[17] Hellard P., Dekerle J., Avalos M., Caudal N., Knopp K., & Hausswirth C. (2008).
Kinematic measures and stroke rate variability in elite female 200-m swimmers in the
four swimming technique: Athens 2004 Olympic semi-finalists and French National
2004 Championship semi-finalists. Journal of Sports Sciences, 26, 1, 35-46
[18] Huot-Marchand F., Nesi X., Sidney M., Alberty M., & Pelayo P. (2005) Variations of
stroking parameters associated with 200 m competitive performance improvement in
top-standard front crawl swimmers. Sports Biomech.;4(1):89-99.

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[19] Katch, V.L., & Michael, E.D. (1973). The relationship between segmental leg
measurement, leg strength, and relative endurance performance of college females.
Human Biology, 45, 371-383.
[20] Keskinen O.P., Keskinen K.L., & Mero A.A. (2007). Effect of pool length on blood
lactate, heart rate International Journal Sports Medicine. 28, 407-13
[21] Kjendlie P.L., Haljand R., Fjørtoft O., & Stallman R.K. (2006). Stroke frequency
strategies of international and national swimmers in 100 m races. In In Vilas-Boas, J.P.,
Alves, F. and Marques, A. (Eds), Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming X,
Portuguese Journal of Sport Sciences, 6,2, Porto: Universidade do Porto, 52-54
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[23] Letzelter, H., Freitag, W. (1982) Speed and stroke characteristics in 200-m free style
swimming of top level European men and women. Leistungssport 6, 442-452.
[24] Maglischo, E.W. (2003) Swimming fastest. Human Kinetics Publishers, 791 pages.
[25] Mason B., Fowlie J. (2009). Competition analysis for high performance swimming.
http://www.swim-city.com/library.php3?id=26
[26] Miller D.I. - 1975 - Biomechanics of swimming. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews,
3 : 219-248.
[27] Pai, Y.C., Hay, J.G., Wilson, B.D. (1984) Stroking techniques of elite swimmers.
Journal of Sports Sciences, 2, 225-239.
[28] Pelayo P., Sidney M., Kherif T., Chollet D., Tourny C. (1996) Stroking characteristics
in freestyle and relationships to anthropomorphic characteristics. Journal of Applied
Biomechanics, 12, 197-206.
[29] Siders, W.A., Lukaski, H.C., & Bolonchuck W.W. (1993). Relationships among
swimming performance, body composition and somatotype in competitive collegiate
swimmers. The J. of Sports Med. and Physical Fitness, 33(2), 166-171.
[30] Sidney M., Delhaye B., Baillon M., Pelayo P. (1999) Stroke frequency evolution during
100-m and 200-m events front crawl swimming Biomechanics and Medicine in
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Swimming : Swimming Science VIII, Keskinen et al. (pp 71-76) : Gummerus Printing,
Jyväskylä, Finland.
[31] Smith, L. (1978). Anthropometric measurements, and arm and leg speed performance
of male and female swimmers as predictors of swim speed. J. of Sports Medicine and
Physical Fitness, 18, 153-168.
[32] Takagi H., Sugimoto S., Nishijima N., & Wilson, B. (2004). Differences in stroke
phases, Arm-leg coordination and velocity fluctuation due to event, gender and
performance level in breaststroke. Sports Biomechanics, 3, 1, 15-27
[33] Thompson K.G., Haljand R., & Mc Laren D.P. (2000). An analysis of selected
kinematic variables in national and elite male and female 100 m and 200 m breaststroke
swimmers. Journal of Sports Sciences, 18, 421-431
[34] Thompson K.G., Haljand R., & Lindley M. (2004). A comparison of selected kinematic
variables between races in national to elite male 200 m breaststroke swimmers. Journal
of Swimming Research, 16, 6-10
[35] Toussaint, H.M., van der Helm, F.C.T., Elzerman, J.R., Hollander, P.A., de Groot, G.,
& van Ingen-Shenau, G.J. (1983). A power balance applied to swimming. In AP
Hollander, PA Huijing &G de Groot (eds.) Biomechanics and medicine in swimming
(pp. 165-172). Human Kinetics, Champaign, Illinois.

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 458 Michel Sidney, Morgan Alberty, Hugues Leblanc, et al.

[36] Toussaint H.M., Truijens M. (2005) Biomechanical aspects of peak performance in

human swimming. Animal Biology; 55(1), 17-40.
[37] Vereijken B., Whiting H.T. (1990). In defense of discovery learning. Canadian Journal
of Sport Sciences, 15, 2, 99-106.
[38] Von Loebbecke A., Mittal R, Fish F, Mark R. (2009) A comparison of the kinematics
of the dolphin kick in humans ans cetaceans. Human Movement Science, 28, 1, 99-112.
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 In: World Book of Swimming: From Science to Performance ISBN: 978-1-61668-202-6
Editors: L. Seifert, D. Chollet and I.Mujika ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 24

COMPETITIVE SWIMMING AND DISABILITIES

Daniel Daly and Jonas Martens

Department of Human Kinesiology, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium

ABSTRACT
Classification is the distinguishing factor of Paralympic sports and a majority of the
research done here on swimming has had this in mind. Competition for persons with
loco-motor disabilities is organized under a functional classification system in which
persons with various impairments compete against one another in several classes.
Swimmers with visual impairment (3 classes) and intellectual disability are also
discussed here. Mathematical comparisons of 100m freestyle world records for loco-
motor disability digress over the 10 classes in a predicable manner. This is not the case in
other events however. Paralympic 100m freestyle swimmers demonstrate on the mean
similar stroking parameter changes to able-bodied Olympic swimmers between and
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within races. Paralympic swimmers with visual impairment do not differ in this respect in
freestyle races. The greater variation in stroking models is reduced when specific
impairment groups are isolated. Experienced and trained swimmers with intellectual
disability are, however, not able to maintain stable race speed and stroking models over
several freestyle races. In breaststroke both visually impaired and intellectually disabled
have much more trouble turning than in their freestyle races with relatively slow
breaststroke turns and more than 8% losses in swimming speed in the subsequent race
sections. The physical capacity of Paralympic swimmers has seldom been examined. As
expected passive drag increases with decreased function at a fixed towing speed. World
championship participants with intellectual disability are smaller (38th percentile) and
show extremely poor hand grip strength when compared to European national level able-
bodied swimmers (M percentile score = 1.1 +3.2).

Key words: Disability sport, swimming, race analysis

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 460 Daniel Daly and Jonas Martens

1. PARALYMPIC SWIMMING
The most important competition for athletes with a disability is the Paralympic Games.
The Paralympics, not to be confused with the Special Olympics, is a competition for elite
athletes. [32] The Paralympic movement finds its origin in 1948, when Sir Ludwig Gutmann
organized a sports competition involving World War II veterans with a spinal cord injury in
Stoke Mandeville, England. Olympic style games for athletes with a disability were organized
for the first time in Rome in 1960. The evolution in the numbers of participating countries
and athletes is shown in figure 1. The Paralympic Games are held in the same year as the
Olympic Games and since 1988 they have also taken place at the Olympic venue. [27]

Number of athletes

4500
4000
3500
3000
number

2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
1952 1960 1964 1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004
year

Number of countries
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160
140
120
100
number

80
60
40
20
0
1952 1960 1964 1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004
year

Figure 1. The evolution in the numbers of participating countries and athletes from the 1952 to 2004
Paralympic Games.

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 Table 1. Practical and disability profiles of Paralympic swimming S CLASSES (for freestyle, backstroke & butterfly). Disability profile
presents the range of impairments found in the class and implications. This table is a summary of information found in the most recent
classification manual and was developed together and with the permission of the International Paralympic Committee.28
http://www.paralympic.org/release/Summer_Sports/Swimming/Classification/index.html (Abbreviations are in bold).

DISABILITY PROFILE HAND CONTROL ARMS TRUNK CONTROL LEGS START + TURN OTHERS

S10 - Polio and cauda-equina syndrome S1/2 min - Normal - Normal FULL - Relatively strong -Effective Dive Minimal
Most affective lower limbs. propulsion, function kick and Turn disability
functional - Slight spasticity and/or ataxia in specific tests. - Possible Except=CP (one - Possible restrict. 1
- Paresis on 1 leg. missing part side) hip
- Severe restriction of 1 hip joint. - Possible Polio 1
- Single below knee or double foot Amputation. leg
- Loss of 1/2 of the hand.

S9 - Walking paraplegia; min involvement in limbs. - Normal - Normal cycle FULL - Propulsive and -Effective Dive Slight
- Polio with 1 non-functional leg. propulsion and propulsion stabilizing kick and Turn coordination
- Slight overall functional co-ordination problems. - Except = Amp. possible problems for
- Single above or single thru knee Amp Cerebral
- Double below knee Amp, (longer than 1/3). Palsy (CP)
- Single thru or below elbow Amp.
- Partial joint restriction in lower limbs, 1 side more
affected.
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S8 - Complete paraplegia or polio comparable to below - Controlled - Controlled - Possible - More balance than - Standing start
L4-L5. propulsive catch cycle Except = minimal loss propulsion Except on block or use
- Min diplegia with minimal trunk involvement. Except = Amp + Amp + CP = Arm Amp block for
- Min evidence of hemiplegia. CP balance.
- Min spasticity in 4 limbs. -Moderate push
- Double above knee Amp, stumps longer than 1/2. off Except =
- Double below knee Amp, not longer than 1/3. Amp
- Single above elbow amputation or comparable
functionally complete Brachial Plexus lesion.
- Double hand Amp, 1/4 or palm inclusive.
- Severe joint restriction in the lower limbs.
 Table 1. (continued)

S7 - Complete paraplegia or polio comparable to below - Usually full - Usually full Minimal loss of - No use but no - Standing or
L2-L3. control Except = control and control hinder, sitting start
- Moderate diplegia with some min upper body and Arm Amp. power in stroke - No lateral - Limited push-
trunk involvement. phase Except = movement off. Except =
- Moderate hemiplegia. Amp+Hemi Except= CP+Arm Arm Amp
- Double below elbow Amp. Amp.
- Double above knee Amp, shorter than 1/2.
- Above elbow and above knee Amp on opposite
sides.
- One paralyzed upper limb and severely restricted
functions of the leg of the same side.

S6 - Complete paraplegia or polio comparable to below - Normally - Normally - Upper trunk full - Amp.+LA=+ prop, - Block or Dwarfs
T9-L1: no leg function suitable for swimming. correct catch efficient prop. control present stab. water start
- Moderate diplegia with fair trunk control and fair to - 1 arm for Hemi - CP = fair control - Min. to some
good propulsion in shoulders and elbows. Except= Arm - Amp, LA, Dw = push off
- Moderate hemiplegia with severe restriction in the Amp.+ LA. Full - Sitting start
more affected upper limb. possible
- Moderate athetosis and/or ataxia.
- Above elbow and above knee amputation of the
same side.
- Double above elbow amputation.
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- Congenital amputations of three limbs.

- Dysmelia with shortened arms [2/3 of normal] and
above knee Amp.
- Achondroplasia not more than 130cm in women and
137cm for men.
- Above knee Amp plus severely functionally
restricted shoulder of the same side.
 Competitive Swimming and Disabilities 463

Swimming is one of the most popular forms of physical activity for persons with a
disability. More than 500 swimmers from more than 60 countries have competed at the
previous two Paralympic Games. The International Paralympic Committee (IPC) Swimming
Technical Committee incorporates the rules of the International Swimming Federation
(FINA) with few modifications. No prostheses or assistive devices are permitted. [4]
The distinguishing factor in Paralympic sport is classification. The aim is to confirm
eligibility and group individuals of like potential for a realistic sports contest in a valid
manner. A fundamental understanding of swimming, the swimmers body structure and
function and training potential will lead to a fair and credible classification system. As a result
the vast majority of studies of Paralympic swimming have been directly or indirectly related
to this topic.
Competition for persons with loco-motor disabilities is organized under a functional
classification system in which swimmers with various disabilities compete against one
another in one of nine SB classes for breaststroke or ten S classes for the other 3 competitive
strokes. These two systems are combined to form a third group of SM (medley) classes.
Swimming is the only sport that combines the conditions of limb loss, cerebral palsy (co-
ordination and movement restrictions), spinal cord injury (weakness or paralysis involving
any combination of limbs) and other disabilities (such as Dwarfism, major joint restriction
conditions) both within the same class as well as across classes. Table 1 gives an overview of
the disability and practical profiles of the 10 S classes in Paralympic freestyle, backstroke,
and butterfly swimming. [28]
Based on a series of tests on dry land and in the water each swimmer receives a point
score which is determinant for the class. The system attempts thus to predict potential
swimming performance based on physical potential. The present process of assessment with
at least one medical and one swim technical classifier includes a functional examination on
dry land, and observation of the athlete both prior to and during competition. Bourke refers to
this process as ―movement potential assessment‖. [3] Swimmers with visual impairment are
divided into three classes - S11, S12, and S13 based on visual acuity, visual field, and light
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perception [26] and one class (S14) is organized for those with intellectual disability presently
outside the Paralympic Games.

2. CRITERIA FOR FAIR CLASSIFICATION

Williamson described some basic principles of classification in competitive sport for
participants with disabilities. According to him, classification must be sport-specific; it must
be realistic in relation to the impairment groups involved. There must be a clear minimal level
of impairment whereby alternative participation in the non-disabled sport could not happen
with dignity or parity. Williamson further points out that some individuals might naturally be
in either the lower or upper borderlines or zones, with a spread, or overlap of performances
across class. Irrespective of the impairment spread and borderline aspects, common sports
components of strength, speed, fitness, flexibility, and coordination should determine success.
[47]

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 464 Daniel Daly and Jonas Martens

Wu and Williams [48] stated that the fairness of any classification system and swimming
competition, in particular, hinges on the relationship between swimming performance and
impairment. They proposed the following 3 criteria of ―fairness‖ for swimming classification:

1. Swimming performances across classes should be different, with swimmers in higher

classes outperforming those in lower classes.
2. Elite swimmers in the same class should demonstrate similar performances.
3. Elite swimmers with different types of physical impairment should have equal
opportunities to advance to the finals and win medals at the Paralympic Games,
World Championships, or comparable international competition.

Since the introduction of a functional classification system in Paralympic swimming, the

standard of competition has improved, and the credibility of the Games has increased. The
number of classes was reduced from 31 to 10 and there has been a reduction in the
cancellation of events and the number of races.
The introduction of the functional system has resulted in both study and debate. To
evaluate the fairness and validity of the functional classification system, four different
approaches have been taken. First, race performances of well-defined groups of swimmers in
the various classes have been compared. Based on statistical criteria, suggestions were made
concerning which existing classes should remain separate and which should be combined. In
a second approach the results of biomechanical race analyses, such as stroke rate and length
were used to examine the validity of the classification system. In a third line of attack, the
chance of any impairment group attaining a medal or qualifying for the final in a major
championship meet was examined. A fourth method focused on the comparison of specific
functional abilities among swimmers per class and impairment group.
In each approach, the criterion most often used to judge validity (fairness) has been
statistical difference in race performance between adjacent classes. Daly and Vanlandewijck,
however, stated that exceptional performers were to be expected in a young sport and
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therefore the application of traditional statistics may not be sufficient by itself to demonstrate
that the classification system worked. [10] Furthermore the functional system has undergone
some adjustments over the years. For example, following the 1996 Atlanta Games the number
of breaststroke classes was reduced from 10 to 9.Moreover, the lower classes are still under-
populated and, depending on the criteria used, less competitive.

3. COMPARISON OF RACE PERFORMANCE AMONG CLASSES

AND IMPAIRMENT GROUPS

3.1 World Record Swimming Speed

The first and simplest approach to evaluate the functional classification system focuses
on total race performances of well-defined groups of swimmers. Daly and Vanlandewijck
[10] stated that the world-record swimming speed should decrease in a predictable manner
with decreasing functional class. They concluded that the classification system appeared to be
approaching fairness for freestyle events. Exceptions to the criteria were noted, but they were

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 Competitive Swimming and Disabilities 465

associated with the lack of maturity of the sport and not with a fundamental fault in the
classification system. Although classes may have been fair for freestyle, they were not
equally competitive. The functional classification system also hadn‘t reached its goal of
fairness in breaststroke. [16]

3.2 Point Score

In studies of elite sport performance, Hopkins, Hawley and Burke [25] pointed out that
the caliber of the athlete examined must be clearly defined to encourage greater
understanding among scientists, coaches and athletes. This is especially applicable to
Paralympic participants where comparisons are made of athletes competing in several classes.
This topic is also of special interest for those determining cut off times and responsible for
athlete selection. To define level of competitiveness or performance, swimming times can be
given a score, using the method suggested by Van Tilborgh, Daly, Vervaecke and Persyn [41]
and used by Daly et al. [14] and Daly and Vanlandewijck [10] based on the third power of its
percentage of the world record. Performances of swimmers in several classes or events are
then set on the same scale.
Daly, et al. [11] concluded that the competitiveness (depth of field) of the 100m freestyle
event in the higher men‘s Paralympic classes at the 1996 Atlanta Paralympic Games was
significantly stronger than that of the other three strokes and similar to that of the Olympic
event. There are numerous arguments that freestyle is easiest to learn and therefore attracts
the most athletes, the most obvious being that freestyle is the fastest of the four strokes. There
were 40% more athletes per class in freestyle than in either butterfly or backstroke and 50%
more than in breaststroke. Breaststroke was, as expected, slowest and had the weakest field
and the fewest number of participants. Little work has been done along these lines otherwise.
Daly et al. [18] also analyzed the 100m freestyle finals at the 2000 Paralympic Games
and found that women‘s events were still less competitive than men‘s events. There were
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more multiple medal winners in women and the coefficients of variation in finals
performance were higher in women‘s events.

3.3 Performance Evolution

Examining the evolutions in performance is of interest to evaluate the maturation process

of Paralympic swimming which is in turn necessary to monitor the classification system. [21]
Maturity in sport is achieved when a sufficient number of persons of high level participate so
that the likelihood of exceptional performances is reduced to a minimum. The relative
performance level or competitiveness of each class and stroke will then also be equivalent.
Djobova et al. [21] tracked the evolution of performances between the Atlanta and the Sydney
Paralympic Games in 3 freestyle events in both men and women. The range of race results in
finalists in all events decreased suggesting increased competitiveness. The winning times as
well as the world records all improved and there were no apparent differences between men
and women in first place performance improvement although the decrease in performance
range was clearly greater in women. The results supported the standpoint that the sport was

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 466 Daniel Daly and Jonas Martens

maturing but there still appeared to be room for improvement especially in a few female
classes.
Daly & Vanlandewijck [16] tracked the evolution of 100-m breaststroke performances
from the 1996 Atlanta to the Sydney 2000 Paralympic Games to evaluate the consequences of
the reduction in numbers of classes made between these two Games. They found an increase
in participation in the 100-m breaststroke events at the Sydney Paralympic Games, which was
not the case in freestyle events. In overall performance, women improved more than men and
the range of race results in finals decreased.
After observation of the evolution of the world records and considering the disability
profile of class S10 swimmers, Daly, et al. stated that it could reasonably be expected that
when more high level, well trained athletes would be attracted to disability swimming, the
male S10 world record should be about equivalent to the women‘s able bodied record. [15]
This prediction has recently been fulfilled in the 100m and 400m freestyle.
Although this type of work does not actually improve our understanding of swimming it
does place the problem in its proper perspective. What type of athletes are we dealing with?
Are the classes actually comparable? Are these ―elite‖ athletes? Have they trained
sufficiently? Do they have a qualified coach? Do they have sufficient opportunity to
compete? We have observed in swimmers with intellectual disability that a minimum of 4
years of at least 12 hours a week of water training and about 80 races a year (experience) are
necessary to achieve national team status. This also points out a problem in early literature.
Most studies have assumed that all Paralympic competitors were elite. In the past this might
not always have been true.

4. COMPARISON OF RACE COMPONENT TIMES AND THE RELATED

STROKE RATE AND LENGTH AMONG FUNCTIONAL CLASSES
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From a biomechanical point of view, there is much to be learned about propulsive force,
swimming speed and swimming efficiency from well trained swimmers who e.g. are missing
an important propulsive surface such as a hand. The relationship between body structure and
swimming performance has long been a subject of interest to swimming researchers. [20]
Moreover, variations in body structure have consequences for race components and stroking
variables.
By far the most popular form of research in Paralympic swimming is race analysis. At
both Atlanta and Sydney, Olympic and Paralympics were covered by the same research group
and large scale race analysis has been done at major championships for intellectually
disabled. Race components measured include starting, turning and finishing times, and the
clean or mid-pool swimming speed at several intermediate points in the race.
The purpose of race analysis has been twofold. First, the validity of the functional
classification system could be investigated. In Paralympic swimming, where swimmers from
diverse impairment groups compete against each other in the same class, there are swimmers
who start and turn fast and swim more slowly and others who might use a quite different race
model or strategy but all achieve a similar end race result. Secondly, race analysis provides
swimmers and their coaches with more information on how they won or lost the race than can
be obtained from typical race split times. One might also want to know if the intellectually

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 Competitive Swimming and Disabilities 467

disabled might for example show systematic problems with race strategy or are unable to
perform optimally in critical races.
Careful comparison of race speed models is required as the functional classification
system includes persons with diverse impairments in the same class. It might, therefore, not
be a sound idea for all swimmers to emulate the race winner‘s speed and stroking model.
Perhaps there is even more than one successful race model for swimmers with disabilities
related to impairment or class. [18]
Several studies on elite able-bodied freestyle swimmers have been reported on the
relationship between speed, stroke length and stroke rate. Most authors agree that stroke
length differences have a greater influence on swimming speed than differences in stroke
rate.[1, 6, 8, 7, 29] The same has been found in elite freestyle swimmers with a loco motor
disability.
Pelayo, et al. [36 ] analyzed velocity, stroke length, and stroke rate during 100m freestyle
events in top level male and female swimmers with a disability according to the International
Functional Classification System and compared the results obtained with those of able-bodied
swimmers. They found that velocity and stroke length increased significantly according to
function from class S3 to S10 for those with loco-motor disability. Stroke length values were
significantly different between males and females in each class group. Stroke rate was not
significantly different between genders, between each class group and also with able-bodied
swimmers. The major result of this study was that stroke length was related to velocity
whereas stroke rate was not. Starting, turning and finishing were not investigated. It was
suggested that the stroke index (= velocity x stroke length) could be used as a sensitive
criterion to asses the swimmer with a disability in relationship to his classification level.
Daly et al [9] checked the validity of the functional classification system by comparing
the race results of men and women for the 100m freestyle at the 1996 Paralympic Games. It
was again found that men swam faster than women and had longer stroke lengths but no
differences in stroke rate. Starting and turning ability did not differ. Women finished
relatively faster. In general the pattern of differences between Olympic and Paralympic
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swimmers and among classes was similar in men and women, supporting the validity of the
functional classification system used for freestyle.
In another study analyzing the 100m freestyle event at the 1996 Paralympic games, Daly,
et al. [11] found that the performances decreased with functional class as expected for all
investigated race components. With the exception of class S6, no race component appeared to
be more important for success than any other. In class S6, however, the correlation between
start time and the end race result was exceptionally high (.93). In this mixed impairment class
which includes swimmers who can take a diving start with swimmers who start in the water,
the good starters appeared to have the advantage. Class S6 was also the exception with a high
correlation for turn time with end race result (.94). As with the start, those who could push off
better had the advantage. Furthermore in this paper the idea that swimming speed is increased
by increasing stroke length, and less so by increasing stroke rate, was supported. The range of
combinations of stroke rate and stroke length used to achieve the same speed was, however,
greater in Paralympic swimmers than in Olympic swimmers as was previously pointed out by
Pelayo et al. [36]
Daly et al. [14] described the contribution of clean swimming speed, as well as start, turn
and finish speed, to the total race performance in the four strokes for the men‘s 100m events
at the 1996 Atlanta Paralympic Games as compared to 1996 Olympic Games finalists. The

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 468 Daniel Daly and Jonas Martens

results showed that in Paralympic swimmers, next to clean swimming speed, both turning and
finishing were highly correlated with the end race result. Start speed was the least related to
end race result in Paralympic swimmers and in all but freestyle in Olympic swimmers. Only
in the S(B)6 class, did start speed correlate with end race result in all strokes. Paralympic
swimmers did start, turn, and finish slower than Olympic swimmers but in direct relation to
their slower clean swimming speed. (The reader is reminded that S classes are for free, back
and butterfly and SB for breaststroke.)
At the 2000 Paralympic Games, Daly, et al. [18] investigated swimming speed models
and stroking variables in 100m freestyle finalists during both preliminary heats and finals.
They found that races were won or lost in the second half of each 50m race lap and
differences in speed between swimmers were more related to stroke length than stroke rate.
On the contrary, within-race speed changes were more related to changes in stroke rate.
Stroke rate changes were also responsible for speed changes between qualifying heats and
finals in the first part of races, while stroke length was responsible for better speed
maintenance at the end of races.
Most studies have been limited to information on the classes but almost nothing has been
done on the impairment groups within class. When comparing race components in a group of
100m freestyle Paralympic finalists with cerebral palsy (CP) and a performance (end race
result) matched control group with limb loss in classes S6 and above and classes S5 and
below, it was found in the higher classes that the CP group had only a slightly lower mean
clean speed but with a significantly lower stroke rate than in the control group with limb loss.
Swimmers with CP compensated by turning better. The mean stroke length however was 15%
higher in CP swimmers (p<.01). When analyzing the results of the 400m freestyle Paralympic
finalists, the CP group scored the same number of points as in the control group. Stroke
length was higher in the control group as was stroke rate, but minimally. In classes S5 and
below in the 100m event, it was found that the CP group scored equivalent points on the
1000-points scale. Stroke length however was again higher than that of the control group
(15%), and stroke rate lower. In all races CP athletes finished (5m) relatively faster than they
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swam and relatively faster than the control group. Because of the lower potential stroke rate,
CP swimmers started the race slower but maintained speed slightly better. The smaller
differences at long distance in stroke rate and length may depend on the make up of the
population of limb loss which needs further investigation.
Based on the mean values presented it is not possible to make a definitive statement on
the race strategy of these two groups swimming in the same classes. Nevertheless in the 100m
race in the higher classes both groups lost speed (-4.5%) systematically as the race progresses,
both dropped stroke rate in the beginning of the race followed by an evening out and both
first increase stroke length from race sections 1 to 2, followed by a decrease in stroke length
in the second part of the race. There were no significant differences in within race changes
between groups in either mid-pool speed, stroke rate or stroke length. So both groups actually
use the same race speed and stroking model and finish the race in the same time, but the
absolute values of stroke rate and length differ.
Daly et al. [12] also examined clean swimming speed, start, turn and finish times and
stroke length and rate during the men‘s 100m breaststroke event at the Paralympic Games of
Atlanta, and made comparisons among classes and with Olympic swimmers. For the three
most functional classes (SB10-SB8), the validity of the classification system was generally
supported by the results, although the actual contribution of each race component to end race

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 Competitive Swimming and Disabilities 469

result did differ between the 3 groups. Classes SB7, SB6 and SB5, however, did not differ in
end race result or in almost any of the race component times. The disability profile of these
three classes did not appear to sufficiently differentiate between the groups in breaststroke
swimming.
Following these findings, Daly, et al. [17] analyzed the 100m breaststroke finalists at the
2000 Paralympic games. They found that all swimmers lost speed as the race progressed,
although the race was won by maintaining speed in the second part of each 50m lap. In
general in men, a good start was also important. In the classes SB7, SB6, and SB5 however,
there were no significant correlations between start speed and end result. In these classes,
there was some mixture of diving, sitting and water starts. Swimmers in these classes, who
could start out of the water apparently, do not have any systematic advantage at the end of the
breaststroke race over those who could not. Daly et al. also concluded that speed increased
from preliminary heats to finals and that these speed changes were essentially caused by
increases in stroke rate as in freestyle races. The lack of differentiation in class SB5, SB6 &
SB7 remained.
Malone et al. [31] considered it important to examine a longer 400-m freestyle distance
event involving several turns and during which stroke rates and lengths could be measured at
different points of the race. From the findings of this study it appeared that those who swim
fast, turn quickly, and finish the race well win in Olympic, as well as Paralympic swimming.
The start appeared to be important only in Olympic swimmers. In general, no race
components appeared to be the single determining factor in overall performance. In relation to
changes in swimming speed within a 400m freestyle race, it was seen that individuals
adjusted speed mainly by changing stroke rate.
Daly, et al. [19] examined race segment times and stroking variables in the 200m
Individual Medley event at the 2000 Paralympic Games to determine how these contributed
to the total-race results. They found that individual medley finalist were all-around swimmers
with the ability to perform about equally well in all the 4 strokes. The large majority swam an
even paced race. Freestyle, backstroke and butterfly swimming speed were related to one
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another and breaststroke was the least related to the total-race result and to the other three
strokes. Actually only the better swimmers who had also competed in several other finals
participated in the Paralympic medley event.
At the 1996 Paralympic Games, Malone, et al. [33] examined the relationship between
degree of visual impairment and swimming performance variables during the 100m freestyle
and backstroke events in male and female swimmers. Performance and competitiveness
tended to decrease in all aspects of the race with increasing visual impairment. This gives
some credibility to the medically based classification system used. The study showed that turn
speed was strongly related to the end race result in both events and more important in
backstroke. Although the visually impaired swimmers receive a tactile signal indicating that
they are nearing the wall, and in backstroke the flags are lowered to 1m above the water
surface, hesitancy in order to avoid hitting the wall is difficult to overcome. Furthermore
several other factors must be considered in reviewing the performances of these Paralympic
swimmers. From a purely theoretical viewpoint, lack of vision alone should not affect the
mechanics of the basic swim stroke. Stroking parameters and clean swimming technique
should be similar between Olympic and visually impaired Paralympic swimmers, with the
largest differences expected in performance of the turns. This study by Malone, et al. did not
clearly support the hypothesis, and degree of vision did not always affect these performances

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 470 Daniel Daly and Jonas Martens

in a predictable manner. The question becomes, what other factors might be involved. Makris
et al. [30] noted in a study of visual function and athletic performance that hours training and
years of participation were significantly associated with swimming performance.
Unfortunately, many swim clubs are still unwilling to incorporate individuals with a visual
impairment into their programs. Swimmers with visual impairment are often doomed to less
competitive clubs and inexperienced coaches, and therefore may not be achieving their
highest potential.
Daly, et al. [20] noted that visually impaired swimmers also used the same stroke length
model as those with normal vision. This supports the idea that race experience is much more
important than vision (visual flow) itself in swimming fast [46].
Only a few authors have published data taken from underwater video analysis of
swimmers with disabilities. Satkunskiene et al. [38] measured an index of arm coordination of
18 well-trained swimmers with loco-motor disabilities, 9 females and 9 males, from
functional classes S3-S10. The degree of overlap in the propulsive phases (superposition
model) and lag time between the propulsive phases (catch-up model) was examined at 100m
race pace. Results indicated that within a certain range, specific arm coordination is common
to swimming crawl stroke in both able-bodied swimmers as well as swimmers with a
disability. Some swimmers with disabilities examined did exhibit extreme values at both ends
of the index scale. The swimmers were actually divided into three groups with respectively
mean Index of -12.09 +9.93 (catch-up), 4.88 +2.39 & 17.42 +6.65 (superposition). It was
concluded that the most extreme values might have been essential to maintaining a
streamlined body position and to aid breathing when for example lower limb and/or trunk
function is limited or non-existent.
Payton and Wilcox [34] examined the intra-cyclic speed fluctuations of uni-lateral arm
amputee front crawl swimmers. Eight well trained swimmers performed arms alone crawl
trials at middle distance pace. Mean intra-cycle fluctuation was 35% of mean speed and the
max speed during push phase of the sound limb was 11.5% higher than that of the opposite
limb. These authors concluded that although the effected side was missing an important
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

propulsive surface, propulsion could still be gained.

Finally, recently Prins and Murata [37] presented a kinematic analysis of swimmers with
Permanent Physical disabilities. This was a series of case studies dealing with the effect of
limb loss on swimming ―hand speed‖, on buoyancy and body position, and on body
alignment. They then looked at stroke mechanics more in detail in swimmers with Paraplegia
and discussed hydrodynamic lift in swimmers with congenital birth defects.
The narrative here will be limited to the discussion of hand speed. Using underwater
video the authors analyzed 3 swimmers with a reported mean swimming velocity of .35 m/s.
A first swimmer was missing both hands and feet, the second was a single arm below elbow
amputee and the third was without disability (ND). The authors pointed out that ―the most
noticeable difference in the absolute durations of the stroke cycles between the three
swimmers was when the nondisabled swimmer was compared to the swimmer with hand and
foot loss‖. The stroke cycle duration of the amputee swimmer was only 60% of that of the ND
swimmer. The stroke duration of the single arm amputee was nevertheless actually 5% longer
than that of the ND swimmer with a strong asymmetry in the duration of the underwater
pulling phase. (67.5% vs. 38% non-affected vs. affected). This swimmer used a notable pause
in the affected side to allow the non-affected side to complete the underwater phase.

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 Competitive Swimming and Disabilities 471

Unfortunately, this paper is missing quite a bit of information. The swimming velocity of
.35m/s gives a result of 4min 54s for 100m swimming which is exceptionally slow with
stroke lengths of only 0.5m. In addition the reader is not informed of the number of strokes
measured to produce results. The points in discussion are well taken regarding the individual
adaptations used and agree with the findings mentioned earlier here on the comparison of
Swimmers with CP to those with limb loss. The actual values presented by Prins and Murata
might need further scrutiny. In any case these authors appear to be dealing with recreational
and not competitive swimmers.
In summary, most studies mentioned in this section have concentrated on crawl stroke
with fewer in breaststroke and little or nothing on the other competitive strokes. In general
there appears to be little difference in race strategy in well trained Paralympic swimmers
when compared to able bodied colleagues. Swimmers with visual impairment are no
exception in crawl stroke. Swimmers with intellectual disability will be discussed below. One
point is that the able bodied groups for comparison were Olympic finalists. Perhaps
comparison should be made with swimmer of comparable absolute swimming speed. It may
not be easy, however, to find these able bodied persons with similar training background and
race experience. A final point for the future is that more attention needs to be paid to the
various impairment groups within classes than is presently being given.

5. WHAT IS THE CHANCE OF ANY IMPAIRMENT GROUP ATTAINING

A MEDAL OR QUALIFYING FOR THE FINAL
IN A MAJOR CHAMPIONSHIP ?

Wu and Williams studied the chance of any impairment group attaining a medal or
qualifying for the final at the 1996 Paralympic Games in Atlanta.[48] Based on the
classification sheets, 374 swimmers were categorized in one of six physical impairment
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groups: poliomyelitis, spinal cord injury, cerebral palsy, amputation, dysmelia, and les autres
(e.g.: dwarfism, arthrogryposis, multiple sclerosis, muscular dystrophy, brachial plexus
injury, Guillain Barre syndrome, stiff joint, osteogenesis imperfecta, neuropathy, connective
tissue problem, Perthes disease, and osteoarthritis). In general, the distributions between
performances and impairments were similar to the theoretical condition: elite swimmers
should have equal opportunities to advance to finals and win medals. However, they noted
that the impairment patterns were different for males and females. For example, female
swimmers with Cerebral Palsy and les autres won more gold medals (65%) compared to the
number of participants (40%). Despite this example, it could not be concluded that the current
classification system benefited any impairment group since male swimmers did not show the
similar pattern. Unfortunately this type of data has been collected over the last 15 years but is
not publically available for the moment.

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 472 Daniel Daly and Jonas Martens

6. COMPARISON OF SPECIFIC FUNCTIONAL ABILITIES AMONG

SWIMMERS PER CLASS AND IMPAIRMENT GROUP
Only a few authors have been able to go beyond descriptions of races and race
components. Chatard et al. [5] compared specific functional abilities of swimmers in water.
This study involved the measurement of Oxygen uptake, the passive drag force together with
some anthropometric measurements. It was concluded that the degree of disability strongly
influenced performances, and the gliding factors of swimmers with disabilities. After
consideration of Oxygen uptake, the lower the passive drag, the faster the swimmer at both
100m and 400m distances. This study did take place more than 15 years ago when the
swimmers involved might not have had the training background of those presently competing.
Schega et al. [39] measured the drag force in water during passive towing in 103
swimmers from diverse functional classes recruited over two years at a major international
competition. At a common towing speed, the passive drag force decreased with increased
function. At individual race speeds these forces were much higher in the faster swimming
higher classes. So lower functional class swimmers were indeed at a disadvantage due to their
body shape and limb and trunk control and higher class swimmers have the ability to
overcome much larger drag forces due to larger propulsive surfaces and muscle strength.
These authors were not able to distinguish between impairment groups within classes and
made no comparison to drag force values found in the literature on able bodied swimming.

7. PHYSIOLOGICAL TESTING PROTOCOLS

FOR DISABILITY SWIMMERS

Physiological testing, especially blood lactate concentration, is quite popular in both able
bodied and disability swimming. A few authors have attempted to examine this type if testing
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more deeply.
Bentley et al. [2] compared the blood lactate concentration (La), stroke distance (D(s)),
and swim index (SI) during an incremental swim test (IST) in elite swimmers who had a loss
in mobility (LM) (n = 6) or full mobility (FM) (n = 5) of the lower limbs. The IST consisted
of 5 repeats of either 100m or 200m front crawl depending upon the ability of the swimmer.
The La and heart rate measured during the IST showed no significant differences (p > 0.05).
However, velocity (V(s)) and D(s) were all significantly lower (p < 0.01) during the IST. SI
was significantly (p < 0.01) lower during repeats 1 to 3 and 5, but not repeat 4. These data
indicated perhaps not surprisingly that the La response to incremental exercise is similar
during incremental front crawl activity in swimmers suffering from loss of lower limb
mobility as compared to those with normal mobility.
Garatachea et al. [22] attempted to determine if the critical swimming velocity (CSV),
defined as the theoretical maximal swimming velocity that could be maintained for a long
period of time without exhaustion, corresponds to the exercise intensity at onset blood lactate
accumulation (OBLA), and if this could be utilized as a practical index for assessing
endurance performance in elite swimmers with physical disability. Eight disability swimmers
from class S3 to S7 swam four different distances (50, 100, 200 and 400 m) at maximal effort.
The CSV was expressed as the slope of a regression line between the covered swimming

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 Competitive Swimming and Disabilities 473

distance and the corresponding times of all possible combinations of 2 or 4 time trials.
Results indicated that all the CSVs calculated were similar independent of the distances
utilized for their calculation. A CSV confirmation test consisting of 3 x 10-min trials at 95,
100, and 105% of the CSV was carried out. The lactate concentration at the end of each trial
was 3.32, 4.03 and 5.73 mmol x l(-1), respectively. Lactate concentration at 100% CSV
approached the value of 4 mmol x l(-1), which is considered the exercise intensity at OBLA.
The authors conclude that the CSV corresponds with the OBLA intensity and could be a
valuable index to plan a training schedule for physically disabled swimmers. These authors
did not discuss differences in individual response to this test, an essential prerequisite as the
test is devised to give individual training advice.
Pelayo et al. [35] submitted 2 groups of inexperienced swimmers with Cerebral Palsy
(n=8 and 6) and 2 groups of non-disabled competitive swimmers (n=9 and 13) respectively to
a functional maximal aerobic power test (FMAPT) and a maximal anaerobic lactic test
(MANLT). The purpose was to determine if these tests could be used to design training
programs in the CP swimmers. For the CP group, the FMAPT included a slower initial speed
and a slower increase in swimming speeds. In the maximal aerobic test, exercise duration,
peak heart rate, and the maximal speed relative to the best time of a 100m race were not
significantly different between the CP and the able bodied swimmers (55.5% (+3.9) vs.
56.5% (+2.8)). Peak lactate concentration was, however, higher in the CP swimmers (10.8 (+
3.5) vs. 6.8 (+1.6)mmol.l-1). In the MNALT, peak lactate concentration (14.3 (+4) vs. 16.8
(+1.9)mmol.l-1), and the maximal speed relative to the respective best time in a 100-m race
(99.1% (+3.2) vs. 98.3% (+2.5)) were not significantly different between the CP and able
bodied swimmers. These results indicate that functional maximal aerobic and anaerobic field
tests could be used to evaluate and design training programs for competitive swimmers with
Cerebral Palsy.
In general the performance level of the participants in these studies in not high, the n is
low and the protocols in the 3 studies presented here were at best only similar. There is not a
large pool of well trained disability swimmers available to most researchers so the general
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applicability of these findings still needs further examination. Multi centre studies may be
critical to further examination of this problem and in these authors opinion closer cooperation
with colleagues in able-bodied swimming is essential to this end.

8. INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY
Swimmers with intellectual disabilities have also competed at the Paralympic Games.
Presently, however, they have been banned due to a lack of clarity regarding the minimum
disability needed to compete and the question if intellectual disability (ID) has a direct impact
on motor performance. To this end this population has been studied at International
competitions as well as in more local follow-up studies. In a comparative study video race
analysis data was collected on 81 elite male and 72 female swimmers including ID athletes,
loco-motor disabled, visually impaired as well as able bodied international meet finalists. In
long course races there was a typical race speed model used by all swimmers with sufficient
race experience regardless of absolute performance level. This was characterized by
consistent 4-5% speed losses between adjacent race segments. Individual race tactics do not

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 474 Daniel Daly and Jonas Martens

generally determine the outcome in disability swimming. In short course races swimmers
with ID were more likely to use a deviating speed model than other groups. [45]
Physical characteristics and training background information were also obtained for a
more limited sample of ID swimmers (N=58) participating in a world championship. There
was no difference between finalists and non-finalists in most body structure, strength, or
flexibility measures or in general physical fitness (Eurofit). Finalists were taller but
international level ID swimmers (especially women) showed generally poor strength and had
limited flexibility compared to European national level able bodied swimmers. The absolute
performance level of world championship medal winners was actually only comparable to
European Club level swimmers or NCAA division III regional competitors. To achieve
success within ID competition it is, nevertheless, apparently necessary to have trained in
water at least 4 years and swim 10-12hrs a week over 10 months a year in the previous season
(n = 30).[45]
Another study focused on Icelandic swimmers with (ID) and without (WID) Intellectual
Disability in a 200-m freestyle race in 25-m pool (n = 2 * 8). All swimmers were video taped
from above water during 3 competitive races spread over 3 months. Both groups had similar
training background and competitive experience, but the WID group performed relatively
better as compared to population world records. As expected the range of performance in the
ID group was higher (88pts vs. 65pts for WID). ID swimmers showed a greater between race
variability than the control group in end result and mid-pool swimming speed. They also
showed a greater variation in the relationship between change in stroke rate and change in
swimming speed. ID swimmers had not only a shorter stroke length but also a lower stroke
rate. ID swimmers turned slower and were generally poorer and more unstable in the turns.
They had more problems with the tumble than with pushing off the wall. On the mean ID
swimmers did not start or finish slower but extremely poor values were noted in this group
not seen in WID swimmers. [44]
In another parallel study of breaststroke, significant evidence was only found for
differences in stability of end race time and class points between ID and WID swimmers. No
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significant differences were found in stability of other race components or stroking

parameters. ID swimmers in long course races turned more slowly and never regained
previous swimming speed after push off. Race model were not similar among ID athletes, at
least not in this study. This could indicate that individuals each use a unique race model in
breaststroke. When comparing breaststroke with freestyle, differences in consistency were
seen. Breaststroke is more difficult, fewer good swimmers are available and this implies a
more difficult analysis and more within and between race variability. [40]
The real impact of intellectual disability on performances in breaststroke is still not clear.
Possible explanations are poor muscular strength and endurance, dealing with stress, training
background, experience, coordination problems because of weak bilateral transfer and poor
cognitive functioning. More research on these variables will be needed, especially on motor
learning and control potential of persons with intellectual disability.

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 Competitive Swimming and Disabilities 475

9. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSION

All swimmers deserve the best coaching possible, including those with a disability. At the
most basic level of swimming, proper technique is a major factor in developing good habits
and preventing the occurrence of injury. As the level of performance increases, so does the
need for a thorough understanding of the underlying mechanisms for skilled performance.
Sport science in the area of biomechanics has attempted to address these issues with regard to
able-bodied swimmers, however, in the past competitive swimming for persons with a
disability has not been afforded the same attention, and only in the 90‘s has it become the
focus of scientific research. Presently, disability swimmers are being integrated into able-
bodied clubs. Paralympic swimmers should be able to train in the same groups as able bodied
swimmers when the end race result is similar because the contribution of any race part to the
end race result is not different in Olympic or Paralympic swimmers. Indeed, many
Paralympic swimmers can be integrated in able-bodied clubs and participate in able-bodied
races. This can only lead to further improvement of Paralympic swimming. [15]
As the competitive level of Paralympic swimming is increasing, the need for coaches to
understand the requirements for successful performance by these athletes is more important
than ever. In the case of disabled swimming, not only must the general requirements for each
stroke be understood but the functional aspects of different impairment profiles (e.g. limb loss
or paralysis; visual impairment) must be examined. The various combinations of swimming
stroke, classification, gender, and individual impairment profile leads to an enormous task for
the coach together with sport scientists in developing the proper competition model for a
particular individual. [32] The real questions of interest to all swimmers are (a) in which
aspect of the race did they themselves win or lose as compared to their direct opponent, and
(b) how can they make the fastest (and most sustainable) improvement. In Paralympic
swimmers, during starting and for some swimmers after the push off in turning, the best body
streamlined position should be worked on. Pulling the passive swimmers at high speed
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through the water can help him or her better feel what is best. Swimmers who cannot push off
have to find the best way to get up to speed after standing nearly still in the water following a
turn or water start. Traditional stroke techniques might not always provide the solution in
these cases. [14, 37]
Continued competition race analyses and delivery of results to the coaches will help in
strengthening Paralympic swimming. [21] This implies the presence of highly educated
coaches. Furthermore, continued work to popularize disability sport will attract more
participants and may achieve the goal of ―fairness‖ more quickly and efficiently than any
adjustments to the classification system itself. [13] We finish here by summarizing the
recommendations for future development.

1. Not all Paralympic swimmers who could use an out-of-water block standing or
sitting start are doing so. In both freestyle and breaststroke, the correlations between
start speed and end race result are highest in class S(B)6 where the greatest mix of in
and out of water starters occurs. S(B)6 is, in fact, the only class in which start speed
correlates with end race result in all strokes. It therefore seems reasonable to
encourage all swimmers to use a block start when possible. Systematic check of the

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 476 Daniel Daly and Jonas Martens

start time by the coach will of course indicate what is best for each particular
swimmer. [14]
2. In the functional classification system, the same number of points is given to starting
and turning. But as race distance increases, the number of turn‘s increases but there is
always only one start. A new classification system for distance freestyle events could
therefore be suggested. [14]
3. Further evaluation of performance outcomes serves the purpose to combine similar
classes and so reduce the number of winners in order to enhance the strength of
competition and maintain fairness. [24] In addition, it is easier for sport
administrators to arrange competition programs and manage games. [23, 42, 43]
Without careful consideration and more research, the combination of classes may
prompt some swimmers to drop out or retire immediately because they feel unfairly
penalized by the system. Furthermore, decreasing the number of classes increases the
number of swimmers in each class and thus increases the potential for differences
between swimmers. To have a fair classification system, the swimmers in a class
however must theoretically have a similar chance to win. [48]
4. Finally, to expect real advances in the understanding of competitive swimming and
disabilities a single chapter in this book may not be enough. Each author here should
be encouraged to include swimmers with disabilities in their own studies. This
chapter will no longer be needed as disability swimmers will be integrated in all the
other specific work being done.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors wish to thank all their co-authors in the work referred to here, especially
Laurie Malone who had the foresight to organize the first Paralympic swimming race analysis
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

in Atlanta in 1996. Also several people and organizations such as the Science Foundation of
Flanders, British Swimming, the Australian Institute of Sport and especially IPC swimming
provided funding and/or logistic support along the way.

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on competition swimming performance. In R. Sanders & H. Youlain (Eds.), XVIII
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visual impairment on stroke parameters in Paralympic swimmers. Medicine and Science
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[34] Payton, C. J. & Wilcox, C. (2006). Intra-cyclic speed fluctuations of uni-lateral arm
amputee front crawl swimmers. Portuguese Journal of Sport Sciences, 6, 73-75.
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Eur.J.Appl.Physiol Occup.Physiol, 71, 512-517.
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[38] Satkunskiene, D., Schega, L., Kunze, K., Birzinyte, K., & Daly, D. J. (2005).
Coordination in Arm Movements during Crawl Stroke in Elite Swimmers with a
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Locomotor Disability. Human Movement Science, 24, 54-65.

[39] Schega, L., Kunze, K., & Daly, D. (2004). Functional abilities of swimmers with
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[45] Versichel, H. & Vos, L. (2006). Race success in swimmers with intellectual disabilities.
Master of Rehabilitation Sciences Faculty of Kinesiology and Rehabilitation Sciences,
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flow is used to control human walking. Nature Neuroscience, 4, 213-216.
[47] Williamson, D. C. (1997). Principles of classification in competitive sport for
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 In: World Book of Swimming: From Science to Performance ISBN: 978-1-61668-202-6
Editors: L. Seifert, D. Chollet and I.Mujika ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 25

TRIATHLON SPECIFICITY

Gregoire P. Millet1 and Veronica E. Vleck2

1
Institute of Sport Sciences of the University of Lausanne (ISSUL),
Faculty of Biology and Medicine, UNIL, Lausanne, Switzerland.
2
Faculty of Human Kinetics, Technical University of Lisbon,
Cruz Quebrada, Portugal

ABSTRACT
The purpose of the present chapter is to present five main specific characteristics of
the swimming part of a triathlon event; i.e. different technical skills (coordination,
efficiency); wearing a wetsuit; drafting another triathlete; specific pacing and preparing
the subsequent parts (swim-to-cycle transition). Triathletes are obviously of a lower
performance level in swimming-only than elite swimmers but are also less technically
skilled: their stroke length, propelling efficiency, inter-limb coordination and economy
are lower. The metabolic responses in swimming are influenced by the thermoregulatory
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responses (i.e. water and air temperature, type of wetsuit). Wearing a neoprene wetsuit
has been shown to improve buoyancy and consequently swimming performance but the
extent to which improvement occurs is influenced by the anthropometrical and technical
features of the subject. Similarly, drafting another swimmer is commonly reported as an
efficient way of reducing drag, decreasing energy cost and therefore improving
swimming performance. However, drafting induces some technical and pacing
adaptations and its advantages are influenced by many factors (position of and distance to
the draftee, body composition and performance level of the drafter…). Olympic-distance
(OD) and Ironman (IR) triathlons require different pacing strategies during their
swimming portions. A very fast start during the 1500 m of an OD triathlon has been
reported to be paramount for the overall final performance whereas in IR competition, an
even pace is recommended for energy sparing. Finally, the swim section strongly
influences the subsequent cycling and running sections. Each of the factors mentioned
above (technical skills, wetsuit use, drafting, pacing) leads to modification of the
metabolic responses to swimming that then influences the physiological responses
underlying efficiency/economy, and, consequently, performance (power output/velocity)
within the subsequent cycle and run.

Key words: drafting, economy, pacing, swim-to-bike transition, wetsuit

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 482 Gregoire P. Millet and Veronica E. Vleck

1. INTRODUCTION
The specificity of swimming during a triathlon event is analysed. Firstly, the
anthropometrical and technical differences between triathletes and swimmers and how they
affect performance; secondly, the influence of wearing a wetsuit (Figure 1); thirdly, the
effects of swimming in a group (mass start) (Figure 2) and the possibility of drafting;
fourthly, the specific pacing required by the fact that swimming is followed by two
subsequent exercise bouts (cycling and running); and finally, the influence of the swimming
bout on the subsequent disciplines, is reviewed.
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Figure 1. Wearing a wetsuit

Figure 2. Swimming in a group

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 Triathlon Specificity 483

2. TECHNICAL SKILLS
Due to differences in both training history and body dimensions, triathletes have different
technical skill from swimmers. This obviously influences their propelling efficiency,
swimming economy and performance. This section outlines the anthropometrical and
technical differences between triathletes and swimmers.

2.1. Buoyancy

It is known that higher buoyancy should lead to more energy being spent in propulsive
force than in maintenance of horizontal propulsion. Buoyancy can be estimated by measuring
hydrostatic lift (HL, N), i.e. the force that enables the swimmer to float when immersed in a
state of forced inspiration. Swimmers have been shown to have a higher HL than triathletes,
mainly due to a larger thoracic volume and vital capacity. Swimmers‘ skinfold thickness is
also higher, and the location of their adipose tissue differs; triathletes have less on their lower
limbs as a result of their cycling and running training. It could be suggested, therefore, that
the distance between the centres of buoyancy and mass is larger in triathletes than in
swimmers. However, how this characteristic influences economy and performance remains
unclear [24]. The buoyant torque thought to lead to sinking of the legs is not stable
throughout the stroke, and the center of buoyancy has been shown to shift toward the feet
during the recovery phase [37].

2.2. Stroke Length, Stroke Rate

Most of the studies report that swimmers have a similar stroke rate but a longer stroke
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

length than triathletes of same level: 2.46 vs. 1.84 m [30], 2.18 vs. 1.96 m [5], 2.15 vs. 1.70 m
[26]. This emphasises the need to monitor stroke length - since it is more related to
performance than is stroke rate [31]. It is known that the anthropometrical characteristics of
the subjects may account for kinematic differences [17] and that triathletes are generally
smaller than swimmers [5, 26]. However, the differences in stroke length between swimmers
and triathletes are not due to differences in body height but, rather, to triathletes possessing
lower propelling efficiency (Pe).

2.3. Propelling Efficiency

In swimming, Pe is defined as the ratio of useful mechanical work (i.e. the work needed
to overcome hydrodynamic resistance) to total mechanical work [38]. A fraction of the work
produced by the contracting muscles is necessarily utilised to accelerate a certain amount of
water backwards as well as to perform internal work to accelerate and decelerate the limbs
with respect to the center of mass. In order to evaluate the technical component of the Pe,
highly-trained swimmers and triathletes were compared at equal energy cost levels,
representing a metabolic power of 1000 W or an oxygen uptake of ~2.86 L.min-1 [30]. At the

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 484 Gregoire P. Millet and Veronica E. Vleck

same metabolic power (oxygen uptake), the triathletes swam at 0.95 m·s-1, while the
swimmers swam at 1.17 m·s-1, i.e. 23% faster. Since no significant differences were observed
between the swimmers and triathletes in either gross efficiency or stroke frequency , it
follows that the higher velocity in the swimmers was due to higher stroke length (2.46 vs.
1.84 m) and consequently better swimming economy (0.85 vs. 1.05 kJ·m-1). The underlying
mechanism was a difference in Pe (61 vs. 44%). In other words, the swimmers used 61% of
the work performed to overcome hydrodynamic drag, and 39% to accelerate the water
backwards. They therefore had longer stroke length than the triathletes, who ‗wasted‘ more
power (49W - corresponding to 56% of the available energy - vs. 35W in the swimmers) in
moving water backwards. Chatard, et al. [5] have confirmed that the stroke efficiency is
poorer in triathletes than in swimmers of the same performance level: in their study elite
triathletes were 21-29% less efficient than swimmers. These data emphasise the importance
of technique for improving Pe. In addition, stroke length appears to be a simple and easily
measurable parameter for indirectly assessing Pe in swimming.

2.4. Index of Coordination

Another means of comparing technical skill between triathletes and swimmers is to assess
how they adapt their inter-arm coordination so as to overcome hydrodynamic drag. As drag
increases with velocity, the index of coordination (IdC) that is calculated at each velocity
should change accordingly. As described by Chollet, et al. [11], IdC is the time interval
between the beginning of the propulsive phase of one arm and the end of the propulsive phase
of the other arm. It is expressed as a percentage of the mean duration of the stroke. When
there is a lag time between the propulsive phases of the two arms, the stroke coordination is
called ―catch-up‖ (IdC < 0). If the propulsive phase of one arm starts when the other arm
finishes its propulsive phase, the coordination is called ―in opposition‖ (IdC = 0). When the
propulsive phases of the two arms overlap, the coordination is called ―superposition‖ (IdC >
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0). Millet, et al. [26] reported that elite triathletes and swimmers showed similar adaptation of
arm coordination with increases in velocity. However, at the highest velocities (i.e. sprinting
velocity), triathletes increased their propulsive phases to a lower extent than swimmers. They
also increased their recovery phase, in contrast to the swimmers (who reduced it). This
suggests some technical limitations in triathletes who reach a stroke rate too high and
reducing their technical efficiency at maximal velocity. These results might relate to
differences in the swim training content (i.e. decreased extent of anaerobic workouts) of most
triathletes as opposed to sprinters. However, as recently shown [35, 36], the ability to swim
fast during the first meters of a triathlon will influence the final result in competition, mainly
for tactical reasons. The ability to sprint and to break away from a group of other swimmers is
very important- as it both minimizes the risk of the triathlete being obstructed and increases
his or her chances to swim in a ‗sheltered‘ position behind better swimmers. Indeed, under
drafting conditions, energy cost is reduced by around 10% [10] and swim performance is
improved by 3.5%–5%, which itself has ramifications for subsequent cycling performance [7,
13]. Thus, good coordination is necessary in triathletes, even at maximal velocity. Overall,
monitoring IdC and stroke length, including at maximal velocity, is recommended for
triathletes.

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 Triathlon Specificity 485

In summary, triathletes tend to be less efficient than elite swimmers. This is as a result of
differences in buoyancy, in propelling efficiency, and in coordinative ability.

3. WETSUIT – THERMOREGULATION
3.1. Rules

The International Triathlon Union (ITU) Competition Rules (www.triathlon.org)

specify the conduct and behaviour of competitors during triathlon competitions. In its latest
version (2008), the Rules as they relate to wetsuit use are as follows: Athletes must not use: a)
artificial propulsion devices, (i.e. fins, socks, gloves, paddles, or floatation devices); b)
wetsuits with thickness exceeding 5mm; c) wetsuit bottoms only; d) swimsuits made of
material that has not been approved by FINA in non-wetsuit events; e) wetsuits that do not
comply with the ITU Uniform Rules.
In addition, whether wetsuits are allowed or not is determined by swim length and water
temperature.
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This regulation aims to limit the risk of the athlete incurring hypothermia in cold water
(wetsuit use is mandatory if the water is too cold and maximum limits are given for time
spent in the water). Conversely, as shown by differences in the rules for Elite and age-group
competitors, wetsuit use is forbidden at 20ºC for swims ≤1500 m in age-groupers and 22ºC
for swim >1500 m in Elites, so as to decrease its influence on overall race result.

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 486 Gregoire P. Millet and Veronica E. Vleck

3.2. Thermoregulation (Hypo- and Hyper- Thermia)

Swimming in cold water induces several behavioural and physiological disturbances due
to hypothermia [27]. Heart arrhythmia and disorder of the extrapyramidal system and
vestibular apparatus have been reported and affect balance. Cases of swimmers being unable
to stand up after a long swim in cold water have been reported. Wearing a wetsuit protects the
swimmer from cold, because of a thin insulating layer of water becoming warmed by the
body [27]. Maintenance of core body temperature through the use of a wetsuit has been
shown for water temperatures between 17 and 29.5 °C [23, 34], and no cases of hyperthermia
due to wearing a wetsuit in hot water have been reported.

3.3. Buoyancy

Buoyancy is increased while wearing a wetsuit. Chatard et al. [5] showed, for example,
that the hydrostatic lift was increased by 40 N, on average, when wearing a neoprene wetsuit.
So, logically, the lower the buoyancy, HL, or fatness of the subject, or the higher his/her
density of the subject, the greater the performance increase when wearing a wetsuit [5, 8, 12].

3.4. Drag

The enhanced buoyancy that is induced by wetsuit use leads to a decrease in active or
passive drag (9-20%) [5, 29, 33] and greater gliding ability due to the swimmer reaching a
more horizontal position. The gain in passive drag is more important at lower intensities (e.g.
~ 20% at 1.1 m.s-1; ~ 14% at 1.2 m.s-1; ~ 7% at 1.3 m.s-1) [5]. This is because at a low
velocity and without a wetsuit, the torque and depth of the lower limbs, and therefore frontal
area and hydrodynamic drag, is lower. Wearing a wetsuit has been related to improvement in
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

technical factors, such as propulsion efficiency, due to an increase in stroke length: ~ 3-4%
[18] or in stroke rate at submaximal velocity [5, 33]. The different phases during the stroke
are modified leading to a greater catch-up (relative non-propulsive phase duration) at low
intensity [18].

3.5. Economy – Energy Consumption

The energy cost of swimming is a multi-factorial parameter that integrates the technical
ability, body characteristics, propelling efficiency, and drag of a swimmer [6]. Wearing a
wetsuit has been shown to reduce the energy cost by 7-22% in triathletes but not in elite
swimmers [5]. Tomikawa et al. [33] confirmed that the energy cost decreased by ~14% at low
intensity but by to a smaller extent (~7%) at higher velocity. This ―energy sparing‖ will
influence the performance in subsequent cycling [14].

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 Triathlon Specificity 487

3.6. Performance-Related Factors

Wearing a wetsuit has been shown to improve swimming performance [5, 8, 12, 32].
Estimated gains are variable among triathletes but were calculated as ~12 s over 400 m and
~45-70 s over 1500 m [5, 33]. The benefits obtained are under the influence of the individual
anthropometrical and technical characteristics of the triathletes: leaner triathletes and
triathletes with a lower level of practice will benefit to a greater extent. At low intensities
where the legs tend to sink, wearing a wetsuit will induce a large gain in performance,
especially for the triathletes with lower buoyancy [8].
The differences in swimming times between wetsuit and non-wetsuit ITU world cup
races over the last 10 years is shown in the following figures. It seems that the benefit of
wetsuit use is progressively increasing. The reasons for this are unclear but might come from
technological improvement, as seen also to a greater extent in swimming

Males

00:20:46

00:20:02

00:19:19
Time (hh:mm:ss)

00:18:36

00:17:53

00:17:10

00:16:26

00:15:43

00:15:00
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Race
Wetsuit Non-wetsuit Linear (Wetsuit) Linear (Non-wetsuit)
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Females

00:22:29
00:21:46
00:21:02
Time (hh:mm:ss)

00:20:19
00:19:36
00:18:53
00:18:10
00:17:26
00:16:43
00:16:00
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Race

Wetsuit Non-wetsuit Linear (Wetsuit) Linear (Non-wetsuit)

Figure 3. Average of 10 best swimming times in triathletes (male and female) in ITU World cups
(1997-2008) – Trend in races with or without wetsuit

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 488 Gregoire P. Millet and Veronica E. Vleck

In summary, wearing a wetsuit is an advantage for any triathlete but the magnitude of the
gain in performance or energy sparing differs from one athlete to another, being related to
individual performance level, buoyancy and technical skill.

4. DRAFTING
Drafting while swimming consists to swim directly behind or at the side of another
swimmer and is used in triathlon and in open-water swims [9]. It was reported in other sports
(cross-country skiing, cycling, swimming, kayaking and running) that drafting decreased the
drag and therefore improved the energy cost. Factors like the velocity, the distance between
the athletes or specific technical skills were shown to influence the reduction in energy
expenditure (i.e. ―benefit of drafting‖) while drafting.

4.1. Rules

Triathlon swimming has always been draft-legal, in contrast to triathlon cycling (for
which the rules for Olympic distance (OD) and Ironman events have differed since the
inception of elite-only drafting at the 1995 ITU OD World Championships). Although
deliberate interference with another swimmer (e.g. by pulling of the feet) can lead to penalties
being awarded, in practice the density of the field means that the exchanging of blows, or
other altercations between triathlon swimmers, is very common at the elite level.

4.2. Different Positions and Drag

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Two positions are used while drafting. Swimming directly behind was shown to be more
beneficial than drafting to the side of another swimmer [9]. With lateral drafting, the decrease
in passive drag was only one third (6-7%) of the reduction observed with drafting
immediately behind another swimmer (~20%) [9]. Waves are created to the side and behind
and the drag force has three components (pressure drag, wave drag and friction drag). The
benefits of lateral drafting (i.e. decrease in drag) appear to be greater at 100 cm beside and at
50 to 100 cm behind the draftee (i.e. when the drafter‘s head is between the shoulders and hip
level of the leader). At this distance, the wave created by the hand of the leader arrives behind
the hands of the drafter and the flow over his head seems relatively undisturbed [9].
When drafting behind another swimmer, the gain in drag decreases with towed velocity
(from 26% at 1.1 m.s-1 to 13% at 1.7 m.s-1) [7] and is more important when the distance
between the feet of the leader and the hand of the drafter is minimal (i.e. 0 or 50 cm) [9].
However, being too close (in the bubbles and turbulence from the leader‘s kick) might
induce some visual, breathing and arm sweep handicaps, and the freely-chosen distance
seems to be ~50-70 cm for an optimal compromise between decrease in drag and comfort [9,
25].

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 Triathlon Specificity 489

4.3. Economy – Energy Consumption

Swimming behind another swimmer leads to a ~8-38% decrease in metabolic responses

[7, 9]. The benefits still occur at draft distances of 100-150 cm. No further metabolic
advantages are gained by drafting a leader with a low (2-beat) instead of a high (6-beat) kick
[25].
Of interest is the large variability in the benefits gained from drafting among triathletes.
Passive drag is influenced by the body characteristics, with leaner swimmers having a higher
passive drag. The elite swimmers also have lower drag than their lower level counterparts [4].
So logically, the decrease in drag and the performance benefits induced by the drafting
condition are larger in the faster and leaner triathletes [7]. In addition, it appears that the
technical ability to draft explains a great part of the differences that are observed between
triathletes. Thus, drafting should to be trained for as a specific technique.

4.4. Performance-Related Factors

When translated in terms of performance, the gains with drafting are important: Drafting
behind another swimmer induces an improvement of ~3-4% (i.e. 10 s over a 400 m) [7]. In
lateral drafting, the estimated gain is less (~1-2%) [9]. This improvement in performance is
mainly due to an increase in stroke length. In addition, a ―pacing effect‖ can be described: a
lesser variability in the spatial-temporal factors (stroke length and stroke frequency) has been
described while drafting [10].
In summary, drafting is an important component of swimming performance in triathlon.
It induces a faster velocity and a decrease in drag and energy expenditure. The ability to draft
differs between triathletes and is related to anthropometrical and technical factors.
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5. PACING
5.1. Olympic-Distance

Logically, given the differences in both the distances that are involved [2, 3] and /or the
positions of turn-around buoys on the field, and differences in whether drafting is allowed
within the cycle section, both individual performance power and pacing strategy may differ
between the swim sections of Elite IronmanTM and ITU World Cup racing.
Vleck et al. [35, 36] obtained pacing data for the male and female Lausanne ITU 2002
World Cup triathlons via the combination of GPS, video, and timing data. They indicated
both males and females to swim faster over the section leading to the first turn-around buoy
(i.e. the first – to 400m) within the first lap of a 2 lap swim. In both genders, speed over the
first section was the most highly correlated, out of all the individual swim sections that were
analysed, with both overall finishing position at the swim end and overall race finishing
position [35]. This was as expected given the need, for most competitors to establish a good
position, without becoming ‗blocked in‘ at the first turnaround buoy. As swim positioning did
not then significantly differ over the remaining sections, it appears that in Elite OD triathlon

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 490 Gregoire P. Millet and Veronica E. Vleck

the ability to ‗fast start‘ is important for the athlete to be able to exit the swim early enough to
‗catch‘ the first or second bike pack out of transition [20].

5.2. Ironman

No such intra-discipline swim pacing data has yet been published for Ironman
competition. Given the longer duration of the IR swim [22] and the fact that the cycle section
of IR competition [1] is non-drafting, however, it makes sense that the optimal IR swim
strategy would be one that is far more even paced than evidenced within (draft-legal) Elite
OD competition [2]. Over the period 1988-2007, Lepers [22] observed the gender difference
between the top 10 finishers in the (consistently non-wetsuit) Hawaii Ironman World
Championship triathlon to remain relatively stable for the swim but to increase in cycling (by
+0.8% per decade, from 12.7 2%). The importance of implementing an economical pacing
strategy and therefore minimising the fatigue incurred at the cycle start by the IR swim may,
therefore, be becoming increasingly more important in females.

5.3. Consequences for Training

The fact that the optimal pacing strategy for OD and IR swims is likely to differ markedly
should be taken in to account in training programme design. Elite OD triathletes should train
their capacity to undertake a fast sprint start (through, predominantly, increased SR) followed
by steady speed work with minimal compromise in stroke distance for the remainder of the
swim. IR triathletes should concentrate on being able to maintain high stroke distance and
swim economy with minimal kick.
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6. SWIM-TO-CYCLE
Most of the research to date into the effects of 400 m [15], 750m [13, 14, 28], 800m [19],
1500m [15] or 3000m [21] swimming on subsequent cycling has shown efficiency and or
performance to be decreased over the control, cycle only, condition. This potential negative
influence of prior swimming – the extent of which appears to depend on the duration and
intensity of exercise in both disciplines [13, 14] - may be partially offset through the
appropriate use of tri-suits/wetsuits, drafting, and swimming intensity. The extent to which it
is affected by differing environmental conditions during the swim (e.g. turbulence and salinity
differences between lake, river, ocean and pool swimming), technological differences in suit
design (e.g. Synthetic textile, between Speedo FastSkin II, Tyr Tracer Light and other tri-
suits), and specificity of the wetsuit (e.g. neoprene material; full/sleeveless/ custom-made or
ready-made; where applicable) to the swimmer is unclear.

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 Triathlon Specificity 491

6.1. Effects of Wetsuit Use in Swimming on Subsequent Responses to Cycling

Delextrat et al. [14] demonstrated the use of an Aquaman wetsuit during a 750m swim
at sprint triathlon intensity to lead to an 11% decrease in swim heart rate, a 47% decrease in
blood lactate concentration, and a 12% improvement in efficiency, during a subsequent 10
min cycle at 75% of the maximal aerobic power (MAP), over the control non-wetsuit
condition. Cycling efficiency during a 15min ride at 75% MAP was further improved (by
+4.8%) when the 750-m wetsuit swim was conducted under drafting conditions [14]. Mean
and resultant pedal torque was higher than after a non-drafted wetsuit swim at the same pace.
In contrast, Peeling and Landers [28] observed no differences in power output, HR, Blood
lactate or RPE, during a (perhaps more ecologically valid) 30 min cycle trial at 95% lactate
threshold, between triathletes who completed a prior 750m swim wearing a standard swim
suit and wearing a ‗Rival Force‘ tri-suit.
All of the above laboratory trials were conducted with males. No competition data
regarding the relative influence of wetsuit vs. tri-suit vs. control swim suit triathlon swimming
on actual cycle performance in Elite competition, at either OD or IR distance, has been
published. As wetsuit use decreases the gross energy consumption for the triathlon swim [33],
it may increase the likelihood, in draft-legal Elite OD triathlons, that a weaker swimmer is
able to produce the power outputs that may be required in the initial stages of the cycle [35]
for he or she to be reach a good cycle pack position. Moreover, because these triathletes with
lower swimming skill benefit more from wearing the wetsuit [33], the draft distances may be
decreased, and weaker swimmers may exit the water closer to the lead swimmer than would
otherwise occur. As female Elites may be normally both more spaced out in the swim (owing
to lower performance density), and less able to ‗catch the pack‘ (because of their lower
cycling ability) [33], wearing a wetsuit may be more important for cycling performance in
females than in males.
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6.2. Effects of Drafting or Intensity in Swimming on Subsequent

Responses in Cycling

Peeling et al. [28] and Bentley et al. [3] further investigated the effects of swim intensity
and or drafting on subsequent cycle performance. The former authors found subsequent cycle
and overall triathlon times were significantly faster when a 400m swim was performed at
80% or 90% of control 400m maximal swim time-trial speed, due to increased work
efficiency during the initial phases of the proceeding 500 kJ (~20 km) cycle. Bentley et al. [3]
observed stroke rates were lower, and both stroke distance and RPE in swimming did not
differ, between a 750-swim at 90% (SC90%) of individual swim time trial speed (S100%),
and drafting at 100% of SC (SCdraft). Cycle power output during the initial stages of a
subsequent 20-min cycle after drafting in SCdraft speed tended to be higher than in the non-
drafting situation. Overall cycle TT power output was higher in the SC90% or SCdraft
conditions than in S100%. This suggests that prior drafting in swimming may be particularly
important for the early stages of triathlons with a draft-legal cycle, as it may allow the athlete
to both maintain a higher swim speed and be less affected by fatigue when he/she may need
to cycle harder / more efficiently [13] in order to ‗catch a pack‘, than otherwise [3]. This is

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 492 Gregoire P. Millet and Veronica E. Vleck

associated with mechanical changes, i.e. lower pedalling frequency and higher resultant
torque, as reported by Delextrat et al. [16].
Little field analysis of the influence of swimming and cycling ability together, both in an
individual athlete and relative to the rest of the field [35, 36] has taken place. However,
within Elite draft-legal OD competition, the extent to which the athlete experiences
physiological distress during the cycle, in an attempt to maintain contact with the appropriate
bike pack, depends on his or her ability in both events, both relative to him/her-self and to the
rest of the field [35]. A weaker swimmer who is a good cyclist may not need to exert so much
effort during the cycle to reach or keep with the pack, and excellent swimmers who are poor
cyclists may, as long as they can maintain position within the requisite draft pack, make up
for this by an early exit from the water. Such data support the premise that ‗functional
recovery after fatiguing exercise is highly intensity dependant and this has implications for
the optimization of training strategies for athletic performance.‘

6.3. Consequences for Training

It is likely that the cause and extent of physiological and or performance changes within
cycling as a result of prior swimming may differ, because of the different intensities and
durations that are involved, between the various triathlon competition distances. The longer
the swim event, the more likely that negative influence of swimming is due to residual fatigue
as opposed to specific physiological changes due to the change from a horizontal to vertical
position. Moreover, the longer the cycling event, the lower the power output within it and the
less likely that this will be compromised by a prior swim.
Triathlon training should incorporate regular specific swim-cycle training (for which the
swim intensity is 90% of maximal speed for a given race distance), particularly in OD
athletes.
Although running ability is becoming increasingly important in ITU World Cup OD
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competition, athletes should take care to maintain their swimming ability to a standard that
allows them to swim fast at the swim start without compromising their speed for the reminder
of the swim, and to ‗catch/keep with the (cycle) pack‘ out of the swim.

CONCLUSION
Swimming in a triathlon is a specific exercise as shown by the anthropometrical
differences between swimmers and triathletes (as a result of triathlon training adaptations)
and the technical characteristics of the sport (drafting, wetsuit, pacing, and transition).
Although many elite triathletes may have come from a swimming background, triathlon
swimming has little in common with pool-based swimming events.

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 Triathlon Specificity 493

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[11] Chollet, D., Chalies, S., & Chatard, J. C. (2000). A new index of coordination for the
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[14] Delextrat, A., Bernard, T., Hausswirth, C., Vercruyssen, F., & Brisswalter, J. (2003b).
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[17] Grimston, S. K., & Hay, J. G. (1986). Relationships among anthropometric and stroking
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six- beat swimmer in elite female triathletes. Eur J Appl Physiol, 82, 465-471
[26] Millet, G. P., Chollet, D., Chalies, S., & Chatard, J. C. (2002). Coordination in front
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[28] Peeling, P., & Landers G. (2007). The effect of a one-piece competition speedsuit on
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[29] Toussaint, H.M., Bruinick, L., & Coster, R., et al. (1989). Effect of a triathlon wetsuit
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on drag during swimming. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 21(3), 325-328.

[30] Toussaint, H.M. (1990). Differences in propelling efficiency between competitive and
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[32] Tomikawa, M, & Nomura, T (2007). Relationships between swim performance,
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[33] Tomikawa, M., Shimoyama, Y., & Nomura, T. (2008). Factors related to the
advantageous effects of wearing a wetsuit during swimming at different submaximal
velocity in triathletes. J Sci Med Sport, 11(4), 417-423.
[34] Trappe, T. A., Starling, R. D., Jozsi, A. C., Goodpaster, B. H., Trappe, S. W., Nomura,
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 Triathlon Specificity 495

[35] Vleck VE, Bentley DJ, Millet GP, & Bürgi A. (2008). Pacing during an elite Olympic
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[37] Yanai, T. (2001). Rotational effect of buoyancy in frontcrawl: Does it really cause the
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[38] Zamparo, P., Lazzer, S., Antoniazzi, C., Cedolin, S., Avon, R., & Lesa, C. (2008). The
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 SECTION IV
MEDICAL ASPECTS AND NUTRITION
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Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

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 In: World Book of Swimming: From Science to Performance ISBN: 978-1-61668-202-6
Editors: L. Seifert, D. Chollet and I.Mujika ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 26

PRESERVING AND PROMOTING HEALTH

IN THE AQUATIC ATHLETE

Margo L. Mountjoy1 and David Gerrard2

1
International Olympic Committee Medical Commission,
University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada
2
Faculty of Medicine, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand

ABSTRACT
Attention to the preservation and promotion of health in the aquatic athlete
maximizes performance. Knowledge of the common injuries directs attention towards
injury prevention and minimizes time lost from training. Early identification of and
appropriate intervention for medical issues is essential for the well being of the swimmer.
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The promotion of healthy nutritional habits serves to maintain health and enhance
performance. As with all sports, attention should be paid to the ethics of fair play; an
understanding of the doping control requirements as they pertain to aquatic athletes is
important for all members of the athletes‘ entourage. Each of the five aquatic disciplines
has unique health concerns common to that particular aquatic sport. Understanding the
unique demands of the aquatic discipline and the specific injuries and illnesses is
important for the development of a training program. Maximizing performance through
the application of sport science and attention to medical issues is essential in the
development of the aquatic athlete.

Key words: health, injuries, nutrition, doping control, aquatic athletes

1. MUSCULOSKELETAL INJURIES IN AQUATICS

All aquatic athletes are subject to training regimes that commence at an early age.
Preadolescence is the phase of greatest musculoskeletal development and there is a potential
for injury if the training of young athletes is poorly planned, advanced too rapidly or
unmonitored by clinicians and experienced coaches. Overuse is the common injury

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 500 Margo L. Mountjoy and David Gerrard

mechanism in this group who are prone to problems of the shoulder, the lower back and the
knee joint. Coaches play an integral part in recognising the early indicators of these injuries
and may assist in their prevention by monitoring training load, attending to stroke mechanics,
weight training, and other dry-land programs (10).

1.1. Musculoskeletal Development: Injury Potential

Pre-adolescence represents the phase of maximal skeletal development; a fact of

particular significance to injury in all sport. Developing bone demands axial loading to
achieve optimal architectural integrity and this is supplemented by the forces generated
through musculo-tendinous attachment to bone. Many injuries have their genesis in younger
swimmers and it is therefore very helpful to have an understanding of the developmental
characteristics and maturation of the musculoskeletal system. A fundamental premise is that
the skeleton represents a bony scaffold for the attachment of all muscles, tendons and
ligaments (10).
Sport-related injuries are classified according to their mechanism. Those caused by acute
trauma are more commonly seen in contact sport. Those resulting from minor, repetitive
stress are classified as "overuse" injuries which are more commonly seen in aquatic sports
with the exception of water polo where contact injury may occur. The early recognition and
active management of overuse injuries will minimise the potential for chronic disability and
interrupted training (8).
Growth site injury: There are three areas of growth site injury: the epiphyses, the articular
cartilage and the apophyses. The ends of long bones possess a unique region of growth
termed the "epiphyses" or growth plates. These are sites of osteoblastic or new bone
formation, from which bone length increases. "Synovial joints" like the shoulder, knee and
elbow possess unique articular cartilage covering adjacent bone ends, primed to accommodate
rapid growth. Like the epiphyses, this cartilage is prone to damage from repetitive overuse.
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Another site of potential injury is at the apophyses which is where the tendon interfaces with
the periosteum. The apophyses are especially vulnerable to the constant pull or traction of
tendons on bone during the repetition of swim training. A common site of apophyseal overuse
in swimmers is the proximal tibia, representing the anterior insertion of the patellar tendon.
Focal, unremitting symptoms in the region of these areas of growth deserve medical
investigation in the young aquatic athlete (15).

1.2. Swimmer‟s Shoulder

Of all the joints in the body, the shoulder is the most mobile. It is capable of an
extraordinary range of movement due to the relationship of the head of the humerus and the
glenoid fossa of the scapula that constitutes the glenohumeral or true ―shoulder joint‖. This is
deepened by a rim of fibrous connective tissue constituting the glenoid labrum. A firm
capsule reinforced by ligamentous thickenings stabilise the joint and complete a typical "ball-
and-socket" relationship, offering a unique range of movement in all planes. Immediately
superior to this is the overhanging acromion process and its articulation with the clavicle that
constitutes the acromioclavicular joint bound by a ligamentous bridge. Immediately inferior is

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 Preserving and Promoting Health in the Aquatic Athlete 501

the subacromial space occupied by a soft, fluid-filled cushion, the subacromial bursa and the
insertions of the muscles that constitute the "rotator cuff". Collectively these structures firmly
oppose the humeral head and the glenoid fossa and become repetitively loaded and irritated
during the shoulder recovery phase particularly in freestyle and butterfly.
Anterior shoulder pain is common in competitive swimming. It may begin as discomfort
associated with training, or progress to persisting post-exercise pain and eventually to chronic
resting pain. Frequently it may implicate one or more of the rotator cuff muscles, particularly
the supraspinatus or less commonly, the long head of the biceps tendon. Another mechanism
may be impingement of inflamed soft tissue structures within the anatomical constraints of
the subacromial space. The accepted cause of this condition is the repetitive cycle of flexion,
internal rotation, extension and abduction of the shoulder demanded by the mechanics of the
freestyle arm action through the entry, catch and recovery phases of the stroke. The ultimate
insult however is repetition of this action, calculated as up to two million rotations of the
shoulder each year in the elite swimmer. Contributing factors to this syndrome include the
stroke mechanics and anatomical variants such as a prominence of the bony acromion
process, imbalance between the major muscle groups around the shoulder and glenohumeral
instability.
Basic therapy involves rest, avoiding the specific mechanics of the offending stroke and
correction of any obvious muscle imbalance around the shoulder. Dry land cross training and
in-water kicking drills or non-aggravating strokes minimise the potential for "de-training."
The assessment of swimming technique involving the use of video analysis may help to
identify technical errors linked to the overuse. The treatment of swimmer‘s shoulder by "ice
massage" immediately after training is often helpful. Other physical modalities including
ultrasound may be utilized. Medication to reduce the pain and inflammation under medical
supervision may also be prescribed in the form of oral, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory
agents (NSAIAs). Where conservative measures fail, invasive alternatives such as localised
injections of corticosteroid at the site of pain, with avoidance of intratendinous infiltration
may become necessary. Attention must be paid to the current classification of these
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substances on the WADA List of Prohibited Substances. Surgical intervention is rarely

necessary. Early recognition with institution of the simples measures listed above prevents the
development of chronic pain and training disruption.

1.3. Knee Injuries in Swimmers

The knee joint is the next most common site of injury in swimmers. The knee joint is a
"hinge" with a range of movement limited to one plane. The proximal tibial plateau and
associated menisci, articulates with the condyles of the distal femur. Four strong ligaments
provide stability. The extra-articular collateral ligaments oppose the stress of varus and valgus
forces while the anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments represent the intra-articular
guardians of antero-posterior and rotational stressors. Overlaying this arrangement are the
strong quadriceps muscles anteriorly attached to the patella-femoral complex and their
posterior antagonists the hamstrings. The patella, gliding in the intercondylar notch of the
distal femur, is attached proximally to the quadriceps tendon that inserts distally into the
tuberosity of the anterior tibia.

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 502 Margo L. Mountjoy and David Gerrard

Breast-stroker's Knee: The specific "whip-kick" action of breaststroke or the ―egg-beater‖

kick in synchro and water polo is widely recognised as the cause of this problem. Repetitive
stretching of the medial collateral ligament from the valgus stress of this kick causes localised
pain over the medial knee. In some cases, this may be complicated by damage to the medial
meniscus, a diagnosis considered where the pain is more localised to the medial joint margin
or where there may be mechanical "locking" of the joint. A third possible cause of medial
knee pain is the common attachment of the "pes anserinus" and its associated bursa that may
also become irritated, giving rise to rise to localized medial knee pain and focal tenderness
over the medial aspect of the proximal tibia. Rest, ice, physical therapy and pain relieving
medication are the mainstays of treatment. Surgical intervention may be necessary with
medial meniscal tears.
Anterior Knee Pain: Abnormal "tracking" of the patella in the trochlear notch of the
femur causes another relatively common source of anterior knee pain and is referred to as the
"patello-femoral compartment syndrome." It is caused by repetitious movements of the
kneecap in the flexion-extension kicking pattern of all four strokes, but particularly breast
stroke. Swimmers frequently describe pain when they sit for long periods or when they walk
up and down stairs. Retropatellar crepitus is a common accompaniment but bears little
reflection of the severity of the problem. Patellar hypermobility combined with insufficiency
of the vastus medialis creates a pattern of poor "patellar tracking" and is a well-recognised
diagnostic sign more common in female swimmers. Treatment of the unstable patella may
begin with specific exercises to balance the combined quadriceps forces. Patellar stabilising
braces or locally applied taping techniques help to realign the patella but these are interim
measures. Symptomatic relief may also be obtained from the use of ice massage, physical
therapy or NSAIAs. Surgical intervention is rarely indicated.

1.4. Swimmer‟s Back

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Many sports place stressful demands on the lower back from repetitive actions frequently
involving hyperextension and rotation. The structures most likely to be affected are muscles
and their sheaths (myofascial tissue), the immature portions of the vertebral bodies or the
spongy intervertebral discs. There is also a well-described pattern of bony stress that can lead
to "fatigue" fractures of the pars interarticularis particularly of the lower lumbar vertebrae. In
swimming the butterfly stroke, in diving at the time of entry, and in synchronized swimming
with explosive arching movements, the risk of lower back problems exists. Where there is the
added element of rapid rotation, the risk of damage increases.
The butterfly stroke demands repetitive lumbo-sacral hyperextension to facilitate the
"dolphin" kick. This repetitive action is accentuated during the breathing phase and many
young butterfly swimmers are troubled by chronic low backache caused by stress on a variety
of structures including muscles, lumbo-sacral and sacroiliac ligaments, the small "facet"
joints between vertebrae, the developing vertebrae themselves or the intervertebral discs.
The overloaded regions of bone "fatigue" are described as sites of "spondylolysis". They
are not common in young butterfly swimmers but should always be ruled out when
unremitting low back pain is made worse by hyperextension and rotation of the lumbar spine.
Occasionally, bilateral stress fractures of the "pars interarticularis" may result in
spondylolisthesis or forward ―slippage‖ of a vertebral body. This condition may have serious

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 Preserving and Promoting Health in the Aquatic Athlete 503

long-term consequences and should always be reviewed by an orthopaedic specialist. Other

common causes of low back pain in butterfly swimmers include muscle or ligamentous strain.
Rehabilitation of the "swimmer's back" demands a multidisciplinary approach with
contributions from coach, physical therapist and physician. Posture, hamstring tightness,
trunk mobility and lumbar spine stability must be assessed. Strengthening and stabilization
techniques are helpful. Where injury to the bone is suspected, close medical scrutiny is
recommended.

2. MEDICAL ISSUES IN AQUATICS

2.1. Asthma

Asthma is more common in athletes than in the general population. Aquatic athletes in
particular are prone to airway hyper-responsiveness as evident from number of applications
for inhaled beta2 agonist from the Olympic Games in Sydney 2000, Athens 2004 and in
Beijing 2008 (6). Some of the high incidence of asthma in swimming can be attributed to the
referral of asthmatic children to swimming as a sport. Exposure of the swimmer to the
chloramines in the pool environment has also been identified as a trigger for asthma. The
mechanism for the increased incidence of asthma in elite athletes is largely unknown and
many studies in the last decade suggest that training itself can be a cause of asthma (6). The
aquatic athlete with asthma should be treated medically as any other patient with an
appropriate history, physical examination and laboratory work-up. Special attention to the
doping control issues is required for the elite athlete as both inhaled beta2 agonists and
inhaled glucocorticosteroids are on the WADA Prohibited List (22). Special permission can
be granted for the use of inhaled asthma medications through the WADA Therapeutic Use
Exemption program (23).
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2.2. Overtraining

The body needs time to recover from recurrent, prolonged training stress and when there
is insufficient recovery time, over-training may result. Overtraining is a combination of
physical and psychosocial factors that result in failing adaptation to the sustained stress of
training and competition. Over-trained swimmers may complain of insomnia, loss of appetite,
mood changes, altered bowel habit, muscle soreness and frequent, minor illnesses. On clinical
examination, the swimmer may have an elevated resting pulse rate, altered blood parameters
including raised muscle enzymes and distinct abnormalities in their resting electrocardiograph
(ECG). A full medical examination is necessary to rule out such things as chronic viral
infection (IM) or anemia. Unfortunately though, there is no single laboratory test that will
quantify overtraining or accurately predict it. The management of the over-training syndrome
involves a clear and full explanation together with honest communication between the
swimmer, coach and physician. Having ruled out treatable clinical causes, the over-trained
swimmer requires a break from training with regular assessments for support. The return to
regular physical activity and competition may take several months.

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 504 Margo L. Mountjoy and David Gerrard

2.3. Female Athlete Triad (Triad)

The Triad is a clinical syndrome which describes the inter-relationship between energy
availability, menstrual function and bone mineral density. The Triad often manifests itself in
disordered eating, amenorrhea and osteopenia or osteoporosis. The mechanism of the Triad is
thought to be related primarily to inadequate energy availability: dietary energy intake minus
exercise energy expenditure (18). The presence of an eating disorder or disordered eating may
be present, but does not need to be present in the Triad. The physiological consequences of
this low energy availability through various metabolic or hormonal mechanisms are
hypothalamic amenorrhea and ultimately low bone mineral density. Although any female
athlete may present with the Triad, those athletes at most risk are those in esthetic sports that
emphasize leanness such as diving and synchronized swimming. Elite athletes are more likely
than recreational athletes to have difficulties with menstrual dysfunction and energy
availability. Another group of athletes at particular risk for the development of the Triad are
endurance athletes. The first presentation of low bone mineral density is often stress fractures
which are relatively uncommon in aquatic athletes (18). Screening for the Triad should occur
during the annual pre-participation examination of the aquatic athlete. The athlete with the
Triad should be assessed by a sports medicine physician who is familiar with the
manifestations of the Triad. Once other causes of amenorrhea and/or low bone mineral
density have been ruled out, the diagnosis of the Triad can be made. Treatment is most
successful if approached with a multidisciplinary team including a physician, a registered
dietician/nutritionist and a mental health practitioner if disordered eating or an eating disorder
is present. Prevention of the Triad is important and educational programs for young female
athletes should focus on optimizing energy availability and informing the athletes of measures
to maximize bone health (17).

2.4. Eating Disorders

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Eating disorders are characterized by a disturbance in eating behaviour. There are two
types of eating disorders; anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. Anorexia nervosa has two
subtypes: restrictive & purging. The athlete presents with restrictive eating patterns and a
weight loss of at least 15% below expected body weight. Despite this, the athlete often
perceives herself to be overweight. The bulimic athlete is usually of normal weight and has
cyclical behaviours of over eating (binging) followed by compensatory purging behaviours
and/or over exercising (5). Commonly, many female athletes exhibit disordered eating where
the athletes‘ behaviours and symptoms do not meet the specific criteria for anorexia or
bulimia, but they still exhibit abnormal behaviour related to food including: binge eating, use
of laxatives, diet pills, selective food type restriction, fasting. The health consequences of
eating disorders can affect both the psychological and the physical health of the athlete.
Psychological sequelae include depression, anxiety, low self-esteem, and suicide risk.
Physical health consequences of eating disorders can affect multiple body systems including
cardiovascular, endocrine, reproductive, skeletal, gastrointestinal, renal, and the central
nervous system (18). Risk factors for the development of eating disorders in athletes are
summarized in Table 1.

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 Preserving and Promoting Health in the Aquatic Athlete 505

Treatment of eating disorders, like the female athlete triad, is most successful when
conducted by a multidisciplinary treatment team including a physician, nutritionist and a
psychologist (18). All sport organizations should take responsibility to implement educational
preventative programs for eating disorders for female athletes.

Table 1.

Risk factors for the development of eating disorders in athletes

Early introduction to sport specific training
Elite sport
Female
Recent change in training volume
Recent injury
Sport that emphasizes leanness
Endurance sport
(18)

2.5. EENT (Eye, Ear, Nose, Throat) in Aquatic Athletes

The majority of EENT issues in aquatic athletes are exacerbated by chronic exposure to
water.
Swimmer’s ear (otitis externa) is caused by a growth of bacteria in the ear canal. Trapped
moisture in the ear canal causes pain and itching. Treatment requires a topical application of a
combination of antibiotic and corticosteroid drops. The use of acetic acid solution drops after
training, using a hair dryer and wearing well fitting ear plugs can help prevent infection.
Severe cases may require removal of the athlete from the water.
Open water athletes are at risk for the development of EENT problems caused by
exposure to the environmental elements. Swimmer’s exostoses (osteomata) reflects the
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development of bone growths of the inner wall of the external ear canal caused by chronic
cool water immersion. Infection and hearing loss may occur. Otitis Media or middle ear
infection in the swimmer will affect the aquatic athlete‘s ability to dive deep underwater due
to increased water pressure. Chemical conjunctivitis from exposure of the eye to chlorine is
now a rare finding due to the widespread use of goggles.
A pterygium is a clear growth of thin tissue that grows across the eye from the nasal
corner to the pupil. This benign growth is caused by irritation from ultraviolet light, wind and
tiny particles of sand. Vision may be affected and surgical removal may be necessary. UV
protection eye ware is strongly recommended as prevention.

2.6. Skin Conditions

Exposure to a constant moist environment leaves the skin of the aquatic athlete prone to
various skin problems. These may include fungal, viral or bacterial infections. Common sites
of fungal skin infection are the spaces between the toes and the groin region. These conditions
are referred to as "athlete's foot" (tinea pedis) or "jock itch" (tinea cruris) respectively. These
can be prevented by attention to careful drying after swimming and the use of suitable

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 506 Margo L. Mountjoy and David Gerrard

footwear in the pool area. Common viral infections include verrucae (plantar warts) on the
soles of the feet and herpes simplex virus (cold sores) around the lips. Transmission of plantar
warts can be reduced by wearing suitable footwear. Competitive swimmers frequently shave
their bodies to reduce drag and this habit may result in a bacterial infection of the skin called
folliculitis which can be treated by topical antibiotics and oral antibiotics under medical
guidance if necessary. Open water swimmers may experience urticaria; a condition that
results in an itchy raised ‗wheal‘ caused by exposure to the cold or sunlight. These skin
lesions usually respond to topical or oral antihistamine therapy.

3. NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS IN AQUATICS

There are many nutritional challenges for the elite aquatic athlete. The energy demands of
swimming are great due to the high volume of training which is integral to elite swimming.
Typically, elite swimmers train up to 9-12 training sessions per week with an additional 3-6
dry-land training sessions. The pool sessions often occur in the early mornings and in the
early evenings which pose an additional challenge to the planning of adequate opportunities
for nutritional intake during regular mealtimes. Teenage male swimmers have the extra
challenge of meeting the nutritional requirements for rapid growth in addition to their energy
demands from training. Teenage female swimmers often struggle with body image issues
during the adolescent period when body fat deposition occurs.
Like all athletes, the swimmer requires a proper balance of carbohydrate, protein and fat.
Evidence from a study by Costill et al showed that swimmers with inadequate carbohydrate in
high volume training were more likely to complain of fatigue and pain during the workout
(2). As a result of this evidence, swimmers should ingest adequate amounts of carbohydrate
and protein before and during training in the pool and during dry-land sessions. This
promotes recovery from and adaptation to the training. The current guidelines recommend 10-
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20g of protein and approximately 1-1.2g of carbohydrate per kg body mass (3) (Table 2).

Table 2.

Typical intake for male elite swimmer

Total energy: 15-20 MJ/day
carbohydrate 6-8g/kg/day
protein 1.5-2.0g/kg/day
(3)

It is important that the swimmer monitors their fluid balance during training. Even though
sweat losses are not as great in swimming as in other sports, attention to hydration is
essential. Fluid balance is especially important when training in warm climates, during
periods of high volume and when training at high altitude.
A particular nutritional challenge for the aquatic athlete is the maintenance of adequate
nutrition at and around competition time. Attention should be given to monitoring energy
intake during periods of pre-competition taper when energy expenditure is lessened. Elite
swimmers often compete in foreign countries where food may be unfamiliar. In addition, the

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 Preserving and Promoting Health in the Aquatic Athlete 507

competition schedule may be extended over several hours in the day, and over several days
thus interfering with the ability to maintain regular meal habits.

4. PERFORMANCE ENHANCING DRUGS IN AQUATIC SPORT

Much has been written about the misuse of performance-enhancing substances in sport
and it is not within the scope of this chapter to provide either a complete list of banned
substances or to reproduce the full FINA Doping Control Rules. A clear stance on drug
misuse is based on the guidelines of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). Doping is a
violation of these rules, and all competitive swimmers must be prepared to submit to doping
control both in and out of competition.
A doping offence is deemed to have occurred if a prohibited substance is detected within
a swimmer's urine or in some cases blood. Sanctions are set in accordance with international
standards and the World Anti-Doping Code provides the overarching philosophy for
countering the misuse of drugs in sport. Among its roles, WADA reviews the list of
prohibited substances annually, provides athlete, coach and physician education and accredits
laboratories to carry out sample analysis. Working groups that address the concept of
therapeutic use exemption and gene doping compliment the work of the Health, Medical, and
Research Committee. Important stakeholder input comes from the WADA Athletes‘
Commission. In a similar vein, FINA has established Sports Medicine and Athletes‘
Committees as well as its own independent Doping Control Review Board (9).
Nutritional Supplements: A review of the literature shows that aquatic athletes do use
nutritional supplements (19). Products in this category include "natural" and herbal products
that are commonly not subject to the rigour of reputable research; that may contain prohibited
contaminants and are frequently labelled inaccurately. Many products advertised as having
natural ergogenic properties are often substantiated by anecdotal comment and few are
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supported by randomised, controlled scientific studies. The use of these products remains the
ultimate liability of the athlete. Supplements may be contaminated or contain "prohormones"
that could give rise to a positive test. Supplementation is not a substitute for a balanced
healthy diet or a short-cut to success. The athlete must accept sole responsibility for whatever
they take. Sporting careers have been destroyed by the indiscriminate use of supplements on
dubious clinical or scientific grounds. Hard work, dedicated training, a sensible diet and
sound coaching are the fundamental pre-requisites to success in aquatic sport (11).

5. DISCIPLINE SPECIFIC MEDICAL NEEDS

5.1. Swimming

Preliminary data from injury surveillance in Olympic Games in Beijing suggests that
swimming is a safe sport for acute injury incidence relative to other sports at the Olympic
Games. (13) This study however, did not survey chronic overuse injuries which are more
common than acute injuries in swimming. This can be attributed to the length of repetitive
training with repetitive movements required in training at the elite level in swimming.

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 508 Margo L. Mountjoy and David Gerrard

Specific injuries common to swimming are outlined earlier in this chapter including
swimmer`s shoulder, breaststroker`s knee and lumbar dysfunction.

5.2. Open Water Swimming

Open water swimming is a unique FINA discipline from a medical perspective as the
athlete is exposed to potentially dangerous environmental elements. The environmental
concerns vary with each event depending on the climate and conditions of the location. Table
3 outlines the environmental conditions which may affect the health of the open water
swimmer. The open water swimmer trains freestyle, and like the swimmer, he/she is also
susceptible to swimmer‘s shoulder (see above) (7).

Table 3.

Environmental Condition in Open Water Swimming

Hypothermia
Hyperthermia
Jelly fish stings
Sun exposure
Environmental pollutants
Exhaustion
Dehydration
Climate changes: tides, waves, storms
Trauma from boat propellers or sea life
(7)

5.3. Synchronized Swimming

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Synchronized swimming is a unique aquatic sport that combines endurance, flexibility,

strength, power, acrobatic skill and performance skills. As a result, the physical demands on
the athlete are numerous often resulting in injuries (16). Traumatic injuries have increased in
incidence with the advent of higher risk acrobatic throws and lifts. Overuse injuries of the
shoulder and knee as described above can also be seen in synchronized swimming. Lumbar
dysfunction including spondylolysis, spondylolisthesis, disc herniations, facet dysfunction,
sacro-iliac joint dysfunction, and muscular strain, can be caused by the repetitive arching and
explosive rocket split moves (24). Prevention of injuries in synchronized swimming can be
achieved by balancing the training program to meet the athlete‘s specific individual needs as
well as through periodization of the training cycle.
As synchronized swimming is an esthetic-judged sport, the synchro athlete is prone to the
pressure to achieve physical leanness. This can lead to disordered eating, eating disorders
and/or the female athlete triad as described above (18).
Hypoxia (low oxygen levels) has been demonstrated in synchronized swimming resulting
in central cyanosis and confusion following a free team routine. Although syncope from
hypoxia is rare, research is required to more clearly define the physiological adaptation of the
synchronized swimmer (4).

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 Preserving and Promoting Health in the Aquatic Athlete 509

5.4. Diving

Diving is a sport with the added element of danger and risk. Diving requires power,
flexibility and strength. Traumatic injuries resulting from impact with the diving
board/platform or with the water can be catastrophic but are very rare in competitive diving.
The speed of entry into the water from the 10m tower can reach as fast as 63 km/h. The forces
during deceleration in the water have been measured at approximately 20G (21). Landing
‗flat‘ in the water from the 10m tower can result in fractures of the ribs, pneumothorax, retinal
detachments, and tympanic drum perforations (25).
More commonly, divers are plagued by microtrauma from overuse. Risk factors for
injury include the older athlete, the elite athlete and the higher degree of difficulty of dives
(25). Most injuries occur during the water entry phase of the dive. The pathological
mechanisms most commonly seen in elite diving includes ligamental sprains, muscular
strains, tendinosis, fractures and dislocations. The body parts most often injured are the
shoulder, lumbar spine, wrist, hand and head. Any muscular imbalance in the shoulder
stabilizers can result in multidirectional instability and tendinosis during water entry. The
lumbar spine is also vulnerable as the diver arches upon entry to execute a clean entry or
―rip‖ potentially causing a stress fracture of the pars interarticularis (spondylolysis), facet
joint dysfunction and/or paraspinal muscle spasm (20). The wrist is also a joint at risk for
injury in the elite diver from water entry. The pathologies of the wrist seen in diving can be
found in Table 4. As the diver lines up to enter the water, he/she grasps one hand over the
other tightly clasped (flat hand grab technique) to disperse the water allowing entry of the
head and body. The wrist of the upper hand is the one most often injured. A useful technique
to enable the injured athlete to continue diving is to tape the wrists to prevent maximal dorsal
flexion when hitting the water (26).
As diving is also a judged esthetic sport, the diver is vulnerable for developing disorder
eating, eating disorders and the female athlete triad (18).
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Table 4.

Wrist injuries in elite divers

Carpal ligamental sprains
Scaphoid-lunate dislocations
Triangulofibrocartilage complex tears
Wrist extensor tendinosis
Growth plate injuries of the wrist
(20,26)

5.5. Water Polo

Water polo is a unique sport amongst the FINA disciplines as it is the only team sport.
Injury incidence in water polo has been studied during the Olympic Games (2004) and water
polo was found to be one of the safest of team sports for injury occurrence. The incidence rate
varied significantly for gender with men higher at 21/1000 player matches compared with
1/1000 for women. Despite the relatively low injury incidence rate, water polo was found to

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 510 Margo L. Mountjoy and David Gerrard

have the highest head injury rate as well as the highest injury rate due to contact with another
player. The injury location was as follows: head (56%), upper extremity (28%), trunk (11%)
and lower extremity (6%). Of significance, it was found that 2/3 of all injuries incurred in the
last 2 periods of play suggesting that injury is more common as the athlete tires or as the
intensity of the match increases (12). Because of this data, it is important that all team
physicians in water polo be familiar with the identification and management of sport
concussion. Guidelines on the treatment and return to play are well-documented in the
scientific literature (14).

CONCLUSION
The incidence of acute injury in elite aquatic sports is low relative to other sports in the
Olympic Games. The occurrence of injury during the Olympic Games in Beijing 2008 in
swimming was 3.5%. This is much lower than the average for all summer sports which was
approximately 9.6% for newly incurred injuries during training and competition. Water polo
had the highest incidence of injury amongst the aquatic sports at 10%. This contrasts with
other team sports in Beijing such as football, handball and hockey which had injury rates
above 15%. Diving and synchronized swimming were amongst only four sports at the
Olympic Games that did not have any injuries resulting in time loss from sport (13). This
study illustrates the relative safety of aquatics as a sport at the elite level. However, despite
these encouraging statistics, it is evident that chronic injuries and illnesses may exist.
Knowledge of risk factors, the early identification of problems and their appropriate
management is the goal of all involved in caring for aquatic athletes. Attention to the
nutritional needs will also maximize performance and ensure health. Consideration of the
ethical issues related to doping in sport protects athlete health and highlights fair play.
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REFERENCES
[1] Barr SI, Costill DL.(1992) Effect of increased training volume on nutrient intake of
male collegiate swimmers. Int J Sport Med 13:1, 47-51.
[2] Costill DL, Flynn MG, Kirwan JP, Houmard JA, Mitchell JB, Thomas RT, Park SH.
(1988) Effects of repeated days of intensified training on muscle glycogen and
swimming performance. Med and Sci in Sport and Exercise 20, 249-254.
[3] Burke LM, Kiens B, Ivy JL. (2004) Carbohydrates and fat for training and recovery. J
Sport Sci. 22, 15-30
[4] Davies B, Donaldson GC, Joels N, (1995) Do the competition rules of synchronized
swimming encourage undesirable levels of hypoxia? Br J Sport Med. 29:1, 17-18
[5] Diagnostic & Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders –Text Revision IV (2000) First
MB (ed.), (pp583-595) Washington: American Psychiatric Association Publishing.
[6] Fitch KD, Sue-Chu M, Anderson S, Boulet LP, Hancox RJ, McKenzie DC, Backer V,
Rundell KW, Alonso JM, Kippelen P, Cummiskey JM, Garnier A, Ljungqvist A.
(2008). Asthma and the elite athlete: Summary of the International Olympic
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[7] Gerrard DF, (1999) Open Water Swimming: particular medical problems. In Clinics in
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Philadelphia, Penn. W.B. Saunders. 18 (2): 337-349.
[8] Gerrard DF, (2001)The Physicians Viewpoint. In Coping with Sports Injuries:
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University Press. 51-62.
[9] Gerrard DF, (2005) Drug misuse in modern sport: Are cheats still winning? NZ Fam
Physician. 32 (1): 7-10
[10] Gerrard DF, (2000) The Dilemma of the Young Athlete. New Ethicals J. 3 (2): 11-15
[11] Gerrard DF, (2008) Drug misuse in sport: what the future holds. NZMJ 121: 1278 1-4
[12] Junge A, Langevoort G, Pipe A, Peytvin A, Wong F, Mountjoy M, Beltrami G, Terrell
R, Hoelzgraefe M, Charles R, Dvorak J. (2006) Injuries in team sports tournaments
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[13] Junge A, Engebretsen L, Aubry M, Alonso JM, Mountjoy M, Dvorak J. (2008) Beijing
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[14] McCrory P, Johnston K, Meeuwisse W, Aubry M, Cantu R, Dvorak J. (2005) Summary
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[15] Mountjoy M, Armstrong N, Bizzini L, Blimkie C, Evans J, Gerrard D, Hangen J, Knoll
K, Micheli L, Sangenis P, Van Mechelen W. (2008) IOC Consensus Statement:
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122-123
[16] Mountjoy, M. (1999) The basics in synchronized swimming and its injuries. Clinics in
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[17] Mountjoy, M. (2008) Weight control strategies of Olympic athletes striving for
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[18] Nattiv A, Loucks A, Manore M, Sanborn C, Sundgot-Borgen J, Warren M. (2007)
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American College of Sports Medicine Position Stand: The female athlete triad. Med &
Sci in Sport & Exercise, 1867-1882.
[19] Pipe A, Corrigan B, Mountjoy M. (2005) The Use of Medications, Supplements and
Ergogenic Aids by Elite Competitors at the 2003 World FINA Swim Championships.
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[20] Rubin B, Anderson S. (1996) Diving in Caine D. Epidemiology of sports injuries. ISBN
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[21] Stevenson JM, (1983) The impact force of entry in diving from a ten meter tower.
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[24] Weinberg S, (1986) Medical aspects of synchronized swimming. Clin in Sport Med 5:1,
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[26] Zimmerman W. (2007) Medical aspects of competitive diving. FINA World Aquatics
Magazine.

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Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

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 In: World Book of Swimming: From Science to Performance ISBN: 978-1-61668-202-6
Editors: L. Seifert, D. Chollet and I.Mujika ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 27

NUTRITION FOR SWIMMING

Louise M Burke
Department of Sports Nutrition, Australian Institute of Sport, Australia

ABSTRACT
The nutritional concerns of swimmers involve an amalgam of challenges. During the
training phase, swimmers share the priorities of endurance athletes, whereas issues in the
competition setting are more related to brief duration events. Swimmers often begin a
competitive career at a young age, adding their sports nutrition needs to the dietary
challenge of adolescence and early adulthood. Achieving the ideal physique is a key
challenge for many swimmers. Issues include meeting the high energy needs for growth
and training in young male swimmers, adapting energy intake to the reduced energy
requirements of the taper or off-season, or dealing with the gain of body fat in female
swimmers as they progress through puberty. Strategic eating around key workouts and
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races is important to enhance training outcomes and competition performance. Swimmers

are fascinated by the array of sports foods and supplements that promise improved
performances. Among the many products on the market, a few offer legitimate benefits –
either helping the swimmer meet their daily nutritional goals (e.g. sports drinks, liquid
meal supplements, and sports bars), or by directly enhancing performance and recovery
(e.g. creatine, bicarbonate, caffeine). The decision to use such products needs to be
balanced against the expense and the risk that they may cause an inadvertent doping
outcome.

Key words: energy requirements, body composition, refuelling, pre-race eating, supplements

1. INTRODUCTION
Swimmers face a range of nutritional challenges. Major alterations in energy expenditure
occur between various phases of the competition calendar – from high volume training to the
taper to the off-season - and require an adjustment of nutritional goals and food intake.
Swimmers begin training at a young age, meaning the nutritional issues and physique changes

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 514 Louise M Burke

that occur during adolescence and early adulthood are added to their special sports nutrition
needs. Special strategies of food and fluid intake before, during, and after exercise are needed
for workouts and racing to optimise adaptations to training and competition performance. The
aim of this chapter is to provide an overview of these issues: readers are directed to other
work [6] for a more complete discussion.

2. NUTRITION FOR TRAINING

2.1. Everyday Nutrient Needs

Energy requirements set the basic foundations for a swimmer‘s nutrition since they
determine the potential for meeting macronutrient needs (carbohydrate for fuel, and protein
for growth and recovery) and for consuming the foods that will meet micronutrient needs
(vitamins, minerals and other food components needed for optimal health and function). In
addition, energy intake related to requirements determines hormonal health, and both desired
and unwanted changes in body mass and physique. Despite the importance of achieving a
desirable energy intake, some swimmers find this difficult. Situations arise where energy
intake is either above or below desired levels – these extremes can even occur in the same
swimmer at different times of the swimming season or their swimming career.
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Figure 1. Self reported intake of energy and carbohydrate in the training diets of well-trained male
swimmers

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 Nutrition for Swimming 515

Energy requirements are increased by high levels of lean body mass, growth (including
the adaptation to a resistance training program), and the high-volume training programs
undertaken by most elite swimmers. These three factors can coexist in male swimmers to
create very large energy demands, especially during adolescent growth spurts. Dietary
surveys of elite male swimmers, from a range of countries around the world, typically find
self-reported daily energy intakes of 15 to 24 MJ (4,000-6,000 kcal) or >200 kJ/kg body mass
(>48 kcal/kg) (Figure 1). During the Beijing Olympic Games, media sources reported that
phenomenal 8 Gold medal winner, Michael Phelps, consumes ~12,000 kcal (>50 MJ) per day;
this ―fact‖ raised considerable awe among the public but scepticism among sports nutrition
experts. In fact, Michael denied this information; claiming his true intake may be up to 8-
10,000 kcal/day (32-40 MJ/day) [29]. This author suggests that even these figures may be
estimates of his heaviest days of intake rather than a true average, but nevertheless illustrate
the potential for high energy needs among swimmers.
While some swimmers are able to accommodate periods of high energy needs, others
may be challenged by practical issues. Early morning training schedules are a ritual of
swimming—necessitated by school or work schedules, pool availability, and the desire to
provide recovery time between the two main workouts in a day. Eating opportunities can be
limited by a busy timetable, meals eaten on the run or poor access to food over the day, and
the gastrointestinal discomfort associated with eating meals that are too large or too close to
training sessions. When these challenges become overwhelming, the swimmer may be aided
by counselling from a sports dietitian to develop a meal plan (or family meal plan) that uses
good organisation to provide frequent energy-dense meals and snacks over the day.
Theoretically, a high intake of carbohydrate is needed to fuel the large volumes of
training undertaken by swimmers. Indeed, a classic study which investigated the effects of
doubling training volume [12] found that the swimmers who failed to increase carbohydrate
and energy intake experienced fatigue and soreness from workouts, while the cohort who
spontaneously adjusted their fuel intake were better able to cope with the increased workload.
Although inadequate fuel intake for a week didn‘t impaired subsequent ―race‖ performance,
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poor nutritional practices might be expected to take their toll when this occurs over a longer
period. Dietary surveys of male swimmers typically find self-reported intakes 6-8 g/kg/day of
carbohydrate. Allowing for the under-reporting of food consumption that is usually observed
in dietary surveys, such intakes seem suitable to meet the nutritional goals of well-trained
male swimmers. However, as discussed below, recent research is focused on the importance
of the strategic timing of intake of nutrients rather than total intake per se.
Some studies of energy balance in female swimmers report intakes that are close to
estimates of energy requirements [42]. However, appropriate energy intake does not appear to
be a universal finding, with studies [44] reporting that female swimmers differed from their
male teammates by reporting energy intakes that were substantially lower than anticipated.
Another energy balance study utilising doubly labelled water estimated that the energy
expenditure of female national level swimmers during a daily training program of 17.5
km/day was 23.4 MJ/day, whereas estimated energy intake was 13.1 MJ, accounting for
~57% of total energy expenditure [41]. In general, the typical daily energy intakes reported by
female swimmers are ~8 to 11 MJ (2,000-2,600 kcal) or ~140 to 170 kJ/kg (33-40 kcal/kg)
(Figure 2). The apparently lower energy intakes of female swimmers in comparison with their
male counterparts may reflect underreporting, restricted energy intake to achieve fat loss
goals, or lower training expenditures. Typical daily intakes of carbohydrate (4.5-6 g/kg body

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 516 Louise M Burke

mass) (Figure 2) and protein (1.3-1.8 g/day) are proportionally lower than those reported by
male swimmers, although if related to lean body mass these differences are reduced [6].
Sports dietitians who work with female swimmers often settle on a plan to periodise energy
and carbohydrate intakes, over the week and over the season according to the changing
priorities of body fat/weight goals and fuel needs for training and racing (see below).
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Figure 2 Self reported intakes of energy and carbohydrate in the training diets of well-trained female
swimmers

When energy needs are moderate to large, and a variety of nutritious foods are chosen,
most swimmers should be easily able to meet their requirements for vitamins and minerals
[for review, see 6]. Indeed, studies of micronutrient consumption reported by swimmers have
found that intakes of vitamins and minerals meet country-specific dietary recommendations,
for both males [2, 5, 44] and females [2, 3, 5, 42, 44]. However, several studies of groups of
female swimmers have reported intakes of iron [42, 44] or calcium [3] that were less than the
recommended levels. In these cases, low intakes of minerals were explained by the apparently
low energy intake by these female swimmers, because the nutrient densities of food choices
were similar between males and females. In addition to energy restriction, high risk scenarios
for inadequate intake include restricted dietary variety as seen in swimmers with multiple
food intolerances or dislikes. Travel to race meets or for specialised training is also a time
when swimmers may have reduced access to their usual dietary range.

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 Nutrition for Swimming 517

2.2. Special Needs for Workouts

A strategic way to meet increased needs for energy, protein and carbohydrate arising
from training goals is to plan for the consumption of these nutrients around the workout. This
is a useful approach to ―periodised eating‖ for weight/body fat goals in that the swimmers‘
dietary intake tracks the increases and decreases in training load. However, it may have
additional value in promoting optimal training and recovery from key sessions in the
program. Studies show that strategies that promote high carbohydrate availability for a
training session, such as carbohydrate intake before [33, 37] and during the workout [25] can
enhance performance of various tasks that might be included in a workout, at least in some
individuals. These effects might be seen in terms of better maintenance of muscle workloads
as well as reduced central or neuromuscular fatigue—an interaction that is important in sports
involving coordinated technique and fine motor control. In addition, maintaining high
carbohydrate availability for workouts might protect the immune system from the decline in
function that typically occurs in the hours following a prolonged session of exercise [31].
Staying healthy is a key goal for many swimmers.
Of course, it is not always possible or practical for swimmers to achieve high
carbohydrate availability for each training session. For convenience, many swimmers will
undertake early morning training sessions after an overnight fast or following the intake of
very small snacks. It is unlikely that muscle glycogen stores are refuelled for each session in a
week of high volume training. In fact, the ―train low, compete high‖ hypothesis suggests that
some training adaptations might be accentuated when training is undertaken with low
glycogen levels, even in already well-trained athletes [45]. This theory is not yet proven –
furthermore, the preliminary support comes from studies in which some but not all training
sessions were undertaken with low carbohydrate availability. However, it is possible that the
best or most practical approach to a heavy training schedule is to promote strategic eating
around key training sessions in the program (e.g. sustained high intensity and race-pace
sessions, resistance workouts) , while allowing a more relaxed approach to fuelling up for
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lower intensity sessions.

The consumption of protein and carbohydrate after resistance training and pool sessions
is another example of strategic nutrition to assist in the recovery from, and adaptation to,
swimming workouts. At times of the training calendar many elite swimmers have two or three
training sessions scheduled for the day. Quick replacement of these key nutrients after each
session will promote refuelling and protein synthesis for building new muscle. Current
guidelines based on the available literature recommend a timely intake of 10-20 g of protein
[21] and around 1-1.5 g of carbohydrate per kg BM [8]. This may be consumed as a snack
eaten soon after the session to promote recovery until the next meal is consumed. In other
cases, the swimmer may be able to go straight from training to their next meal and will be
able to meet these nutrient targets within the menu.
Sweat losses incurred by swimming during pool sessions are generally considered to be
moderate in comparison to the sweat losses incurred by other athletes or sessions undertaken
on ―dry land‖ [13]. Nevertheless, swimmers do have larger sweat losses than sedentary
people [18] and it may be useful for swimmers to periodically monitor fluid losses over a
session or from day to day, particularly in special circumstances such as high volume training
in a hot environment or at altitude. Although typical sweat losses have been measured at ~400
ml/hour during swim workouts [13], this can vary widely between individual swimmers and

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 518 Louise M Burke

their workouts. There are usually adequate opportunities to hydrate during the workout;
swimmers generally can drink between sets from bottles kept on pool deck.

3. NUTRITION FOR OPTIMIZING CHANGING PHYSIQUE

Kinanthropometric studies of elite swimmers identify physique features such as
muscularity and body fat levels that can be manipulated by training and nutrition. Although
many swimmers and coaches may see the physique of an elite competitor as the cause of their
success, it is difficult to discern the contribution of genetics or the high volume training that
resulted in low body fat levels, from the effects of leanness per se. A long-term approach to
achieving ideal physique is needed and should encourage each swimmer to find the weight
and body fat levels at which they perform well, eat well and enjoy good health. It is important
to recognize that it takes years for a young swimmer to develop his or her ideal body
physique [31]. Issues include meeting the high energy needs for growth and training in young
male swimmers, adapting energy intake to the reduced energy requirements of the taper or
off-season, or dealing with the gain of body fat in female swimmers as they progress through
puberty.
Sport scientists and coaches should identify a range of levels of body mass and fat which
correspond to optimal health and performance for each swimmer, including changes in
physical characteristics accompanying adolescence, maturation in age and training, and even
the various phases of the competitive season. In addition, the swimmer should adjust energy
intake according to the volume and intent of their training and racing calendar, and to allow
changes in physique within a reasonable range as a result of the differences in these phases.
Eating to optimize growth and muscle gain while undertaking high volume training is a
challenge to many male swimmers. There is still debate about the protein needs for optimal
athletic performance and muscle gain, but dietary surveys of swimmers typically find self-
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reported intakes of protein that are well above population dietary recommendations; 1.5 to 2.0
g/kg/day for males and 1.3-1.8 g/kg/day for females, respectively [see 6]. In fact, it is likely
that the most important nutritional issues to support the outcomes of resistance training are
adequate energy and strategic timing of protein intake around the workout. These issues have
been covered in previous sections of this chapter.
The chief problem for many young female swimmers is coping with the deposition of
body fat that occurs during adolescence, particularly during phases of reduced training such
as the off-season, taper or injury. Although male swimmers also experience occasions where
fat/weight loss is needed following a period of energy surplus, they are usually successful in
achieving these physique goals. Meanwhile many formerly lean and petite female swimmers
face lengthier struggles with slower performances, poor body image, and battles with their
coach over the gain of weight and body fat during adolescence or other times of fat gain.
Female swimmers may be at increased risk of developing disordered eating than other
athletes since the need to exhibit ones body in skimpy clothing is a recognised factor in such
problems [24]. This may be exacerbated by the pressure to conform to the recently observed
trend of increased leanness in elite male and female swimmers. Indeed, in a study of Spanish
female athletes, swimmers recorded higher scores on an eating disorders questionnaire than
most other athletic groups, including distance runners [40].

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 Nutrition for Swimming 519

Working with a sports dietitian may help the swimmer to develop the eating practices that
will allow them to train well and meet body composition goals now and in the future.
Strategies that may be useful to assist in weight reduction and loss of body fat in the athlete
undertaking high-volume training include achieving a small energy deficit through portion
control and reduction in excess intake of foods high in fat and sugar. In the case of young
swimmers, counselling regarding family eating patterns or activities to help the swimmer
develop their own domestic skills and practical nutrition knowledge may be valuable. Finally,
early intervention and expert psychological counselling should be sought for athletes who are
experiencing troubles with body image and self-esteem.

4. NUTRITION FOR RACING

Most elite swimmers will peak for important competitions 2-3 times in the year. This
involves a substantial taper or reduction in training volume prior to the meet, resulting in
reduced energy and fuel requirements [23]. The taper provides an increase in ―leisure time‖
for the swimmer and often occurs simultaneously with a change in the swimmer‘s
environment due to travel for competition. The swimmer needs to follow an appropriate meal
plan that meets real energy and fuel requirements for taper and racing, and avoids the
distractions/pitfalls associated with eating at athlete dining halls, hotels or host families.
The fuel requirements for racing are generally lower than those experienced in training.
However, swimmers in longer events (400-1500 m) or programs involving several events
within the same session should ensure that adequate fueling occurs between sessions, between
warm-up and races, and between events. It is valuable to be self-sufficient by having a supply
of foods/snacks at poolside that can promote rapid recovery between or after races. Everyday
foods such as fruit, sandwiches, cereal bars and flavoured yoghurt and milk drinks can supply
protein and carbohydrate towards recovery targets. Often it is more practical to rely on special
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sports foods such as sports bars and ready-to-drink liquid meal supplements.
At top levels of competition, the swimmer often faces many distractions after their event
which may interfere with their access to food or their ability to eat a substantial meal – these
include media commitments, and the requirement to attend doping control to provide a urine
sample. Unless a plan of suitable snacks and quick meals has been organised, the swimmer
may find themselves having to sacrifice precious ―sleep time‖ before the next competition
session time to find an opportunity to meet their recovery nutrition goals.

5. SUPPLEMENTS AND SPORTS FOODS

Like all athletes, swimmers are fascinated by the array of sports foods and supplements
that promise improved performances. Among the many products on the market, there are a
few that offer legitimate benefits to the swimmer – either in helping them reach their
nutritional goals, or by directly enhancing performance and recovery. Table 1 provides a
summary of sports foods and their potential uses by swimmers to meet nutrition goals and
achieve an indirect enhancement of training or competition performance. However, it should

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 520 Louise M Burke

be noted that even when the use of sports foods can be considered beneficial, this value must
be weighed against the expense of products.

Table 1. Sport Foods that are of likely benefit to swimmers

Product Comment
Use in achieving Sport drinks *Used to refuel and rehydrate during prolonged workouts and to
documented rehydrate after the session. Contain some electrolytes to help replace
nutrition goals sweat losses and increase voluntary intake of fluid.
Sport gels *Convenient and compact carbohydrate source for use during
prolonged workouts, particularly to refuel when fluid needs are less
important
Sport bars *Convenient, portable, and easy-to-consume source of carbohydrate,
protein, and micronutrients for a pre- or post workout/race snack or
to provide additional energy intake over the day.
Liquid meal *Convenient, portable, and easy-to-consume source of carbohydrate,
supplements protein, and micronutrients for post-workout or post-race recovery.
*Well-tolerated pre-race or pre-workout snack
*Low bulk source of energy, fuel and protein especially to support
resistance training program or growth.
Multivitamin and *Supplemental source of micronutrients for the travelling swimmer
mineral when food supply is not reliable.
supplements *Supplemental source of micronutrients during prolonged periods of
energy restriction (female swimmers).
Iron supplements *Supplemental source of micronutrients for the travelling swimmer
when food supply is not reliable.
*Supplemental source of micronutrients during prolonged periods of
energy restriction (female swimmers).

A few of the enormous range of products claiming to be directly ergogenic do have

scientific support for their use by swimmers; these include creatine, caffeine and buffering
agents. When looking at the potential use of such products, it is important to consider both
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their use as a training aid, and their ability to enhance performance when applied to a typical
competition program. For example, since swimmers often race in heats and semis/finals to
decide the final outcome of their events (often on the same day), it is important to investigate
the efficacy or problems involved with repeated supplementation protocols, including the
effects on recovery between races. It is also important to assess the interaction between
supplements that might be used at the same time – for example, caffeine and bicarbonate.
Caffeine has had a long history of use in sport, with its best described effect being to
reduce the perception of fatigue or effort [for review, see 7]. Traditional protocols used by
some athletes and employed in laboratory studies involve moderate-large doses (6 mg/kg)
taken 1 hour prior to an exercise bout. Such caffeine supplementation has been reported to
enhance the performance of a 100 m race [11] and a 1500 m race [19] in trained swimmers
However, in other studies, caffeine has also been shown to enhance sports performance when
consumed in small-moderate doses (2-3 mg/kg) [7]. Unnecessarily large amounts of caffeine
should be avoided since they interfere with sleep and are likely to jeopardise rest and
recovery during a multi-day competition program. Further studies are needed to investigate
the range of swimming events and the range of doses and consumption protocols that are
effective.

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 Nutrition for Swimming 521

The intake of a substantial dose of bicarbonate or citrate can acutely increase blood
buffering capacity [for review, see 7]. This practice might enhance the performance of 200-
800 m swimming events where fatigue is often attributed to the effects of the excessive build
up of hydrogen ions through anaerobic glycolysis. Typical supplementation protocols involve
the intake of 300 mg/kg BM bicarbonate or 500 mg/kg BM citrate, 1-3 hr prior to a race [7].
Some [20] but not all [30] studies show faster swimming times following acute bicarbonate
loading protocols. Bicarbonate loading may also enhance interval swimming [14], such as the
sets included in many workouts. However, side effects of acute buffering protocols include
gastrointestinal discomfort and diarrhoea which might impair race performance in susceptible
swimmers. The effects of repeated use of buffering strategies, as might be required for a busy
race program, has not been systematically studied. An alternative, longer-term loading
protocol has been reported: this involves bicarbonate intakes of 500 mg/kg/d for 5 days
spread into a series of doses over the day to achieve a more sustained increase in buffering
capacity. However, the specific benefits of this loading protocol have not been studied in
relation to swimming or to a repeated racing scenario.
A newer strategy involves supplementation with beta(β)-alanine to increase the muscle
content of the dipeptide carnosine which has an important role as intracellular buffer. Recent
studies have shown that daily supplementation with 4-6 g/day of β-alanine can increase
muscle carnosine content by ~60% after 4 weeks and ~80% after 10 weeks [17]. We don‘t yet
know how long to continue supplementation to maximise muscle carnosine concentrations or
how long it remains elevated when supplementation is stopped. There is also a lack of
evidence that increases in muscle carnosine lead to clear benefits to performance. However,
β-alanine supplementation has potential as an alternative or additive strategy to increasing
blood buffering capacity; this may enhance a swimmer‘s resilience to the pH changes
associated with high-intensity exercise.
Muscle creatine concentrations can be elevated via supplementation with creatine
monohydrate; typical protocols for creatine use: loading dose: 20-30 g in multiple doses (e.g.,
4 × 5 g) for 5 days followed by maintenance dose of 2-5 g/day [for review see 7]. Uptake
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appears to be enhanced by consuming creatine with carbohydrate-rich meal or snack.

Although this could theoretically benefit the performance of exercise tasks that are reliant on
phosphocreatine stores, the consensus is that creatine loading does not seem to enhance the
performance of a single swimming race [9, 22]. Studies show that creatine loading enhances
the performance of exercise involving repeated high-intensity work bouts with short recovery
periods. For swimmers, this translates to interval and resistance training; indeed, there is
evidence that creatine supplementation is of benefit to an interval workout [27, 38]. Better
training may lead to an enhancement of subsequent race performance; this has been shown in
some [28, 36] but not all [14] studies of swimmers
The use of these or any other supplements should be undertaken only after the athlete has
undertaken a risk to benefit analysis. The downsides of supplement use include the lack of
response in some individuals, or the risk of a positive doping outcome from contaminated
supplements [16]. Such risks can be minimised by trialling products in training, and by
choosing products only from well-known companies who have a reputation for strict quality
control. Nevertheless there is a general acceptance that the use of ergogenic aids even when
supported by science is not recommended for children (e.g. swimmers under 18 years)

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 522 Louise M Burke

Table 2. Nutrition challenges and solutions for the swimmer during training and racing

Challenges Solutions
Meeting high-energy needs during It can be difficult to find enough time in the day – or supplies of
phases of high training volume and appropriate foods – to meet high energy needs. The swimmer needs
growth to plan an eating program of frequent meals and snacks over the day.
This may mean organizing foods that are portable and require
minimal storage or preparation, so that they can travel with the
swimmer over a busy day. Strategic eating before, during and after
workout can add to the total daily intake as well as specifically
support training performance and adaptation. It also helps to focus on
energy-dense foods and drinks.
Achieving and maintaining an ideal It takes years of training, maturation and healthy eating for a
weight and body composition swimmer to attain their ideal physique. Swimmers and their coaches
should invest over the long-term to find the weight and body fat level
at which the swimmer is healthy, happy and able to perform well. In
particular the swimmer should learn to adjust their food intake to
meet changing needs for energy and carbohydrate. Many swimmers
gain unnecessary amounts of body fat by overeating during taper,
racing and the off-season or injury.
Accommodating the nutritional needs The developing swimmer may find it difficult to balance their sports
and issues of adolescence and early nutrition goals with the special nutritional, social, and emotional
adulthood issues of adolescence and early adulthood. They need to understand
the accompanying physique changes and adjust their nutrition and
body image accordingly. Practical education activities will assist
them to assume responsibility for their food intake as they move from
home to an independent living situation or even the collegiate or
institute dining hall.
Providing adequate fuel for training The swimmer should consume carbohydrate according to the fuel
needs of their training program. While extra carbohydrate can be
consumed with meals during periods of high volume training, it is
also useful to organize strategic eating around training sessions. This
means having a high-carbohydrate meal prior to sessions, consuming
sports drinks or gels during the session, and refueling quickly after
training. It may not be practical or within the swimmer‘s energy
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

budget to achieve this for all workouts; however, proactive eating can
be focused on the key training sessions of the week.
Recovering between 2-3 training The speedy availability of key nutrients will promote efficient
sessions in the day refueling, adaptation, and rehydration. The swimmer should organize
their plan of snacks and meals to provide carbohydrate and protein
soon after the key training sessions of the week.
Achieving appropriate energy and fuel The swimmer should adjust their intake of food and recovery snacks
intake during a race taper and to meet their reduced needs for energy and fuel. While it is important
competition to be well-fuelled for racing, it is easy to overeat real energy needs
Facing the most important competitions The swimmer should identify the challenges of travel including poor
in a strange environment. ―All you can access to important foods at the right times, the distractions of ―all
eat‖ dining, lack of supervision from you can eat‖ buffets, and food hygiene issues. A pro-active plan
Mum/home coach and the challenges includes bringing supplies from home, and being careful to look after
of foreign cuisine are all part of individual needs regardless of company or environment. A team plan
package for high level athletes. can support the swimmer to meet their goals
Recovery between events in a session Many swimmers will compete in a number of races in a single
or between sessions session, or a succession of races culminating in the gold medal. Each
swimmer should devise a plan to promote refueling and rehydration
between events, which includes consideration of obstacles that will
stand in the way of having access to suitable foods at critical times.

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 Nutrition for Swimming 523

6. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
In many cases, the nutritional challenges faced by swimmers can be solved not so much
by sophisticated knowledge from new research, but by finding practical strategies to allow
appropriate intake of food and fluids, particularly around a workout or session of racing. A
summary of practical solutions to the challenges of training and race nutrition is provided in
Table 2.

CONCLUSION
Swimmers face a diverse range of nutritional challenges that change over the swimming
calendar as well as over their swimming careers. These include extreme or variable energy
requirements, manipulating physique characteristics, fueling high volume training, and
providing nutrients at strategic times in relation to key workouts or races. It is often difficult
to find practical solutions to meeting these challenges.

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Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

World Book of Swimming : From Science to Performance, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 INDEX
aerobic capacity, xiii, 253, 256, 263, 265, 266, 267,
A 280, 395, 409
aetiology, 60
accelerometers, 123
agonist, 52, 106, 109, 505
accessibility, 337
airways, 405
acclimatization, xiii, 395, 397, 399, 402, 404, 406,
alanine, 523, 526
408, 409, 410
albumin, 526
accommodation, 324
alertness, 389
accounting, 15, 164, 194, 517
algorithm, 105, 124, 373
accuracy, 124, 196, 281, 285, 291, 424
alkalosis, 396, 527
acetic acid, 507
alveoli, 245
acid, 228, 241, 248, 249, 269, 270, 273, 277, 297,
alveolus, 245
365
amalgam, xv, 515
acidosis, 238, 244, 266, 267, 268, 269, 277, 385
ambient air, 396
acromion, 502, 503
amenorrhea, 506
action potential, 46, 70
American Psychiatric Association, 512
active transport, 244
amphibia, 273
activity level, 52, 63
amplitude, xiii, 4, 5, 6, 33, 48, 49, 53, 76, 103, 105,
acute mountain sickness, 398, 403, 405, 408, 409
142, 156, 185, 189, 194, 195, 199, 215, 244, 258,
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adaptation, xii, 60, 100, 127, 134, 165, 167, 171,

338, 438, 442, 445, 446, 457
222, 243, 245, 253, 254, 270, 274, 323, 326, 331,
amputation, 463, 464, 473
333, 356, 357, 358, 362, 364, 368, 370, 374, 377,
anaerobe, 269
378, 379, 397, 407, 409, 486, 505, 508, 510, 517,
anatomy, 46, 61
519, 524, 528
anemia, 505
ADC, 290
angulation, 55
adduction, 75, 85, 100, 138, 180, 181, 327
ankles, ix, 184, 185, 188, 193, 194, 195, 202, 316,
adenine, 254
433, 435
adenosine, 70, 228
anorexia, 506
adenosine triphosphate, 70, 228
anorexia nervosa, 506
adipose, 49, 485
anoxia, 273
adipose tissue, 49, 485
anthropometric characteristics, xiv, 222, 305, 317,
adjustment, 126, 235, 328, 450, 455, 515
445, 455, 457
administrators, 478
antibiotic, 507
adolescent female, 221
anti-inflammatory agents, 503
adolescents, 207, 305
antioxidant, 271, 409
ADP, 70, 228, 235, 260, 273, 274
anxiety, 381, 506
adrenaline, 323
appetite, 405
adulthood, xv, 515, 516, 524
aptitude, 221
advantages, xiv, 71, 385, 424, 483, 491
architecture, 350
Aristotle, 205

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 528 Index

arrhythmia, 402, 488 body mass index, 319

arterial blood gas, 408 body shape, 24, 199, 205, 206, 207, 214, 245, 474
arthrogryposis, 473 body size, 205, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217,
articular cartilage, 502 219, 222, 223, 314, 318, 455
articulation, 502 body weight, 208, 210, 217, 218, 265, 317, 325, 342,
ASI, 98 404, 506
assessment, viii, ix, 56, 114, 117, 119, 122, 123, 124, bone, 208, 502, 504, 506, 507
125, 134, 137, 148, 153, 157, 171, 264, 280, 282, bone form, 502
328, 338, 340, 341, 342, 345, 456, 465, 503 bone growth, 507
asthma, 505 bone mineral content, 208
asthmatic children, 505 bones, 502
asymmetry, ix, 98, 101, 109, 153, 166, 167, 181, 472 bowel, 505
asymptomatic, 380 brachial plexus, 473
ataxia, 463, 464 brachioradialis, 58, 59, 91
athetosis, 464 bradycardia, 22, 401
ATP, x, 70, 228, 229, 235, 237, 238, 240, 243, 248, brain, 272
249, 250, 260, 269, 301, 382 breakdown, 100, 228, 250, 302, 362
attachment, 502, 504 break-even, 160, 168
attribution, 41 breathing, ix, 74, 99, 101, 102, 116, 153, 166, 167,
Austria, 444 170, 171, 175, 177, 178, 186, 189, 190, 191, 197,
autonomic nervous system, 397 202, 203, 238, 245, 390, 396, 400, 401, 402, 403,
avoidance, 503 407, 408, 410, 472, 490, 504
axilla, 61, 215, 218 bridges, 70
axons, 44 bulimia, 506
bulimia nervosa, 506
B bursa, 503, 504
back pain, 504 C
background information, 476
bacteria, 507 cables, 340, 416, 424
bacterial infection, 507 cadaver, 61
basic research, 259 caffeine, xv, 389, 515, 522, 526
baths, 390 calcium, 70, 228, 518
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Belgium, 43, 135, 148, 461 caliber, 390, 467

bending, 76 calibration, 7, 124
beneficial effect, 363, 387 caloric intake, 266
benign, 507 calorimetry, xi, 279, 285
bias, 265 capillary, xi, 241, 248, 253, 279, 282, 288
bicarbonate, xv, 267, 515, 522, 523, 526 capsule, 61, 123, 502
biceps brachii, 53, 58, 59, 62, 64, 91, 96 carbohydrate, 228, 384, 508, 516, 517, 518, 519,
biochemistry, 273 521, 522, 523, 524, 528
biofeedback, 82, 112, 131, 133 carbohydrates, 228, 266, 333
biokinetics, 358 carbon, 228, 401
biomechanics, viii, 4, 45, 46, 69, 71, 110, 114, 133, carbon dioxide, 228, 401
150, 170, 171, 426, 458, 477, 495 cardiac output, 246, 247, 385, 397, 405
blood flow, 99, 248, 382, 385, 386, 387, 405 cardiovascular system, 328, 397
blood pressure, 22, 246, 254, 385 carnosine, 523, 526
Boat, 212 cartilage, 502
body composition, xiv, 205, 206, 216, 220, 223, 255, case study, 134, 373, 409, 441
459, 483, 515, 521, 524 catabolism, 228
body density, 206, 208, 217, 218, 223, 314, 495 catecholamines, 380
body fat, xv, 208, 217, 218, 298, 508, 515, 518, 519, cellular immunity, 408
520, 521, 524 central nervous system, 44, 154, 506
body image, 508, 520, 521, 524 cerebral palsy, 465, 470, 473

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 Index 529

childhood, 334 computer simulations, 356

China, 203, 481 computing, 308, 414
chlorine, 507 concordance, 37
chronic hypoxia, xiii, 253, 395, 397 concussion, 512
circulation, 14, 31, 35, 402 conditioning, 67, 265, 271, 272, 324, 326, 328, 332
City, 189 conductance, 22, 406
clarity, 475 conduction, 103, 316
class, xii, 213, 221, 261, 265, 313, 361, 463, 465, conductivity, 45
466, 467, 468, 469, 470, 471, 474, 476, 477, 478 conference, 414
classical mechanics, 120 configuration, 149
clavicle, 502 configurations, 186
climate, 510 conflict, 121
clinical examination, 505 conjunctivitis, 507
clinical syndrome, 506 connective tissue, 325, 386, 473, 502
close relationships, 214 consensus, 353, 523
CNS, 70 conservation, 32, 33, 196
CO2, 285, 297, 396 constant load, 269
coding, 368, 416 consumption, 229, 236, 271, 360, 375, 517, 518,
coefficient of variation, 126, 371 519, 522
cognitive function, 476 contact time, 435, 436, 443
cognitive impairment, 387 control group, 61, 207, 329, 400, 402, 403, 470, 476
cold sore, 508 controlled studies, 402
collateral, 503 controversies, 259
color, iv conviction, 38, 59
combined effect, 180, 201, 354, 404 cooling, 390
combustion, 260, 265 coordination, ix, xiv, 16, 17, 46, 55, 56, 63, 64, 74,
community, 291, 356 75, 111, 117, 126, 127, 131, 132, 133, 134, 136,
compartment syndrome, 504 138, 148, 149, 151, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158,
compensation, 60, 167, 295, 361, 435 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169,
competition, x, xii, xiii, xiv, xv, 12, 64, 112, 141, 170, 171, 172, 173, 178, 181, 184, 186, 189, 190,
144, 197, 238, 240, 241, 257, 259, 260, 265, 267, 191, 203, 213,룠216, 219, 221, 222, 323, 330,
296, 300, 316, 330, 331, 347, 348, 351, 352, 353, 331, 333, 344, 455, 459, 463, 465, 472, 476, 483,
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

354, 355, 356, 357, 358, 361, 362, 365, 367, 371, 486, 495
372, 374, 377, 379, 380, 381, 382, 385, 389, 403, correlation, 17, 75, 79, 93, 96, 98, 106, 125, 127,
404, 406, 413, 414, 415, 416, 417, 420, 422, 423, 130, 137, 143, 213, 214, 215, 217, 218, 219, 246,
424, 425, 427, 435, 440, 446, 447, 449, 456, 457, 261, 263, 264, 267, 317, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322,
458, 462, 465, 466, 474, 476, 477, 478, 479, 481, 341, 368, 383, 384, 452, 469
483, 486, 492, 493, 494, 495, 496, 505, 508, 509, correlation analysis, 219
512, 515, 521, 522, 524, 527 correlation coefficient, 106, 127, 130, 321
competitive advantage, 348 correlations, 47, 77, 86, 93, 94, 95, 100, 139, 281,
competitive sport, x, 257, 371, 465, 481, 482 317, 318, 455, 471, 477
competitiveness, 467, 471 cortisol, 358, 380, 381, 389, 390, 392, 393
competitors, 209, 220, 417, 424, 425, 449, 468, 476, cost, xi, xiv, 19, 81, 85, 94, 96, 119, 122, 129, 130,
487, 491, 496 131, 132, 134, 137, 148, 151, 155, 212, 215, 217,
complementarity, viii, 69, 110 223, 231, 232, 233, 240, 246, 247, 281, 291, 299,
complexity, viii, 43, 46, 70, 96, 99, 259, 275 300, 303, 304, 305, 308, 310, 311, 312, 313, 314,
compliance, 256, 368, 370, 375 350, 364, 436, 456, 458, 483, 485, 486, 488, 490,
composition, 145, 147, 206, 219, 223, 318 497
compounds, 228, 254 covering, 8, 291, 502
compression, 105, 316 creatine, xv, 228, 267, 381, 515, 522, 523, 525, 526,
computational fluid dynamics, 40, 115, 438, 443 527
computer simulation, x, 190, 227, 230, 234, 235, creatine phosphokinase, 381
236, 237, 238, 239, 241, 275, 356 creep, 154, 173

World Book of Swimming : From Science to Performance, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 530 Index

crepitus, 504 displacement, 15, 25, 33, 71, 73, 74, 76, 84, 93, 94,
critical value, 4, 163 95, 96, 97, 107, 139, 154, 181, 183, 185, 194,
cryotherapy, 385, 392 195, 212, 315, 445
CSS, xi, 279, 280, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294, 321 dissociation, 249
cyanosis, 510 distortions, 124
cycles, xiii, 49, 54, 137, 178, 185, 202, 320, 332, distractions, 521, 524
333, 371, 378, 392, 417, 445, 446, 449, 472 distress, 380, 494
cycling, xiv, 275, 281, 287, 289, 304, 359, 383, 384, disturbances, 248, 405, 406, 488
386, 390, 391, 401, 408, 483, 484, 485, 486, 488, diversity, 144, 214
490, 492, 493, 494, 495, 496, 526 dizziness, 398
dominance, 166, 171, 430, 432
D doping, xv, 501, 505, 509, 512, 515, 521, 523
dose-response relationship, 406
damages, iv
draft, 490, 491, 492, 493, 494
damping, 26
drawing, 7
danger, 511
drinking water, 22
data collection, 124, 240, 387
drugs, 509
database, 415
drying, 507
decay, xii, 347, 349, 357
dwarfism, 473
decomposition, 51, 88, 89, 91, 93
dynamic viscosity, 25
deduction, 44, 45, 267
dynamical systems, 194
defects, 472
deficiency, 269 E
deficit, 77, 99, 215, 222, 232, 241, 252, 271, 400,
521 eating disorders, 506, 507, 510, 511, 520
deformation, 144 economy, xi, xiii, xiv, 98, 112, 113, 122, 131, 134,
degradation, 70, 113 137, 149, 172, 186, 199, 202, 210, 222, 223, 280,
deltoid, 62 299, 300, 305, 311, 312, 358, 373, 395, 400, 403,
demonstrations, 188 410, 451, 483, 484, 485, 486, 492, 495
depolarization, 44, 45 editors, 221, 222, 223
deposition, 508, 520 educational programs, 506
depression, 381, 401, 405, 506 Efficiency, vi, 12, 122, 214, 299, 305, 312, 485
deprivation, 388, 389, 392 egg, 504
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derivatives, 48 elbows, 94, 142, 155, 464

destruction, 351 electrical conductivity, 44
detection, viii, 43, 45, 48, 67, 258, 281 electricity, viii, 43, 44, 45, 48, 55
diagnosis, 72, 116, 135, 378, 392, 504, 506 electrodes, 45, 47, 48, 49, 64, 67, 103, 124
diet, 333, 398, 506, 509 electromyography, 45, 46, 66, 67, 71, 116, 343
diet pill, 506 EMG, viii, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53,
dietary intake, 519, 525 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67,
differential equations, 235 71, 87, 92, 93, 96, 97, 99, 103, 104, 105, 107,
diffusion, 244, 245, 248 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 115, 116, 343, 431, 442
dignity, 465 endocrine, 366, 380, 506
dilation, 246 endurance, xi, xv, 56, 76, 109, 110, 117, 167, 243,
dimorphism, 336 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255,
direct measure, 7, 56 256, 261, 263, 264, 267, 270, 271, 275, 279, 280,
direct observation, 368 281, 282, 291, 292, 294, 295, 300, 317, 318, 321,
disability, xiv, 171, 461, 462, 463, 465, 468, 469, 324, 325, 327, 328, 331, 332, 333, 335, 336, 338,
471, 472, 473, 474, 475, 476, 477, 478, 481, 502 342, 344, 352, 353, 354, 363, 372, 374, 388, 390,
discomfort, 503, 517, 523 402, 410, 459, 474, 476, 496, 506, 510, 515, 528
discontinuity, 162, 166 energetic characteristics, 221
discs, 424, 504 energy consumption, 85, 212, 493
disorder, 488, 506, 511 energy supply, x, 121, 228, 229, 230, 236, 240, 257,
dispersion, 126 260, 261, 269, 296, 323, 325

World Book of Swimming : From Science to Performance, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 Index 531

energy transfer, 33, 199 Finland, 20, 41, 113, 148, 190, 442, 459, 479
England, 149, 175, 375, 462 fish, 20, 25, 32, 33, 38, 44, 45, 191, 196, 203, 446,
enlargement, 316 457, 510
environmental conditions, 492, 510 fitness, xi, 221, 253, 256, 279, 333, 348, 352, 354,
enzymatic activity, x, 243 356, 357, 358, 361, 362, 364, 368, 370, 372, 465
enzymes, 248, 253, 254, 271, 374, 398, 410, 505 fixation, 106
epinephrine, 323 flexibility, 40, 144, 145, 146, 147, 156, 157, 167,
epiphyses, 502 168, 207, 218, 318, 335, 465, 476, 510, 511
equality, 311 flexor, 53, 58, 59, 91, 92, 94, 104, 386
equilibrium, 84, 236, 382, 404 flexor carpi radialis, 104
equipment, 26, 45, 46, 71, 281, 337, 338, 342, 357, flexor carpi ulnaris, 58, 59, 91, 92, 104
415, 423 flight, 14, 18, 417, 432, 433, 440, 449
ergonomics, 46, 343 flow field, 14, 22, 40
erythropoietin, 398, 399, 409 fluctuations, xii, 33, 72, 94, 100, 119, 121, 132, 133,
Estonia, 413, 423 134, 149, 150, 151, 170, 199, 361, 472, 481
ethical issues, 512 fluid, 4, 13, 14, 21, 22, 24, 28, 31, 33, 38, 39, 70, 82,
ethics, xv, 501 85, 191, 389, 390, 438, 503, 508, 516, 519, 522,
excitation, 316 526
excretion, 381 fluid balance, 508
execution, 258, 261, 349, 357, 422, 448 folliculitis, 508
executions, 56 food intake, 515, 524
exercise performance, 250, 272, 296, 399, 407 football, 512
exertion, 100, 232, 283, 287, 295, 351, 353 footwear, 508
expenditures, 517 formula, 264
experiences, 13, 219, 436, 494 foundations, viii, 119, 516
experimental design, 280 Fourier analysis, ix, 181, 188, 193, 194
expertise, 65, 93, 97, 99, 100, 140, 157, 172 fractures, 504, 511
exposure, 285, 297, 386, 396, 397, 398, 399, 400, France, 39, 40, 41, 43, 44, 69, 111, 113, 115, 116,
402, 403, 404, 405, 406, 408, 409, 410, 507, 508, 135, 151, 171, 190, 279, 361, 374, 414, 423, 426,
510 442, 443, 444, 445, 458, 480
extensor, 47, 53, 91, 92, 105, 511 free energy, 235
extensor carpi radialis brevis, 47 frequencies, 51, 57, 103, 105, 111, 185, 195
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

extensor carpi ulnaris, 92 friction, 25, 213, 490

extensor digitorum, 48 functional changes, 245
extraction, 248, 277 funding, 478

F G

fairness, 466, 477, 478 gait, 114, 153, 171

fasting, 506 gastrocnemius, 62, 273
fat, 163, 208, 211, 216, 218, 248, 266, 270, 277, 305, gene expression, xi, 257, 271, 272
332, 508, 512, 517, 520, 521, 524, 525, 528 genes, 276
fears, 61 genetic endowment, 245
feedback, viii, 12, 18, 43, 65, 124, 425, 439, 440, genetics, x, 205, 206, 220, 520
443 Germany, 21, 227, 479, 481
femur, 503, 504 glucose, 228, 236, 248, 266, 384, 527
ferritin, 381 gluteus maximus, 54, 62
fiber, 228, 248, 254, 275, 316, 323, 359 glycogen, 228, 238, 248, 260, 266, 270, 272, 276,
fibers, 44, 45, 48, 49, 52, 106, 238, 248, 267, 316, 289, 373, 384, 390, 391, 512, 519, 526
323, 324, 391 glycolysis, x, 227, 228, 235, 238, 240, 249, 250, 260,
field tests, 475 265, 266, 267, 273, 274, 282, 295, 523
films, 449 Google, 194
financial support, xiii, 413 gracilis, 273
fine tuning, 12 graph, 181, 183, 415

World Book of Swimming : From Science to Performance, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 532 Index

gravitation, 28 hypothesis, 16, 183, 212, 265, 271, 356, 403, 471,
gravitational effect, ix, 175 519
gravitational force, 28, 181, 212 hypoxemia, 396, 401, 402
gravitational potential energy, 196, 197 hypoxia, xiii, 273, 277, 395, 396, 397, 398, 399, 400,
gravity, 22, 23, 26, 71, 72, 115, 133, 149, 155, 203, 401, 403, 404, 405, 406, 407, 408, 409, 410, 510,
212, 223, 428 512
growth factor, 323, 398
growth hormone, 323, 335
I
growth rate, 335
ice, 503, 504
growth spurt, 517
icon, 10
guidance, 219, 220, 508
ideal, xv, 7, 155, 156, 169, 515, 520, 524
guidelines, xiii, 113, 294, 348, 389, 395, 405, 430,
image, 39, 46, 53, 114, 123, 124, 125, 126, 424, 425,
508, 509, 519
439
gymnastics, 206
images, 124, 125, 181, 424
gymnasts, 207, 220, 221
imbalances, 110
H imitation, 317
immersion, 385, 386, 390, 391, 393, 507
hair, 507 immune function, 389, 398
hamstring, 505 immune system, xii, 334, 377, 389, 405, 519, 527
handedness, ix, 153 immunity, 375, 380, 391, 410
haptoglobin, 351 impacts, 325, 340
Hawaii, 492, 496 impairments, xiv, 389, 461, 463, 469, 473
head injury, 512 impulses, 59, 126, 151, 214, 429
headache, 405 in vivo, 45, 270, 273
hearing loss, 507 incidence, 379, 380, 398, 408, 505, 509, 510, 511,
heart rate, 56, 65, 246, 247, 283, 284, 288, 293, 296, 512, 513
332, 350, 351, 353, 359, 362, 366, 373, 381, 385, incompatibility, 447
397, 401, 402, 407, 459, 474, 475, 493 increased workload, 517
height, 7, 28, 207, 210, 213, 214, 215, 217, 218, 235, individual character, 348, 430
317, 318, 335, 336, 338, 341, 430, 431, 443, 455, individual characteristics, 348, 430
458, 485 individual development, 334
hematocrit, 351, 404 individual differences, 86
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

hemiplegia, 463, 464 inefficiency, 417

hemoglobin, 351, 402, 404 inertia, 29, 33, 121, 124, 137, 434
herpes, 508 inertial effects, 28, 124, 213
herpes simplex, 508 infants, 68
high blood pressure, 402 inflammation, 385, 387, 389, 503
hip joint, 463 infraspinatus, 62, 63, 64, 92, 103
homeostasis, 248 ingest, 508
Hong Kong, 40, 41, 276, 441, 481 ingestion, 390, 526, 527
host, 521 inhibition, 66, 238, 266, 316
hotels, 521 initiation, 64, 66, 187
human dimensions, 446 injections, 503
human performance, 446 insertion, 61, 502
hydrogen, 523 insomnia, 505
hydrolysis, 228, 312 insulin, 323, 384
hygiene, 524 intellectual disabilities, 475, 482
hypertension, 401 interdependence, 60
hyperthermia, 488 interface, 49, 338
hypertrophy, 208, 253, 256, 333, 401 interference, 5, 6, 331, 340, 490
hyperventilation, 285, 297 internal environment, 241, 275
hypothalamus, 271 International Olympic Committee, 501, 512
hypothermia, 487, 488 international standards, 509

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 Index 533

interruptions, 295 lordosis, 144

intervention, xv, 65, 356, 364, 368, 387, 403, 430, loss of appetite, 398, 505
441, 501, 503, 504, 521 loss of consciousness, 402
ions, 228, 523 lumbar spine, 504, 511
iron, 398, 405, 406, 409, 518, 527 lunate dislocation, 511
irritability, 380 lung function, 207
ischemia, 277 lying, 217, 294
isolation, 386
Italy, 285, 299
M

J majority, xiv, 26, 46, 48, 54, 302, 308, 319, 322,
324, 335, 363, 383, 406, 434, 440, 446, 461, 465,
Japan, 40, 172, 243, 255, 414, 423, 443, 447 471, 507
jock itch, 507 management, 66, 138, 337, 451, 502, 505, 512
joints, 53, 59, 71, 73, 74, 98, 100, 323, 325, 328, manipulation, 354, 375
502, 504 mapping, 22, 45
markers, xii, 251, 280, 281, 366, 377, 380, 403, 417,
K 424, 425
MAS, 294
kinetics, viii, ix, 69, 71, 87, 91, 103, 110, 193, 194,
material resources, 396
203, 236, 241, 244, 273, 277, 295, 443
maturation process, 467
knees, ix, 183, 184, 185, 193, 194, 195, 202, 433,
media, 124, 517, 521
434, 440
medial collateral, 504
Korea, 132
medial meniscus, 504
kyphosis, 144
median, 51, 53
L medication, 405, 504
membranes, 70, 400
lack of control, 396 menarche, 335
lactate dehydrogenase, 250 menstruation, 335
lactate level, 258, 262, 266, 387 mental health, 506
lactic acid, x, 241, 243, 244, 249, 258, 259, 267, 269, mental representation, 37
274, 285, 298, 301, 360, 375 meta-analysis, 206, 349, 353, 354, 358, 396, 407
laminar, 4, 25 metabolic acidosis, 268, 269, 270, 273, 276
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

latency, 60, 68 metabolic pathways, 228

lateral motion, 180 metabolism, x, 227, 228, 229, 232, 235, 237, 240,
laterality, 166, 167 241, 244, 254, 255, 257, 259, 260, 264, 271, 273,
latissimus dorsi, 53, 58, 59, 61, 62, 64, 91 275, 277, 332, 384, 396, 399, 400, 401
laxatives, 506 metabolites, x, 243, 248, 253, 254, 382, 384, 390
lean body mass, 208, 218, 517, 518 metamorphosis, xi, 257
learning, 41, 64, 281, 326, 334, 335, 336, 460, 476 meter, 7, 29, 123, 125, 151, 211, 426, 479, 480, 513
learning process, 64 methodology, 45, 81, 133, 139, 150, 170, 258, 267,
leisure, 521 268, 269, 280, 281
leisure time, 521 Miami, 241
lens, 424, 449 micronutrients, 522
lesions, 508 middle ear infection, 507
liberation, 70 military, 207
ligament, 504 miniaturization, 456
linear function, xi, 231, 299, 304 misunderstanding, 52, 293
linear model, 288, 291, 370 mitochondria, 228, 235, 248, 254
lipids, 228, 253 model system, 154
liver, 260 modeling, x, 203, 227, 296, 344, 356
living conditions, 403 modelling, 136, 180, 272, 274, 283, 284, 290, 291,
locomotor, 39, 154 295, 308, 356
longitudinal study, 213, 220, 255 modification, xiv, 75, 106, 483

World Book of Swimming : From Science to Performance, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 534 Index

moisture, 507 Netherlands, 3, 65, 66, 395

mole, 302 neuromotor, 56
momentum, vii, 12, 21, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, neurons, 277
35, 36, 37, 38, 98, 112, 196, 201, 203, 431, 432, neuropathy, 473
433, 435, 438 neurophysiology, 46
monitoring, xii, 124, 166, 169, 264, 280, 282, 342, neurosurgery, 46
351, 358, 359, 361, 366, 367, 369, 377, 378, 380, New Zealand, 144, 150, 361, 414, 449, 458, 501
389, 390, 391, 486, 502, 508 nitrogen, 396, 403
mood change, 381, 505 NMR, 267, 312
mood states, 351, 359, 366, 372 noise, 48, 171, 191
morphology, ix, x, 112, 121, 205, 221, 253, 399, 430 norepinephrine, 380
morphometric, 254 North America, 67, 190
Moscow, 344, 345 Norway, 205
Moses, 391 nucleotides, 254
motivation, 220, 333 nutrients, 517, 519, 524, 525
motor actions, ix, 153 nutrition, xv, 398, 406, 501, 508, 515, 516, 517, 519,
motor behavior, 154 520, 521, 522, 524, 525, 527
motor control, 126, 168, 519
motor skills, 172, 335
O
motor system, 447
objectivity, 280
movement restrictions, 465
obstacles, 524
mRNA, 398
obstruction, 200
multiple regression, 114
oedema, 386, 387
multiple sclerosis, 473
olympics, 207
muscle mass, 207, 237, 238, 267, 287, 302, 317, 323,
opportunities, 466, 473, 508, 517, 520
331, 335, 336
optimal performance, 343, 348, 405, 408
muscle performance, 295
optimization, ix, xii, 18, 153, 154, 347, 494
muscle strength, 86, 145, 245, 256, 316, 331, 388,
oral antibiotic, 508
474
oral antibiotics, 508
muscles, viii, xii, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 50, 52, 53, 54,
organ, 260
55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 62, 63, 64, 66, 67, 68, 69,
organism, 332
77, 78, 86, 87, 91, 92, 94, 96, 97, 99, 103, 104,
organizing, 524
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

105, 106, 107, 109, 110, 112, 113, 116, 121, 205,
oscillation, 181, 316, 438
208, 228, 229, 237, 238, 244, 245, 248, 249, 250,
oscillations, 156, 181, 198
301, 308, 313, 315, 316, 322, 323, 325, 327, 329,
osteoarthritis, 473
332, 338, 342, 384, 430, 431, 485, 502, 503, 504
osteogenesis imperfecta, 473
muscular dystrophy, 473
osteoporosis, 506
muscular tissue, 331
otitis externa, 507
musculoskeletal system, 502
overlap, 155, 158, 161, 465, 472, 486
myocardium, 246
overtraining, xii, 359, 365, 373, 377, 378, 379, 380,
myoglobin, 254, 386, 398
389, 390, 391, 392, 405, 505
myosin, 401
overweight, 506
N oxidation, 236, 238, 260, 266, 270, 277, 292, 301
oxidation rate, 270
NADH, 274 oxidative stress, 398, 405
nausea, 398 oxygen, x, 56, 65, 222, 227, 228, 230, 232, 234, 236,
NCS, 70, 99 238, 243, 244, 245, 246, 248, 252, 255, 260, 274,
negative mood, 405 279, 280, 282, 285, 291, 295, 301, 302, 349, 362,
negative relation, 265 384, 391, 396, 397, 400, 401, 402, 404, 406, 407,
neglect, 220 485, 496, 510
nerve, 44, 45, 316 oxygen consumption, 56, 301
nerve fibers, 44, 316
nervous system, xi, 55, 257, 272

World Book of Swimming : From Science to Performance, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 Index 535

pools, xiii, 26, 212, 283, 347, 427, 430

P poor nutritional practices, 517
poor performance, 405, 423
Pacific, 150, 414, 459
Portugal, 115, 119, 483
pacing, xiv, 240, 283, 287, 348, 483, 484, 491, 492,
positive correlation, 137, 138, 433
494, 495
positive influences, 370
pain, 60, 68, 385, 503, 504, 505, 507, 508
positive relationship, 130
parallel, 31, 38, 48, 180, 435, 476
posterior cruciate, 503
paralysis, 465, 477
power relations, 121
parity, 465
practical knowledge, 46
patella, 503, 504
praxis, 258, 259, 260, 269, 271, 272
patellar tendon, 502
preparedness, 343, 344
pathology, 60, 65
prevention, xv, 190, 191, 328, 338, 342, 405, 501,
pathophysiology, 60
502, 507, 513
pathways, 229
problem solving, 46
pattern recognition, 416, 424, 425
production capacity, 265
PCA, 97
professionalism, 439
pectoralis major, 53, 61, 62, 64, 92, 103
programming, 356
pedal, 493
project, 46, 53, 66, 220, 414
pelvis, 327
propagation, 44, 47
penalties, 490
prophylaxis, 408
percentile, xiv, 146, 207, 461
proportionality, 214, 232
performance indicator, 404
prostheses, 465
performance-enhancing substances, 509
protein synthesis, 519, 526
performers, 138, 207, 261, 318, 430, 466
proteins, 70, 228, 386
periosteum, 502
protons, 267
permeability, 70
prototype, 123
permission, iv, 349, 350, 353, 355, 398, 401, 448,
psychological stress, 348, 405
450, 451, 463, 505
psychologist, 507
permit, viii, 43, 439, 456
psychosocial factors, 505
personal communication, 11
pterygium, 507
phase decomposition, 88, 89, 91, 92
puberty, xv, 309, 335, 336, 515, 520
phosphates, 267
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

phosphocreatine, 250, 267, 301, 523 Q

phosphorylation, 228, 235, 241, 260, 274, 275, 295
physical activity, 465, 505 quadriceps, 253, 503, 504
physical education, 170, 207 quality control, 523
physical exercise, 393 question mark, 60
physical fitness, 476
physical health, 506
R
physical therapist, 505
radio, 48
physical therapy, 46, 504
radius, 74
physics, 22, 23, 31, 32, 38
reaction time, 388, 449
physiological factors, 348
reactions, 23, 40, 70, 228
physiology, vii, 99, 241, 273, 276, 285, 296, 312,
reactive oxygen, 271
367, 373, 400
reading, 206, 281
pilot study, 132, 241
real time, 72, 425
pitch, 82, 83, 84
reality, 53, 85, 231, 371
placebo, 400, 403
recognition, 416, 502, 503
plasma membrane, 270
recommendations, iv, xii, 168, 186, 188, 283, 315,
platform, 511
356, 373, 477, 495, 518, 520
plausibility, 37
reconstruction, 124, 125, 136
pneumothorax, 511
rectification, 48
polio, 463, 464

World Book of Swimming : From Science to Performance, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 536 Index

rectus femoris, 62
recurrence, 60
S
red blood cell count, 381
salinity, 492
red blood cells, 402
saturation, 373, 396, 401
reference frame, 198
savings, 435
reflexes, 316
scaling, 4, 212, 213
regeneration, 382
scapula, 53, 62, 64, 502
regression, xii, 106, 166, 214, 216, 361, 370, 372,
scarcity, 405
435, 474
scientific knowledge, 135
regression analysis, xii, 361, 370, 372
scientific method, 281
regression equation, 435
scull, 58, 76, 81, 84
regression line, 106, 474
sea level, xiii, 285, 297, 395, 396, 397, 400, 402,
rehabilitation, 46, 56, 328, 342, 345, 513
403, 404, 405, 406, 408, 409, 410
rehydration, 524
sea-level, 396, 397, 400, 402, 403, 404, 406, 410
reinforcement, 5, 6
Second World, vii
rejection, 127, 130
secretion, 393
relative fatness, 208
self-esteem, 506, 521
relaxation, 54, 228, 390
semiconductors, 123
relevance, 122, 123
sensing, 277
reliability, xi, 53, 65, 79, 81, 84, 86, 157, 279, 281,
sensitivity, 281, 370
285, 288, 289, 292, 294, 296, 337, 374
sensors, 66, 71, 84
remodelling, 65
sequencing, 178, 185, 195, 197, 198, 333, 354
repair, 323, 331
serratus anterior, 53, 64
repetitions, 104, 105, 268, 326, 367, 382, 383
serum, 248, 386, 404, 407, 408
replacement, 519
serum EPO, 404
replication, 14
serum erythropoietin, 408
reproduction, 55
serum transferrin, 408
reputation, 523
sex, 116, 150, 170, 352
residuals, 333
shape, 4, 22, 25, 28, 78, 162, 180, 188, 199, 206,
resilience, 523
207, 208, 216, 219, 352
resistance, vii, x, xi, 3, 6, 7, 10, 20, 37, 55, 56, 57,
shear, 4
78, 79, 80, 91, 105, 115, 151, 154, 156, 161, 163,
ships, 4, 6, 24
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

167, 175, 187, 190, 195, 205, 210, 212, 213, 219,
shock, 44, 45
222, 227, 231, 234, 299, 304, 305, 308, 309, 310,
side effects, 271, 523
311, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 323, 324, 325, 326,
signal transduction, 274
328, 329, 330, 332, 333, 336, 337, 339, 341, 342,
signalling, xi, 257, 271, 272
344, 345, 358, 373, 379, 385, 438, 485, 517, 519,
signals, 44, 46, 48, 49, 53, 67, 105, 112, 195
520, 522, 523, 526
significance level, 318, 321
resolution, xiii, 413, 425
signs, 378, 379, 380, 389, 390, 393
response time, 258, 363
silver, 423
responsiveness, 505
simulation, 56, 85, 166, 180, 190, 236, 249, 267, 443
reticulum, 70
skeletal muscle, 44, 53, 248, 250, 253, 254, 255, 260,
retinal detachment, 511
274, 275, 276, 277, 350, 373, 397, 405, 409, 526
rhythm, ix, 175, 181, 186, 188, 193, 194, 200, 202,
skeleton, 205, 342, 502
203, 342
skilled performance, 477
rings, 31, 32, 33, 37
skin, 44, 45, 47, 48, 49, 208, 213, 385, 386, 507
risk factors, 512
sleep deprivation, 387, 388, 389, 390, 392, 393
rotations, ix, 175, 183, 184, 185, 188, 189, 191, 197,
sleep disturbance, 381, 405
503
snakes, 195
rotator cuff, 61, 62, 64, 92, 503
soccer, 207, 220
routines, 325
sodium, 526
rowing, 265, 272, 288, 295, 326
software, 83, 157, 203, 286, 291, 337, 338, 438
rubber, 8, 55, 328, 337
South Africa, 442

World Book of Swimming : From Science to Performance, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 Index 537

South Korea, 414 symptoms, 378, 379, 380, 387, 390, 391, 393, 398,
space-time, 446 405, 502, 506
Spain, 21, 116, 227, 395, 414, 423, 424 synchronization, 46, 60, 316
spasticity, 463 syndrome, xii, 60, 186, 189, 327, 377, 378, 389, 463,
specialists, x, 167, 177, 178, 179, 205, 207, 209, 211, 473, 503, 505
238, 320, 338 synthesis, 124, 391, 401, 410
specialization, x, 205
species, 271
T
spinal cord, 462, 465, 473
tactics, 475
spinal cord injury, 462, 465, 473
talent, 199, 220
spine, 63, 327, 505, 511
team members, 207
spondylolisthesis, 504, 510
team sports, 511, 512, 513
spondylolysis, 504, 510, 511
technical efficiency, 486
sprains, 511
temperature, xiv, 22, 385, 386, 387, 389, 391, 483,
spreadsheets, 417
487, 488, 496
Sprint, 76, 177, 190, 250, 254, 329
tendon, 502, 503
stabilization, 505
tendons, 48, 186, 323, 342, 502
stabilizers, 94, 327, 511
tension, 46, 123, 316, 381, 429
standard deviation, 16, 126, 157, 267, 351
teres major, 53
standard error, 246, 247
teres minor, 62, 64, 92, 103
state laws, 14
testing, xii, 8, 9, 12, 78, 80, 86, 99, 100, 207, 240,
statistics, 466, 512
241, 257, 269, 272, 276, 280, 281, 283, 284, 285,
steroids, 526
286, 288, 289, 295, 297, 315, 337, 338, 357, 359,
stimulus, 70, 246, 251, 252, 253, 262, 263, 359, 363,
367, 388, 474
370, 397, 400, 401, 410
testosterone, 323, 380
stomach, 423
test-retest reliability, 285
storage, 47, 338, 384, 524
textbooks, 14, 22, 25
storms, 510
therapy, 385, 386, 387, 391, 393, 503, 508
strength training, xi, 12, 55, 67, 271, 274, 315, 316,
thermoregulation, 496
317, 323, 324, 325, 327, 328, 329, 330, 331, 333,
thorax, 22, 64, 214
334, 335, 336, 337, 342, 343, 344, 345, 386
tibia, 502, 503, 504
stress fracture, 504, 506, 511
tibialis anterior, 267
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

stressors, 503
tides, 510
stretching, 89, 504
time accounts, 446
structuring, 28
time lags, 163
subjectivity, 280
time periods, 340
subscapularis, 61, 62, 64, 92
time series, 194
substrates, 70, 99, 228, 248, 250, 316
tinea cruris, 507
succession, 27, 524
tinea pedis, 507
suicide, 506
tissue, 44, 216, 217, 260, 385, 387, 503, 504, 507
supervision, 406, 503, 524
topical antibiotics, 508
support staff, 325
total energy, 22, 230, 232, 234, 235, 237, 239, 260,
surface area, 4, 13, 49, 187, 188, 213, 214, 245, 248,
262, 264, 280, 301, 517
455, 457
tracks, 367, 519
surplus, 122, 520
trade-off, 435, 440, 441
surveillance, 509
traditional views, 238
survey, 509, 528
training block, 332, 379, 380
susceptibility, xii, 377, 378, 382
training programs, xii, 253, 259, 270, 280, 316, 347,
sweat, 508, 519, 522
361, 367, 370, 372, 406, 475, 517
Sweden, 479, 480
training speed, 294, 401
Switzerland, 483, 512
traits, 217, 221
symmetry, 71, 87, 97, 98, 99, 101, 113, 117, 153,
trajectory, 73, 75, 89, 90, 93, 98, 109, 141, 157, 188,
166, 167, 171, 172, 191, 431
328, 433

World Book of Swimming : From Science to Performance, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,
 538 Index

transcription, 270, 274, 397 ventilation, 245, 255, 285, 396, 397, 402, 403
transducer, 7, 80, 341 venue, 424, 462
transferrin, 404 vertebrae, 504
transformation, x, 227, 228, 231, 240, 342 vertebrates, 22, 30, 33, 38
translation, 14, 15, 90, 95, 109, 196, 197, 236 vessels, 212
transmission, ix, 193, 198, 202 video, 11, 71, 73, 124, 132, 136, 145, 149, 157, 176,
transport, 236, 244, 246, 255, 260, 271, 274, 275, 284, 357, 414, 416, 417, 424, 425, 439, 440, 441,
276, 415, 416 449, 456, 472, 475, 476, 491, 503
transportation, 415 viral infection, 505, 508
trapezius, 64 viscosity, 4, 25, 28
trauma, 502 vision, 425, 471, 472
trial, xi, 123, 166, 279, 286, 292, 294, 301, 348, 349, visual acuity, 465
351, 355, 364, 379, 381, 383, 384, 403, 475, 493, visual field, 465
495, 496 visualization, vii, 21, 26, 30, 38, 39
triceps, 53, 58, 59, 62, 63, 91, 96, 104, 105, 218 vitamins, 516, 518
triglycerides, 248 vomiting, 398
turbulence, 4, 490, 492
Turkey, 480
W
turnover, 22, 380, 526
waking, 388
twins, 32
walking, 113, 153, 154, 167, 173, 200, 284, 293,
U 312, 482
warts, 508
ultrasound, 503 waste, xi, 26, 257, 272, 282
ultrastructure, 254 weakness, 425, 465
underlying mechanisms, 477 wear, 8
uniform, 14, 31, 120, 121, 122, 155, 318 weight loss, 405, 506, 520
United Kingdom, 279, 298 weight reduction, 521
upper respiratory tract, 380, 391 windows, 51
urine, 509, 521 workers, 215, 308, 309, 350, 353, 367
urticaria, 508 workload, 268, 269, 295, 348, 403
World Anti-Doping Agency, 509
V World War I, 462
Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

wrists, 511
valgus, 503, 504
validation, 46, 84, 269, 358 Y
varus, 503
vasoconstriction, 386 Y-axis, 72
vasodilation, 386
vastus lateralis, 248
Z
vastus medialis, 504
zoology, 446
vector, 35, 36, 82, 120
vein, 509

World Book of Swimming : From Science to Performance, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009. ProQuest Ebook Central,