7-layer OSI MODEL

The OSI (Open System Interconnection)

model is developed by ISO in 1984 to
provide a reference model for the complex
aspects related to network communication.
 It divides the different functions and
services provided by network hardware and
software in 7 layers.
 Thishelps to isolate problems and allows
vendors to focus on just the layer(s) in
which their hardware or software is
implemented and be able to create products
that are compatible, standardized and
interoperable.
The 5 steps of data encapsulation.
•A more detailed description of each layer
follows below, but here's what basically
happens when data passes from Host A to
Host B:
1. The Application, Presentation and Session
layer take user input and convert it into data,
2. The Transport layer adds a segment
header converting the data into segments,
3. The Network layer adds a network header
and converts the segments into packets,
4. The Data Link layer adds a frame header
converting the packets into frames,
5. The MAC sublayer layer converts the frames
into bits which the Physical layer can put on
the wire.
 When the bits stream arrives at the
destination, the Physical layer takes it of the
wire and converts it into frames, each layer
will remove their corresponding header
while the data flows up the OSI model until
it is converted back to data and presented
to the user, this is known as decapsulation.
 The Application layer provides network
services directly to the user's application such
as a web browser, email software and
Windows Explorer. This layer is said to be
"closest to the user".
 Protocols that operate on this layer include:
TELNET, HTTP, FTP, TFTP, SMTP, NTP, SNMP,
EDI.
This layer 'represents' the data in a particular
format to the Application layer. It defines
encryption, compression, conversion and
other coding functions.
Specifications defined at this layer include:
GIF, TIFF, JPEG, MPEG, MIME, and ASCII.
 Establishes, maintains and terminates end-
to-end connections (sessions) between two
applications on two network nodes. It
controls the dialogue between the source and
destination node, which node can send when
and how long. Also provides error reporting
for the Application, Presentation and Session
layer.
 Protocols/API's that operate on this layer
include: RPC, SQL, NETBIOS.
 This layer converts the data received from the
upper layers into segments. The Transport layer
is responsible for end-to-end (also called
source-to-destination) delivery of entire
messages. Provides end-to-end connectivity, it
allows data to be transferred reliably and
sequencing to guarantee that it will be delivered
in the same order that it was sent. Provides
services such as error checking and flow control
(software).
 Protocols that operate on this layer: TCP, UDP,
NETBEUI, SPX.
 These protocols are either connectionless or
connection-oriented:
 Connection-oriented means that a connection
(a virtual link) must be established before
data can be exchanged.
 This can guarantee that data will arrive, and
in the same order it was sent. It guarantees
delivery by sending acknowledgements back
to the source when messages are received.
TCP is an example of connection-oriented
transport protocol.
This layer converts the segments from the
Transport layer into packets (or datagrams)
and is responsible for path determination,
routing, and the delivery of these individual
packets across multiple networks without
guaranteed delivery. The network layer treats
these packets independently, without
recognizing any relationship between those
packets; it relies on upper layers for reliable
delivery and sequencing.
 Also this layer is responsible for logical
addressing (also known as network
addressing or Layer 3 addressing) for
example IP addresses
 Examples of protocols defined at this layer:
IP, IPX, AppleTalk, ICMP, RIP, OSPF, BGP, IGRP,
EIGRP, NLSP, ARP, RARP, X.25
 Devices that operate on this layer: Routers,
Layer 3 Switches.
 The Data Links provides transparent network
services to the Network layer so the Network
layer can be ignorant about the physical network
topology and provides access to the physical
networking media.
 Responsible for reassambling bits taken of the
wire by the Physical layer to frames, makes sure
they are in the correct order and requests
retransmission of frames in case an error occurs.
Provides error checking by adding a CRC to the
frame, and flow control. Examples of devices that
operate on this layer are switches, bridges, WAPs,
and NICs.
 This layer communicates directly with the
physical media, it is responsible for
activating, maintaining and deactivating the
physical link. It handles a raw bits stream and
places it on the wire to be picked up by the
Physical layer at the receiving node.

 It defines electrical and optical signaling,

voltage levels, data transmission rates and
distances as well as mechanical specifications
such as cable lengths and connectors, the
amount of pins and their function.
 Devices that operate on this layer:
HUBs/concentrators, repeaters, NICs, and
LAN and WAN interfaces such as RS-232, OC-
3, BRI, V.24, V.35, X.25 and Frame Relay.
 Hubs are used to build a LAN by connecting
different computers in a star/hierarchal
network topology, the most common type on
LANs now a day. A hub is a very simple (or
dumb) device, once it gets bits of data sent
from computer A to B, it does not check the
destination, instead, it forwards that signal to
all other computers (B, C, D…) within the
network. B will then pick it up while other
nodes discard it. This amplifies that the
traffic is shared.
 There are mainly two types of hubs:
 Passive: The signal is forwarded as it is (so it
doesn’t need power supply).
 Active: The signal is amplified, so they work
as repeaters. In fact they have been called
multiport repeaters. (Use power supply)
 OSI Model: Hubs work on the physical layer
(lowest layer). That’s the reason they can’t
deal with addressing or data filtering.
 Switches on the other hand are more
advanced. Instead of broadcasting the frames
everywhere, a switch actually checks for the
destination MAC address and forward it to
the relevant port to reach that computer only.
This way, switches reduce traffic and divide
the collision domain into segments, this is
very sufficient for busy LANs and it also
protects frames from being sniffed by other
computers sharing the same segment.
 OSI: Switches are on the data link layer (just
above physical layer) that’s why they deal
with frames instead of bits and filter them
based on MAC addresses. Switches are known
to be used for their filtering capabilities.
 Bridges are used to extend networks by
maintaining signals and traffic.
 OSI: Bridges are on the data link layer so in
principle they are capable to do what
switches do like data filtering and separating
the collision domain, but they are less
advanced. They are known to be used to
extend distance capabilities of networks.
 Routers are used to connect different LANs or
a LAN with a WAN (e.g. the internet). Routers
control both collision domains and broadcast
domains. If the packet’s destination is on a
different network, a router is used to pass it
the right way, so without routers the internet
could not functions.
 Common use of routers is to connect two
different types of networks (for example
Ethernet and Token ring) or to interconnect
LANs into a WAN.
 Routers use NAT (Network Address
Translation) in conjunction with IP
Masquerading to provide the internet to
multiple nodes in the LAN under a single IP
address.
 Now a day, routers come with hub or switch
technology to connect computers directly.
 OSI: Routers work on the network layer so
they can filter data based on IP addresses.
They have route tables to store network
addresses and forward packets to the right
port.
 Gateways are very intelligent devices or else
can be a computer running the appropriate
software to connect and translate data
between networks with different protocols or
architecture, so their work is much more
complex than a normal router. For instance,
allowing communication between TCP/IP
clients and IPX/SPX or AppleTalk.
 Another common use of a gateway is to
connect an Ethernet network to an IBM SNA
mainframe environment.
 OSI: Gateways operate at the Transport layer
and on those above it (Session, Presentation,
and Application).
 Repeaters are simple devices that work at the
physical layer of the OSI. They regenerate
signals (an active hub does that too).
 There is an important rule to obey while
using repeaters/hubs to extend a local
network and is called the 5-4-3 rule or the
IEEE way. The rule forces that in a single
collision domain there shouldn’t be more
than 5 segments, 4 repeaters between any
two hosts in the network and only 3 of the
segments can be populated (contain user
connections).
 It is possible to find new products in the
market combining two or more of these
devices into one.
 Examples are:
- Brouter: Works as a Bridge and as a Router.
- IP Switch or MultiLayer Switch (MLS): New
switches with routing capabilities, they
forward data based on IP addresses, work at
the network layer too.
 Signals travel through transmission media,
which are not perfect. The imperfection
causes signal impairment. This means that
the signal at the beginning of the medium is
not the same as the signal at the end of the
medium. What is sent is not what is received.
Three causes of impairment are attenuation
attenuation,,
distortion,, and noise
distortion noise..
 Attenuation
 Distortion
 Noise
 Means loss of energy -> weaker signal
 When a signal travels through a medium it
loses energy overcoming the resistance of the
medium
 Amplifiers are used to compensate for this
loss of energy by amplifying the signal.
 Means that the signal changes its form or shape
 Distortion occurs in composite signals
 Each frequency component has its own propagation
speed traveling through a medium.
 The different components therefore arrive with
different delays at the receiver.
 That means that the signals have different phases
at the receiver than they did at the source.
 There are different types of noise
◦ Thermal - random noise of electrons in the wire
creates an extra signal
◦ Induced - from motors and appliances, devices act
are transmitter antenna and medium as receiving
antenna.
◦ Crosstalk - same as above but between two wires.
◦ Impulse - Spikes that result from power lines,
lighning, etc.
 END
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