ICSE - (Class-VIII)

Chapter-06 : Water

"Less than 1% of all the

water on earth is fresh
water that we can actually
use. We use this small
amount of water for
drinking, transportation, in
industry & many other
6.1 Introduction purposes".
About three-fourth of the earth's surface is covered with water. Water is found
in puddles, ponds, rivers, lakes and oceans. It is present under the ground
THE
and in glaciers in the form of ice. It is also present in air in the form of water
vapour. SPOT 
However, we still hear of shortage of water at many places. This is mainly LIGHT
because: Molecular formula
H2O, relative molecular mass-18
(i) 97.4% of the available water is in seas and oceans which cannot be amu. One molecule of water contains
directly used by us because of its high salt content. A lot of fresh water two atoms of hydrogen and one atom
is frozen in glaciers and in the polar ice caps. Thus, only 0.01% of the of oxygen.
water on the earth is available to us for consumption. Chemical name
Dihydrogen monoxide.
(ii) Water is not evenly spread on the earth. There may be floods at some
places and complete lack of rain for years at other places.
(iii) Groundwater is an important source of fresh water for us. However,
humans have interfered with the natural renewable resources of
groundwater. As a result, the water table (level of groundwater) in cities
and towns is constantly going down and there is a shortage of groundwater.
(iv) Pollution of sources of water, such as rivers, lakes and groundwater
has resulted in deterioration of the quality of water available to us.
6.2 Occurrence of water THE
Water is widely distributed in nature in all the physical states. It is found SPOT 
in the free as well as combined states in certain minerals and crystalline LIGHT
substances. Sleet & hail have different properties,
(1) In the free state though they may look similar. Hail
usually occur in summer season,
(i) In solid state : It occurs as ice, snow and hail stone in polar regions and
while sleet occurs mostly in winter.
mountainous areas of the Earth. As the temperature rises during summer,
some amount of these forms melt down.
(ii) In liquid state : Water in the liquid state covers about three-fourth of
the surface of the Earth. The volume of water in ocean is estimated to be 3
× 1018 cubic metres.
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(iii) In gaseous state : A large amount of water is present in the form of
vapours in the atmosphere. This water plays a vital role in sustaining life in
plants and animals. A dry weather (without moisture) is injurious to plant
and animal tissues.
(2) In the combined state
(i) It occurs in all living matter, All living matter i.e., plants and animals
contain water. 70% of our body weight is water.
(ii) In the form of water of crystallization : Crystals are solids having
a definite geometrical shape. Water is a constituent of certain crystalline
substances. Such water is called water of crystallization. Water of
THE
SPOT  crystallization is taken up by the substances during the crystallization
process. The saturated solution of a substance on slow cooling throws out
LIGHT the substance in the form of crystals. It is during the cooling process that
Water of crystallization is the definite the crystal absorbs water as water of crystallization. The characteristic
number of water molecules with shape and colour of the crystals are due to water to crystallization.
which one molecule of compound
enters into a loose chemical
6.3 Water cycle
combination as the compound The water cycle (also known as the hydrological cycle) is the journey of water
crystallizes out of its solution. in which it circulates from the land to the sky and back again.
This cycle is made up of a few main parts.
(1) Evaporation (and transpiration)
(2) Condensation
(3) Precipitation
(4) Collection
Evaporation: Evaporation is when the sun heats up water in rivers or lakes
or the ocean and turns it into vapour or steam. Water is the form of steam
leaves the river, lake or ocean and goes into the air.
Transpiration: Transpiration is the process by which plants lose water out
of their leaves.
Condensation: Water vapour in the air gets cold and changes back into
liquid, forming clouds. This is called condensation.
Precipitation: Precipitation occurs when so much water has condensed
that the air cannot hold it anymore. The clouds get heavy and water falls
back to the earth in the form of rain, hail, sleet or snow.
Collection: When water falls back to earth by precipitation, it may fall
back in the oceans, lakes or rivers or it may end up on land. When it ends
up on land, it will either soak into the earth and become part of the "ground
water" that plants and animals use to drink or it may run over the soil and
THE
SPOT  collect in the oceans, lakes or rivers where the cycle starts.
The water cycle
LIGHT (The hydrological cycle)
Air containing water vapour is lighter
than dry air, so it will rise especially
if it is also hot. When air rises to Condensation
Precipitation Condensation
higher levels in the atmosphere it
cools down. (Clouds form)

Transpiration Surface
Runoff
Subsurface Evaporation
(underground)
Runoff

Accumulation
(infiltration)

Fig.1 Water cycle

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6.4 Purification of natural water
With the growing population of the world, the need for potable water is also
increasing every day.
A part of the need is met by ground water. But ground water is not available
in plenty at a reasonably small depth in every area.
Moreover, when too much of it is pumped up, its level (called the water table)
goes down. When this happens, no more water can be drawn from that Boiled water
source. Hence, water is mostly drawn from rivers and lakes and purified to Ceramic
candles
make it potable.
Clean
Water is purified on a large scale in establishments that are known as
water
waterworks. Usually, the following steps are taken to purify water.
(i) Pumping : Water is pumped from the source to large tanks in the
waterworks. (a)
Filtration Active
(ii) Sedimentation : Water is allowed to stand in large tanks, called settling through candle carbon
tanks, for a few hours. Mud, sand and other suspended particles settle down. Ultraviolet
The addi t i on of t he smal l quant i t y of pot ash al um( K2SO4 . Al2(SO4)3. lamp

24H2O) helps the suspended particles to settle down quickly. The solid that
settles at the bottom of the tanks are also called sedimentation tanks. Tap water Purified
water
(iii) Filtration : The water from the sedimentation tank is filtered through
layers of sand and gravel. Filtration is also done through activated charcoal, (b)
Fig.2 Water purifiers.
which affords better - quality water. Activated charcoal is a special type of
charcoal made by heating ordinary charcoal in vacuum. This charcoal holds
the impurities strongly.
(iv) Chlorination : The filtered water is now treated with chlorine gas.
Sedimentation tank Water
Filtration tank Chlorination tank

Water from Chlorine

cylinder
a source

Drinking
Sediment Charcoal Sand water
Fig.3 Water purification system.
Electrolysis : It is a process by which a
6.5 Composition of water compound in its molten or aqueous state
allows an electric current to pass through it,
Composition of water by volume : In order to study the composition of and is decomposed by it at the electrodes
water by volume, an apparatus (as shown alongside) called Hoffman's Hydrogen
Oxygen
voltmeter is used (Fig.4).
The two side limbs are fitted with electrodes made up of platinum rods. These
rods allow an electric current to flow through them.
The voltameter is filled with water is made acidic by adding a few drops of
sulphuric acid.
The electrodes are then connected to a battery.
(i) The electrode which is connected to the positive end of the battery is called Anode + Battery – Cathode

as an anode. Splitting up of the water molecule by an

(ii) The electrode connected to the negative end is called the cathode. electric current is an example of electrolysis

As the current flows through the water, the electrical energy splits up the Fig.4 Hoffman's voltmeter
water into hydrogen and oxygen.
The two colourless gases are seen collecting in the side limbs by displacing
the water. It is observed that the volume of the gas collecting at the cathode
is twice the volume of the gas collecting at the anode. In water, the ratio of
hydrogen to oxygen (by volume) is 2 : 1
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Composition of water by mass
The atomic mass of hydrogen is 1. Thus, the mass of hydrogen in 1 molecule
of water is 2 (since 1 molecule of water contains 2 atoms of hydrogen).
The atomic mass of oxygen is sixteen. Thus the mass of oxygen in 1 molecule
of water is 16 (since one molecule of water contains 1 atom of oxygen).
Thus, the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen by mass is : 2 : 16 = 1 : 8
A
O2
H2 B
Test for the gases
Test tubes (i) Bring a glowing splinter near the open end of the anodic limb. The splinter
bursts into flame. The gas is oxygen.
Acidified
water (Hot) Hoffman's (ii) Bring a burning splinter near the open end of the cathodic limb. The
voltmeter
gas burns with a blue flame and is put off a 'pop' sound.
The gas is hydrogen. This experiment demonstrates that water is made up
of two volumes of hydrogen and one volume of oxygen. Thus, the ratio of
Electrical hydrogen to oxygen by volume is 2 : 1
circuit

CHECK YOUR CONCEPTS 6.1

Fig. 5 Electrolysis of water Give one word
1. Water obtained by the distillation of natural water.
2. Water used for drinking purpose.
3. Circulation of water from the earth's surface to the atmosphere and back
to the earth.
4. Water which occurs in nature in free state.
6.6 Formation of water
Water is produced when,
THE (
i) Hydrogen burns in air.
SPOT  (ii
) Metallic oxides are reduced by hydrogen.
(iii) Hydrocarbons are burnt in air.
LIGHT Water is also formed when plants and animals respire. Water is a compound
Water exists in all three states on
containing the element hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio 2 : 1. Water can
earth – solid, liquid and gaseous
(vapour). Because of the atmospheric be obtained in the laboratory by the following methods.
temperature in a major part of the By burning hydrogen in air (oxygen)
earth, most of the water is in the liquid (i) Arrange the apparatus as shown in fig.6.
state.
(ii) Hydrogen gas is dried by passing it through a bulb containing anhydrous
calcium chloride (CaCl2).
(iii) After all air has been driven out of the apparatus, the dry hydrogen gas
is lit at the end of the jet.
(iv) The flame is brought in contact with the cool surface of the gas retort.
(v) Colourless droplets of a liquid collect on the flask surface and trickle
down into a watch glass placed below the retort.
(vi) The liquid is tested with anhydrous (white) copper sulphate. The copper
sulphate turns blue, confirming the liquid to be water.
THE
SPOT  Inlet for
cold water
LIGHT
Water is prepared filtration followed
by chemical treatment free from
bacteria but may contain essential
minerals solutes is called pipe borne
water. Outlet for
hot water
Hydrogen

Anhydrous
calcium chloride
Fig.6 Burning of hydrogen in air.
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6.7 Properties of water
Physical properties of water
1. Nature : Pure water is a colourless, odourless and tasteless liquid. It is
the presence of dissolved minerals and gases that give drinking water a
THE
pleasant taste.
2. Boiling point : Pure water boils at 100°C at 760 mm of mercury
SPOT 
pressure.
LIGHT
The temperature at which a liquid
The temperature at which a liquid boils (boiling point) depends upon the boils depends on the pressure
pressure around it. around it. When the pressure is raised
the boiling point is also raised. This
(i) When less pressure is acting on the surface of a liquid, the liquid can escape property is made used of in pressure
as gas molecules, more easily. cookers.

Thus, at low pressure, the boiling point is also lowered or reduced.

(ii) When the pressure acting on the surface of a liquid is increased, the liquid
cannot escape as gas molecules, easily.
Thus, at high pressure, the boiling point of a liquid is also increased or raised.
Note : In a pressure cooker, the increased pressure raises the boiling point
of water. At the higher temperature, the food cooks faster.
3. Freezing point : Pure water freezes at 0°C at 760 mm of mercury
THE

pressure.
(i) If impurities are present in water, the water freezes at a temperature SPOT
less than 0°C. LIGHT
Water pipes often burst in very cold
Thus, the presence of impurities lower the freezing point of a liquid.
winters. The water inside the pipe
(ii) At a higher pressure, the water freezes at a temperature slightly less expands on freezing, causing the
pipe to burst.
than 0°C.
4. Anomalous expansion : Matter expands when heated and contracts
when cooled. However, water shows anamolous or unusual behaviour when
heated or cooled between 4°C and 0°C.
(i) On cooling below 4°C, water expands instead of contracting.
Thus, the volume of ice at 0°C is greater than the volume of water at 4°C.
As a result, the density of ice is minimum at 0°C.
(ii) On heating water at 0°C, the water contracts upto 4°C instead of
expanding.
Air below 0°C
Note : (a) For a given mass, if the volume is more, the density is less. Ice
(b) If the volume is decreased, the density increases. 0°C
Water 1°C
BUILDING CONCEPTS 6.1 2°C
3°C
How do anomalous behaviour of water help in survival of aquatic life ? 4°C

Explanation Fig.7 Formation of ice at the top of

When water at the bottom of ponds and lakes freezes into ice at 0°C or a pond

below, the ice being lighter than water rises and floats on top. Water
forms the lower layer in which the fish and other animals can survive.
Thus, the upper layer of ice acts as an insulator and protects the fish and
animals from further cold.

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ICSE - (Class-VIII)
5. Density : Pure water has a maximum density at 4°C and minimum
density at 0°C. This means that ice at 0°C has a lower density than water.
Thus, ice being lighter than water, floats on water.
This property of water is very important for the survival of aquatic animals
living in colder regions where water freezes during winter.
As the water in lakes and ponds begins to freeze, the ice formed in the
lower regions (being lighter than water), rises and floats on the surface of
THE
SPOT  the lake. This layer of ice acts as an insulator and prevents the water below
from freezing. Thus, fishes and other animals stay alive.
LIGHT Fill a tray with water and mark the level
of water with a crayon. Leave the tray in the
After a few hours you will see that ice has
formed. Mark the level of the ice with a cryon
Physical constants of water freezer compartment of your refrigerator of a different colour. Now remove the ice from
(i) Boiling point – 100o C the tray and examine the dfference in the level
of water and ice.
(ii) Latent heat of vaporisation – 2268
J/g
(iii) Freezing point – 0o C
(iv) Latent heat of fusion – 336 J/g You will find that ice occupies a greater volume than water.

(v) Density – 1g/cm3 at 4o C Fig.8 To show the change in volume of water when it gets converted into ice.
(vi) Specific heat – 4.2 J/go C CHECK YOUR ANSWERS 6.1
1. Distilled water
2. Potable water
3. Water cycle
4. Natural water
6. Heat and electrical conductivity : Pure water is a bad conductor of
heat and electricity. To illustrate, lets discuss the following activities.
ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 6.1
Bulb
Aim
Battery
To show that water is a bad conductor of heat.
Method
Switch Fill a glass test tube half with water. Tie a metal wire around an ice cube.
Clips Due to the wire, the ice sinks to the bottom of the test tube. Now heat the
A B
Insert sample
water at the top of the test tube.
to be tested Observation
Fig.9 Electrical conductivity It is seen that after sometime the water at the top begins to boil but the ice
at the bottom of the test tube does not melt.
Conclusion
This shows that the heat could not be conducted from the top layers to the
bottom layers of water in the test tube. Thus, water is a bad conductor of
heat.
ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 6.2
Aim
THE
SPOT  To show that pure water is bad conductor of electricity.
Method
LIGHT Fill a wide mouthed jar with distilled water (distilled water is pure as it does
Distilled water and boiled water not contain dissolved impurities).
have no taste. The pleasant taste of Observation
drinking water is due to the presence Introduce two electrodes into the water and connect them to a battery and
of dissolved matter, like air, carbon
an electric bulb as shown in the diagram.
dioxide and minerals.
Conclusion
It is seen that the bulb does not glow. This means that pure water does not
allow current to pass through it. Thus, pure or distilled water is a bad
conductor of electricity.
Now add a few drops of dilute sulphuric acid or some salt into the water.
The bulb begins to glow. This shows that presence of impurities increases
the electric conductivity of water.
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7. Water is a good solvent : Water dissolves many substances forming
aqueous solutions. The substance that dissolves in water (or any other liquid)
is called the solute.
Water (or the liquid) in which the solute dissolves is called the solvent. The
resulting liquid formed is called solution.
Consequence of dissolved minerals and salts in water : Water is THE
universal solvent as it dissolves a larger variety of substances.
Advantages of dissolved salts in water
SPOT 
LIGHT
(i) Minerals are necessary for the healthy growth of living organisms. Plants
Percentage by - volume of dis-
and animals derive their mineral requirement from water. solved gases :
(ii) Dissolved salts and gases impart a pleasant taste to drinking water. In ordinary air
Oxygen 21%
Disadvantages of dissolved salts in water Nitrogen 78-79%
(i) Presence of excess salts in water. Carbondioxide 0.03%
In boiled off air
(a) Makes water unfit for drinking. Oxygen 30-35%
(b) Is unfit for the proper growth of plants. Nitrogen 65-66%
Carbon dioxide 0.6 %
(c) Makes the water unfit for use in laboratories and industry.
(ii) Sea water (saline) which contains large quantities of dissolved minerals
like sodium chloride, magnesium chloride, magnesium sulphate, etc., causes
metals to corrode.
Natural water contains dissolved gases like oxygen, nitrogen and
carbon dioxide
(i) Oxygen dissolved in water is the main source of survival for marine life.
(ii) Carbon dioxide dissolved in water is used by plants for photosynthesis.
(iii) Nitogen in water converts into nitrogenous compounds by the action of
bacteria and serves as a mode of nourishment for water plants.

ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 6.3

Aim
To show that tap water contains dissolved gases (air).
Procedure
Fill a round-bottom flask completely with tap water, and arrange the
apparatus as shown in fig. THE
SPOT 
Gas LIGHT
Graduated
Tube Substances that are apparently in-
soluble in water actually dissolve init
Tap in traces. Even when we put water in
80
water a glass vessel, an extremely small
60 amount of glass dissolves in it. It is
for this reason that, when distilled
40
water is kept in a sealed bottle for a
20 long time, it leaves etchings on the
surface of glass.

Heat

Fig.10 To show that water contains dissolved gases

A graduated tube or burette filled completely with water is inverted over
the end of the delivery tube in a trough of water.

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ICSE - (Class-VIII)
Observation
Heat the water in the flask. Gas bubbles are seen escaping from water.
They are collected in the graduated tube by downward displacement of
water. The water vapour present in the gases condenses on coming in
contact with the cold water in the tube. Obviously, the remaining gases
come from the air dissolved in water, and they escape on heating. Read
Charged
the volume of the gas thus collected. The volume of the gas (air) collected
thermocol rod in the graduated tube shows the presence of dissolved gases in tap water.
The solubility of a gas is often expressed by the volume of that gas dissolved
in a certain volume of a solvent. For example, the solubility of H2 in water
is expressed as 0.02 volume of hydrogen per unit volume of water, at 0°C
Straight path of Water Wavy path of water or 506 volumes of hydrogen chloride per unit volume of water, at 0°C.
Fig.11 To show the polar nature of water. The composition of air dissolved in water is 33% oxygen (compared to
21% in ordinary air), 66% nitrogen and 1% carbon dioxide.
8. Water is a polar compound : Water dissolves many substances forming
aqueous solutions. The substance that dissolves in water (or any other liquid)
is called the solute.

ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 6.4

Aim
To show the polar nature of water
Procedure
(
i
) Clamp a clean burette vertically to a burette stand and fit it with water.
(
ii
) Place a beaker below the nozzle of burette.
(iii) Open the stop-clock of the burette and observe the thin stream of
water that flows down in a straight path.
(iv) Rub a rod of thermocol with a sheet of paper. The thermocol is now
charged.
THE
SPOT  (v) Bring this charged thermocol near the steam of water flowing out of
the nozzle of burette.
LIGHT Observation
Molecular formula of water is H2O. The straight stream of water becomes wavy. It is sometimes attracted to
A very small negative charge (–)
develops on oxygen atom and a very the thermocol and sometimes repelled by it.
small positive charge (+) develops Conclusion
on hydrogen atom. Thus, water mol-
ecule has a polarity (opposite Water molecule has a charge separation and is therefore attracted or
charges) and is said to be polar. repelled by charged bodies.

CHECK YOUR CONCEPTS 6.2

Fill in the blanks
1. Water shows anomalous or unusual behaviour when heated or cooled
between_________and _________.
2. Density of ice is minimum at_________.
3. Water is a __________conductor of heat.
4. Water is a________solvent as it dissolves a large variety of substance.
5. Presence of______lower the freezing point of a liquid.

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Chemical properties of water

(1) Action towards litmus: Pure water is neutral to litmus.

(2) Action of heat or elctrolysis: Water is stable to heat, i.e. it does not
decompose on heating. However, acidulated water can be split up into
hydrogen and oxygen by the passage of an electric current.
THE
2H2O  2H2 + O2
electric
current
SPOT 
LIGHT
(3) Action of water on metals: Metals like potassium, sodium and calcium, Na and K are the metals which react
react with cold water to form the corresponding alkali with the liberation of vigorously with water present in air
and burn. To prevent this, these
hydrogen gas. The reaction is vigorous and gives out a lot of heat. metals are kept stored in kerosene.
Potassium + Water  Potassium hydroxide + hydrogen

2K + 2H2O  2KOH + H2 

Sodium + Water  Sodium hydroxide + hydrogen

2Na + 2H2O  2NaOH + H2 

Calcium + Water  Calcium hydroxide + hydrogen THE

Ca + 2H2O  Ca(OH)2 + H2 
SPOT 
LIGHT
Magnesium, zinc and iron react with steam to form the corresponding metal Sodium forms a silvery globule which
darts about on the surface of water
oxide and liberate hydrogen. These reactions are less vigorous. when it reacts with water.
Magnesium + Steam  Magnesium oxide + hydrogen

Mg + H2O  MgO + H2 

Zinc + Steam  Zinc oxide + hydrogen

Zn + H2O  MgO + H2 

Iron + Steam  Triferric tetroxide + hydrogen

3Fe + 4H2O  Fe3O4 + 4H2  THE

Metals like lead, copper, mercury, silver and gold do not displace hydrogen
SPOT 
either from cold water or steam. LIGHT
Potassium readily catches fire in air
Activity series of metals because it reacts with water vapour.
So it is kept in kerosene oil and
For the reactions of metals with water, it is clear that all metals do not have handled carefully. Do not touch it with
the same chemical reactivity. Some metals are more reactive than others your hand, rather use a pair of tongs.
and as such readily react with other elements and compounds. Accordingly,
metals are arranged in order of their decreasing reactivity, the most reactive
metal being placed at the top list. The metals at the bottom of the series
would be the least reactive and least likely to take part in chemical reactions.

Metals above hydrogen in the series can displace hydrogen from its
compound (i.e., from water/steam or acids).
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Reactivity/activity series of metals
Potassium K Most reactive metal
Barium Ba
Calcium Ca
Sodium Na

Reactivity Decreases
Magnesium Mg
THE
 Aluminium Al

Reactivity Increases
SPOT Metals more Zinc Zn
LIGHT reactive than Iron Fe
Iron is less reactive than zinc, but red hydrogen Nickel Ni
hot iron reacts with steam, forming
Tin Sn
triferric tetra-oxide and hydrogen
gas. This reaction is reversible. If the Lead Pb
hydrogen formed is not removed, the Hydrogen H
iron oxide formed is reduced back to
iron. Copper Cu
3Fe + 4H2O  Fe3O4 + 4H2 Metals less Mercury Hg
reactive than Silver Ag
hydrogen Platinum Pt
Gold Au Least reactive metal

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS 6.2

1. 0°C, 4°C
2. 0°
3. Bad
4. Universal
5. Impurities
(4) Action of water on compounds: (i) Oxides of potassium, sodium and
calcium dissolve in water to form alkalis.
Potassium oxide + water  Potassium hydroxide
K2O + H2O  2KOH
Sodium oxide + water  Sodium hydroxide
Na2O + H2O  2NaOH
Calcium oxide + water  Calcium hydroxide
THE CaO + H2O  Ca(OH)2
SPOT  (ii) Oxides of certain non - metals like carbon, sulphur, and phosphorus
LIGHT dissolve in water to form the corresponding acids
Aluminium carbide reacts with water Carbon oxide + water  Carbonic acid
to form aluminium hydroxide and CO2 + H2O  H2CO3
methane gas (marsh gas).
Al4C3 + 12H2O  4Al(OH)3 + 3CH4 Sulphur-dioxide + water  Sulphurous acid
Calcium carbide reacts with water SO2 + H2O  H2SO3
to form acetylene gas, which is used
in oxyacetylene welding torches. (5) Action of water on non-metals: Non-metals like carbon (coke) reacts
CaC2 + 2H2O  Ca(OH)2 + C2H2 with steam to produce water gas, which is an important industrial fuel.
Coke + Steam 
100  C
 Water gas.

C + H2O 
100  C
 [CO + H2]

Chlorine gas dissolves in water to produce chlorine water, which contains
hydrochloric acid and releases oxygen gas on exposure to light.
Cl2 + 2H2O 
100  C
 2HCl + O2

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(6) Catalytic nature of water : In many chemical reactions, water acts
as a catalyst.
(i) Perfectly dry hydrogen and chlorine gas do not react in the presence of
sunlight but in the presence of traces of water, the reaction takes place
with explosion.
(A)
Moisture
H2(g) + Cl2 (g) 
Sunlight
 2HCl (g)

(ii) Yellow phosphorus burns in air in the presence of moisture. Air

Rusty iron
P4 + 5O2   2P2O5 (s) nails
Moisture
Water
(7) Rusting of iron takes place in the presence of moisture and oxygen
(Fig.12)
(B)
When iron is exposed to moist air, its surface rapidly gets covered with a
layer of reddish brown powdery coating. This coating is called rust (Fe2O3. Air
H2O). Layer of oil
(prevents air
If the formation of rust is allowed to continue unchecked, the iron will get dissolving
'eaten' away and we say the iron is corroded. Rusting can be prevented by in the water)
painting, greasing or electroplating the iron surface. Boiled distilled
water(boiled to
6.8 Test for water remove any
(C) dissolved air)
(1) Water turns white anhydrous copper sulphate blue.
Certain crystalline compounds (compounds having definite shape) contain water
Dry
molecules trapped in their molecules. The crystalline shape and the colour Air
(if compound is coloured) of the compound is due to this water which is called
'water of crystallisation'. If the compound is heated, the water of crystallision Anhydrous calcium
is driven away and the compound loses its crystalline shape and colour. chloride
(drying agent)
When blue crystals of copper sulphate are heated, a white, anhydrous
powder, it regains its original blue colour. Fig.12 To show that presence of
oxygen and water are necessary for
Since only water can produce this colour change, the process is used as a rusting.
chemical test of water.
(2) Water can be tested by its boiling point (100°C) and freezing point (0°C)
ifitispure. Copper sulphate Water droplets
crystals
(3) When a few drops of water are added to blue cobalt chloride its colour
changes into pink.

CHECK YOUR CONCEPTS 6.3

Complete the following reactions

1. H2(g) + Cl2(g) 

Moisture
Sunlight
 White anhydrous copper
sulphate turning blue

CuSO4.5H2O CuSO4 + 5H2O

2. P4 (s) + O2(g) 
Moisture
 Blue, crystalline White, anhydrous

CuSO4+ 5H2O CuSO4 .5H2O

White, anhydrous Blue, crystalline
3. K + H2O 
Fig.13 To show the colour change
4. C + H2O  of some salt due to presence or
absence of water.
Fill in the blanks
5. Metallic oxides react with cold water to form their respective_________.
6. Sulphur trioxide dissolves in cold water to form______.
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6.9 Solution
When one substance dissolve or mixes well with another substance, we regard
the mixture as the solution. A solution may be defined as : a homogeneous
mixture of two or more non-reacting substances whose composition can
be varied within certain limits.
THE
SPOT  e.g. Air is a mixture of gas in gas. Air is a homogeneous mixture of a number
of gases. It's two main constituents are oxygen (21%) and Nitrogen (78%)
LIGHT If may be noted that all mixtures are not solutions. If a mixture is to be
Solute Solvent called a solution, It must satisfy the following two conditions.
Grease Petrol (i) Components should be non-reacting.
Nail polish Acetone (ii) Should be homogeneous.
Sulphur Carbon disulphide
Phosphorus Carbon disulphide
Components of a solution
Iodine Ethyl alcohol (a) Solvent
Chlorophyll Methylated spirit The component of a solution which dissolves the other component in itself,
Paraffin wax Turpentine oil is called solvent. Usually a solvent is the larger component of the solution.
Rust Oxalic acid e.g. a solution of sugar in water is a solid in liquid solution. In this solution,
sugar is the solute and water is the solvent.
(b) Solute
The component of the solution which dissolves in the solvent, is called solute.
Usually solute is the smaller component of the solution e.g. in solution of iodine
in alcohol, known as 'tincture of iodine', iodine is the solute.
Similarly, in carbonated drinks (Soda water), carbon dioxide gas is the solute.
Types of solution
On the basis of concentration
(1) Concentrated solution : If the amount of solute dissolved is more as
compared to the amount of solvent, the solution is said to be concentrated.
Example : 40 g of sugar in 100 ml of water.
(2) Dilute solution : If the amount of solute is very less as compared to
the amount of solvent. Then the solution is known as dilute.
Fig.14 Tincture of iodine is a Example : 4 g of sugar in 100 ml of water.
homogeneous mixture of alcohol and Depending upon the amount of solute the solution can be further
iodine.
categorised into three types
(1) Saturated solution : A solution which at a given temperature dissolves
as much solute as it is capable of dissolving, is said to be a saturated solution.
e.g. At 30°C, 55 g of common salt dissolves in 100g of water. However,
if more of common salt is added to the above solution, it just does not
dissolve. In such a situation, the solution of common salt containing 55 gm
of salt in 100 gm of water, is a saturated solution at 30°C.
If a saturated solution at some particular temperature is heated, the solution
becomes unsaturated, because of the increase in solubility.
If a saturated solution at some higher temperature is cooled, the remaining
solution is stil saturated. The excess solute comes out of the solution and
Fig.15 Alloy is a homogeneous
deposits itself in the form of crystals.
mixture of metal with metal or metal
with non-metal. (2) Unsaturated solution : When the amount of solute contained in a
solution is less than the saturation level, the solution is said to be an
unsaturated solution.
e.g. At 30°C, if 45 g of common salt is dissolved in 100 g of water, such
solution so formed is capable of dissolving more of the common salt, then
such a solution is called an unsaturated solution.
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(3) Super saturated solution : A solution which contains more of the
solute than required to make a saturated solution, is called a super saturated
solution.
Preparation of supersaturated solutions
A staureated solution of a solute, say potassium nitrate, is prepared in slightly THE
warm water. On cooling this solution, the excess nitre does not separate SPOT 
out. This solution contains more solute in it than it can hold at room
LIGHT
temperature, and therefore it is a supersaturated solution.
While expressing the solubility, the
Condition for supersaturated solutions solution must be saturated but for
It is possible to bring down the temperature of a saturated solution a little expressing concentration (mass % or
volume %), the solution need not be
without the excess solute crystallizing out, if : saturated in nature.
(
i
) no suspended impurities, like dust particles, are present in it.
(ii
) the solution is not distrubed physically, i.e. it is left standing still in its
container.

ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 6.5

Aim
To demonstrate that different substances have different solubilities in the
same solvent.
Method
(a) Take approximately 50 mL of water each in two separate beakers. THE
(b) Add common salt in one beaker and sugar or barium chloride in the SPOT 
second beaker with continuous stirring.
LIGHT
(c) When no more solute can be dissolved, heat the contents of the beaker.
While expressing solubility, mass of
(d) Start adding the solute again. solvent is considered but for express-
(e) Is the amount of common salt and sugar or barium chloride, that can ing concentration, the mass or vol-
ume of the solution is taken into con-
be dissolved in water at a given temperature, the same ? sideration.
(
f
) What would happen if you were to take a saturated solution at a certain
temperature and cool it slowly ?
Discussion
(
i
) The amounts of common salt, sugar and barium chloride that can be
dissolved in water (50 mL) at room temperature are different.
(ii
) When a saturated solution at a certain temperature is cooled, the solubility
decreases and the amount of the solute which exceeds the solubility at
the lower temperature crystallizes out of the solution.
Conclusion
Different substances have different solubilities in a given solvent at the same
temperature and in general the solubility decreases as the solution is cooled THE
and the extra amount of the solute crystallizes out.
Characterstics of a solution
SPOT 
LIGHT
(1) It is clear and transparent
A solution if has maximum amount
(2) It is homogeneous and consist of a single phase. of solute present at higher tempera-
(3) It can be filtered without leaving any residue on the ordinary filter paper. ture then it is known as super satu-
rated solution.
(4) The particles of solute do not settle down even on long standing.
(5) The particles of solute cannot be seen even under microscope.
(6) The solute can be easily recovered from solution by applying physical
methods.
(7) The size of particles of solute is less than 1 nm (1nm = 10–9 m)

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CHECK YOUR ANSWERS 6.3
1. H2(g) + Cl2(g) 
Moisture
Sunlight
 HCl

2. P4 (s) + 5O2(g) 
Moisture
 2P2O5
3. 2K + 2H2O KOH + H2
4. C + H2O CO + H2
THE
SPOT  5.
6.
Hydroxides
Sulphuric acid
LIGHT 6.10 Solubility
If w g of a solute dissolves in W g of The maximum amount of solute in grams which an be dissolved in 100
the solvent to make a saturated solu-
grams of the solvent at a given temperature to form a saturated solution
tion, then solubility is given by
Solubility is called the solubility of the solute in that solvent at that particular
temperature.
mass of the solute
= × 100 For example : A maximum of 36 grams of common salt (sodium chloride)
mass of solvent
can be dissolved in 100 grams of water at 20°C (or 293 K) , therefore,
w the solubility of common salt in water at 20°C (or 293 K) is 36 grams.
= × 100
W Solubility of some substances at 20°C
Substance (or Solute) Solubility in water (at 20°C)
1. Copper sulphate 21 g
2. Potassium nitrate 32 g
3. Potassium chloride 34 g
4. Sodium chloride 36 g
5. Ammonium chloride 37 g
6. Sugar 204 g
Various factors that effect solubility
(i) Effect of temperature : Most solids and liquids are more soluble in
water at higher temperatures. Unlike solids, gases become less soluble as
the temperature increases. This can be witnessed by observing water being
heated. As the temperature increases, the water tends to fizz somewhat as
the dissolved gases are expelled.

BUILDING CONCEPTS 6.2

How high temperature in lakes could be a problem for aquatic life ?
Explanation
High temperature in lakes can be a danger for aquatic animals and may
THE
SPOT  cause fish kills. The lower solubility of oxygen at the higher temperatures
can lead to an oxygen-depleted lake.
LIGHT (ii) Effect of pressure : Solubility also depends on pressure. When you
If dissolution of the substance in wa- increase the pressure, you can usually dissolve more gases in the liquid.
ter is accompanied by cooling, solu-
Think about your soda can. They are able to keep the fizz inside because
bility will increase with increase of
temperature. the contents of the can are under higher pressure.
If dissolution of the substance in wa- (iii) Nature of solvent : Solvents with high value of dielectric constant can
ter is accompanied by heating, solu- dissolve polar ionic compounds to a larger extent than the solvents with
bility will decrease with decrease of
temperature. low value of dielectric constants.
(iv) Nature of solute : Ionic compounds (or polar compound) are more
soluble in water (i.e., a polar solvent). Non-polar compounds are more
soluble in non-polar solvents like benzene.
(v) Size of solute particles : Smaller the size of the particles greater is
the solubility. Example, it is easier to dissolve powdered sugar than granules
of sugar.
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(vi) Mechanical stirring : Mechanical stirring increases solubility. Example,
sugar dissolves faster on stirring with a spoon.
The solubility of solids in liquids, however, remains unaffected by changes
in pressure
Solubility of gases in liquids
The gases are usually soluble in water as well in other solvents to a certain
extent. The solubility of a gas in liquid depends on (i) nature of the gas, (ii) THE
the pressure applied, (iii) temperature and (iv) the nature of the liquid can SPOT 
also be taken as solvents.
LIGHT
Effect of change in temperature/pressure on solubility of gases in liquids On boiling water loses its taste. This
Pressure : The solubility of gases in liquids increases on decreasing the is because water contains some dis-
solved gases. On boiling, due to in-
temperature or decreases on increasing the temperature. For example crease in temperature, the solubility
water contains dissolved oxygen, when water is boiled , the solubility of of the gases decreases and the dis-
solved gases are expelled out.
oxygen in water decreases and the excess oxygen escapes in form of bubbles.
e.g. In sea. more water animal species are found in deep sea as dissolved
oxygen is more.

BUILDING CONCEPTS 6.3

On opening the soda water bottle the gas rapdly bubbles out. Explain ?
Explanation
The solubility of carbodioxide in water under normal atmospheric pressure
is low but when under high pressure, its solubility increases as in the case
of soda water. On opening the bottle, the gas rapidly bubbles out because
pressure on the surface of water suddenly decreases and solubility of carbon
dioxide gas in water decreases.
Temperature : An increase in temperature of water causes a decrease in
solubility of a gas in it. Thus, on boiling, water loses its taste. Since taste of
water is due to the gases in it, on boiling, these gases. escape from water,
leavingittasteless.

CHECK YOUR CONCEPTS 6.4 THE

Fill in the blanks
SPOT 
1. The homogeneous mixture of solute in a solvent is known as ..................
LIGHT
A substance that has negligible solu-
2. If the amount of solute is very less, the solution is known as .............. bility is called insoluble, e.g., silver
solution. chloride, which has 0.000015 g as
its solubility. On the other hand, a
3. The component in which solute dissolves is known as ...................... substance that has more than negli-
gible but less than high solubility is
6.11 Crystals and crystallisation called sparingly soluble, e.g. calcium
hydroxide, which has 0.17g as its
A crystal is a homogeneous solid of definite geometrical shape. It has smooth
solubility.
plane surface that are arranged symmetrical and meet at sharp edges.
Crystallization is a process by which crystals of a substance are obtained
by cooling a hot saturated solution.
All crystals of a pure compound are of similar shape, but those of different
compounds may be of different shapes. Some shapes in which crystals exist
are :

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Cubic (e.g., NaCl)
Rhombohedric (e.g., CuSO4)
Octahedral (e.g., FeSO4)
Prismatic, with sharp edges (e.g., KNO3)
In nature too, several crystals are formed, some of which are recovered
from the earth as minerals, e.g. common salt, potassium nitrate, ruby,
saphire, diamond. In some cases, their beautiful colours are due to traces
of water of impurities present in them. For example, the red colour of ruby
is due to a trace of chromium oxide present in its crystals.
(A) In a laboratory, crystals may be obtained by the following methods :
Cubic
(1) By cooling a hot saturated solution
(2) By slowly evaporating a saturated solution
(3) By cooling a fused mass
(4) By sublimation

ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 6.6

Aim
(B) To prepare large crystals of copper sulphate
Rhombohedric Method
Make a saturated solution of copper sulphate at 80°C. Filter it. Allow the
filtrate to cool and leave it for a day. Next morning, a number of tiny crystals
will be seen lying at the bottom of the beaker. Pick up these small crystals,
which are well formed Now, suspend a well-shaped crystal by means of
a thread tied to a glass rod into the cooled saturated solution Cover the
beaker with a piece of paper to prevent dust from getting in. Leave the
beaker undisturbed and watch the crystal grow.
(C) (D)
Octahedral Prismatic Observation
Fig.16 Some shapes of crystals After a few days, the crystal will be found to have grown quite big. The
suspended crystal acts as a seed crystal.
This process of inducing crystallization by adding a crystal of a pure substance
into its saturated solution is called seeding.
Precaution
Avoid dust, or crystals will form around them as well.
6.12 Water of crystallisation
"Water of crystallisation is a definite proportion of water present in the
structure of a crystalline compound".
The amount of water of crystallisation varies considerably as shown in the
followinglist.
CaSO 4 .2 H 2 O Calcium sulphate-2-water
THE
SPOT  CuNO 3 2 .3 H 2 O

Ca NO 3 2 . 4 H 2 O
Copper nitrate-3-water
LIGHT Calcium nitrate-4-water
Anhydrous calcium sulphate CuSO 4 .5 H 2 O Copper sulphate-5-water
(CaSO4) is also known as dead burnt
plaster. MgCl2 .6 H 2 O Magnesium chloride-6-water
ZnSO 4 .7 H 2 O Zinc sulphate-7-water
AlNO 3 3 .9 H 2 O Aluminium nitrate-9-water
Na 2 CO 3 .10 H 2 O Sodium carbonate-10-water
K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O Potassium aluminium sulphate-24-water
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All these compounds containing water of crystallisation are also known
as hydrates.
The water of crystallisation can be removed from some of these salts by
heating. For example, blue copper sulphate-5-water turns to a white powder
as water is driven off by heating.
CuSO 4 .5 H 2 O  s   CuSO 4  s   5 H 2 O g
blue white THE
ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 6.7 SPOT 
Aim LIGHT
To show the presence of water of crystallisation in copper sulphate crystals. Some solids, while crystallizing out
from their solutions, combine with a
Method definite quantity of water, known as
(
i
) Heat a few crystals of copper sulphate in a dry boiling tube. water of crystallization or water of
(ii
) Note the colour of copper sulphate after heating. hydration.

(iii) Observe the water droplets in the boiling tube.

(iv) Add 2-3 drops of water on the sample of copper sulphate obtained
after heating.

Test tube holder

Water Boiling tube
droplets
Copper sulphate
crystals
Burner

Fig.17 Removing water of crystallisation.

Now answer
(i) What do you observe on heating blue copper sulphate crystals?
(ii) Is the blue colour of copper sulphate restored on adding water?
Discussion
Blue coloured copper sulphate crystals on heating leave behind white
anhydrous copper sulphate and water droplets are seen in the upper cooler
parts of the boiling tube. On adding 2-3 drops of water to the white residue,
blue colour reappears.
Conclusion
THE
Copper sulphate crystals on heating lose water to form white anhydrous
copper sulphate which combines with water to form blue coloured copper
SPOT 
sulphate crystals. LIGHT
The white powder is called anhydrous copper sulphate. The term anhydrous Water of crystallization is in loose
chemical combination and can be
refers to a compound lacking water, particularly to salts lacking water driven out by heating the powdered
tocrystallisation. crystals to about 100°C, condensed
Crystalline solids without water of crystallisation and tested. In this process, the
crystals lose their crystalline form and
The crystalline shape of a substance is not necessarily the result of the
become anhydrous.
presence of water of crystallization. In fact, there are a number of crystalline
solids that crystallize from water without holding any water of crystallization.
Examples
Common salt (NaCl),
Nitre (KNO3),
Sugar (C12H22O11),
Potassium permanganate (KMnO4), and Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl), etc.
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ACTIVE CHEMISTRY 6.8
Aim
To show all crystalline solids do not contain water of crystallisation.
or
THE To study the action of heat on anhydrous crystals of sodium chloride and
SPOT  potassium nitrate.
LIGHT Method
The higher the temperature of the air, Heat gently a few crystals of pure sodium chloride and potassium nitrate
the higher the efflorescence. This is separately, in different test tubes.
because the air aborbs more water
with rising temperature and decreas- Observation
ing moisture. On heating, crystals of sodium chloride produce a crackling sound, called
decrepitation. This is due to the bigger crystals breaking up into smaller
ones. The crystals of potassium nitrate melt into a colourless liquid and,
on further heating, produce oxygen which rekindles a glowing splinter.
Potassium nitrite, a pale yellow solid residue, is left behind.
2KNO 3  2KNO 2 + O2
Potassium Potassium
nitrate nitrite
THE
SPOT  These crystalline salts do not produce water on heating.
Conclusion
LIGHT All crystalline salts do not contain water of crystallisation.
Efflorescence substances loose their
weight while hygroscopic and deli- Efflorescence
quescence substances gain weight
There are some salts, which spontaneously lose their water of crystallisation.
when exposed to atmosphere.
This is known as efflorescence. Eventually, a crystalline hydrate becomes
powder by efflorescence, e.g.
Washing soda

Na 2 CO 3 .10 H 2 O 
Dry Air
 Na 2 CO 3 .H 2 O  9 H 2 O

Glauber's salt

Na 2 SO 4 .10 H 2 O 
Dry Air
 Na 2 SO 4  10 H 2 O

Hygroscopy
THE Certain substances, when exposed to the atmosphere at ordinary
SPOT  temperatures, absorb moisture from the atmosphere without dissolving
LIGHT in it. Such a substance is called a hygroscopic substance and the property
is called hygroscopy.
A Desiccator: It is an air-tight glass
vessel with two chambers, separted Hygroscopic substances are generally anhydrous solids or liquids. They
by a perforated disc. are used as drying agents for drying gases.
A suitable drying agent is placed in
the lower chamber while the sub- Example of Hygroscopic Substances
stance to be dried is placed in the 1. Anhydrous calcium chloride : CaCl2
upper chamber.
2. Conc. sulphuric acid : H 2S O 4
3. Phosphorus pentoxide : P 2O 5
4. Calcium oxide (quick lime) : CaO
5. Silica gel
6. Alcohol
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Deliquescence
In some substances a reverse process occurs-water (vapour) is taken up
from the atmosphere. A substance, which takes up water from the
atmosphere, is said to be hygroscopic. For example, copper oxide and
concentrated sulphuric acid are hygroscopic substances. The extreme
example of hygroscopy is deliquescence.
Anhdrous
Deliquescence is the absorption of water from the atomosphere by a calcium
hygroscopic solid to such an extent that a concentrated solution of the chloride
solid eventually forms.
Example of Deliquescent Crystals Fig.18 A desiccator

1. Calcium chloride : CaCl2. 6H2O

2. Magnesium chloride : MgCl2.6H2O
3. Ferric chloride : FeCl3
4. Sodium hydroxide : NaOH
5. Potassium hydroxide : KOH
6. Copper nitrate : Cu(NO3)2.3H2O

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS 6.3

1. True solution (a)
2. Unsaturated
3. Solvent

BUILDING CONCEPTS 6.4

Why table salt turns moist on exposure to air ?
Explanation
Table salt [sodium chloride] turns moist and ultimately forms a solution, on
exposure to air [especially during the rainy season]. Though pure sodium
chloride in not deliquescent, the commercial version of the salt contains
impurities, like magnesium chloride and calcium chloride, which are
deliquescent substances. (b)

Drying and dehydrating agents

Certain substances remove moisture from other substances and are,
therefore, called desiccants or desiccating agents or drying agents. Almost
all hygroscopic substances are desiccating agents.
Examples: Conc. sulphuric acid, phosphorus pentoxide, silica gel and
quicklime.
Dehydrating agents are substances that can remove water molecules even
from compounds. Concentrated sulphuric acid can remove water molecules
from blue vitriol (CuSO4.5H2O), so it is a dehydrating agent as well. (c)
Gases are dried by :
(
i
) Passing the gases through conc. sulphuric acid conc. sulphuric acid has
strong affinity for water so it easily extracts water from many substance
fig.19(a)
(ii
) Passing them through a drying a tower or a U-tube containing anhydrous (d)
sodium sulphate fig.19(b & c)
Fig.19 (a) Drying bottle containing
(iii) A drying bulb containing anhydrous calcium chloride. fig.19(d) concentrated sulphuric acid (b) drying
Quicklime being basic in nature is suitable for drying NH3 a basic gas. tower (c) U-tube (d) drying bulb

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Liquids are dried by keeping them overnight over anhydrous Na2SO4 or
MgSO4 or CaCl2 at room temperature. The solid is then removed by
filtration.
Solids are dried by spreading them on a watch glass or a dish and keeping
it in a desiccator (fig.18) for some days.

THE A desiccator is an air-tight glass vessel with a suitable drying agent (anhydrous
SPOT  calcium chloride) placed at the bottom (fig.18) It is used for drying the solids
LIGHT placed in it.

The process by which amount of 6.13 Uses of water

water is controlled in human blood is
called osmoregulation. This is done
Water is an important medium for the growth and maintenance of plant
by kidney. and animal life.
Role of water in Human body
(
i
) Water is a medium of transport of chemicals to and from cells.
(
ii
) Metabolic reactions occur in water.
(iii) Water regulates the temperature of the body by the process of sweating
and evaporation.
Role of water in plants
(
i
) Water helps in the germination of seeds.
(
ii
) Photosynthesis : Along with carbon dioxide, plants use water for
manufacturing food.
(iii) Transport of minerals : Minerals present in the soil dissolved in the
water and form a solution. This solution is then absorbed by the roots
and translocated upwards through the plant tissues.
General uses of water
(
i
) Water is used for drinking, cooking and washing purposes.
(
ii
) In agriculture, water is used for irrigation purposes through rivers and
canals.
(iii) Due to its ability to absorb large quantities of heat, water is used as a
Fig.20 Water is essential in coolant (cooling agent), for example, in car radiators.
agriculture for irrigation.
(iv) Water is used to produce hydro-electricity in dams and electricity in the
rural power plants and nuclear plants.
(v) Water is used as a solvent for carrying out chemical reactions. Water is
also used as a reagent to prepare many chemicals.

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