Module 1 ➢Carriage: • A carriage is located between the head stock

Principle and operation of lathe and the tail stock and has several parts to support, move
➢ Lathe is a machine tool which holds the workpiece and control the cutting tool. • It is fitted on the bed and
between two rigid and strong supports called centres or slides along the bed guideways and can be locked on bed
in a chuck or face plate which revolves. ➢ The cutting by locking carriage lock screw. It can be moved manually revolve over the lathe saddle and is always less than thick magnetic workpiece and also used where distortion
tool is rigidly held and supported in a tool post which is with hand wheel or with power feed. • Carriage consists of
swing over diameter. ➢ 5. Length of bed ie approximate on workpiece is undesirable due to jaw pressure. e)Collet
fed against the revolving work. ➢ The normal cutting following five main parts. • (i) Saddle (ii) Cross slide (iii)
Compound rest (iv) Tool post (v) Apron floor space occupied by lathe. ➢ 6. Maximum bar stock Chuck:• In production where quick setting and accurate
operations are performed with the cutting tool fed either centering is required for holding the bar stock collet check
a) The saddle is an H-shaped casting mounted on the that can pass through the hole of head stock spindle.
parallel or at right angles to the axis of the work. It is the is used.3. Catch Plates or Carriers ➢ Carriers and catch
top of lathe ways to support cross-slide, compound rest Lathe Accessories
father of all machine tools. ➢ Generally single point
and tool post. 1. Centres ➢ The most common methods of holding the plates are used to drive a workpiece when it is held
cutting tool is used. between two centres. Carriers are driving dogs attached
b) The cross slide mounted on the top of saddle workpiece in a lathe are between the two centres i.e. live
Major parts of a centre lathe to the end of the workpiece by a setscrew. Catch plates
provides cross movement for the cutting tool. centre and dead centre. The different types of centres are
➢ Bed: • The bed is a heavy, rugged casting in which are used for different types of workpieces and also for are bolted to the nose of the head stock spindle. 4. Face
c) The compound rest is fitted on the top of cross slide
mounted the working parts of the lathe. • It carries the
to support the tool post and tool. specific purposes. Plate ➢ It is a circular plate threaded at its center with
headstock and tail stock and provides a base for the a. Ordinary Centre This type of centre is used for general plain and T-slots which are machined rapidly. It is fitted to
d) The tool post is mounted on the compound rest for
movement of carriage purposes and for small operations. b. Ball Centre This the lathe spindle with its central threaded portion. The job
the rigid clamping of cutting tool
➢ Headstock and spindle: • The headstock is clamped on type of centre is used to minimize wear and strain while on the workpiece is held by the face plate using bolts and
e) The apron is fastened to the saddle and it houses the
the left hand side of the bed and it serves as housing for
gears, clutches and levers required to move the carriage taper turning by set over method. c. Insert Type Centre clamps in the slots. 5. Angle Plate ➢ It is a cast iron plate
the driving pulleys, back gears, headstock spindle, live This type of centre is used for the economic purpose and with two faces that make them at exactly the right angle
or cross slide
centre and the feed reverse gear. • The headstock spindle here we can replace only the highspeed steel “insert”, to each other. Holes and slots are provided on both the
Feed mechanism: ✓ The movement of the tool relative to
is a hollow cylindrical shaft that provides a drive from the instead of replacing the whole centre. d. Tipped Centre faces so that it may be clamped on a faceplate and can
motor to work holding devices. The front end of the the work piece is termed as “feed”. The lathe tool can be
given three types of feed, namely, longitudinal, cross and This is very important of all other centres and here the tip hold workpieces on the other face by bolts and clamps.6.
spindle is threaded on which chucks, faceplate, driving is made of hard material. These hard materials will resist Catch plate ➢ Carriers and catch plates are used to turn
plate and catch plate are screwed. angular. ✓ When the tool moves parallel to the axis of the
lathe, the movement is called longitudinal feed. This is
deflection, wear, and tear.e. Half Centre This is very the work held between the centres.7. Mandrels ➢ The
➢Bed: • Bed is the base of machine on which different similar to ordinary centre expect that little, less than half Mandrels are steel shapes that are useful for holding
fixed and operating parts are mounted. • The three major achieved by moving the carriage. ✓ When the tool moves of the centre has been grounded away. f. Revolving rotating previously drilled or stepped turned or bored
units-Head stock, Tail stock and Carriage (cross side, perpendicular to the axis of the lathe, the movement is Centre This is used in the tailstock, it has the capacity of workpieces, for further operations. Mandrels have got
compound rest, tool post and apron) are mounted on called cross feed. This is achieved by moving the cross bearing high-applied force and this can rotate the centre flattened ends for easy gripping by the carriers
bed. • Bed consists of two heavy metal slides running slide.
along with the job or workpiece. This can operate at very Lathe Attachments :➢ Taper Turning attachments :✓
length wise, with ways or V’s formed upon them rigidly ➢ Feed rod: ✓ The feed rod transmits power to the apron high speed. g. Pipe Centre The pipe centres are used for
to drive the longitudinal feed and cross feed mechanisms. Many modern lathes have a taper bar behind the bed. The
supported by cross girths. supporting the open end of pipes. They are commonly spindle can be set at different angles to the spindle. The
➢Head stock assembly : • Head stock assembly is box The feed rod is driven by the spindle through a train of used in production works.
gears. The ratio of feed rod speed to spindle speed can be bar has a sliding block that, during taper turns, is attached
like casting mounted permanently on the left hand end of 2. Chucks ➢ Chucks are generally used to support and by a link behind the cross-slide. The lead screw of the
the lathe and provides mechanical means of rotating the varied by using change gears to produce various rates of hold the workpiece in order to carry out different
feed. cross-slide is delivered so that it does not control the
workpiece or job at multiple speeds with help of hollow operations in lathe. a)3 Jaw Universal Chuck :➢ The 3 setting of the depth of cut and the slide is now
spindle and transmission mechanism. • It houses ➢ Lead screw ✓ The lead screw is used for thread cutting. jaws, which are generally made of high quality steel, are independent.➢ Grinding attachments :✓ The lathe can be
necessary transmission mechanism with speed changing It has accurately cut Acme threads along its length that arrogated at an angle of 120° to each other. During the used for re-sharpening millers and milling cutters, for
levers to obtain different speeds. Cone pulley or gears or engage the threads of half-nuts in the apron when the operation, the jaw teeth are made to mesh with scrawl
half-nuts are clamped over it. grinding hard bushes and shafts, and many other grinding
combination of both could be used to change speed of spiral teeth (Bevel’s teeth). b)4 Jaw Independent operations, with the help of a good electric grinding
spindle. • The Head stock spindle made of carbon or Specifications of a lathe:➢ 1. Height of centres measured Chuck➢ The arrangement of 4 jaw independent chuck, attachment. V bed ways of lathe bed must be covered
nickel chrome steel. from bed. Specifications of a lathe ➢ 2. Distance between which has 4 jaws, located at an angle of 90° to each with thick cloth or canvas to shield them from dust and
➢Tail stock: • Tail stock is a movable casting located on the two centres i.e maximum length of workpiece that can other. Here all the four jaws are operated independently grit from the grinding wheel, and lathe spindle bearings
the inner ways at the right hand end of the bed. • Main be machined. ➢ 3. The maximum swing over diameter i.e. with 4 screws in place of scroll disk used in 3 jaw chuck. must also be protected➢ Gear cutting attachments:✓
purpose of tailstock is (i) To support the other end of the maximum diameter of the workpiece that can be Hence it is called as 4 jaw independent chuck. This type of The gear cutting attachment on the lathe will cut the spur
work part when being machined (ii) To hold a tool for machined without touching bed. ➢ 4. Swing diameter chuck is generally used to hold irregularly shaped and bevel gears. It may also be possible to perform linear
performing operations like drilling, reaming, tapping, etc. over carriage i.e. maximum diameter of the work that can workpieces. c)Combination Chuck➢ The arrangement of indexing, external keyway cutting, splining, slotting, and all
combination chuck, which combines the characters of routine dividing head light milling tasks. This gear cutting
universal chuck and independent chuck. This type of attachment is very beneficial for cutting small gears and
chuck can be used either as self-centring chuck or an for light machining.➢ Milling attachment :✓ This
independent chuck. d)Magnetic Chuck:• It is used for attachment is mounted on a cross-slide of a lathe in place

The milling cutter and the indexing head are attached on contains the feed mechanism. The carriage has of Reciprocating machines
the compound rest. ➢ Thread chasing dials:✓ The side of compound rest. The milling attachment works at right Single Spindle Screw Machines • Single spindle chucking Shaping, planning and slotting can be defined as the
the cut threads on a lathe and lathe spindle with lead angles to the milling cutter, which is fastened to the chuck automatics are designed for parts which must be held in a process of removing metal from a surface in horizontal,
screw is in the same virtual space for every successive or collet.reversible longitudinal feeds - 0.125 mm to 4.5 chuck. All tool movements, speed and feed changes are vertical and inclined position to produce a flat or plane
cut. The majority of lathe also has a thread chase dial, mm per revolution of spindle and cross feeds - 0.050 to controlled automatically. Parts are usually loaded and surface, slots and grooves by means of a relative
which is fixed or attached to the carriage for this reason. 2.25 mm per revolution of spindle. (a) Reach over type or unloaded manually. These machines are built with reciprocating motion between the tool and work piece
Operations done on lathe conventional type carriage. (b) Side hung type carriage. numerical controls or with electromechanical or hydraulic Shaper
1.holding the workpiece between the centres or by (iv) Turret saddle: bridges gap between two bedways with control systems. Fitted at an accessible place on the ✓ Machine tool used for shaping operation is called
chuck: straight turning, taper turning,shoulder accurately machined top surface for auxiliary slide. central shaft are various trips set to operate when the shaper. ✓ Designed for machining flat surfaces on small
turning,step turning,chamfering,polishing,centering, Hexagonal turret is mounted on auxiliary slide. In turret turret is in the back position, work gear change sized jobs.
Thread cutting, facing ,spinning,knurling,forming lathe, the turret is directly mounted on the top of saddle mechanisms, so that a limited range of speeds and feeds 1.Producing a flat or plane surface which may be in
2.holding the work by chuck or face plate or angle and saddle movement affects turret movement. may be employed at each turret position. Turret and a horizontal, a vertical or an angular plane. 2.
plate:drilling,boring,under cutting, counter boring,taper cross slide feed strokes are altered by adjustable trips on Making slots, grooves and keyways. 3. Producing
boring,parting off the central shaft operating a clutch, which disengages the contour of concave/convex or a combination of
3.operations using special attachments : grinding,milling feed drive from the workspindle and brings in a constant these.
Tool room Lathe fast speed drive to the central shaft, so that although the ✓ If the size of the job is large, then planing is used. ✓
✓ A tool room lathe is a precision engine lathe equipped turret has a constant stroke, the feed stroke can be In a shaper , the work piece is held stationary during
with additional attachments needed for tool and die tripped in at any time. cutting, while the tool reciprocates horizontally. the
making operations. ✓ It has spindle speed ranges from • Advantages: Single spindle machines can be set up in a feed and depth of cut are normally provided by moving
reasonably short time, to perform turning operations,
low speed up to 2500 rpm and feeds. ✓ It has steady rest, the work.
with a minimum of tooling and so are suitable for small The main parts of the Shaper machine is:
change gears, lead screw, feed rod, taper attachment,
batch work. Cycle times are high when compared with Base: • Base is a heavy cast iron casting which is fixed
thread dial, chuck, coolant pump, draw in collet
the more sophisticated multi-spindle automatics, even
attachment etc. ✓ Application: It is best suited for test to the shopfloor. • It supports the body frame and the
then the machining costs are reduced where the operator entire load of the machine. Body (Pillar, Frame,
gauges, dies, small tools etc.
works two machines grouped together to perform the Column): • It is mounted on the base and houses the
Principle parts of Capstan and Turret lathe :✓ A turret two operations usually required to produce both sides of
lathe essentially consists of same parts as that of engine drive mechanism comprising the main drives, the gear
a finished blank. box and the quick return mechanism for the ram
lathe with additional parts like turret and its mechanism. Multiple Spindle Screw Machines • In these machines, there is movement. • The top of the body provides guide ways
Motor is more powerful and parts are more heavier. The more than one spindle, where the workpiece can be mounted.
for the ram and its front provides the guide ways for
controls are very complex. ✓ The main parts are: Bed, As a result more than one workpiece can be machined
the cross rail. Cross rail: • Mounted on the front of the
Head stock, Turret head and saddle, Cross slide and simultaneously in these machines. The number of spindles
present could be four, five, six, or eight. Each of the spindle is body frame and can be moved up and down. • The
saddle, Carriage.
provided with its own set of tools for operation. The two types vertical movement of the cross rail permits jobs of
(i) Bed Bed is a long, box like casting fitted with
of multi-spindle machines are: • Parallel action • Progressive different heights to be accommodated below the tool.
rectangular ways upon which a carriage and turret are
action Ram and tool head: • Ram is driven back and forth in
mounted. It also supports the head stock. It provides
Advantages: Delivers several functions simultaneously, its slides by the slotted link mechanism. •The back and
strength, rigidity and proper alignment of parts. ii) Head
Energy efficiency, Reduced production times and costs, forth movement of ram is called stroke and it can be
Stock The headstock is a large casting located on left side
Increased capacity and productivity ,Consistently accurate adjusted according to the length of the workpiece to be
of the bed consisting of the transmission mechanisms results machined.
(gears etc) which operates the spindle at different
Applications Working principle of shaper: Quick Return Mechanism
speeds. These speeds are controlled by the built in speed
selector. All geared headsotck consists of complete Bushings,Spacers,Bearings,Fasteners,Fittings,Inserts,Panel ✓ A quick return mechanism is an apparatus that
geared mechanisms for changing speed by actuating Screws converts circular motion into reciprocating motion in
levers and speed changing may be effected without presses and shaping machines, which are utilized to
stopping machine. iii) Carriage, cross-slide and saddle : shape stocks of metal into flat surfaces. ✓ This
The carriage or chaser saddle is fitted over the ways of mechanism is mostly used in shaping machines, slotting
bed. The front of carriage includes the apron which machines and in rotary internal combustion engines. ✓
The word quick return indicates that the returning

stoke is faster than the forward stroke which help the WORK HOLDING DEVICES IN SHAPER Types of operations performed on shaper the length of the table so that the full length of the table
tool to retrieve back faster after doing a particular job. ✓ 1.Vise: The shaper vise is used for holding and locating (i)Horizontal shaping: Horizontal shaping operations are may be moved on it. 2. Table ✓ The table supports the
Quick-return mechanisms feature different input small and regular shaped workpiece. It consists of a used to produce flat surfaces on workpiece (or) job. work and reciprocates along with the ways of the bed. ✓
durations for their working and return stroke table, base, screw, fixed and movable jaws. The shaper Depth of cut is adjusted by rotating the down feed screw The planer table is a heavy rectangular casting. ✓ T-slots
Hydraulic Shaper Mechanism vises can be classified under following headings 1. Plane of the tool head. The cross feed to the table is given are provided on the entire length of the table so that the
✓ In this type of shaper machine mechanism, the ram is vise (a) Single screw (b) Double Screw 1. Swivel vise 2. initially by using hand till the cut starts and then the work and work holding devices may be bolted upon it.
Universal vise. power feed is employed. The depth of cut or roughing
moved forwards and backwards by a piston moving in 3. Housing ✓ The housings also called columns or
cylindrical placed under the ram. ✓ The machine is 2. Parallel Strips: Parallel strips are used to give solid work usually ranges from 1.5 mm to 3 mm and the depth uprights are rigid box-like vertical structures placed on
consists of a constant discharge oil pump, a cylinder, a support and clearance for workpiece. of cut for finishing work ranges from 0.075 mm to 0.200
each side of the bed and are fastened to the sides of the
mm. (ii) Vertical shaping : Vertical shaping operations are
valve chamber and a piston. The Piston-rod is bolted to bed. ✓ They are heavily ribbed to take up severe forces
used to produce grooves, keyways, parting off in vertical
the ram body. ✓ The oil under high pressure is drawn due to cutting. ✓ The front face of each housing is
surfaces of work. A side cutting tool is set on the tool
from the reservoir. The oil is passed through the valve accurately machined to provide precision ways on which
post and the position and length of the stroke is adjusted
chamber to the right side of the oil cylinder exerting the cross rail may be made to slide up and down for
and it is necessary to enable the tool to move upwards
pressure on the piston. ✓ This cause the ram connected accommodating different heights of work.
and away from the work during return stroke. The down
to the piston to perform forward stroke. Any oil present
feed is given by rotating the down feed screw by hand. 4. Tool-head ✓ The tool head of a planer is similar to
on the left side of the cylinder is discharged to the that of a shaper both in construction and operation. The
(iii) Shaping of grooves, slots, steps and keyways: In
reservoir through the throttle valve. ✓ At the end of a shaper, the parting tool is used to perform grooves, slots, important parts of a tool head are: ✓ Saddle ✓ Swivel
forward stroke, the shaper dog hit against the reversing steps and keyways operations. It is necessary to keep the base ✓ Vertical Slide ✓ Apron ✓ Clapper box ✓ Clapper
lever causing the valves to alter their positions within the parting tool very rigidly. (iv) Angular shaping (or) Dove block ✓ Tool post ✓ Down feed screw ✓ Apron clamping
valve chamber. tail cutting: These types of operations are obtained by bolt ✓ Apron swiveling pin ✓ Mechanism for cross and
Automatic Table Feeding Mechanism of Shaper the swivel head set to the required angle. The angular down-feed of the tool.
✓ The automatic feed mechanism of the table is very shaping operation is used to carry out (or) produce Driving mechanism of planer machine: ✓ Most planers
simple. ✓ This is done by rotating a ratchet wheel, inclined surfaces, bevelled surfaces, dove tail etc. (v) carry this system of open and cross belt drive for the
mounted at the cross feed screw. ✓ This enables a Cutting of splines and gear teeth : In these type of quick return of the tables. This mechanism consists of
corresponding equal rotation of the cross feed screw operation the workpiece is kept between the centres and two belts, one open and one cross operating on two
after each stroke. ✓ It consists of a slotted disc, which the index plate is used for equally spaced splines and loose and fast pulleys. ✓ The main driving shaft is
carries a T-slot. ✓ In this slot is fitted an adjustable pin gear teeth cutting. The different cutting tools are used for provided below the bed. One end carries the pinion
and to this is attached a connecting rod. ✓ The other end cutting gear teeth and splines on the workpiece. (vi) which meshes with the rack provided under the table of
Irregular cutting: In irregular cutting operations the
of the connecting rod is attached to the lower end of the the machine. ✓ Cross belt is used for forward or cutting
rocker arm of the pawl mechanism. ✓ The rocker arm forming tools are used to produce contoured surfaces
stroke and the open belt is for return motion. ✓ Cross
swings about the screw C, and at its upper end carries a like convex or concave surface or a combination of any of
belt is connected to fast pulley and open belt is
spring-loaded pawl. Automatic Table Feeding Mechanism the above surfaces. Normally a round nose form tool is
connected to loose pulley and it enables slow movement
selected for machining irregular surfaces.
of Shaper ✓ The slotted disc at its back carries a spur gear of the table during forward stroke. ✓ Trip dogs are
PLANER
which is driven by the bull gear. ✓ As the disc rotates mounted at each end of the table indicate the end of the
✓ The planer machine is similar to a shaper machine. ✓ It
through this gear the adjustable pin, being eccentric with stroke and belt shifter shifts the belts to the different
is intended to produce plane and flat surfaces by a single-
the disc centre. ✓ This causes the connecting rod to pulleys. ✓ Now open belt is connected to the fast pulley
point cutting tool. ✓ A planer machine is very large and
reciprocate. ✓ This, in turn, makes the rocker arm to and the cross belt is connected to the loose pulley. ✓
massive compared to a shaper machine. ✓ It is capable of
swing about the screw C to move the pawl over one or This enables faster movement and provides quick return
a machining heavy workpiece, which cannot be fit on a
more teeth. Thus transmit an intermittent motion to the motion for the machine table.
shaper table.
cross feed screw which moves the table.
Parts of Planer Machine :
1.Bed ✓ The bed of a planer is a box-like casting having
cross ribs. It is very large in size and heavy in weight and
it supports the column and all other moving parts of the
machine. ✓ The bed is made slightly longer than twice

Open and cross belt drive mechanism with rack

and spur gears: (Quick return mechanism) Types of planer Planer specifications i) The size of the rectangular solid
In this type of mechanism, the open and cross belts Double housing planer A standard (or) double housing in m, (the distance between two housings). ii) The
transfer motion from counter shaft to the bull gear. planer is the most common (or) conventional type of maximum length of the table in mm. iii) The height of
These bull gears are used to give the movement to the planer. A double housing planer consists of long heavy the cross rail in mm. iv) Planing width in mm. v) Power
base on which a table reciprocates on accurate input in HP. vi) Floor space in mm2 . vii) Number of
table. ✓ The two types of belts are used in this
guideways. The length of the bed must be slightly more speeds & feeds
mechanism, one open belt and another one is cross belt.
than twice the length of the table. Two vertical housings
These two belts are used to operate pullies (Both loose
(or) uprights are mounted near the centre of the bed.
and tight.
Open side planer This type of planer has only one
vertical housing. The cross rail is mounted on the vertical
housing and it looks like a cantilever beam. This feature
is used to allow large and wide jobs to be clamped on
the table and reciprocated past the cutting tool. In
openside planer, one side of the planer is opened; large
and wide jobs may project out of the table and
reciprocate without getting interfered by the housing.
Pit planer Pit planer differs from an ordinary planer. In
this type, the table and the workpiece resting on it are
stationary, and the tool reciprocates. It is suitable for
machining a very large work which cannot be
accommodated on a standard planer. The length of the
bed required in a pit type planer is little over length of SLOTTER MACHINE Slotting machine (slotter) is a
Open and cross belt drive mechanism with rack and spur SLOTTER MACHINE reciprocating type of machine tool
the work table, whereas in a normal planer the length of
gears: (Quick return mechanism) The large tight pulley is similar to a shaper or a planer machine. ✓ It may be
the bed is nearly twice the length of the table.
used to give slow forward speed (or) cutting stroke drive and considered as a vertical shaper. The main difference
similarly the smaller tight pulley is used for the quick return
Edge or plate planer Edge (or) plate planer is specially
intended for squaring and bevelling the edges of steel between a slotter and a shaper is the direction of the
stroke. ✓ During cutting stroke (or) forward stroke, the cross
plates used for different types of ship-building works cutting action. ✓ The slotting machine operates in a
belt is on the tight pulley and open belt on the loose pulley
similarly during return stroke (or) idle stroke, the cross belt is and pressure vessels. The plate is clamped to a bed and manner similar to the shaper. However, the cutting tool
on the loose pulley and open belt on the tight pulley. the sidemounted carriage supports the cutting tool. The moves vertically direction rather than in a horizontal
operator can stand on a platform extending from direction. ✓ The work piece is held stationary. The
sidemounted carriage. A large screw drive is used for slotting machine has a vertical ram and a hand or power
moving the carriage. Cutting speed: The cutting speed of planar is similar to operated rotary table
Divided table planer This type of planer has two tables the shaper. The cutting speed in planing is the average Main Parts
on the bed and both may be reciprocated separately (or) linear speed of the table during the cutting stroke (in Base or Bed: ✓ It is a rigid cast iron casting built to take
together. For continuous production works, the small m/min) because in planer the table reciprocates. up all the cutting forces and the entire load of the
workpieces clamped on one table are being machined, ✓ Feed: The feed in a planing machine is the distance the machine.
the other table is stationary and is used for setting up tool travels at the beginning of each cutting stroke and is Column: ✓ It is a vertical member and cast integral with
fresh workpieces so this type of design saves much of expressed in mm/double stroke. the base. Column houses the ram driving and feeding
idle time. Sometimes the two tables may be joined Depth of cut: It is the thickness of metal removed in one mechanisms.
together to hold bigger size works. cut and is measured by the perpendicular distance Saddle: ✓ The saddle is box-like casting mounted over
between the machined and non-machined surfaces and is the guideways on the bed surfaces and it moves toward
expressed in mm. or away from the column and either by hand or power
Machining time: The machining time can be calculated by control to give the longitudinal feed to the work.
using equation for shaper with the changed meanings of
the terms. .
 Feed mechanisms of slotter • The different types of Feed Mechanism: • In a drill machine, we use an electric
feed mechanisms in slotter are (i) Longitudinal feed: motor, V-belt, and pulley to transfer the power from the
This feed is obtained by moving the table either towards motor to the spindle.
Rotating or Rotary table: ✓ The slotter is provided with a (or) away from the column of the machine. (ii) Cross Spindle: • It is a circular taper shaft which helps to hold
circular table mounted on the top of the cross slide. It feed: The cross feed is obtained by moving the table the drill chuck. It is made of high carbon chromium steel
can be rotated by rotating the worm which meshes with parallel to the face of column. (iii) Circular feed: This or stainless steel or steel alloys.
a worm gear connected at the underside of the table. type of feed is obtained by rotating the table about a Chuck: • The chuck is mounted on the lower end of the
Cross-slide: ✓ It is mounted over the saddle guideways vertical axis. The above three types of feed movements spindle, it holds the drill jig. Here also a keyhole is
and made to move parallel to the column face. The can be given either by hand (or) power. v) Automatic provided to change the drill jigs.
movement of the slide may be controlled either by the feed mechanism: In automatic feed mechanism, the bull Electric Motor: • In a drilling machine, we use a single-
power to give the cross feed. gear has a cam groove on its face. A roller follower slides phase ac motor. Which can run at an rpm of 600-5000,
Ram and Tool head assemble: ✓ The ram is mounted on in this groove. The roller is attached to a lever and this or maybe more for high duty drilling machine
the guideways of the column and reciprocates by holding lever has a slot on the other end. The lever is pivoted at Pully or gears: • Pully or gears is used to transmit power
the tool at its bottom end of the tool head. the middle with the body. A feed adjustment pin is fitted and also for getting different speed. In a drilling
in the slot of the lever machine, we use bevel gear to transmit power at an
Slotter operation method • In slotter operation method, Work holding devices in slotter • Work holding devices angle of 90 degrees.
the workpiece is held in a vice (or) clamped directly on used in slotter are (i) Clamps (ii) T-bolts (iii) Vise (iv) TWIST DRILL NOMENCLATURE ✓ Axis: It is the
the workpiece. The slotter tool is held in the tool post Special fixtures • The workpiece is held on a slotter table longitudinal center-line of the drill. ✓ Diameter: Largest
and the ram holding tool reciprocates vertically up and (or) vice by using T-bolts and clamps. The axis of gear is diameter measured across the top of the lands behind
down. The ram gets power from the driving mechanism. aligned with the axis of the rotary table and cylindrical the point. ✓ Back Taper: The diameter reduces slightly
During forward stroke only, the cut will be taken and the Specification of slotter (i) The maximum size of stroke jobs can be held in table vice by using V-block toward the shank end of the drill, this is known as “back
return stroke is idle. • The depth of cut and feed rate are length (ii) Rotary table diameter (iii) Maximum travel taper”. Back taper provides clearance between the drill
controlled by movement of the table. i.e. the depth of cut length of saddle and cross slide (iv) Power of the motor
is given by longitudinal movement of the table and the
Drilling Machine Drilling is a material-removing or and work-piece preventing friction and heat. ✓ Body: It
in HP (v) Weight of the slotter (vi) Floor space (viii) Type
cutting process in which the tool uses a drill bit to cut a hole is the part of the drill from its extreme point to the
feed is given by cross movement (or) rotary movement of of drive
the table.
of circular cross section in solid materials. commencement of the neck. ✓ Neck : The portion with
Drive mechanisms of slotter Parts of a drilling Machine reduced diameter in between body and shank. ✓ Shank :
Whit-worth quick return mechanism of slotter This Base: • It is one of the main parts of a drilling machine, It is the part of the drill by which it is held and driven.
mechanism consists of a pinion, bull gear, crank pin, it carries the entire weight of the machine, and transfer The shank may be straight or taper. ✓ Tang : The
sliding block and crank plate. The electric motor is used the weight to the ground. • The base of a drilling
to drive the pinion and the pinion rotates the bull gear. flattened end of the taper shank is known as tang. ✓
machine is generally made of cast iron or steel, and it is
The bull gear has a crank pin and the sliding block is Point : It is the conical sharpened end of the drill. ✓
very rigid
fitted over the crank pin. The sliding block slides in the Flank : Surface of drill which extends behind the lip to
Column or pillar: • The column or pillar is situated on
slot of a crank plate. The crank plate is pivoted one side of the base. In general, we use a radial column flute. ✓ Flutes : The grooves in the body of the drill are
eccentrically on a pin ‘S’ and this pin is fixed to the body so that the movement of the arm is possible in a known as flutes. ✓ Flute Length: The length of flute
of the slotter. The crank plate is connected to the ram by clockwise or anti-clockwise direction. measured from the drill point to the end of the flute run
a connecting rod by using pins P and Q. The crank pin Upper arm: • At the top of the column, there is an upper out.Flute length determines the maximum depth of
rotates about the center of bull gear ‘C’ and at the same arm, which carries the drill head and also the house of drilling. ✓ Margins: The cylindrical portion of the land
time, the sliding block slides along the slot of the crank the driving mechanism. The upper arm is also made of that is not cut away to provide clearance. ✓ Helix Angle:
plate. The crank plate and crank pin ‘P’ will rotate about the same material as the base. To make the structure Angle formed between a line drawn parallel to the axis
it center ‘S’. This rotary motion is converted into rigid. of the drill and the edge of the land. (30° or 45°) ✓ Point
reciprocating motion of ram by the connecting rod. Worktable: • The worktable is generally made of cast angle : This is the angle included between the two lips
iron and it is mounted on the column. T-slots are projected upon a plane parallel to the drill axis and
provided at the top surface of the table may be in some parallel to the two cutting lips (118°). ✓ Chisel Edge :It is
table there is a vice which also helps to hold the job. the point where two cutting lips meets at extreme tip. ✓
Drill head: • One side of the arm a drill head is mounted, Chisel Edge Angle : Angle between chisel edge and
a drill head is consist of various feed and driving cutting lip measured in a plane normal to axis.
mechanism.

MODULE 2 Working Principle of Milling Machine • In milling OPERATIONS PERFORMED ON MILLING MACHINE Milling machine types ✓ Milling machines are used for
Milling • Milling is the machining process in which the machine, the metal is cut by means of a rotating cutter Plain milling or slab milling: ✓ It is a method of machining flat surfaces, contoured surfaces, surfaces of
removal of metal takes place due to the cutting action of having multiple cutting edges. For cutting operation, the producing a plain, flat, horizontal surface parallel to the revolution, external and internal threads, and helical
a rotating milling cutter. • The cutter rotates at high workpiece is fed against the rotary cutter. • As the axis of rotation of the cutter surfaces of various cross sections.
speed, and because of the many cutting edges, it workpiece moves against the cutting edges of milling Face milling: ✓ It is a method of producing a flat Column and knee type milling machine It is the most
removes metal at a very fast rate. • The metal removal cutter, metal is removed in form chips of trochoid surface at right angles to the axis of the cutter. common type of milling machine. It has two main
rate is high as compared to a lathe machine, planner shape. • Machined surface is formed in one or more Side milling: ✓ It is the operation of production of a flat structural elements. (i) a column shaped main frame (ii)
machine, and shaper machine. • It has good accuracy passes of the work. • The work to be machined is held in vertical surface on the side of a work-piece by using a a knee shaped projection The table is mounted on the
and a better surface finish. • Milling machines are used knee - casting which in turn is mounted on the vertical
a vice, a rotary table, a three jaw chuck, an index head, side milling cutter Angular milling: ✓ It is a method
for machining flat surfaces, contoured surfaces, surfaces between centers, in a special fixture or bolted to slides of the main column. The column contains the
of producing a flat surface making an angle to the axis
of revolution, external and internal threads, and helical machine table. • The rotatory speed of the cutting tool spindle and its driving mechanism and the knee is
of the cutter. Gang milling: ✓ It is a method of milling
surfaces of various cross sections. and the feed rate of the workpiece depend upon the vertically adjustable on the column so that the table can
by means of two or more cutters simultaneously having
PARTS type of material being machined. be moved up and down to accommodate workpiece of
same or different diameters mounted on the arbor of
Base • The base of the machine is grey iron casting and MILLING METHODS various size and heights.
the milling machine Form milling: ✓ It is, a method of
serves as a foundation member for all other parts which Peripheral milling In this type of milling, the (ii) Manufacturing (or) Fixed bench type ✓ The fixed bed
rests on it. producing a surface having an irregular outline.
operations are performed by milling cutter to produce a type milling machines are comparatively large in size,
Column • The column is the main supporting frame End milling: ✓ It is a method of milling slots, flat
machined surface which is parallel to the axis of rotation heavy and rigid. These machines are used for large
mounted on the base. • It is box-shaped and houses all surfaces and profiles by end mills.
of the cutter. The cutting force is not uniform in production work of making duplicate parts very fast. ✓
the driving mechanism for the spindle and feed table. Profile milling: ✓ It is the operation of reproduction of
peripheral milling. The quality of the surface depends The construction of table mounting differs from column
Knee: • The knee is a fixed grey iron casting that slides an outline of a template or complex shape of a master
upon, (i) Rotation of the cutter (ii) Direction of feed and knee type milling machine. In fixed bed type, the
up and down on the vertical ways of the column face. • movement of the work. die on a workpiece. Saw milling: ✓ It is a method of table is mounted directly on the ways of fixed bed, the
The adjustment of height is affected by an elevating 1. UP-Milling or Conventional Milling In the up-milling producing deep slots and cutting materials into the table movement is restricted to reciprocatory motion at
screw mounted on the base that also supports the knee. or conventional milling, the metal is removed in form of required length by slitting saws. Straddle milling: ✓This right angles to the spindle axis with no provision for
Saddle • On the top of the knee is placed the saddle, small chips by a cutter rotating against the direction of operation is used to produce a flat vertical surfaces on cross (or) vertical adjustment; so the table travels
which slides on guideways set exactly at 90 degrees to both sides of the workpiece by using two side milling
travel of the workpiece. ✓ In this type of milling, the longitudinal direction only. The vertical adjustment is
the column face cutter mounted on the same arbor. The distance provided in the spindle head and a transverse
chip thickness is minimum at the start of the cut and
Table: • It rests on guideways on the saddle and travels between this two cutters are adjusted by using spacing adjustment is used to build into the spindle quill (or)
maximum at the end of cut. 2. Down-Milling or Climb
longitudinally. • The top of the table is finished
Milling ✓ Down milling is also known as climb milling. ✓ collars. Gang milling: ✓ The gang milling operation is ram.
accurately and T-slots are provided for clamping the used for machining several surfaces of a workpiece
In this method the metal is removed by a cutter rotating (iii) Planer type milling machine ✓ The planer type
work and other fixtures. simultaneously by feeding the worktable against a
in the same direction of feed of the workpiece. milling machine is used in heavy duty work. The work is
Table: • Overhanging arm • Overhanging arm act as a number of cutter having same (or) different size
support for the arbor. Face Milling ✓ Face milling is one type of milling diameters mounted on the arbor of the machine.
clamped on a long table, has only a longitudinal
process. Face milling produces a flat surface movement and is fed against the rotating cutter at the
Front brace • It is extra support, which provides rigidly Gear Cutting The gear cutting operation is performed
perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the cutter. The exact speed. ✓ In general, planer milling machine can be
to the arbor and the knee. • The front base is fitted by using form relieved cutter in milling machine. The
main advantages of face milling operation is both classified into two types. (i) Single column planer milling
between the knee and overarm. form relieved cutter may be cylindrical (or) end mill
upmilling and down milling may be performed machine (ii) Double column planer milling machine ✓ In
Spindle: • The spindle of the machine is located in the type. Form milling: ✓ This operation is used to planer type miller, the cross rail is capable of being
upper part of the column and receives power from the simultaneously on the work surface.
produce irregular contours by using form cutter. If raised (or) lowered. It can carry the cutters, their heads,
motor through belts, gears, and clutches and transmit it machining operation is finished, the formed surface is
to the arbor. and the saddles; all are supported by rigid uprights.
checked by a template gauge.
Arbor: • Arbor is an extension of the machine spindle on T-slot milling ✓ T-slot milling operation uses T-slot
which milling cutters are securely mounted and rotated. cutter in order to make T-slot shaped workpiece. This
operation is used to produce T-slots in various
worktables like shaping and milling work tables.

Milling cutter nomenclature CUTTING SPEED AND FEED IN MILLING OPERATION

Body of cutter It is the main part of the cutter on which Cutting Speed It is the distance traveled per minute by Compound indexing Using the simple indexing method, grinding machines-Classification Based on Type of
the teeth rests. (ii) Cutting edge The edge formed by the the cutting edge of the cutter. It is measured at the a majority of the indexing jobs could be completed. surface finish (1) Rough grinders (i) Floor stand and
intersection of the face and the circular land of primary circumference of the cutter and is expressed in mts/min However when the available capacity of the index plates Bench grinders (ii) Portable and Flexible shaft grinders
clearance. (iii) Face The portion of the gash adjacent to or feet per minute. is not sufficient to do a given indexing job, the (iii) Abrasive belt grinders (iv) Swing frame grinders (v)
the cutting edge on which the chip impinges as it is cut ✓ Feed The feed in a milling machine is defined as the compound indexing method could be used. In order to Wire sawing (2) Precision grinders (a)Cylindrical
from the work is called face. (iv) Fillet The curved surface rate with which the workpiece advances under the obtain more complex indexing, this method is used. grinders (i) Centre type (Plain and Universal)
at the bottom of gash which joins the face of one tooth cutter. The feed is expressed to the milling machine in First, the crank is moved in the usual fashion in the (ii)Centreless type (b) Internal grinders (i) Chuck type
to the back of the tooth immediately ahead is called the following three different ways: (a) Feed per minute forward direction. (Plain and Universal) (i) Planetary (iii) Centreless
fillet. (v) Gash The chip space between the back of one (fm) → It is the distance by which the work moves in Differential indexing Though compound indexing as (c) Surface grinders (i) Reciprocating table (Horizontal
tooth and face of the next tooth is called gash. (vi) Land one minute is known as feed per minute. It is usually explained above is a convenient way to get any indexing and Vertical) (ii) Rotating table (Horizontal and Vertical
The part of the back of tooth adjacent to the cutting represented in millimeters per minute. (b) Feed per required, it is fairly cumbersome to use in practice. spindle) (d) Tool and Cutter grinder (i) Universal (ii)
edge which is relieved to avoid interference between the tooth (fz ) → It is the distance that the work advances in Hence differential indexing is used for that purpose Vertical spindle (e) Special grinding machine (i) Roll
surface being machined and the cutter is called land. (vii) the time between joining by two successive teeth is which is exactly an automatic way to carry out grinding machines (ii) Crank pin and Cam grinding
Outside diameter The diameter of the circle passing known as feed per tooth. It is usually represented in compound indexing method. It differential Indexing, the machines (iii)Honing and lapping machines (iv) Super
through the peripheral cutting edge is called outside millimeters per tooth of the cutter. (c) Feed per Index plate is made free to rotate. A gear is connected finishing thread grinders
diameter. (viii) Root diameter The diameter of the circle revolution (f rev) → It is the distance that the work to the back end of the driving head spindle workpiece
passing through the bottom of the fillet is called root advances in the time the cutter turns through one spindle while another gear is mounted on a shaft, and is Grinding Machine Parts
diameter complete revolution is known as feed per revolution. It connected to the shaft of the index plate through bevel • Base or Bed: The base or Bed is made up of cast iron.
Cutter Angle It is similar to a single point cutting tool. A is represented in millimeters per revolution of the gears It is situated horizontally and it is the bottom part of the
milling cutter is provided with a rake, clearance and cutter. grinding machine, provides support to all the grinding
other cutting angles for the efficient removal of chips. ✓ Metal Removal Rate This is the volume of metal Grinding Machine • A grinding machine is a parts. When machine operation starts some vibration
The different cutter angles are listed below: (i) Relief removed in cubic mm per minute (inch3/minute). It is occurs therefore base acts as an absorber of vibrations.
production machine tool used in the manufacturing
Angle The angle between the land of a tooth and the designed using values for cutting depth, width, and • Column: Colum is like a vertical pillar of the machine
industry in which the grinding wheel is attached in the
tangent to the outside diameter of cutter at the cutting feed. ✓ Depth of Cut It is defined as the thickness of the tool post and the workpiece is fixed to the work table
in this section the abrasive wheel, wheel head, and
edge of that tooth is called relief angle. (ii) Primary material removed in one pass of the work under the wheel guard are kept. The column is also made up of
and when the operation starts it removes the unwanted
Clearance Angle This angle is formed by the back of the cutter. The depth of cut is the perpendicular length that cast iron. • Headstock: The headstock work is to match
material to get the desired surface finish, correct size,
tooth with a line drawn tangent to the periphery of the is measured between the original and final surface of the center and helps to grip the workpiece. Tailstock: •
and accurate shape of the workpiece.
cutter at the cutting edge. (iii) Secondary Clearance the workpiece and is represented in mm Tailstock is known as dead center. It also provides
MAINLY USED ; to obtain very high surface finish—to
Angle This angle is formed by the secondary clearance gripping to the work piece. • Work Table: A worktable is
INDEXING AND DIVIDING HEADS ✓ Indexing is the sharpen the cutting tools – to machine hard surface – to
surface of the tooth with a line drawn tangent to the like a magnetic chuck that holds the workpiece.
operation of dividing the periphery of a piece of work grind threads
periphery of the cutter at the cutting edge. (iv) Rake • Wheel Head: In this section, the abrasive wheels
into any number of equal parts. In cutting spur gear Principle of operation of grinding • A typical grinding
Angle The angle is measured in the diametral plane which are our tool for operation are placed and this is
equal spacing of teeth on the gear blank is performed by wheel consists of abrasive particle, bonding material and
between the face of the tooth and a radial line passing moved vertically up and down. With the use of a Feed
indexing. Indexing is accomplished by using a special voids. • Grinding refers to the removal of metal by an
through the tooth cutting edge. The rake angles may be hand, we can adjust the wheel head.. • Grinding or
attachment known as dividing head or index head. The abrasive wheel rotating at high speeds and working on
positive (+ve) (or) negative (-)ve or zero (0). (v) Positive Abrasive Wheel: Grinding or Abrasive wheel is our main
dividing heads are of three types: (1) Plain or simple the external or internal surface of a metallic work piece
rake If the tooth face is titled so that the face and tooth tool used here to remove the unwanted material from
dividing head, (2) Universal dividing head and (3) Optical to be abraded by the grinding wheel. • The projected
body are on the same side of the radial line, then the the workpiece to get desired smoothness and surface
dividing head. abrasive particles act like cutting tool tips and remove
rake angle contained by the radial line and the tooth finish. Coolant Supply Nozzle: The main work of the
Simple indexing In this case, different index plates with metal. • As cutting proceeds the abrasive particles at
face is positive. (vi) Negative rake If the tooth face is coolant supply nozzle is to cool or reduce the
varying Simple indexing number of holes are used to cutting edge becomes dull and cracked along the
titled, so that the face and the tooth body are on the temperature generated while performing the operation.
increase the range of Indexing. ✓ The Index is fixed in cleavage plane due to resistance offered by workpiece. -
opposite side of the radial line, then the rake angle - Thus new cutting points are produced which carry out
position by a pin called lock pin. The spindle is then
contained by the radial line and the tooth face is further action, continuing the process till the abrasive
rotated by rotating the handle which is keyed to the
negative. (vii) Zero rake If the radial line and tooth face grains get worn out till the level of bond
worm – shaft
coincide in the diameter plane, then the rake angle is
zero.

Cylindrical grinding • In cylindrical grinding operation, Through-feedgrinding This is simplest method and is Planetary type In planetary type, the wheel spindle is so Grinding Wheel • A grinding wheel is an expendable
the work is mounted between two centres and is applicable only for plain parallel parts such as roller pins arranged that besides rotating on its axis, it can also be wheel that is composed of an abrasive compound used
rotated. A grinding wheel is mounted on a spindle and and straight long bars which are difficult to grind by made to run eccentrically, thus making it possible to for various grinding (abrasive cutting) and abrasive
revolves at much higher r.p.m. than the work. The work ordinary grinding method. • In this, the regulating wheel grind large holes of varying diameter depending upon machining processes. • They are used in grinding
centres are mounted on a table which can traverse at is first positioned for the proper diameter i.e the gap how much the wheel spindle is made to run eccentric. machines. • The wheels are generally made from a
various feeds so that the entire length of the work between the regulating wheel and grinding wheel is Centreless type In centreless internal grinding, the work matrix of coarse particles pressed and bonded together
passes to and fro in front of the wheel. The depth of cut adjusted equal to the diameter of the workpiece and is supported by three rolls. • One is regulating roll and to form a solid, circular shape. • Various profiles and
is very small, about 0.015 mm. When the entire length of then job is fed and passed through the wheels. other two are - pressure roll to hold the workpiece firmly cross sections are available depending upon the
work has passed infront of the wheel, the wheel In-feed centreless grinding (plunge cut grinding) against the support and regulating roll. • The grinding intended usage of wheel.
advances forward by another 0.015 mm at the end of the This method is used for grinding workpiece having head, wheel contacts the inside diameter of work directly characteristics of Grinding wheel • There are six
traverse and so the cycle of machining goes on, until the step or taper form. In this case, there is no axial opposite to the regulating roll, thus giving uniform important characteristics of a Grinding wheel • (i)
desired diameter of the work piece is reached. The result movement of workpiece as the length of grinding has to thickness of workpiece and concentricity. Internal Material (Type of abrasive used); • (ii) Grain size; • (iii)
is a long cylinder of perfectly circular profile with very be controlled. • The only movement occurring during centreless grinding are used to grind internal diameters Wheel grade; • (iv) Grain spacing; • (v) Bond type; • (vi)
fine surface finish. this process is rotating movement. • The workpiece is with a purpose to truing to its outside diameters eg. Size and shape.
four types of motions in cylindrical centre type of grinders placed on the work rest against an end stop and then bearing races Honing • Honing is an abrasive machining process of
1.Rotation of workpiece between the centers or chuck. the regulating wheel is advanced towards grinding Surface grinding Surface grinding is grinding of flat or removing stock from metallic or non metallic surfaces by
2. Traverse motion of workpiece passing the grinding wheel by some level arrangement and grinding plain surfaces. Angular or formed surface can also be means of revolving honing tool that also reciprocates up
wheel. 3. Rotation of grinding wheel. 4. Movement of continues till the workpiece is reduced to the required obtained by using special fixtures and form dressing and down inside the work piece. • Honing is used to
grinding wheel into workpiece to give depth of cut. diameter. devices. • A surface grinding does the operations like a correct local irregularities such as ovality, waviness of
End-feed centreless grinding This process is used for milling, shaping or planing machine with high degree of axis or non parallelism of cylindrical surfaces and to
Plunge-centre type grinding machine In this type of headed components which are too long to be ground by dimensional tolerance and surface finish. • Principle and develop a particular texture. • Honing is usually applied
grinding machines, the wheel is plunged into the work at infeed method. i.e. when the length of the workpiece to construction Basically a surface grinder consists of a to internal cylindrical surfaces but special machines
a pre-determined feed rate, the grinding wheel is be ground is greater than the face width of the grinding movable table with a horizontal or vertical spindle have been developed for honing external surfaces also.
withdrawn only after the required work dimension is wheel. • It is also used for taper jobs. • The work is fed grinding wheel mounted on it. The purpose of honing operation is • (i) To remove
obtained. • These are basically high volume production as in case of in-feed method and after a certain portion Types of surface grinding machines metal upto 0.5 mm from primary honing and upto 0.01
machines. • Angular wheel slide and straight plunge of length of workpiece has been ground, the axial Planar or reciprocating table n reciprocating type, the mm for secondary or mirror honing. • (ii) To generate
grinding machines are available movement takes place until the whole length has been work table reciprocates back and forth under the roundness and straightness. • (iii) To generate hole sizes
ground. grinding wheel. • The cross feed may also be provided upto 50 mm diameter with 0.005 mm accuracy and
Centre-less type grinding machine • In centre-less type Internal grinders Internal grinders are used for finishing either on the table or on the wheel head. • In horizontal holes between 50 to 150 mm with accuracy of 0.01 mm.
grinders, the work is not supported between centres but internal bores and tubes which are generally straight, spindle type, it has a horizontal spindle and the face of • (iv) To produce very high surface finish of 0.075 µm CL
is held against the face of grinding wheel by combination tapered or stepped having more than one diameters. • the wheel is used for grinding. • The work is traversed Honing stones are made from common abrasive stones
of supporting rest and a regulating wheel. • Thus it does The finishing is generally for the purpose of bringing the under the wheel face gradually. Work is also fed laterally called hones. • Honing stones are made from common
not require centre holes, drivers and other work holding hole to the correct size and shape and to give it good at each end of the stroke so that a required area may be abrasive and bonding materials impregnated with
fixtures surface quality. • Internal grinding is frequently used on ground. sulphur, resin or wax to improve cutting action and
Principle of working of Centre-less type grinding machine production parts that have not been heat treated to lengthen tool life.
Rotary table type Rotary table type of machines have
The larger wheel is the grinding wheel and smaller wheel save reaming cost. ADVANTAGE; maximum surface finish can be obtained
circular work table which revolves under the rotating
is the pressure or regulating wheel. • In operation, the Work rotating type or chucking type These are --rapid and economical removal of stock—
grinding wheel. Horizontal rotary grinder also known as
pressure exerted by the grinding wheel on the work, commonly used in tool and die rooms. In chucking Disadvantage –honing can create oval hole unless work
ring grinder has a horizontal wheel spindle having a
forces the work against the work rest and regulating grinders, the workpiece is chucked and rotated about its is rotated or supported
reciprocating motion similar to that of a shaper arm and
wheel, controlling the size and imparting the necessary own axis to bring all parts of the bore or other surfaces APPLICATION ; used to remove scratches during
a revolving magnetic chuck table supported by columns
rotational and longitudinal feed. • Both the wheels to get in contact with the grinding wheel. • In this grinding operation—done for finishing of engine
at the front of machine.
rotate in same direction. The work rest assists in grinder, the wheel head may be stationary with a cylinders, gun barrels etc
supporting the workpiece, while it is being ground, being reciprocating work table or the wheel head may be
extended on both the sides to direct the work travel to reciprocal and the work table may remain stationary.
and from the wheels.
MODULE 3 Surface roughness obtainable in lapping, honing and Classification of errors
Broaching process ( Basic principles)Broaching is a broaching operations. To ensure reliable performance MODULE 4 1 Static error It causes due to the physical nature of the
machining method in which a series of cutting teeth each and prolonged service life of modern machinery, its various components of the measuring system. The static
remove a portion of stock as the cutting tool (broach) components require to be manufactured not only with Need and Importance of Metrology The importance of errors due to environmental effect and the other
moves past or through the work piece. It removes layers high dimensional and geometrical accuracy but also with metro logy is summarised as follows: I) To achieve the properties which influence the apparatus are also
of material in one stroke by a rod or bar type cutter with high surface finish. The surface finish has a vital role in quality control in production. 2). To achieve up to date reasons for stall errors. (a) Characteristic error The
gradually increased protrusion. Each tooth removes a influencing functional characteristics like wear production knowledge of the measurement required. 3) deviation of the output of the measuring system from
predetermined amount of material in a predetermined resistance, fatigue strength, corrosion resistance and To-reduce the rejection rate with the help of quality the nominal performance specifications is called
location. Broaching is preferably used to machine power loss due to friction. Unfortunately, normal control. 4) To minimize the cost of production. 5) To characteristic error. The linearity, repeatability,
internal and external surfaces such as holes of circular, machining methods like turning, milling or even classical develop the inspection procedure. 6) To calibrate the hysteresis and resolution are part of the characteristic
square, or irregular shapes, keyways, splines and teeth of grinding cannot meet this stringent requirement. measuring instrument time to time error. (b) Reading error It is exclusively applied to the
internal gears. Metal removal process in broaching Superfinishing operations Super finishing is a micro PRINCIPLES OF ACHIEVING ACCURACY ● MEASURING read out device. The reading err< describes the factors
operation is similar to shaping process except it uses a finishing process that produces a controlled surface EQUIPMENT MUST BE 3 TO 10 TIMES AS ACCURATE AS parallax error and interpolation error. (c) Environmental
series of progressive teeth which can cut more material condition on parts which is not obtainable by any other DIMENSION TO BE MEASURED ● ACCURACY IS error Every instrument is manufactured and calibrated
in a single pass. In shaping, attaining full depth requires a method. It is abrasive process which utilizes either a IMPROVED BY SETTING THE INSTRUMENT USED FOR at one place and is used in some other place where the
number of strokes to remove the material in thin layers bonded abrasive like honing for cylindrical surfaces or a COMPARATIVE MEASUREMENT AS CLOSE AS POSSIBLE environmental conditions such as temperature,
step-by-step by gradually in feeding the single point tool. cup wheel for flat surfaces. Fig. 4.38 schematically TO THE DIMENSION BEING MEASURED ● pressure, and humidity change
Whereas, broaching enables remove the whole material shows the super finishing process. Super finishing is a MEASUREMENT SHOULD BE TAKEN AT STANDARD 2. Loading error As the measured quantity looses
in one stroke only by the gradually rising teeth of the finishing operation similar to honing, but it involves the TEMPERATURE OF 20 deg energy due to the act of measurement, an error is
cutter called broach. use of a single abrasive stick. The reciprocating motion Sensitivity: – It denotes the smallest change in the introduced known as loading error, Loading means the
Advantages of broaching 1. Very high production rate of the stick is performed at higher frequency and measured variable to which the instruments responds. measuring instrument always taking the input from the
(much higher than milling, planing, boring etc.). 2. High smaller amplitudes. Also, the grit size and pressures Accuracy: – Accuracy may be defined as the ability of signal source. Due to this, the signal source will always
dimensional and form accuracy and surface finish of the applied on the abrasive stick are smaller. A cutting fluid instruments to respond to a true value of a measured be tired by the act of measurement known loading.
product. 3. Roughing and finishing in single stroke of the is used to cool the work surface and wash away chips. variable under the reference conditions. 3. Dynamic error This is due to time variations in the
same cutter. 4. Needs only one motion (cutting), so Precision: – Precision is defined as the degrees of measurand. The dynamic errors are caused by inertia,
design, operation and control are simpler. exactness for which an instrument is designed or friction and clamping action. The dynamic errors re
Limitations 1. Only through holes and surfaces can be intended to perform. – It refers to repeatability or mainly classified into (a) Systematic errors or
machined. 2. Usable only for light cuts, 3. Cutting speed consistency of measurement when the instruments are Controllable errors (b) Random errors (a) Systematic
cannot be high. 4. Design, manufacture and restoration carried out under identical conditions at a short interval
error
of the broaches are difficult and expensive. of time
i. Calibration error Calibration is a process of giving a
Types of Broaches Broaches may be classified in various Calibration: – Calibration is the process of determining
known input to the measurement system and also
ways according to 1. Type of operation: (Internal or and adjusting an instruments accuracy to make sure its
taking necessary actions to see that the output of the
external broaching) 2. Method of operation: (Pull type or accuracy is with in manufacturing specifications.
measurement system matches with its input. ii.
Push type) 3. Type of construction:( Solid, build up, Errors in measurement Error is the difference between
Ambient error This is due to variation in atmospheric
progressive cut, inserted tooth, rotor cut) 4. the measured value and the true value. Error in
conditions (Example: Pressure, Temperature and
Function:(surface keyway, round hole, splines) 5. measurement = Measured Value - True value. The errors
moisture) normally the instruments are calibrated at
Progressive – cut type broaches have their teeth in measurement can be expressed either as an absolute
particular pressure and temperatures. iii. Avoidable
increasing in width instead of height Ordinary – cut type error or an relative error.
errors This type of error is due to parallax, non-
where the teeth increase in height or protrusion . Absolute error The absolute error is classified into two
alignment of work piece centers, and improper location
gradually from tooth to tooth along the length of the types: (a) True absolute error Algebraic difference
of measuring instrument. iv. Stylus pressure Whenever a
broach. between the results of measurement to the true value of
component is measured under particular pressure, the
the quantity measured is called true absolute error. (b)
deformation of the work piece and surface deflection
Apparent absolute error While taking the series of
will occur.
measurement, the algebraic difference between one of
the results of measurement to the arithmetic mean is
called as apparent absolute error.

(b) Random errors These errors are due to unknown TYPES OF LINEAR MEASURING INSTRUMENTS The Tolerance The Tolerance is the difference between the Basic size This is the size in relation to which all limits of
causes and occur even when all systematic errors have linear measurement includes t h e measurement of_ Upper Limit and the Lower Limit. i.e. 0.05 mm in this size are derived. Basic or nominal size is defined as the
been accounted. Random errors are generally an length, d i a m e t e r , height a n d thickness. The basic case. The Tolerance is the total amount by which the size size based on which the dimensional deviations are
accumulation of a large number of small effects and may principle of linear measurement is the comparison of of the component can differ from the Nominal Size. given. This is, in general, the same for both components
be of r concern only in measurements requiring a high measured dimensions with standard dimensions on a Limits of size These are the maximum and minimum
degree of accuracy. suitably engraved instrument or device. Various devices Types of Fit Clearance Fit In the case of a Clearance fit, permissible sizes acceptable for a specific dimension.
used for measuring the linear measurements are as the shaft is always sm aller than the hole. eg. Axle in a The operator is expected to manufacture the
ABBE'S PRINCIPLE OF ALIGNMENT The axis or line of follows 1. Vernier caliers 2. Micrometer 3. Slip gauge or bearing, the axle must be free to rotate without friction. component within these limits.
measurement s h o u l d coincide with the axis of gauge block 4. Comparator Transition Fit With a Transition Fit some shafts may be a Tolerance This is the total permissible variation in the
measuring instrument or line of the measuring scale. The little smaller than the hole and some may be a little size of a dimension, that is, the difference between the
length recorded will be more than true length called Interchangeability of Parts and Selective Assembly larger. eg. The lid of a pen. The lid must fit on securely maximum and minimum limits of size. It is always
cosine error. Back before the Industrial Revolution machines were but not be too difficult to remove. This is a push fit. positive.
BASIC STANDARDS OF LENGTH manufactured independently of one another. One Interference Fit In the case of an Interference Fit, the Allowance It is the intentional difference between the
Line Standard The measurement of distance may be engineer might make the whole machine. If a part broke shaft is always larger than the hole. eg. Bearing in a LLH and HLS. An allowance may be either positive or
made between two parallel lines or two surfaces.When a on a machine it would have to be manufactured again to chassis. The bearing must not rotate in the chassis. This negative
length (metre/yard) is measured as the distance suit the machine in question. It was not possible to use is a force fit. Grade This is an indication of the tolerance magnitude;
between centres of two engraved lines (as in a steel the same part from another machine. Screws and nuts Allowance An allowance is the intentional difference the lower the grade, the finer the tolerance.
rule), it is called line standard. were manufactured to suit the machinist and their use. between the maximum material limits, that is, LLH and Deviation It is the algebraic difference between a size
Standard metre: This standard was e s t a b l i s h e d Standardization had not yet arrived. During the HLS (minimum clearance or maximum interference) of and its corresponding basic size. It may be positive,
originally by I n t e r n a t i o n a l Bureau of Weights and Industrial Revolution a new concept in manufacturing the two mating parts. It is the prescribed difference negative, or 0
Measures in 1875. The prototype metre is made of was developed. Parts were manufactured by individuals between the dimensions of the mating parts to obtain Upper deviation It is the algebraic difference between
platinum iridium alloy (90% platinum and 10% iridium) and the individual stuck to making that part. Then the the desired type of fit. Allowance may be positive or the maximum limit of size and its corresponding basic
The bar has a wing-like section with a web whose surface whole machine was assembled from these parts. Now negative. Positive allowance indicates a clearance fit, and size. This is designated as ‘ES’ for a hole and as ‘es’ for a
lines are on the neutral axis. The upper surface of the that the parts were the same, if a part broke in a an interference fit is indicated by a negative allowance. shaft.
web is highly polished and it has two fine lines engraved machine it could be replaced by the same part from Lower deviation It is the algebraic difference between
over it. another machine. This concept led to what we now call The Hole Basis System In this system the holes are the minimum limit of size and its corresponding basic
End Standard When the length is expressed as the Interchangeability of Parts. drilled to a specific size and the size of shaft varies. Here, size. This is designated as ‘EI’ for a hole and as ‘ei’ for a
distance between two flat parallel faces, it is known as Selective Assembly was the next step in the evolution of the lower deviation of hole is zero, i.e, the lower limit of shaft.
end standard. For examples, measurement by slip improved assembly manufacturing. A machinist would hole is the same as the basic size. This is the preferred Actual deviation It is the algebraic difference between
gauges, end bars, ends of micrometre anvils, venire produce a large number of parts with a low tolerance. A system as drills and reamers come in standard sizes and the actual size and its corresponding basic size.
calipers etc. End standards are in general use in precision mating part would be produced in the same numbers it is relatively easy to modify the size of a shaft Fundamental deviation It is the minimum difference
engineering as well as in standard laboratories such as and to the same tolerance by another machinist. Each The Shaft Basis System In this system the shaft has a between the size of a component and its basic size. This
the National Physical Laboratory (NPL). Except for machinist would then grade the parts that they fixed size and the holes are varied to suit the type of fit is identical to the upper deviation for shafts and lower
applications, where microscopes can be used, scales are manufactured to similar higher tolerances. The parts necessary. Here, the upper deviation of shaft is zero, that deviation for holes.
not generally convenient for the direct measurement of could then be assembled by taking parts from the same is, the high limit of hole (HLH) equals the basic size. This Zero line This line is also known as the line of zero
engineering products grade and assembling them. is a relatively expensive system as a wide range of drills deviation. The convention is to draw the zero line
Wavelength Standard In order to overcome the above and reamers are required. horizontally with positive deviations represented above
draw backs of line and end standards, it became Systems of Limits and Fits 1 Limits When and negative deviations indicated below. The zero line
necessary to have a standard of length which will be represents the basic size in the graphical representation.
machining, it is impossible to manufacture a number of
accurate and invariable. Jacques Babinet, a French Shaft and hole These terms are used to designate all the
pieces to an exact measurement. There will always be
philosopher was suggested that wave length of external and internal features of any shape and not
some difference in size. As a result Limits are set. This
monochromatic light can be used as natural and necessarily cylindrical.
means that what the machinist manufactures can be
invariable unit of length. Fit It is the relationship that exists between two mating
used
parts, a hole and a shaft, with respect to their
dimensional difference before assembly

Maximum metal condition This is the maximum limit of GO and NO-GO GAUGES The gauges required to check Feller Gauges • Feller gauges are used for checking WEAR ALLOWANCE According to Taylor’s principle,
an external feature; for example, a shaft manufactured the dimensions of the components correspond to two clearances between mating surfaces. They are made in during inspection the NOT GO side should not enter or
to its high limits will contain the maximum amount of sizes conforming to the maximum and minimum limits form of a set of steel, precision machined blade 0.03 to pass. The NOT GO gauge seldom engages fully with the
metal. of the components. They are called GO gauges or NO 1.0 mm thick and 100 mm long. work and therefore does not undergo any wear. Hence,
Least metal condition This is the minimum limit of an GO or NOT GO gauges which correspond, respectively, Plate and Wire Gauges • The thickness of a sheet metal there is no need to provide an allowance for wear
external feature; for example, a shaft will contain to the MML and LML of the component, as shown in is checked by means of plate gauges and wire diameters Taylor’s principle also states that the GO side of the
minimum amount of material, when manufactured to its Figures. MML is the lower limit of a hole and higher limit by wire gauges. gauge should enter the hole or just pass over the shaft
low limits. of the shaft and LML corresponds to the higher limit of a SLIP GAUGES Slip gauges are used as measuring blocks. under the weight of the gauge without using undue
Tolerance zone The tolerance that is bound by the two hole and lower limit of the shaft. The GO gauge They are also called precision gauge blocks. The force. During inspection, the measuring surfaces of the
limits of size of the component is called the tolerance manufactured to the maximum limit will assemble with individual gauge block is a hardened alloy steel or gauge constantly rub against the mating surfaces of the
zone. It refers to the relationship of tolerance to basic the mating (opposed) part, whereas the NOT GO gauge ceramic block of rectangular cross work piece.
size. corresponding to the low limit will not, hence the names Wringing of Slip Gauges In use, the gauge blocks are
International tolerance grade (IT) Tolerance grades are GO and NOT GO gauges, respectively. stacked to make up the desired length. The blocks are
an indication of the degree of accuracy of the CLASSIFICATION OF GAUGES The detailed classification joined or stacked by a sliding process called wringing
manufacture. Standard tolerance grades are designated of the gauges is as follows: 1. Plain gauges (a) According which causes their ultra-flat surfaces to cling together.
by the letter IT followed by a number, for example, IT7. to their type: (i) Standard gauges (ii) Limit gauges (b) The process of wringing involves the following four
Tolerance class It is designated by the letter(s) According to their purpose: (i) Workshop (ii) Inspection steps: 1. Wiping a clean gauge block across an oiled pad
representing the fundamental deviation followed by the (iii) Reference, or master, or control gauges 2. Wiping any extra oil off the gauge block using a dry
number representing the standard tolerance grade. (c) According to the form of the tested surface: (i) Plug pad 3. The block is then sliding perpendicularly across
Tolerance symbols These are used to specify the gauges for checking holes (ii) Snap and ring gauges for the other block while applying a moderate pressure until
tolerance and fits for mating components. For example, checking shafts (d) According to their design: (i) Single- they form a cruciform. 4. Finally, the block is rotated
in 40 H8f7, the number 40 indicates the basic size in and double-limit gauges (ii) Single- and double-ended until it is in lined with the other block.
millimeters; capital letter H indicates the fundamental gauges (iii) Fixed and adjustable gauges 2. Adjustable- Snap Gauge A snap gauge is a U-Shaped frame having
deviation for the hole; and lower-case letter f indicates type gap gauges 3. Miscellaneous gauges (a) Combined- jaws, used to check the accuracy of shafts and male
the shaft. The numbers following the letters indicate limit gauges (b) Taper gauges (c) Position gauges (d) members. The snap gauge checks whether the shaft
corresponding IT grades. Receiver gauges (e) Contour gauges (f) Profile gauges diameter is within specified tolerances or not. The ‘Go’
snap gauge is the size of the high (maximum) limit of the
LIMIT GAUGES • A limit gauge is not a measuring gauge. Plug Gauge A plug gauge is a cylindrical type of gauge, shaft while the ‘Not-Go’ snap gauge corresponds to the
Just they are used as inspecting gauges. • Limit gauge are used to check the accuracy of holes. The plug gauge low (minimum) limit of the shaft.
mainly used for checking for cylindrical holes of identical checks whether the whole diameter is within specified TAYLOR’S PRINCIPLE OF GAUGING Taylor’s
components with a large numbers in mass production. • tolerance or not. The ‘Go’ plug gauge is the size of the principle states that the GO gauge is designed to check
This gives the information about the products which may low limit of the hole while the ‘Not-Go’ plug gauge maximum metal conditions, that is, LLH and HLS. It
be either within the prescribed limit or not. corresponds to the high limit of the hole. should also simultaneously check as many related
Purpose of using limit gauges • Components are Ring gauges Snap gauges, Gap gauges or Ring gauges dimensions, such as roundness, size, and location, as
manufactured as per the specified tolerance limits, are used for checking the shafts or male components. • possible.
upper limit and lower limit. The dimension of each Ring gauges are used to test external diameters.
component should be within this upper and lower limit. Taper Gauges Taper gauges are made in both the plug GAUGE TOLERANCE (GAUGE MAKER’S TOLERANCE)
• If the dimensions are outside these limits, the and ring styles and, in general, follow the same standard Gauges, like any other component, cannot be
components will be rejected. • If we use any measuring construction as plug and ring gauges. When checking a manufactured to their exact size or dimensions. In order
instruments to check these dimensions, the process will taper hole, the taper plug gauge is inserted into the hole to accommodate these dimensional variations, which
consume more time. Still we are not interested in and a slight pressure is exerted against it. If it does not arise due to the limitations of the manufacturing
knowing the amount of error in dimensions. • It is just rock in the hole, it indicates that the taper angle is process, skill of the operator, etc., some tolerance must
enough whether the size of the component is within the correct. • The same procedure is followed in a ring be allowed in the manufacture of gauges. Thus, the
prescribed limits or not. For this purpose, we can make gauge for testing tapered spindle tolerance that is allowed in the manufacture of gauges is
use of gauges known as limit gauge termed gauge maker’s tolerance or simply gauge
tolerance.

of curve and spacing between the interference fringes.

MODULE 5 Straight, parallel, and evenly spaced interference fringes Tool Makers Microscope :• It features a vertical Autocollimator
indicate that the work surface flatness is equal to or supporting column, which is robust and carries the • An autocollimator is widely used to measure small
Principle of Interference: • The effects of higher than that of the reference surface. • An optical weight of all other parts of the microscope. • It provides angular deviation of a reflecting surface placed in front
combination of two light rays as rays X and Y which are flat utilizes the property of interference to exhibit the a long vertical working distance. • The workpiece is of the objective lens of the autocollimator. • It is an
of the same wavelength. • If they happen in phase, the flatness on a desired surface. • When an optical flat, loaded on an XY stage, which has a provision for optical component for measuring angles without having
amplitude is increased in the resultant amplitude. Hence, also known as a test plate, and a work surface are translatory motion in two principal directions in the contact with the component surface • Autocollimator is
it is the addition of the amplitudes of combined rays. • placed in contact, an air wedge is formed. • Areas horizontal plane. • Micrometres are provided for both X also used to align components and measure deflection
Thus, when two rays of equal intensity are in phase, they between the flat and the work surface that are not in and Y axes to facilitate linear measurement to a high in optical or mechanical systems. • It is used mainly for
augument each other and produce increased brightness. contact form this air wedge. The change in thickness of degree of accuracy. • The entire optical system is housed the measurement of small angular differences because
• If rays X and Y differ by a phase of 180°, then the the air wedge will dictate the shape and orientation of in the measuring head. • The measuring head can be it provides a very sensitive and accurate results.
combined resultant R will be very small. • If the the interference bands moved up and down along the supporting column and Principle:• O is a point source of light placed at the
amplitudes aX and aY are equal, the resultant amplitude OPTICAL FLAT WORKS: • When an optical flat is laid the image can be focused using the focusing knob.• The focus of a collimating lens. The rays of light from O
will become zero. over a flat reflecting surface, it orients at a small angle measuring head can be locked into position by operating falling on the lens will now travel as a parallel beam of
Interferometer • It is an instrument which generates and θ, due to the presence of an air cushion between the the clamping screw. • An angle dial built into the light. • When this beam strikes on a plane reflector kept
compares the difference between two light waves which two surfaces. This is illustrated above figure. • Consider eyepiece portion of the optical tube allows easy angle (90°) normally to the optical axis, it will be reflected
are reflected off two different surfaces. • It utilizes the a ray of light from a monochromatic light source falling measurement. • A surface illuminator provides the back along its own-same path exactly and focused at the
effect of interference. Applications of Interferometers • on the upper surface of the optical flat at an angle. • required illumination of the object so that a sharp and same point O.
Measurements of lengths and small changes in lengths. • This light ray is partially reflected at point ‘a’. • The clear image can be obtained. • The element that makes a
Optical testing. • Studies of surface structure. • remaining part of the light ray passes through the microscope a measuring instrument is a reticle. • When
Measurement of pressure and temperature difference in transparent glass material across the air gap and is the image is viewed through the eyepiece, the reticle
gas flows and plasmas. • Measurements of particle reflected at point ‘b’ on the flat work surface. • The two provides a reference or datum to facilitate
velocities and vibration amplitudes. • Wavelength reflected components of the light ray are collected and measurement.
measurements. recombined by the eye, having travelled two different Applications:• Length measurement in cartesian and
Interferometry • Interferometry is a method for the paths whose length differs by an amount ‘abc’. • If ‘abc’ polar co-ordinates. • Angle measurements of tools,
accurate measurement of linear dimensions using a pure = λ/2, where λ is the wavelength of the monochromatic threading tools punches and gauges, templates etc. •
monochromatic light source. • It makes use of the light source, then the condition for complete Thread measurements i.e., profile, major and minor
principle of superposition to combine waves in a way interference has been satisfied. • The difference in path diameter, height of lead, thread angle, profile position
that will cause their combination to have some length is one-half the wavelength, a perfect condition with respect to the thread axis and the shape of thread.
meaningful property that is diagnostic to the original for total interference. The eye is now able to see a (rounding, flatness, straightness of flanks) • Comparison
state of the waves distinct patch of darkness termed a fringe. HOW AN between centers and drawn patterns and drawing of
Optical Flat OPTICAL FLAT WORKS • Next, consider another light ray projected profiles
• An optical flat is nothing but a disc of glass or quarts from the same source falling on the optical flat at a
whose faces are highly polished and flat within a few small distance from the first one. • This ray gets
microns. • Flat dark bands can be seen when the optical reflected at points ‘d’ and ‘e’. If the length ‘def’ equals Comparator:• The comparator is a device, which is
flat is kept on the surface. These are cylindrical in shape 3λ/2, then total interference occurs again and a similar generally used to measure the dimensional differences,
whose diameter range from 25 mm to 300 mm with the fringe is seen by the observer. • However, at an that means it doesn’t show the exact dimension but
thickness of 1/6 th of the diameter. • For measuring intermediate point between the two fringes, the path only shows the deviation of the dimension from the
flatness, a monochromatic light source is required along difference between two reflected portions of the light standard dimension. • The comparators are kind of
linear measurement device. The comparators can be
with an optical plate. Optical Flat ✓ When an optical ray will be an even number of half wavelengths. • Thus,
the two components of light will be in phase, and a broadly classified as follows: • Mechanical Comparators
flat's polished surface is placed in contact with a surface
lightband will be seen at this point. • To summarize, • Pneumatic Comparators • Electrical Comparators •
to be tested, dark and light bands will be formed when
when light from a monochromatic light source is made Optical Comparators
viewed with monochromatic light. ✓ These bands are
known as interference fringes and their shape gives a to fall on an optical flat, which is oriented at a very small
visual representation of the flatness of the surface being angle with respect to a flat reflecting surface, a band of
alternate light and dark patches is seen by the eye
tested. ✓ The surface flatness is indicated by the amount
COMPAEATOR Pneumatic comparator • The pressurized air is used as a Surface Roughness • Generally components are
working medium in the pneumatic comparator. In subjected to several machining operations for producing Direct Instrument method • It is also used to measure
pneumatic comparator, there is no metal to metal required geometrical surfaces. • But it is not practically the surface finish of the components by means of stylus
contact of gauge and workpiece. Hence the accuracy of possible to produce a component in exact dimensions type devices. • The measurements are obtained by
measurement is increased. • The amplification range is due to various factors like machine vibrations, nature of using stylus and the stylus motion is perpendicular to
also increased without reduction in range as compared workpiece, method of operations, tool conditions and the surface to be measured. • The direct instrument
to mechanical or electrical comparator. • The pneumatic skill of the labourers etc. • The wear resistance, fatigue method is further classified into four types. (i) Stylus
comparators are classified as follows: • Flow (or) resistance, corrosion resistance, hardness, etc., are some probe Instrument (ii) Profilometer (iii) Tomlinson
velocity type pneumatic comparator. • Back pressure of the most important characteristics of the component surface meter (iv) Taylor - Hobson Talysurf
type pneumatic comparator. which are influenced by surface texture. • The surface SCREW THREAD MEASUREMENT • A screw thread is a
Flow (or) velocity type pneumatic comparator • It irregularities are normally expressed in terms of surface helical structure used to convert rotational movement
consists of compressor, FRL unit, valve, tapered glass roughness values. to linear movement and also used to convert rotational
tube, float and gauging head. • The pressurized air in • Roughness: The American Society of Tool and torque to linear force. • A screw thread is a ridge
the range of 1.5-2 bar is supplied through a tapered Manufacturing Engineers (ASTME) defines roughness as wrapped around a cylinder or cone in the form of helix.
glass tube that contains a float. • Then the air passes the finer irregularities in the surface texture, including • A screw thread formed on a cylinder is known as
through hose and exits to the atmosphere through the those irregularities that result from an inherent action of straight (or) parallel screw thread, while the one formed
Mechanical Comparator • The mechanical gauging head. the production process. Roughness spacing is the on a cone is known as tapered threads. • It is used to
comparator are generally used for inspection of Back pressure type pneumatic comparator • The orifice distance between successive peaks or ridges that transmit the power and motion. The screw thread also
components in workshop and tool room industry etc. O2 is fully closed, and supplies the pressurized air to the constitute the predominant pattern of roughness. acts as a temporary fastener.
Even small deviations can also be magnified in the system until the pressures P1 and P2 are equal to zero. • • Waviness: It is the more widely spaced component of Measurement of screw thread • It is necessary to
mechanical comparator. • The mechanical comparator is When orifice O2 is opened, the pressures P1 and P2 surface texture. Roughness may be considered to be measure following parameters of the screw thread to
further classified into two types. ✓ (i) Dial gauge (or) Dial varies with reference to the distance between orifice O2 superimposed on a wavy surface. Waviness is an error in ensure the accuracy of the screw thread. These are, 1.
indicator ✓ (ii) Reed type mechanical comparator ) and to the elevation of surface in the workpiece. If form due to incorrect geometry of the tool producing the Major diameter 2. Minor diameter 3. Effective diameter
Dial gauge (or) Dial indicator • The dial gauge is device, there is any deviation in pressures P1 and P2 , then the surface. 4. Pitch
which is widely used to compare the dimension with deviation in pressure can be measured. • The solex air Factors affecting surface roughness:(a) The Measurement of major diameter: Bench micrometer:t
standard dimension. It consists of a case, circular gauge is good example for back pressure type machining variables • (i) Cutting speed • (ii) Feed • (iii) is a device that is used to measure the major and minor
graduated dial, steam, spindle, pointer, gear train and pneumatic comparator. Depth of cut (b) The tool geometry also influences the diameters of the screw thread. • It consists of
contact point. • When the contact point touches against Back pressure type pneumatic comparator • Electrical surface finish. • (i) Nose radius • (ii) Rake angle • (iii) Side micrometer head, measuring anvils, fiducial indicator,
the standard specimen (or) master, the dial scale is set to comparators generally depend on a Wheatstone bridge cutting-edge angle • (iv) Cutting edge (c) Properties of box and support. The bench micrometer reading is
zero by rotating the case. • Now the standard specimen circuit for measurement. In this comparator, we can get workpiece and tool materials (d) Type of the machine taken from the micrometer head.
is replaced by the workpiece. Now the dial gauge will high magnification range A DC (Direct Current) is tool (e) Quality of the machine tool Measurement of minor diameter: Bench micrometer •
show the reading with the help of moving pointer in the supplied to the system. • The arrangement of electrical Measurement of surface finish The inspection and Similarly, the minor diameter is also measured by bench
graduated dial. comparator is shown in Fig. 3.6. • It consists of assessment of surface roughness of machined micrometer. • But, in this case, the wedge shaped
armature, coil, amplifier, meter, plunger and flexible components are carried out by means of various pieces are touching the root diameter and placed in
strip etc. measurement techniques. The surface finish can be between the two anvils and then readings are noted
Electronic comparator • Electrical comparators measured by the following methods. (a) Surface down. • Where, R1 is taken on the cylindrical plug
generally depend on a wheatstone bridge circuit for Inspection by comparison method (b) Direct Instrument (standard gauge) of minor diameter R2 is taken across
measurement. • In this comparator, we can get high method. the root of the thread
magnification range A DC (Direct Current) is supplied to Surface Inspection by comparison method The surface
the system. • It consists of armature, coil, amplifier, texture is assessed by supervisor either by eye (or)
meter, plunger and flexible strip etc. • The armature is fingernail. To get more accurate measurement, various
placed between two coils. One end of armature, the techniques are used. The surface inspection by
plunger is supported and other end is connected to comparison method is further divided into following
flexible strip. • The amplifier is a device, which is used to types. 1. Touch Inspection 2. Visual Inspection 3. Scratch
amplify the output signal. With the help of wheatstone Inspection 4. Surface Photographs 5. Reflected light
bridge circuit, the meter is set to zero Intensity 6. Micro Interferometer 7. Microscopic
Inspection 8. Wallace surface dynamometer

Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM) • A coordinate are accurately measured by displacement transducers
measuring machine is a sophisticated measuring device associated with each of the three linear axis and
used to determine the geometrical characteristics of an recorded by the CMM controller. • Compensation is
object operating in a three dimensional space. • CMMs made for the radius of the probe tip and any limited
are mechanical systems designed to move a measuring over travel of the probe quill due to momentum is
probe to determine coordinates of points on an object’s neglected. After the probe is separated from the contact
surface. • A typical CMM is composed of three- surface it returns to its neutral position. • The
orthogonal axes, x, y, z operating in a three dimensional dimensional and geometric elements are calculated,
coordinate system. Each axis has a scale system that compared and evaluated
indicates the position of that axis. After placing a
workpiece on the machine table, a suspended touch
probe (operated either manually via an operator or
automatically via a control system) is used to measure
different points on the workpiece. • Each point on the
workpiece is unique to the machine coordinate system. •
The machine now utilises the x, y, z coordinates of each
of these discrete points to determine the size and
position with micrometer precision. • Also the points
generated can be unloaded to a computer interface
where they can be analysed using modeling software like
CAD and regression algorithms for further development.

Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM): Working • The

part is placed on the worktable of the CMM at a suitable
location, usually central to the machine axes to access all
the part surfaces to be inspected with the probe. • It
may be necessary to clamp the part to the worktable
depending upon the size of the part and the type of
probes used. • If many similar parts are to be inspected,
a reference location point is established with a reference
precision cube (or) sphere. • The probe is moved to
make contact with the surface of the part and
instantaneously the coordinate positions of the probe