CHAPTER FOUR

MAJOR AREAS OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Public administration is composed of some major areas such as public policy, public personnel
administration and financial administration. These are discussed briefly as follows:
4.1 PUBLIC POLICY
The Meaning of (Public) Policy
According to RumkiBasu (1994:270), Policy can be broadly defined as a "proposed course of
action of an individual, a group, an institution or government, to realize a specific objective or
purpose within a given environment".
Policy is a set of interrelated decisions taken by a political actor or group of actors concerning
the selection of goals and the means of achieving them within a specified situation.
Policy has been defined as "a matter of either the desire for change or the desire to protect
something from change" (Barber (1983:59). Barber further added, "Policy making occurs in the
determination of major objectives, in the selection of methods of achieving these objectives, and
in the continuous adaptation of existing policies to the problems that face the government".
Public policy can be comprehensively defined as a "purposive and consistent course of action
produces as a response to a perceived problem of constituency, formulated by a specific political
process; adopted, implemented and enforced by a public agency".
Policy lays down the framework within which organizational goals are set to be accomplished.
The objectives of an organization, which are often vague and general, are concretized in the
policy goals that set the administrative wheels in motion. Policy formulation is one of the vital
tasks of any form of government. As Basu (1994:270) puts it, "the essence of public
administration is policy-making". Dimock defines policy formulation as "the consciously
acknowledged rules of conduct that guide administrative decisions".
Public policies are those, which are developed by governmental bodies and officials. The special
characteristics of public policies as differentiated from other policies emanate from the fact that
they are by "authorities" in a political system namely, "elders, chiefs, executives, legislatures,
judges, administrators, councilors, monarchs, and the like".
The following are implications of the concept of public policy:

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 (i) Purposive or result oriented action rather than random behavior or chance happenings is
the hallmark (characteristic" of public policy,
(ii) Public policy refers to the action or decisional pattern by public administrators on a
particular issue over a period rather than their separate discrete decisions on that
matter in an ad hoc fashion,
(iii) Policy is what governments actually do and what subsequently happens, rather than
what they intend to do or say they are going to do,
(iv) Public policy may be either positive or negative in form. Positively, it may involve
some form of government action regarding any issue or problem; negatively, it may
involve a decision by government officials not to take action on a matter on which
governmental opinion, attitude, or action is asked for,
(v) Public policy in its positive form is based on law and is authoritative; it has a legal
sanction behind it, which is potentially coercive in nature and is binding on all
citizens,

Why Studying Public Policy

The question here is that, why do we study public policy? There are both academic and political
reasons for studying public policy or engaging in policy analysis. Among a number of specific
reasons for why we devote greater attention to the study of public policy, the following deserve
worth mentioning:
(i) Scientific Reasoning/Understanding: First, public policy can be studied for purely
scientific reasons: understanding the causes and consequences of policy decisions improves
the knowledge of society. The study of public policy formulation processes may help to gain
greater knowledge and understanding of the complexities of the interacting social, economic
and political processes and their implications for society. Public policy can be viewed as a
dependent variable, and we can ask what socio-economic conditions and political system
characteristics operate to shape the content of policy. In this case, then attention is placed on
the political and environmental factors that help to determine the content of policy.
Alternatively, public policy can be viewed as an independent variable, and the focus shifts to
the impact of policy on the political system and the environment. In this case, we can ask

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 what impact public policy has on society and its political system. By asking such questions
we can improve our understanding of the linkages among socio-economic forces, political
processes, and public policy. An understanding of these linkages contributes to the breadth,
significance, reliability, and theoretical development of social science.
(ii) Professional Reasons/ Problem solving. Public policy can also be studied for professional
reasons: understanding the causes and consequences of public policy permits us to apply
social science knowledge to the solution of practical problems. Factual knowledge about the
policy-making process and its outcomes is a prerequisite for prescribing the ills of society or
dealing with social problems normatively. If certain ends are desired, the question of what
policies would best implement them is a factual question requiring scientific study. In other
words, policy studies can produce professional advice, in terms of “if…then…” statements,
about how to achieve desired goals. The study of public policy should be directed towards
ensuring that governments adopt appropriate policies to attain certain desirable social goals.
It is not to deny, however, that substantial disagreements may exist in society over what
constitutes "desirable" or the "appropriate" goals of policy.
(iii) Political Reasons/ Policy Recommendations. Finally, public policy can be studied for
political purposes: to ensure that the nation adopts the “right” policies to achieve the “right”
goals. It is frequently argued that political science should not be silent or impotent in the face
of great social and political crises and that political scientist have a moral obligation to
advance specific public policies. An exclusive focus on institutions, processes, or behaviours
is frequently looked on as “dry,” “irrelevant and “amoral because it does not direct attention
to the really important policy questions facing societies. Policy studies can be undertaken not
only for scientific and professional purposes but also to inform political discussion, advance
the level of political awareness, and improve the a quality of public policy. Of course, these
are very subjective purposes-citizens do not always agree on what constitutes the “right”
policies or the “right” goals-but it is assumed that knowledge is preferable to ignorance, even
in politics.
In practice, policy formulation overlaps with policy decision in the policy-making process.
Policy formulation aims at getting a preferred policy alternative approved. A policy decision on
the other hand involves action by some official person or body to approve, modify, or reject a

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preferred policy alternative. Policy decision when approving a preferred policy alternative takes
such forms as the enactment of legislation or the issuance of an executive order. Therefore, what
is typically involved in the policy decision stage is not selection from among a number of policy
alternatives, but action on the preferred policy alternative.
Another point of discussion in the study of public policy is about the factors determining policy
formulation. Policy-making cannot be adequately understood apart from the environment in
which it takes place. Demands for policy actions are generated in the environment and
transmitted to the political system. At the same time, the environment places limits and
constraints upon what can be done by policy makers. Hence, environment is a decisive factor on
public policy formulation.
Environment, in turn, includes geographical characteristics as natural resources, climate and
topography; demographic variables like population size, age and sex ratio distribution and spatial
location; political culture; social structure; and the economic system. Of these environmental
aspects, political culture and socioeconomic variables are considered as the more influential
factors in public policy formulation.
A). Political Culture: culture has been defined as the entire pattern of social life, the inherited
modes of living and conduct that the individual acquires from the community or environment.
Most social scientists agree that culture is one of the many factors that shape or influence social
action. Political culture is also part of the general culture, which denotes widely held values,
beliefs, and attitudes concerning governmental policies and actions. What is relevant here is
therefore to see some of the implications and significance of this culture for policy formulation.
Differences in public policy making of various countries can be partly explained in terms of
variations in their political culture. For example, the time orientation of people-their view of the
relative importance of the past, the present and the future has implications for policy formulation.
A political culture oriented more to the past may recognize age-old traditions, customs and social
moves, while future oriented political culture comprehends to change and innovation.
RumkiBasu (1994:273) further identified three types of political cultures as parochial, subject,
and participant.
a) In a parochial political culture, citizens have little awareness of or orientation towards either
the political system as a whole or the citizen as a political participant. Citizen's participation

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 in the policy formulation in a parochial political culture is essentially non-existent, and
government will be of little concern to most citizens.
b) In a subject political culture as that of in many developing countries, citizens are oriented
towards the political system, yet they have little awareness of themselves as a participant.
They are aware of governmental authority and they may have political views, but they are
essentially passive. In the subject political culture, an individual may believe that he/she can
do little to influence public policy, which may lead to his/her passive acceptance of
governmental action.
c) In the participant political culture, like that is evidenced in the United States, citizens have a
high level of political awareness and information and have explicit orientations towards the
political system as a whole, and a notion of meaningful citizen's participation in politics.
Such orientation includes understanding of how individuals and groups can influence
decision-making.

In the participant political culture, individuals may organize into groups to influence
government action to rectify their grievances. Government and public policy are viewed as
controllable by citizens. It is also assumed that more demands will be made on government in
a participatory political culture than in the other two types.
In general, the study of political culture is important because values, beliefs, and attitudes could
inform, guide, and constrain the actions of both decision makers and citizens.
B). Socio-economic variables: The term socioeconomic condition or variable is used here in the
widest sense to include geographical characteristics and demographic variables as being
economic resources. Public policies can be seen as emanating from conflicts between different
groups often with opposing interests and attitudes. Groups that are underprivileged, dissatisfied,
or threatened by economic changes often seek governmental intervention or assistance to
improve their lot or status through some sort of policy decision.
It is recognized that society's level of economic development will impose limits on what the
government can do in providing public goods and services to the community. The ways in which
socioeconomic conditions influence or constrain public policies have been subjected to

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considerable analysis. Economic development shapes both political processes and policy
outcomes.
In other words, differences in the policy choices of governments with different political systems
turn out to be largely a product of differing socioeconomic levels rather than a direct product of
political variables. Levels of urbanization, industrialization, income and education appear to be
more influential in shaping public policy outcomes than purely political variables like voters'
participation, inter-party rivalry, and political party strength.
Charles Lindblom (1959) has noted the differences between the ways policy-making has been
described in theory (the rational comprehensive approach) and the way it is actually made
(incremental steps).
The rational comprehensive approach
In the rational comprehensive method, an administrator has to follow certain principles such as
identifying a priority objective, rationally ranking all the relevant "values" or "advantages" to
pursue the best policy, formulating several possible alternatives to achieve the stated objective,
selecting the best alternative, and so on.
This approach to decision-making is rational and comprehensive, because all alternatives and
values are taken into account and logically selected and weighed in their relative importance. But
rational decision-making is difficult in practice since there are a variety of factors that complicate
the task of the policy maker.
The rational method has been criticized as being impracticable for a number of reasons:
(a) It is practically impossible to collect all information and make a complete list of policy
options,
(b) The process involved in this approach is time consuming and expensive,
(c) The assumptions that values can be ranked and classified is erroneous, since there are
always differences among the legislatures, administrators and the public on the values
that a nation should pursue,
(d) The assumptions to consider everything before a new policy is decided is impossible
since the consequences of adopting a new policy is in most cases unknown
The incremental approach

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Although the rational comprehensive approach is theoretically good, what actually occurs in
administrative decisions is quite different; i.e. "successive limited comparison" technique or
incremental step. Firstly, administrators operating under limited resources take up on priority
bases programs of immediate relevance. Secondly, they do not outline a wide range of
possibilities in selecting appropriate policies, but only a few "incremental" steps that appear to
them feasible on the basis of their experiences.
Two advantages of incrementalism are identified, namely:
(1) Decision-makers could proceed through a succession of small incremental changes,
thereby have the advantage of avoiding serious alterations in case of mistakes in decision
making,
(2) This method is truly reflective of the policy-making process by means of consensus and
gradualism and contemplates possible changes in public policies,
Though it is widely accepted that incrementalism describes the reality of the policy making
process, it has its own disadvantages or weaknesses, among which:
(1) Icrementalism can result in important policy options being overlooked,
(2) Icrementalism discourages social innovation and is partisan in approach, which in reality
means the interests of the most powerful get maximum attention by policy-makers,
(3) Icrementalism cannot be applied to fundamental decisions such as declaration of war,
hence cannot be considered as an approach without flaws or mistakes,

Another important topic in the study of public policy is that who are the official policy makers?
Official policy-makers are those who are legally empowered to formulate public policy. These
include legislatures, executives, administrators, and judges.
Legislature: The legislature formally performs the task of law making in a political system. This
doesn't necessarily mean that the legislature has an independent decision-making power or
actually frames the official policy since political parties, pressure groups, and so forth can
influence it. But it can safely be concluded that the legislature is more important in policy
formulation in democratic than in dictatorial systems, and within the democratic systems, it tends
to have greater independency in policy formulation in presidential systems (USA) than in the
parliamentary (British) systems.

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Executive: Modern governments everywhere mainly depend upon executive leadership both in
policy formulation and execution. In developing countries in particular, the executive has even
more influence in policy making than in developed countries because of the greater
concentration of power in the hands of the government with less responsiveness to the
legislature.
Administrative Agencies: although it has been an accepted doctrine in political science that
administrators were merely implementers of policies determined by other organs of the
government, such distinctions are now found to be fallacious as politics and administration are
blended, and as administrators are highly involved in policy formulation in the modern world.
The technical complexity of many policy matters, legislature's lack of time and information are
among the major reasons for administrative agencies to have a formally recognized discretionary
authority to formulate policies. Public officials are associated with policy formulation in three
important ways:
(a) They have to supply facts, data and criticism about the workability of the policy to the
legislature if the initiative for policy-making comes from them. In addition, since
members of the parliament might have lack of administrative acumen (intelligence) or
experience on technical or purely professional matters, they have to give due
recognitions and rely on the suggestions of the officials,

(b) Since the administrations are supposed have constant contact with the general public and
thereby to be in a better position to understand the difficulties that arise in the
implementation of policies, the initiative for policy legislation or amendments originates
very often from the administration.

(c) On account of lack of time and knowledge, the legislature passes skeleton acts and
leaves the details to the administration.
The Courts: in countries where the courts have the power of judicial review, they have (as in the
US) played an important role in policy formulation. They can affect the nature and content of
public policy through exercising their judicial review and statutory interpretation power in cases
brought before them. Determining the constitutionality of actions by legislative and executive

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branches of the government is basically the functions of the judiciary. The courts also specify the
government's limits to actions and states what it must do to meet legal or constitutional
obligations.
Besides the official policy makers, many unofficial bodies may participate in the policy making
process. These may include political parties, interest groups, and individual citizens. These
unofficial bodies could participate in public policy making in terms of expressing demands,
supplying official policy makers with much technical information about specific issues and
possible consequences of a policy proposal, and presenting alternatives for policy actions.
Once we make public policy and implement it, it is imperative that the effects of such policies
have to be evaluated and analyzed. Public policy evaluation is concerned with the analysis of the
effects of governmental decisions on the target public. In other words, it is an attempt to assess
the content and effects of policy on those for whom it is intended. It means commenting on the
merits and demerits of a policy. Often policy evaluation occurs throughout the policy process,
not necessarily at its termination stage.
There are generally three recognized methods of policy evaluation; namely:
(a) Policy impact evaluation: It is an assessment of program (policy) impact and
effectiveness, the extent to which programs are successful in achieving the intended
objectives,
(b) Policy strategy evaluation: This refers to the assessment of the relative effectiveness of
program strategies and variables with emphasis on determining the most effective and
productive strategies, methods and procedures,
(c) Policy project appraisal: It is a process of assessing individual projects through site
visits and other means with emphasis on managerial and operational efficiency.

In discussing policy evaluation, we need also to understand the differences between policy
output and policy outcome. Policy output refers to the quantifiable actions of the government
that can be measured in concrete terms, while policy outcomes refers to the qualitative impacts
of public policies on the lives of the people.
4.2 PERSONNEL ADMINISTRATION (MANAGEMENT)

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Personnel administration is that part of administration concerned with the management of people
at work. In other words the central concern of personnel management is the efficient utilization
of employees of an organization. Some people would argue that personnel management is simply
a collection of people-management techniques, which can be used in all organizations. However,
as Margaret Attwood and Stuart Dimmock (1996) noted, the validity of this definition or
understanding is doubtful since techniques applied in one organization for the effective
utilization of staff may fail elsewhere.
In recent years, the term "human resource management" has been frequently being used in
reference to "personnel management". Most organizations have a specialist personnel department
that gives support to managers and supervisors who have direct responsibility for the
management of people. Thus, the function of a personnel department is to assist with the
acquisition, development and retention of the human resources necessary for the success of the
organization.
Ideally, we may sometimes find differences of administrative systems within the "public sector"
as the "civil service" and "public corporations" or "public enterprises" distinguished on the
ground of their basic functions or engagements, the former largely engaged in regulatory
function or services while the later in production or service provision activities. However, in the
context of our discussion; i.e. public personnel administration (management), "civil service"
came to encompass the other segment of the public sector (public corporation/enterprise) since
the principle are essentially the similar. Therefore, discussions of this topic here under will be in
view of the civil service and would adequately serve our purpose.
4.2.1 The Concept of a Career Civil Service
Herman Finer, quoted in RumkiBasu (1994:295), defines the civil service as a "professional
body of officials, permanent, paid and skilled". In this connection, a civil servant may be
understood as a "servant of the general public (not being the holder of a political or judicial
office), who is employed in a civil capacity and whose remuneration is wholly paid from the
budget provided by the parliament any legitimatised body of the government".
The civil service constitutes the "permanent" executive in the modern state. With the increasing
variety in the functions of the civil service, the new category of employees (both technical and
generalist in character) working under the public sector are being gradually added to the category

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of civil servants everywhere. The major requirement of the civil service is that it shall be
"impartially selected, administratively competent, politically neutral, and imbued (instilled) with
the spirit of service to the community".
Willoughby defined career civil service as:
"A system that offers equal opportunities to all citizens to enter the government
service, equal pay to all employees doing work requiring the same degree of
intelligence and capacity, equal opportunities for advancement, equal favorable
conditions and equal participation in retirement allowances and makes equal
demands upon the employees".
Career civil service has been understood as a system aimed at recruiting young people having
the talent and ambition, with capacity for learning and growth, training them in order to develop
their potentialities for the service of the state.
Despite there have been historical traces for the existence of some sort of a rudimentary civil
service, for example in ancient china and Egypt, concept of civil service as a career is
comparatively a recent origin even in those developed countries. England had no permanent civil
service until the middle of the 19th century and USA until the end of that century. The "patronage
system" and the "spoils system" that prevailed in England and the USA respectively have
delayed the development of a merit-based public career system until those mentioned periods.
According to Dr. Finer, the growth of the cardinal principles of modern civilization brought
about the establishment and growth of a professional civil service. Some of those principles were
the principles of specialization and division of labor, the democratic ideas of "career open to
talents", etc.
The Civil service is the chief instrument for the implementation of the will of the state as
expressed through public policy. It is indispensable to the functioning of the modern state. With
the change in the philosophy of the state from the laissez faire to that of the social welfare, the
modern state involved itself in multifarious tasks, which are performed by the civil service.
The basic task of the civil servants is to transform politics into action. Besides, the higher
echelons of the civil service assist their political superiors in policy-formulation through
expertise advice, assistance, and information. With the diversification of the nature of the civil

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service personnel, civil servants of the technical category engaged in various productive and
public sector organizations are rendering useful social and economic services to the people.
Therefore, the tasks of the civil servants became comprehensive, directly impinging on the lives
and welfare of citizens. Due to the increasing significance of the civil service in modern societies
and the assumption of responsibility by the state for the performance of various socioeconomic
functions, it has become necessary or imperative to recruit persons and thereby build competence
for the civil service.
Professionalization of the civil service became absolutely necessary to attract the best available
talent to government jobs and enable them to make a rewarding career of it. For example a
Commission established in 1933 in the US defined the concept of career civil service and
identified its main characteristics as:
(1) High prestige and status attached to government service,
(2) Appropriate recruitment procedures,
(3) Broad avenues for promotion and transfer of personnel,
(4) Clear pay scales, and
(5) Adequate retirement and pension system

In addition/similar to the above outlined ones, the main characteristics of a career civil service
that have got common acceptance are:
(1) Permanence of tenure and stability of service,
(2) Equal opportunity of competing for government services,
(3) Merit to be the sole criteria of recruitment with due recognition to ability and personal
efficiency in a sound promotion system,
(4) Fairly large extent of territorial jurisdiction of public employees to enlarge their scope of
activity and improve their avenues for promotions, and
(5) Adequate steps taken to provide in-service training to civil servants to keep them in
touch with the latest trends and developments in administrative theory and practice.
Powell also suggested the incorporation of (a) planned and continuing upward progression
system, and (b) planning of staff needs to be included in the provisions of a career civil service.

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The system of career civil service is applicable to all ranks of administration from the highest to
the lowest grades and to all levels of government.
Ideally, a career civil service is a system of service, with recruitment on merit, security of tenure,
and due recognition of service and merit through timely promotions. Every organization has its
own service systems comprising permanent civil service groups, whose size and function depend
on the nature of the organization. Modern civil service constitutes people with both general and
technical qualifications.
Personnel administration involves a number of tasks that range from recruitment to retirement
and pensioning. The most identifiable tasks of personnel management (administration) are
discussed in brief as follows.
4.2.2 Recruitment of Personnel
Recruitment of personnel is one of the crucial tasks of modern governments and lies at the heart
of the problem of personnel administration. The main test of any machinery of recruitment of
personnel lies in its ability to recruit the right type of persons to the right job. An effective
recruitment process is that attracts the best available talent.
Public recruitment may be defined as that process through which suitable candidates are included
to compete for appointments to the public service. It is thus an inclusive process-selection, which
in turn includes the process of examination and certification. Inclusiveness of the recruitment
process refers also to the emphasis not only on finding, but also on building of people who are
capable of performing the complex tasks. The recruitment and selection process includes a
number of different steps, which are as follows:
1.Develop/obtain accurate job description: management should ensure that clear, concise and
accurate job descriptions are available for every position. Accurate job descriptions are the
basic building blocks on which advertisements, interviews and other aspects of fair selection
are constructed.
2.Defining the ideal candidate: having prepared the job description for the vacancy under
consideration, we now need to match the characteristics of the job with the characteristics of
candidates who may apply for it. In order to undertake this process successfully, we need to
have what is known as a "person specification" that defines the knowledge, skills, and
experiences required for the successful accomplishment of the tasks summarized in the job

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 descriptions. Hence, criteria used in the person specification must be related strictly to job
requirements.
3.Announcement of vacancies (invitation of candidates) through newspapers, journals, and any
other appropriate media,
4.Short-listing of the most appropriate applicants: short-listing is sorting the best potential
candidates by eliminating inappropriate applicants simply by referring to their curricula vitae,
application letters, filled-out forms and so on without the need to see them in person. This
process has to be followed by notifying short-listed applicants to appear for exams or
necessary tests,
5. Holding of examinations for testing or determining the abilities of recruits (exams would be
in the form of interviews, written tests, or practical tests),
6. Selecting the best or eligible candidate/s from among those who have been examined or
tested
7. Placement or appointment of selected recruits. Appointment could be permanent, temporary,
provisional, or probationary.
8. Induction or orientation of the employee: this in general has to do with the new employee's
early "life" with the organization. Line managers, fellow workers, personnel and training
staff have a role to play in the induction of new employees. In addition to orienting new
employees about the jobs, the organization, and the working environment, many
organizations provide also induction training as a formal mechanism before the new entrant
is engaged in performing the task.
The aims of the induction process are:
(i) to make the new employee efficient as quickly as possible,
(ii) to encourage new employees to become committed to the
organization,
(iii) to familiarize new employees with the job.
One of the main problems in the recruitment system of modern civil service is laying down
proper qualifications to suit the needs of the diverse tasks of administration. Broadly, there are
two types of qualifications required of public servants; general and special.

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General qualifications relate to the civil status, domicile, sex and age, while special qualification
may include educational background, technical experience, and personal qualifications. We may
need some clarification only about what personal qualifications, since all other items of
qualifications included in the general and special qualifications are self-explanatory.
A public servant is required to posses many personal qualifications like integrity,
resourcefulness, tact and sincerity. Besides devotion to public duty, other desirable personal
qualifications are:
(a) Flexible and recognition of the need for coordination,
(b) Familiarity with the subject matter of organization and management,
(c) Facility at problem solving,
(d) Highly developed reading and writing ability,
(e) Ability to settle vexing situations through interpersonal contact,
There are also various ways of determining qualifications, which have been adopted in most
countries today; such as:
 Personal judgment of the appointing authority,
 Certificates of character, ability, and educational qualification,
 Record of various experiences-educational and occupational,
 Examinations (written, oral, practical or performance demonstration),
 Psychometric tests,
1. Written tests may further fall under the following main categories:
(a) Ability tests, the purpose of which is to assess the general mental ability of the candidate, hi
memory, response to problems, and power of logic. This in turn could be sub divided as;
 General intelligence test: the device of measuring mind,
 Unit trait system: a process of identifying for example, perception, memory, reasoning
ability, and comprehension,
 Social intelligence test: devised to measure the quality of adaptability to kinds of new
situations and ability to influence people,
 Administrative ability test: devised to test the ability of a candidate to appraise people,
capacity to make prompt decision, etc.

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  Mechanicalintelligence test: used to test the ability of thee mechanical performance of
lower level grades,
(b) Aptitude tests, which are meant to test particular aptitude of the candidate towards the job,
(c) Achievement tests, which are meant to the standard academic qualifications laid down for
recruitment to various services,
(d) Personality tests, devised to measure, for example, emotion and temperament, confidence
and sociability, qualities of ascendance and submission, hidden traits,
2. Oral interview is the commonest, least complex, and inexpensive method of personnel
recruitment test, which is also known as "viva voce". This test, however, is not entirely free from
bias and subjectivity, hence usually supplemented by written test.
4.2.3 Training
Training is another crucial task in personnel management (administration). The terms training
and education are often used as if they are synonymous. But they are not, and an understanding
of the differences between them is important to understand the training process in organizations.
Both training and education are processes, which help people to learn, but they differ in
orientation and objectives. Attwood and Dimmock (1996:96) simply described:

 Training as "...oriented towards the needs of the organization, specific to the employee's
work situation, aimed at making workers more effective in their jobs, relatively short in
timescale, and often fairly narrow in content".
 Education as "...oriented to the needs of the individual, more abstract in nature, geared to
the needs of the individual and to the society generally, generally a long-term process in
terms of timescale, and widely drawn in content".
In the words of Basu, training is the systematic imposition of skilled knowledge to all categories
of civil servants for their advancement and efficiency in service. The training of civil servants
has got special significance today, and an indication of this is the gradual proliferation of training
programs and institutions to train public servants in many countries.
The general conception of training is a mixture of many elements. For example, training means
imparting of specialized knowledge of facts and their interrelationships or teaching of techniques

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that require the coordinated handling of tools, appliances and physical faculties; or the formation
of mental and physical habit patterns to ensure automatic responses to work efficiency.
Because of the increasing importance of training, many countries have adopted training policy.
Training policies must be supportive of organizational policies and goals. To ensure the
effectiveness of the organization's workforce, the training function is suggested to be acquainted
with or involved with the strategic planning process. Training, as one of the personnel
administration activity, should be preceded by a training need assessment and analysis and
should be conducted on a continuous basis.
4.2.4 Performance Appraisal
The term "performance appraisal" implies the process of valuing the employee's worth to the
organization, with a view to increasing it. In other words, performance appraisal is the
evaluation of the performance of the employee against agreed upon standards. Management's
objectives in performance appraisal may include:
 To help improve current performance,
 To set objectives for individual performance,
 To assess training and development needs,
 To assess future potential for promotion,
 To give employees feedback on their performances,
 To counsel employees for career opportunities,
 To rate employees' performance for salary review purposes,
 To encourage managers to think carefully about the general factors that influence the
performance of their employees, including their own leadership style and behavior
There are different types of appraisal systems. These may include: personality-based (trait-based)
appraisal, performance-based (result-based) appraisal, and critical incident appraisal methods.

(a) Trait-based or personality-based performance appraisal system largely depends on the

judgments of managers about their subordinates on such dimensions or personality
characteristics as intelligence, initiative or loyalty. In this appraisal system, the roots of
prejudice tend to be very close to the surface. The appraisal criteria involved in this system
are more of behavioral, personality related rather than actual job performance. Further, the

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 appraised person may not have the chance for feedback since evaluation results will be kept
confidential in most cases.
(b) Result-oriented or performance-based appraisal system concentrates on the actual
performance of an employee measured on the basis of agreed upon plans between the
manager and subordinate and specific objectives or performance targets. In other words,
this method focuses on specific outcomes achieved as a result of job performed by
employees as measured by predetermined success criteria. It is also more transparent,
hence provides an opportunity for subordinates to get feedback about how their result has
been rated. Many experienced practitioners argue that result-based appraisal is more
objective and effective.
(c) Critical incident appraisal system is more of an ideal type, hence seldom used in practice. It
refers to the rating of an employee when he/she produces an extra-ordinary result that
might not be part of the plan in the normal task job. In this system, employees will be
rewarded only if they show exceptional performance other than their normal duty for which
they are paid regular salaries or wages.
4.2.5. Promotion
A sound promotion system is of vital importance for the continued efficiency of the public
service. Promotion in the words of White implies "an appointment from a given position to a
position of higher grade, involving a change of duties to a more difyficult type of work and
greater responsibility accompanied by change in title and usually an increase in pay".
Promotion is a reward to an employee, which entails a change in position and status in the
organizational hierarchy and pay scale. A system of graded promotions is essential to help build
morale and efficiency of employees. Unless the organization has adequate promotional avenues,
it will not be able to attract talented people towards it.
A proper promotion system helps to retain the services of the ablest amongst its employees and
also in giving them opportunity to improve their capabilities and qualifications. It is thus useful
to the employee individually as well as to the administration as a whole. But to improve the
morale and efficiency of administration, a promotion system must be based on the principles of
equity and fair pay. Unjust prejudice, favoritism, corruption, or bias on the part of the promoting

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officer, by pushing up unqualified employees is some of the factors that affect the establishment
of sound promotion system.
Willoughby outlined the following conditions as the basis of a promotion system:
 Adoption of standard specifications setting forth the duties and qualifications required for
all promotions in the organization,
 The classification of these positions into sub-classes, series, grades and services,
 The adoption of principle of merit in determining the selection of employees for
promotion,
 The provision of adequate means for determining the relative merits of employees eligible
for promotion.
All types of civil services lay down certain eligibility criteria or principles for promotion to all
grades. In most instances, two main principles have been fixed for promotion:
1. The seniority Principle: this principle is widely prevalent in government services as a method
of promotion in most countries. This principle is automatic, and avoids the need for making
invidious distinctions among persons. It is greatly followed in the public service everywhere
since it is objective and easy. It greatly eliminates chances for favoritism and corruption. It also
reduces unhealthy rivalry in the organization thereby promotes harmony and increased morale.
However, this system has its own flaws. It doesn't necessarily lead to the selection of the best
performer who is eligible for promotion. It leads to demoralization and non-complacency in
service. This system encourages only mediocrity (weakness).
2. Merit principle: this system ensures that the best person is promoted to the higher post based
on specified criteria alone. This would encourage hard work, and efficiency, reward talent and
increase morale in the service. However, this system is criticized for being greatly subjective,
making it susceptible to all kinds of pressure and prejudice. It often leads to unhealthy rivalry
and causes considerable ill-will among those who may miss for promotion.
4.3 FINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION
Financial administration is the management of the finance of a state or of a public authority
endowed with taxing and spending powers. Sound Financial administration is vital to the success
of any organization. Efficiency and economy are the two watchwords (mottos) of public finance.

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Financial administration seeks to arise, spend and account for the funds need for public
expenditure.
Financial administration involves the activities of four agencies: the Executive, which needs and
spends the funds; the Legislature, which grants the funds and appropriates them to particular
agencies; the Finance Ministry, which controls the expenditure; and the Audit, which sits in
judgment over the way in which the funds have been spent. All these agencies have their own
role in financial administration.

4.3.1 Sources of Public Finance

The main sources of finance in most governments are taxes, print money, borrowing, sales of
assets, user charges and fees. The method of government financial administration affects the
economic situation of a nation.
Taxes are the main sources of public finance or revenues. Taxes are defined as involuntary or
compulsory payments associated with certain activities of physical or legal persons without
explicit relationship. Taxes could also be further divided as direct and indirect. The difference
between direct and indirect taxes is that the later is paid in connection to production,
consumption, imports or exports. Whereas, direct taxes are levied on employed, self-employed
and owners of partnerships.
An indirect tax can be general like Value Added Tax (VAT), or specific tax on certain goods and
services like excise tax. It can also be levied on imported goods, such as customs duties. Indirect
taxes can be levied to counteract the external effects of consumption and production, in addition
to its aim of generating public finance. Revenues from indirect taxation are not in general
earmarked transfers, and are used to finance public expenditure, investments and public
transfers.
4.3.2 Budget
In public administration, the term "budget" refers to a financial document, which is annually
placed before the legislature by the executive, giving a complete statement regarding the
government revenues and expenditure of the past financial year and an estimate of the same for
the next financial year. However, it should be noted that there is unanimity in the definition of

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the term "budget" among different writers. Despite differences in defining the term, most people
agree that the budget is the keystone of financial administration and the various operations in the
field of public finance are correlated through the instrument of the budget.
Budget is generally, an instrument of financial administration, and for the analysis of a
government policy in financial administration. A budget is a financial report of statement and
proposals are periodically placed before the legislature for its approval and/or sanction. It is a
balanced estimate of expenditures and receipts (revenues) for a given period of time. For the
administrator, the budget is a record of past performance, a method of current control, and a
projection of future requirements or plans.
Budgeting is aimed at gathering legislative support for government proposals. It is an attempt to
allocate financial resources through a political process. It reflects an organization's goals and
aspirations and its policies and proposals to realize them. The real significance of the budget lies
in providing orderly administration of the financial affairs of a government. The conventional
pattern of government budgeting serves the sole purpose of fiscal accountability and is merely a
document for parliamentary control of the financial operations of a government.

4.4. Development Administration

As the major burden of development work would naturally fall on the public sector [the state], a
high degree of public Administration efficiency is vital for the successful implementation of
development plans and efforts in nation building. This has become recognized with the
emergence of a new approach to administration known as Development Administration.
Development is integral to the aims and activities of the government especially in the developing
countries. Because of paucity of resources (human and material) in their counties, the need for
making optimum utilization of available means and augmenting new means assumes a great
importance. Development administration thus becomes a means through which the government
brings quantitative and qualitative changes in an economy. Government is engaged in not only
fixing priorities but also making efforts to realize them.
The State (government) plays a leading role in bringing about development through its
administrative system. In order to discharge this role it requires a distinct type of support by
administration which involves, as has been observed by Swerdlow, special understanding of

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problems in the developing countries. These must be perceptible at different operative levels i.e.,
officials must make enough different decisions, adopt enough different policies and engage in
enough different activities to warrant the different designations of development administration.
Thus development administration is simply termed as an action or functioning part of the
government administration. It is action-oriented and places the administration at the centre in
order to facilitate the attainment of development objectives. Different scholars have attempted to
provide definition for the term development administration in their own ways. In the following
paragraphs some of them were highlighted.
For Harry J. Friedman development administration means:
(i) The implementation of programmes designed to bring about modernity (i.e. .socio-
economic progress and nation-building);
(ii) The changes within the administrative system which increase its capacity to
implement the programmes.
According to Hahn Beenlee, development administration is involved in managing a government
or an agency so that it acquires an increasing capability to adapt to and act upon new and
continuing social changes with a view to achieve sustained growth. Gant (1982), observed that
development administration is “that aspect of Public Administration in which focus of attention
is on organizing and administering public agencies in such a way as to stimulate and facilitate
defined programmes of social and economic progress. It has the purpose of making change
attractive and possible”. Thus development administration involves two elements:
(i) The bureaucratic process that initiates and facilitates socio-economic progress by
making the optimum use of talents and expertise available ;
(ii) Mobilization of administrative skills so as to speed up the development process.
Therefore, there is no universally accepted definition for the term development administration.
But most of scholars and public administrator’s share that development administration is an
effort towards planned transformation of the economy involving not only the sphere of
administration but also formulation of policies and indeed the society as a whole. It is an effort at
the synchronization of changes in all spheres of development-economic, political, social and
cultural. Thus development administration is not only viewed in terms of growth process, but it
includes a process of social change.

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In nutshell development administration concentrates on the needs and desires of the people, it is
concerned with formulation of plans, programmes, policies and projects and their
implementation. It plays a central role in carrying out planned change i.e. it is concerned with
planning, co-ordination, control, monitoring and evaluation of plans and programmes. It is not
only concerned with the application of policies as determined by the political representatives in
existing situation but also with introducing efforts to modify existing situations so as to serve the
cause of the masses.
Administration of development involves the following objectives:
 Application of innovative strategies for development;
 Emphasis on development at the grassroots level. Development has to be need-oriented
and self-reliant process;
 stress on social development and human capital as a major resource;
 development has to be viewed not merely as a technological problem but also as an
ideological norm;
 profound and rapid change in order to establish a distinct and just social order;
 recognizing and highlighting the unity, rather than dichotomy between politics and
administration;
 effective and efficient use of scarce resources;
 creation of a politics-administrative environment which is oriented towards securing
basic needs of the population;
 Freedom of administrative machinery to express its values and beliefs without fear or
favor on programmes and projects.
Development Administration has to be efficient and effective. For that purpose it has to aim at
enlargement of administrative capabilities and structural and behavioral change. It is this aspect
of administration that is called administrative development or development of administration. In
simple terms it means development of administrative system, of administrative health by
introducing-administrative rationalization and institution building. The purpose implicit in this
concept is not merely changing the administrative procedures and channels but also bringing out
fundamental changes in administration that leads to:
 Political development,

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  Economic growth, and
 Social change.
Development of administration further means cultural change in administration. The colonial
administrative culture is unsuitable to the changed socio-political ethos of the developing world.
For instance, British legacy has adversely affected the administration of former colonies. The
obsolete Acts e.g. Police Act, 1861, cannot take us towards the path of change.
Development of administration should refer to the creation of ability to adjust to new stimuli or
changes. The development of administration aims at qualitative and quantitative transformations
in administration with an eye on the performance of management of affairs. The term also
implies technological changes in administrations as to enable it to adopt new modes or
techniques of administration. Thus administrative development focuses on adaptability,
autonomy and coherence in administration.
4.4.1 Characteristics of Development Administration
Development Administration has certain distinctive features. Some of the major characteristics
were briefly discussed below:
Change Orientation
The first and foremost element of development administration is its change orientation. Change
forms part of philosophic values of development administration. Development administration
involves itself in establishing a new social order in which growth and distributive justice coexist.
For PaiPanandikar the central theme of development administration is socioeconomic and
political change.
Development administration cannot be status-quo oriented. No development can take place
unless and until it introduces certain positive changes in a system. Changes such as structural
reorganization of administration, innovative programme to increase production, remove
unemployment, poverty etc., and new schemes to improve employer-employee relations must
form a part, of development administration.
Goal Orientation
Developing countries are facing the problems of poverty, squalor, injustice, unequal distribution
of wealth, lopsided agricultural growth, underdeveloped technology etc. These colossal issues
need to be tackled systematically by fixation of priorities and goals. Development administration

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is the means through which the goals of development namely; social justice, modernization,
industrialization, and economic growth can be achieved.
Innovative Administration
Development administration focuses on replacing/ improving the existing governing structures
and norms with the ones that suit the changing political and social environment. In other words
deve1opment.administration is one that is dynamic and progressive in thought and action. It is
interested in identifying and applying new structures, methods, procedures, techniques, policies,
plans, projects, and programmes so that the objectives and goals of development are achieved
with minimum possible resources and time. Thus development administration has to be
innovative enough in order to realize the pre-determined objectives of development. In fact,
innovative and creative administration leads to speedy realization of goals.
Client-Oriented Administration
Development administration is a client-oriented or a beneficiary-oriented administration. It aims
at providing maximum benefits of its services and products to every people for whom the
organization is designed. In other words, Development Administration is “people-centered”
administration which accords primacy to the needs of its beneficiaries and tries to tune its
programmes, policies and actions to these needs.
Therefore, development administration is people-oriented administration which gives priority to
the needs of its beneficiaries by preparing, reviewing and, if necessary, changing the
programmes, policies and activities aimed at the satisfaction of the needs of people in question.
The administration is involved in the betterment of the lot of the deprived and the weak. Their
upliftment becomes a part of the whole administrative ethos. The welfare of the weaker sections
is a part of the administrative value.
Participation-Oriented Administration
Development administration accepts for its purposes the principle of associative and participative
system of administration. Here, people are not treated as mere passive recipients of benefits or
goods and services. They are taken as active participants in the formulation and execution of
development plans, policies and programmes. It is recognized that centralized administration will
not only be unable to take cognizance of local problems in a realistic frame, but it would also be
deprived of the use of local initiatives, energies and resources. Hence, effective formulation of

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programmes and their implementation with the help and association of the local people is now a
well recognized principle of administration. It involves giving people increasing share in the
governance and management of developmental affairs of the government.
Effective Co-ordination
Since development implies increasing specialization and professionalization, the number of
agencies and organizations involved in development tasks has considerably increased. In order to
have the maximum benefit of this emergent administrative system; co-ordination between
various administrative units and activities is essential. To achieve maximum results, wastage of
resources, time and cost has to be avoided.
Development administration has to co-ordinate the activities of development agencies and
organizations to integrate their efforts and energies for the realization of development goals. This
would even save the administration from the problems of duplication of functions, neglect of
important functions and unnecessary focus on irrelevant or marginally relevant activities. It
would thus minimize administrative lag.
Ecological Perspective
Development administration shapes the environment-political, social and economic and also gets
affected by it in turn. It is not a closed system. It receives a feedback from the social system and
responds to the demands put on it by the system. In a way development administration is related
to the environment and involves close interaction between the administration and environment.
The environment sets forth the operative parameters of development administration. It requires
the qualities of flexibility and responsiveness in administrative actions and methods. The
changes in administration affect its environment and changes in environment also have its
bearing on administration.
4.4.2 Traditional Administration vs. Development Administration
Many scholars like George Gant, Ferrel Heady and others have sought to conceptualize
development administration as different from traditional administration. They explain that these
two types of administration differ from each other in terms of purpose, structure and
organization, attitudes and behavior, capabilities, techniques and methods. This is the implicit
meaning of the observation of John Gunnel who says, “The increasing shift of development
scenario requires increased diversification and specialization of knowledge and skills and high

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level of managerial ability for integrative co-ordination. To quicken the pace of development
there is an additional need for a new breed of administrators of superior calibre and vision with a
passion for achieving results and of those who can take risks and introduce innovations. There is
an increasing reed to have heightened sensitivity to the welfare of the poor sections and greater
responsiveness to the political process." It follows that development administration has to have
different features and should be based on different requisites than the traditional or law and order
or general administration. The distinction between the traditional and development
administration has been presented by S.P. Verma and S.K. Sharmaas follows:
Traditional Administration Developmental Administration
Regulatory Administration (routine operations) Unpredictable new tasks or problems(rapidly
changing environment)
Oriented towards efficiency and economy Oriented towards organizational growth and
(emphasis on individual growth and effectiveness in achievement of goals
effectiveness in performance) (emphasis on group performance and inter-
group collaboration)

Task orientation and conformity to rules and Relationship oriented with emphasis on high
procedures (concern for security, playing safe, programme standards (willingness to take
comfort, status and power) risks, encouraging innovation and change
Sharp and elaborate hierarchical structure Structure shaped by requirements of goals
(strict and authoritative, climate of mistrust) (flexibility and continuously changing roles,
mutual trust and confidence)
Centralized decision making (past experience Wide sharing decision making (empirical
as the main guide to problem solving) approach to problem solving and use of
improved aids to decision making)
Emphasis on maintaining status quo (resistance Continuing organizational development in
to organizational change) response to environmental demands
(development of organization which is
dynamic, adaptive, and futuristic)

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Traditional administration has been visualized as one concerned with fulfilling all the legal
requirements of governmental operations and maintenance of social stability. In short, this type
of administration confines itself to the maintenance of law and order, collection of revenues and
regulation of national life in accordance with the statutory requirements. The assumption behind
the differentiation between development administration and traditional administration is that
administration in newly emergent nations must switch completely from law-and order values to
developmental values. Another point that distinguishes development administration as a separate
identity is that “it is not a closed system; the linkages with experts, relationships with the
grassroots level and with the people is more important than central structures. Though there are
technical and behavioral techniques common to all forms of administration, in development
administration, external relations have to be optimized before resources can be focused on
limited incremental goals. Development administration is concerned with attitudes and processes
rather than procedures and structures.”
The differences of views on the question of dichotomy still persist leading to an inconclusive
debate. However, it may be maintained that the administration for fulfilling the developmental
tasks needs to be exclusively studied and explained.
A rigid distinction cannot be made between traditional administration and development
administration. The traditional functions of maintenance of law and order are also basic to
development. Development administration has assumed the responsibility of formulating and
implementing various development and welfare functions because of growing complexities of
administration and aspirations of people. These functions are not absolutely separate from
traditional functions. In fact maintenance of law and order, and security is a precondition for an
economy to undertake developmental tasks. But as development administration is wider, broader,
participative, innovative and change-oriented, the traditional administration has to create the
conditions for the effective working of development administration.

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