Interference

Instructor: Dr. SDV

TIET, Patiala
Colours of hummingbirds
neck and feathers

Peacock feathers

Soap bubbles.
Conditions for interference:
(i) The light sources must be coherent. This means that the
plane waves from the sources must maintain a constant
phase relation. For example, if two waves are out of phase
with φ = π/3 , this phase difference must not change with
time.
(ii) The light should be monochromatic so that fringes of
different colours don’t overlap. This means that the light
consists of just one wavelength λ.
(iii) The Principle of Superposition must apply.
Conditions for interference:

What if you put two bulbs together in a room?

What if you put two sodium lamps together in a room?

Stoke's law: According to this principle, in the absence of
any absorption, a light ray that is reflected or refracted
will retrace its original path if its direction is reversed.
Stoke's law:
Stoke's law:

According to the principle of optical reversibility, the two rays of

amplitudes 𝑎𝑟12 and 𝑎𝑡1 𝑡2 must combine to give the incident ray.

𝑎𝑟12 + 𝑎𝑡1 𝑡2 = 𝑎 or 𝑡1 𝑡2 = 1 − 𝑟12

and

𝑎𝑟1 𝑡1 + 𝑎𝑡1 𝑟2 = 0 or 𝑟1 = −𝑟2

Stoke's law:
Stoke's law:
Stoke's law:

Rare to dense medium Dense to rare medium

Stoke's law:
• Ray 2 undergoes a phase
change of 180° with respect to
the incident ray

• Ray 1, which is reflected from

the lower surface, undergoes
no phase change with respect
to the incident wave

• Refracted waves don’t

undergo phase transition.

At interface, velocity and wavelength changes but frequency remains

same.
Parallel Thin Film Interference:

Thin film planes can be parallel to each other or inclined.

Interference in thin films can be studied under two categories,
namely,

1. Interference in parallel plate film

2. Interference in wedge-shaped films

Optical Path:

• The optical path travelled by a light ray in a medium of

refractive index 'μ' is not equal to actual path travel led by the
light ray.
Interference in parallel film due to reflected light:

Optical path difference:

1
= 𝜇 𝐴𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷 − 𝐴𝐵
2 2𝜇𝑑
B = − 𝐴𝐵
i 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟
air i
A E D
film d r
r
[𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐷 sin 𝑖 = 2𝐴𝐸 sin 𝑖
C
air = 2 𝑑 tan 𝑟 sin 𝑖
= 2 𝑑 tan 𝑟 𝜇 sin 𝑟
BD is normal to AB = 2𝜇 𝑑 tan 𝑟 sin 𝑟 ]

1
Hence, Path diff. = 2 𝜇 𝑑 − tan 𝑟 sin 𝑟
cos 𝑟
= 2 𝜇 𝑑 cos(𝑟)
Interference in parallel film due to reflected light:
1
2
i B
air E i
A D
film d r r

C
air

There is phase change of 180o or λ/2 for ray 1 whereas no phase change
for ray 2. Therefore, the condition for maxima will be given by:
𝜆
2 𝜇 𝑑 cos 𝑟 + = 𝑛𝜆
2
2µd cos(r) = (2n-1)λ/2 where n=1,2,3,.........

Condition for minima will be given by :

2µd cos(r)+ λ/2 = (2n+1)λ/2
2µd cos(r) = nλ where n=0,1,2,3,..............
Interference in parallel film due to transmitted light:

The condition for maxima will be given by:

2𝜇𝑑 cos 𝑟 = 𝑛𝜆; 𝑛 = 1,2,3, … … … .

Condition for minima will be given by :

2𝑛+1 𝜆
2𝜇𝑑 cos 𝑟 = ; 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3, … … … .
2

Conditions of maxima and minima in transmitted light

are just reverse of conditions for reflected light.
Interference in parallel film:

Fringes produced by a film of uniform thickness are called “fringes of

equal inclination” because the changes in optical path are due to
changes in the direction of incidence and hence in angle of refraction.
Interference in Wedge shaped film :
Interference in Wedge shaped film :

∠𝐵𝐸𝐷 = 90°
r

Surface GH and G1H1 inclined at an angle α enclose wedge shaped

film.
Interference in Wedge shaped film :
For constructive interference or maxima :

𝟐𝝁𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒓 + 𝜶 = 𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏 𝝀/𝟐; 𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, … … … .

Fringes of equal thickness

When d=0 (at point 0 ); you will get dark fringe.

Fringes will be straight line parallel to edge of film O.

For destructive interference or minima :

𝟐𝝁𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒓 + 𝜶 = 𝒏𝝀; 𝒏 = 𝟎 , 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑 … … … … …

Interference in Wedge shaped film :
𝑑 = 𝑋𝑛 tan 𝛼 nth maximum will be given by :
𝟐𝝁𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒓 + 𝜶 = 𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏 𝝀/𝟐;
where n=1,2,3,.........

If this maxima is obtained at a distance of Xn from edge.

For normal incidence, r = 0 and putting value of d
2𝜇𝑋𝑛 tan 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟 + 𝛼 = 2𝑛 − 1 𝜆/2;
⇒ 2𝜇𝑋𝑛 sin 𝛼 = 2𝑛 − 1 𝜆/2 (1)

2 𝑛+1 −1 𝜆 2𝑛+1 𝜆
For (n+1)th maxima: 2𝜇𝑋𝑛+1 sin 𝛼 = = (2)
2 2
From eq. (1) and (2): 2𝜇(𝑋𝑛+1 − 𝑋𝑛 ) sin 𝛼 = 𝜆
𝜆 𝜆
or fringe spacing/fringe width: 𝑋𝑛+1 − 𝑋𝑛 = =
2 𝜇 sin 𝛼 2𝜇𝛼
Colors in wedge shape thin film :
• If a monochromatic source of light such as from a sodium lamp is
incident normally on wedge shaped film, equally spaced dark and
bright fringes are observed.
𝜆
• spacing/fringe width =
2𝜇𝛼
• Distance between two consecutive bright(dark) fringes is determined
by wedge angle, wavelength and refractive index of film.

• If a polychromatic source is used, then colored fringed will be

observed.

• If wedge shape film has arbitrarily varying thickness, fringes will be

observed, each fringe represents locus of constant thickness. This is
what happens when sunlight falls on soap bubble or thin film of oil
on water.
Why an excessively thin film appears black?

In thin film, path diff. for reflected light:

𝜆
2𝜇𝑑 cos 𝑟 + :parallel film
2
𝜆
2𝜇𝑑 cos 𝑟 + 𝛼 + : wedge film
2

𝜆
For very thin film 2𝜇𝑑 cos 𝑟 ≪
2
𝜆
2𝜇𝑑 cos 𝑟 + 𝛼 ≪
2
𝜆
so path diff. ≈
2

This is the condition of minimum intensity for all wavelengths.

Therefore all wavelengths will be absent in reflected system,
hence film will appear dark.
Colors in thin film (thickness> few λ):
In order to see interference pattern, there should be a definite phase
relationship between the waves reflected from the upper surface of
film and the lower surface of the film. The path difference between
these two waves (Δ = 2𝜇𝑑 cos 𝑟 ) should be small compared to
coherence length (if a source remains coherent for time τ, then
coherence length is 𝐿 = 𝑐 𝜏).

For ex: In sodium lamp, for D1 line (5890 Ao), coherence length is of
the order of 1 cm and hence fringes are visible when path difference is
much less than 1cm. As value of path difference increases, contrast of
fringes becomes poor.

If white light source is used, then no fringes will be visible for Δ = 2

× 10−4 cm. If film thickness is more, iinterference pattern is washed
out due to overlapping interference patterns of many colors and no
fringes will be seen.
What if monochromatic source is replaced by
white light?
What if monochromatic source is replaced by white light?

 Path difference is function of μ which in turn depends on

wavelength of incident light. 𝜇 = 𝜆0 /𝜆. Refractive index of
material is different for different wavelengths.

 Depending on region of film and viewing position, condition for

maxima is satisfied for some wavelengths giving bright fringes.

 Wavelength for which minima condition is satisfied would be

absent in pattern.

 That is why colors change when we change our viewing angle.

Newton's rings:

A plano-convex lens is placed on plane glass sheet, an air film of

increasing thickness is formed.

Interference occurs between ray 1 and 2 and circular fringes are

formed.

Ray 2 undergoes phase change of 180o when reflected from air to

glass.
Newton's rings:

𝜆
Optical path diff. = 2𝜇𝑑 cos 𝑟 + 𝛼 +
2

For air film μ=1, for convex lens of large radius of curvature, α is
very small and can be neglected. So,

𝜆
Optical path diff. = 2 𝜇 𝑑 cos 𝑟 +
2
𝜆
For normal incidence r = 0, Optical path diff. = 2𝜇𝑑 +
2
Newton's rings:
For bright fringe or maxima for reflected light:

𝜆
2𝜇𝑑 + = 𝑛𝜆
2
2𝑛 − 1 𝜆
⇒ 2𝜇𝑑 = ; 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3 … … . .
2
Condition for dark fringe for reflected light :
𝜆 2𝑛 + 1 𝜆
2𝜇𝑑 + =
2 2
⇒ 2𝜇𝑑 = 𝑛𝜆; 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, 3 … … …

Newton's rings will be observed for transmitted light as well

with opposite conditions for minima and maxima.
Newton's rings:
Diameter of Fringes :
From property of circle :
𝑁𝑃 × 𝑁𝑄 = 𝑁𝑂 × 𝑁𝐷
⇒ 𝑟 × 𝑟 = 𝑑 2𝑅 − 𝑑
= 2𝑑𝑅 − 𝑑 2
Since 𝑑 ≪ 𝑅, 𝑟 2 ≈ 2𝑑𝑅
𝑟2
⇒𝑑=
2𝑅
For bright fringe:
2𝑛 − 1 𝜆
2𝜇𝑑 = ; 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3. . .
2
2𝑟 2 2𝑛 − 1 𝜆 2𝑛 − 1 𝜆𝑅
⇒ = ; Therefore, 𝑟 2 =
2𝑅 2𝜇 2𝜇
𝐷
If D is diameter of the fringe ( 𝑟 = ) then 𝐷𝑛 = 2𝜆𝑅/𝜇 2𝑛 − 1
2
Newton's rings:
Diameter of Fringes :
For dark fringes: 2𝜇𝑑 = 𝑛𝜆; 𝑛
= 0, 1, 2, 3 … … …

2𝑟 2
= 𝑛𝜆/𝜇; ⇒ 𝑟 2 = 𝑛𝜆𝑅/𝜇
2𝑅
Or ⇒ 𝐷𝑛2 = 4𝑛𝜆𝑅/𝜇 ⇒ 𝐷𝑛 = 2 𝑛𝜆𝑅/𝜇

Diameters of Newton's rings are proportional to square root of

natural numbers.
Newton's rings:
o Fringes are circular because of circular symmetry around
point O.
o Center will be dark and then alternate dark and bright fringes.
o Rings are loci of equal thickness as “d” is constant for rings.
o Rings are not equally spaced.
Newton's rings:
Experimental Setup:

Newton's rings:
Applications of Newton's rings:
For measurement of wavelength:
If 𝐷𝑛 and 𝐷𝑛+𝑝 gives diameter of 𝑛𝑡ℎ and (𝑛 + 𝑝)𝑡ℎ dark ring
respectively with air (𝜇 = 1), then
𝐷𝑛2 = 4𝑛𝜆𝑅
2
𝐷𝑛+𝑝 = 4 𝑛 + 𝑝 𝜆𝑅
2
𝐷𝑛+𝑝 − 𝐷𝑛2 = 4𝑝𝜆𝑅
2
𝐷𝑛+𝑝 − 𝐷𝑛2
𝜆=
4𝑝𝑅

Therefore, λ can be calculated using this formula.

Applications of Newton's rings:
For measurement of refractive index:
First 𝐷𝑛 and 𝐷𝑛+𝑝 (diameter of 𝑛𝑡ℎ and (𝑛 + 𝑝)𝑡ℎ dark ring
respectively) is measured with air film (𝜇 = 1) in between :
2
𝐷𝑛+𝑝 − 𝐷𝑛2 = 4𝑝𝜆𝑅

Without disturbing arrangement, liquid is poured in the

container whose refractive index is 𝜇1 . Again, 𝐷𝑛′ and 𝐷𝑛+𝑝
′
is
measured
′2 ′2
4𝑝𝜆𝑅
𝐷𝑛+𝑝 − 𝐷𝑛 =
𝜇1
Diameters of rings reduce in liquid.
Using above equations :
2
𝐷𝑛+𝑝 − 𝐷𝑛2
𝜇1 = ′2
𝐷𝑛+𝑝 − 𝐷𝑛′2
Why the center of Newton’s rings appears dark in
reflected light?
The effective path difference between the reflected rays =
𝜆
2𝜇𝑑 cos 𝑟 + 𝛼 + .
2

At the centre d=0 and for a very small angle of wedge cos(r+α)
=1. Therefore effective path difference at λ/2.

This is the condition of minimum intensity. Hence central spot of

the ring system appears dark.
Non-reflecting/Anti-reflecting Coatings:

Non-reflective coatings admit more light into cameras and

other optical instruments.
Non-reflecting/Anti-reflecting Coatings:
The refractive index of the 1
coating should be 2
3
𝝁𝒂𝒊𝒓 < 𝝁𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 < 𝝁𝒈𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔
𝝁𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 = 𝝁𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝝁𝒈𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔
Comparing the two reflected rays,
there is phase change of 𝜋 in both
rays due to reflection: these effects 1
cancel out.
2
The path difference between ray 1 2
and 2 is [from parallel thin film]:
2𝑛2 𝑑 cos 𝜃
For minimum reflection:
2𝑛2 𝑑 cos 𝜃 = 2𝑛 + 1 𝜆/2
𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝑴𝒈𝑭𝟐 , 𝝁 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟖.
Hence, used for coating.
Non-reflecting/Anti-reflecting Coatings:
To have minimum thickness of coating:
1
𝜆
2𝑛2 𝑑 cos 𝜃 = 2
2 3
𝜆
⇒𝑑=
4 𝑛2 cos(𝜃)
Destructive interference will happen
for reflected light: very little power is
reflected from the coating, and most is
transmitted into the lens: more light is
available for the optical instrument,
and less is wasted in reflection. 2

For optical instruments, one would

usually choose λ to be in the middle of
the visible spectrum (green light at
around 550 nm.
 Non-reflecting/Anti-reflecting Coatings:
For designing the film, the angle of 1

incidence is assumed to be along the 2

3
normal.
However, light is incident at all angles.
Due to this, the destructive interference is
more complete for longer wavelengths –
towards the red end of the spectrum –
and the destructive interference is less
complete for blue and violet.
This explains why the lens in the photo 2
above appears to have a blue-violet tinge
– which provides a simple way of
recognising such coatings.
What is requirement for fully reflecting coating?

𝝁𝒂𝒊𝒓 < 𝝁𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 > 𝝁𝒈𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔

An example of such coating is titanium oxide (𝝁𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 = 2.45)

Visibility of fringes:

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑉 =
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛

where 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 represents the measured maximum intensity

(𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = a21 + a22 )
𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 is the corresponding minimum intensity
(𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑎12 − 𝑎22 ).

V will always lie between 0 and 1.

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