Physics

Mixtures and Separation

Pure substances, something that contains only one kind of matter. Can either be a single
element (Oxygen (O) or a compound (water (H2O)
- Elements: the simplest form of matter, that can’t be broken down into simpler
substances
- Compounds: pure substances formed by chemical combination of two or more
elements
Mixtures, made by combining two or more different materials (pure substances) in a way where
no chemical reaction occurs.

Heterogeneous Homogeneous

All components of the mixtures are All components of the mixtures

visible because they do not mix cannot be distinguished from each
together. Components not other. Components distributed evenly
distributed/dissolved evenly. throughout the mixture.
(Cereal, soil water, mixed fruits) (Milk, Tea)
- Solution: a mixture where the solid dissolves in the liquid, making the mixture
clear or transparent. Always homogeneous: sugar water, salt water, etc
- Suspension: a mixture where two substances that separate if the mixture is not
stirred, often solids and liquids: sand water, oil water, soil water, etc
- colloid: one substance is dispersed in another substance and the two substances
will not separate easily, cloudy or opaque. Always heterogeneous: milk water,
blood, etc

COLLOIDS VS SOLUTIONS
In colloids a substance is DISPERSED in another object but not dissolved. This makes
particles in colloids not dispersed evenly and not consistent, even though we cannot see
a dispersed substance's particles in a colloid, colloids are still heterogeneous because
their particles are not distributed evenly. Colloid particles are way bigger than solution
particles because substances in a colloid are dispersed and not dissolved. Substances
that are in a colloid are insoluble.
For example tea in water is heterogeneous because its particles are not distributed
evenly and with a light can still be seen.

In solutions a substance is DISSOLVED. If a substance is dissolved in another

substance, this means that the dissolved substance is distributed evenly through the
other substance. This makes solutions homogeneous because we cannot see dissolved
substance particles. This makes the mixture clear or transparent.
For example sugar in water is soluble so it dissolves in water making the mixture
transparent.
Concentration of a solution, the mass of solute dissolved in a substance in a certain volume of
solvent. The higher the concentration, the more solute is dissolved.

Unsaturated, a solution that hasn’t reached its maximum amount of solute that could dissolve in
it. More solid can dissolve.
Saturated solution, solution where no more solid can
be dissolved
Supersaturated/over, a solution that passes its
maximum amount of solute that can dissolve it.
Crystals may appear.

Filtration,
a. Used to separate solid particles from a liquid or gas.
b. Involves passing the mixture through a filter medium,
allowing the liquid or gas to
pass while retaining the solid particles.

Distillation,
a. Utilized to separate liquids based on differences in their boiling points.
b. Involves heating the mixture to vaporize the component with the lower boiling
point, then condensing the vapor back into a liquid.
Example 1: Purifying water by boiling it, collecting the steam, and then condensing it
back into liquid form, leaving impurities behind.
Example 2: Separating alcohol from a water-alcohol mixture by heating and collecting
the vapor.
Decantation,
a. Involves pouring off a liquid, leaving the solid sediment or another liquid behind.
b. Useful when the components have different densities, allowing for the separation
of heavier and lighter phases.

Magnetism,
a. Applied to separate magnetic substances from non-magnetic ones.
b. A magnet attracts the magnetic components, allowing for easy separation.

Chromatography,
a. Used to separate components based on their affinity for a stationary phase.
b. Involves the migration of components through a medium, revealing distinct
bands or colors.
Example 1, separating pigments in ink using chromatography paper where each pigment
travels add different speeds.
Forces

A force is a push or pull. Forces can:

- Change the shape of an object
- Change the speed of an moving object
- Change the direction of a moving object

Contact forces, the thing providing the force needs to touch an object for the force to
affect the object.
- Friction
- Water resistance
- Air resistance
- Upthrust
Non-contact forces, forces that can affect an object from a distance.
- Gravity
- Static electricity
- Magnetism
- Electromagnetism

Weight and mass

Weight: the force of gravity pulling on an object, measured in newtons (N). Can be 0
Mass: the amount of matter that makes up an object, measured in kilograms (kg, g).
Cannot be 0

Friction
- Force between two touching objects, can slow thing down or make things still
- Can create heat, sound and can wear down objects
- We can increase friction by using certain materials (rubber)
- Lubricants are used to decrease friction, using lubricants is called lubrication
- Friction due to gas and liquids can also slow down objects, this can be reduced
having smooth surfaces (streamlined)

Pressure, force pushing on a certain area

If force is not changed
- Larger area = lower pressure (all force spread out)
- Smaller area = higher pressure (all force concentrated onto smaller area)
If area is not changed
- Larger force = higher pressure
- Smaller force = lower pressure

Measured in pascals (Pa). 1 Pa = N/m2

Unbalanced and balanced forces
balanced force, two forces acting in opposite directions and are the same, nothing will
change. If acting on a moving object, the object will continue to move at the same speed.
Unbalanced force, if one force is stronger than the other, something will start to move. If
acting on a moving object, it will change its speed

Solid things like a chair push up on you when you're sitting on it, this is called normal
force.
Upwards force from air or water is called upthrust, this is what makes objects float.

Springs
Elastic: materials than can be stretched or compressed
Extension: the difference between a springs original and stretched length
SOUND
Sound in the animal kingdom
- Communication: to communicate between other animals
- Predation: use sound to track and hunt prey, detect and avoid predators
- Navigation: use echolocation to navigate their environment and locate prey by emitting
sound waves and waiting for the sound waves or echos to bounce off objects and enter
the animal’s ears.
- Courtship: attract potential mates and establish dominance over other competitors.

Low and high sounds

- Sounds are made by objects that vibrate
Frequency or pitch:
 - faster vibration produces a higher sound
- Slower vibration produces a lower sound
- Hertz (hz) means vibrations per second
- Higher hertz means higher sound
Loud and soft sound
- Also known as amplitude or volume
- The larger the vibration the louder the sound
- The smaller the vibration the softer the sound
- Amplitude, maximum change in the position of a particle from its starting position
Sounds traveling
- Sounds need a medium to travel through, so places where there is no medium like
space, you cannot hear sound
- Sound is created by objects vibrating, causing the surrounding particles in a medium to
vibrate or to move back and forth, this generates a sound wave
- This movement reaches our ears that vibrates our eardrums, our brain detects it as
sound

- Sound waves transfer energy, they do not transfer particles. The louder the sound the
more energy its transferring
Speed of sound
- Vibrations are passed on easily if the particles of the medium are closer together
- Sounds travel fastest in solids, slowest in gasses and faster in liquids
- Sounds travel faster in mediums with higher temperatures, this is because particles in
higher temperatures have more energy and can vibrate faster
Spread of sound
- Sound waves spread out from a source
- As you get further from the source, the energy carried by the sound wave has spread
out further so there is less energy for your ear to detect.
Detecting sound
1. Sound enters ear canal
2. Eardrum vibrates
3. Vibrations passed on to tiny bones
which amplify the vibrations
4. Vibrations passed on to the liquid
inside the cochlea
5. Tiny hairs inside the cochlea detect
vibrations and create impulses
6. Impulses travel along the auditory
nerve to reach the brain

1. When sound waves

reach the microphone a
diaphragm vibrates
2. Electrical circuits in
the microphone detect the
vibration and turn in into
electrical currents

Absorbing sounds
- We can use certain materials to absorb sound, like carpets and curtains in our home
Hearing range

- infrasound, less than 20 hertz

- Ultrasound, more than 20.000 hertz

Echolocation

- Dolphins and bats use reflected sounds (echos) in the form of echolocation
- These animals produce a burst of ultrasound and listen for reflected sound waves by
objects or prey
- They can detect how far the object is front the time it takes for the echo to return, they
can also detect the direction of the object