C02 Differentiation
C02 Differentiation
ly/azizhandouts
Differentiation
March 28, 2024
Revision: 3228
AZIZ MANVA
[email protected]
TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.1 Slope, Tangents and Normals 62
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................ 2 2.2 Linearization and Differentials 69
1. FINDING DERIVATIVES ........................ 3 2.3 Related Rates of Change 70
2.4 𝒚′: Monotonicity 81
1.1 Derivative Definition 3 2.5 𝒚′: Turning Points 86
1.2 Differentiation 7 2.6 𝒚′′: Concavity and 𝒚′′ test 93
1.3 Rates of Change 17 2.7 Curve Sketching Questions 106
1.4 Trigonometric Derivatives 21 2.8 Intermediate Value Theorem 111
1.5 Chain Rule 26 2.9 Rolle’s Theorem 113
1.6 Implicit Differentiation 36 2.10 Mean Value Theorem 118
1.7 Inverse and Logarithmic Derivatives 44 2.11 Optimization 122
1.8 Inverse Trigonometric Derivatives 54 2.12 Kinematics 137
1.9 Graphical Transformations 59 2.13 Economics 137
2. USING DERIVATIVES ......................... 62
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1. FINDING DERIVATIVES
1.1 Derivative Definition
A. Average Rate of Change
1.1: Secant
The secant is a line that connects two points that lie on 𝒇(𝒙).
Example 1.2
The red graph alongside is the graph of
𝑦 = 𝑥2
The secant line is the blue line connecting the two points on the graph.
A. Identify the points where the line intersects the parabola.
B. Identify the equation of the line.
C. What is the slope of the line?
Part A
(0,0) & (1,1)
Part B
𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑒
Substitute 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑚 = 𝑅𝑢𝑛
= 1 and𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 = 𝑐 = 0 in 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐:
𝑦 =𝑥+0⇒𝑦 =𝑥
Part C
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑚 = 1
We learnt the concept of slope in coordinate geometry, at which point of time, you may or may not have seen
functions.
However, the average rate of change can be defined in terms of functions.
Note that for a point (𝑥, 𝑦) that lies on the graph of the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥):
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
Hence,
𝑦1 = 𝑓(𝑥1 ), 𝑦2 = 𝑓(𝑥2 )
Substitute the above in the definition of slope to get what we want to show:
𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑓(𝑥2 ) − 𝑓(𝑥1 )
=
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
Example 1.4
Find the average rate of change of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 over the interval
𝑦 −𝑦
A. (1,2). Use the formula 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑥2 −𝑥1
2 1
𝑓(𝑥2 )−𝑓(𝑥1 )
B. (2,3). Use the formula 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑥2 −𝑥1
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Part A
𝑦 −𝑦
Substitute (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) = (1,2) ⇒ (𝑦1 , 𝑦2 ) = (1,4) in 𝑥2 −𝑥1 :
2 1
Part B
𝑓(𝑥2 )−𝑓(𝑥1 )
Substitute (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) = (2,3) ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 4, 𝑓(𝑥2 ) = 9 in 𝑥2 −𝑥1
:
The average rate of change has an alternate definition, which is very useful later on, since we will define the
derivative in terms of the alternate definition.
Example 1.6
Find the average rate of change of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 over the interval (1,2) using the alternate definition above.
We have been given
(𝑥, 𝑥 + ℎ) = (1,2) ⇒ ℎ = (𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑥 = 2 − 1 = 1
Also
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(1) = 1
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = 𝑓(2) = 8
Example 1.7
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2
A. Find the average rate of change of 𝑓(𝑥) over the interval [2,2 + ℎ].
B. Find the slope of the tangent to 𝑓(𝑥) at the point (2,4).
Example 1.8
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3
A. Find the slope of the tangent to 𝑓(𝑥) at the point (2, −3).
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Example 1.9
1
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥
A. Find the slope of the tangent to 𝑓(𝑥) at the point (2, −3).
Slope
1 1 2 −2 + ℎ
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) −2 + ℎ + 2 (−2 + ℎ)(2) + (−2 + ℎ)(2) ℎ 1 1
= = = = × =
ℎ ℎ ℎ (−2 + ℎ)(2) ℎ −4 + 2ℎ
As ℎ goes to zero, the slope becomes
1
−4
Example 1.10
𝑥
𝑦= , 𝑃(4, −2)
2−𝑥
Δ𝑦 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 =
=
Δ𝑥 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
4+ℎ 4
( ) − (2 − 4) ( 4 + ℎ ) − (−2) ( 4 + ℎ ) + 2 4+ℎ
+
−4 − 2ℎ
=
2 − (4 + ℎ)
= −2 − ℎ = −2 − ℎ = −2 − ℎ −2 − ℎ = −ℎ × 1
4+ℎ−4 ℎ ℎ ℎ −2 − ℎ ℎ
−1 1
= =
−2 − ℎ 2 + ℎ
1
2
B. Tangent
1.11: Tangent
In geometry, the tangent to a circle is the line that touches a circle in exactly one point.
A tangent to the graph of a function is the line that gives the slope of the function at that point.
In the formula for average rate of change which is the slope of a secant:
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
ℎ
as ℎ approaches zero, the distance between the two points approaches zero, and the secant approaches the
tangent.
Example 1.12
Consider the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 .
A. Find the average rate of change over the interval (0,1)
B. Find the average rate of change over the interval (0,0.5)
C. Find the average rate of change over the interval (0,0.1)
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D. Hence, guess what the tangent at the point (0,0) will be.
Part A
Secant Line connecting (0,0) and (1,1):
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 1
Part B
Secant Line connecting (0,0) and (0.5,0.25):
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 0.5
Part C
Secant Line connecting (0,0) and (0.1,0.01):
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 0.1
Part D
Visually, the slope is getting closer and closer to zero.
Hence, we can take a guess, and suppose that at
𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 0
1.13: Tangent
In the formula for average rate of change which is the slope of a secant:
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
ℎ
as ℎ approaches zero, the distance between the two points approaches zero, and the secant approaches the
tangent.
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
The slope of the tangent line to a function is given by evaluating the derivative of the function at that point.
Example 1.17
Find the tangent and the normal to the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 at 𝑥 = 4
Normal
1
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙: 𝑚𝑛 × 9 = −1 ⇒ 𝑚𝑛 = −
9
Substitute 𝑥 = 4, 𝑦 = 20 in
1 1 184
𝑦 = − 𝑥 + 𝑐 ⇒ 20 = − (4) + 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑐 =
9 9 9
1 184
𝑦=− 𝑥+
9 9
1.2 Differentiation
A. Basic Rules
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Example 1.21
A. 𝑦 = 4
B. 𝑦 = 𝜋
𝑑𝑦 𝑑
= (4) = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑
= (4) = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Example 1.23
𝑑𝑦
Find 𝑑𝑥:
A. 𝑦 = 𝑥 5
B. 𝑦 = √𝑥
1
C. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2
1
D. 𝑦 =
√𝑥
3
E. 𝑦 = √𝑥
Part A Part B
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 5 𝑑 𝑑 1 1 −1 1
= 𝑥 = 5𝑥 4 √𝑥 = 𝑥2 = 𝑥 2 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 2√𝑥
We can also do in this in function notation: Part C
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 5 ⇒ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 5𝑥 4 𝑑 1 𝑑 −2 2
We can also write this in 𝑦′ notation: ( 2) = 𝑥 = (−2)𝑥 −3 = − 3
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑥 5 ⇒ 𝑦 ′ = 5𝑥 4 Part D
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𝑑 1 𝑑 −1 1 3 1 𝑑 3 𝑑 1 1 −2 1
( )= 𝑥 2 = − 𝑥 −2 = − 3 ( √𝑥 ) = 𝑥3 = 𝑥 3 = 2
𝑑𝑥 √𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 3
2𝑥 2 3𝑥 3
Part E
Example 1.25
Differentiate:
A. 3𝑥 4
1
B. 2 𝑥 5
√𝑥
C. 3
1.26: Derivative of √𝒙
𝑑 1
√𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 2√𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 1 1 −1 1 1
√𝑥 = 𝑥2 = 𝑥 2 = 1 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
2𝑥 2 2√𝑥
Example 1.27
√𝑥
A. 𝑦 =
3
𝑑𝑦 1
𝑦′ = =
𝑑𝑥 6√𝑥
Example 1.29
Find all derivatives of
A. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 4
B. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 5
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Part A 𝑑2 𝑦
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = (2𝑥 4 )′ = 2(𝑥 4 )′ = 2(4𝑥 3 ) = 8𝑥 3 = 20𝑥 3
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 24𝑥 2 𝑑3 𝑦
= 60𝑥 2
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = 48𝑥 𝑑𝑥 3
𝑓 (4) (𝑥) = 48 𝑑4 𝑦
= 120𝑥
𝑓 (𝑛) = 0, 𝑛 ≥ 5, 𝑛∈ℕ 𝑑𝑥 4
Part B 𝑑5 𝑦
= 120
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 5
= 5𝑥 4 𝑑𝑛 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 = 0, 𝑛 ≥ 6
𝑑𝑥 𝑛
➢ The sum and difference is very useful when differentiating a polynomial, since it lets us differentiate
“term by term”.
➢ In other words, you can distribute the 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 over the brackets.
Just as:
𝑦(𝑎 + 𝑏) = 𝑦𝑎 + 𝑦𝑏
Similarly:
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
(𝑎 ± 𝑏) = 𝑎± 𝑏
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Example 1.31
Find the derivative of:
Polynomials F.
1
−
2
+
√3
+ 𝜋𝑒𝑥 − 𝑒𝜋
2 5
A. 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 𝑥
5𝑥 3 5𝑥 3
B. 𝑡 2 + 𝜋𝑡 + 𝑒 Radicals
𝑥4 𝑥3 𝑥2 2 33 56
C. 𝑥 5 + − +
𝑥
+5+6 G. 3
√𝜃 + 5 √𝜃 2 + 9 √𝜃 7
2 3 4
1
D. 5𝜃 2022 − 3𝜃 1011 + 2022 H. 2 ( + √𝛽)
√𝛽
Negative Exponents
1
E. 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2
Polynomials Part F
Part A Move the variable 𝑥 to the numerator in all terms:
𝑑 2 𝑑 2 𝑑 2 5
(𝑥 + 𝑥) = 𝑥 + 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 1 −1
2𝑥 −3 √3𝑥 −3
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 − + + 𝜋𝑒𝑥 − 𝑒𝜋
Part B 5 5
Differentiate term by term:
Negative Exponents 2 2 5 √3 5 8
(−1)𝑥 −2 − ( ) (− ) 𝑥 −3 + ( ) (− ) 𝑥 −3 + 𝜋 𝑒
5 3 5 3
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A. 2𝑒 𝜃
B. 𝑒 ∙ 𝑒𝑧
C. 𝑒 𝑧+2
D. 𝑒𝜋
E. 4 ∙ 𝑒𝑦
F. 𝑒 𝑧−1
′ ′
(2𝑒 𝜃 ) = 2 × (𝑒 𝜃 ) = 2 × 𝑒 𝜃 = 2𝑒 𝜃
(𝑒 ∙ 𝑒 𝑧 )′ = 𝑒(𝑒 𝑧 )′ = 𝑒 ∙ 𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧+1
(𝑒 × 𝑒 𝑧 )′ = 𝑒 2 × (𝑒 𝑧 )′ = 𝑒 2 × 𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧+2
2
4 ∙ 𝑒𝑦
𝑒 ∙ 𝑒𝑧
𝑒 𝑧+2
𝑒 𝑧−1
Example 1.34
A. ln(𝑥 4 ) + 𝑥 2 + 2
B. 𝑒𝑥 + 𝜋 + 𝑒
C. 𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑧𝑒
D. 𝑒 𝑟+2 − 𝑟 𝑒+2
4
[4 ln 𝑥]′ + (2𝑥)′ + (2)′ = +2
𝑥
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𝑒𝑥
𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑒𝑧 𝑒−1
𝑟+2
𝑒 − (𝑒 + 2)𝑟 𝑒+1
To find the derivative of the product of two functions find the sum of:
➢ The product of the derivative of the first function and the second function.
➢ The product of the derivative of the second function by the first function.
Example 1.36
𝑦 = (3𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 − 1)
Example 1.37
Find the derivative of:
A. 𝑥 3 (𝑥 + 1)
B. 𝑥𝑒 𝑥
C. 𝑒 𝑥 ∙ ln 𝑥
D. 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥
E. √𝑥𝑒 𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑥 3 (𝑥 + 1) = 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 ⇒ 𝑦 ′ = 4𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2
⏟3 ⏟
𝑦=𝑥 (𝑥 + 1) ⇒ 𝑦 ′ = 𝑓 ′ 𝑔 + 𝑔′ 𝑓 = (3𝑥 2 )(𝑥 + 1) + (𝑥 3 )(1) = 3𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 = 4𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2
𝒇 𝒈
Product Rule
𝑥 × (𝑒 𝑥 )′ + (𝑥)′ × 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 (1 + 𝑥)
𝑒𝑥 1
𝑒 𝑥 × (ln 𝑥)′ + (𝑒 𝑥 )′ × ln 𝑥 = + 𝑒 𝑥 ln 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 ( + ln 𝑥)
𝑥 𝑥
𝑥 2 × (𝑒 𝑥 )′ + (𝑥 2 )′ × 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥 2 + 2)
𝑥 ′ ′ 𝑥 𝑥
𝑒𝑥 1
√𝑥 × (𝑒 ) + (√𝑥) × 𝑒 = √𝑥𝑒 + = 𝑒 𝑥 (√𝑥 + )
2√𝑥 2√𝑥
Example 1.39
Find the derivative of:
𝑥
A.
2𝑥+1
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3𝑥 3
B. 𝑥 2 +𝑥
√𝑥−1
C.
√𝑥+1
5𝑥+1
D.
2√𝑥
2𝑡
E. 2+√𝑡
Part A
𝑓 = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓′ = 1
𝑔 = 2𝑥 + 1 ⇒ 𝑔′ = 2
𝑓 ′ 𝑔𝑓 ′ − 𝑔′ 𝑓 (𝑥 2 + 𝑥) ∙ 9𝑥 2 − (2𝑥 + 1) ∙ (3𝑥 3 ) 9𝑥 4 + 9𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 3 3𝑥 4 + 6𝑥 3
( ) = = = =
𝑔 𝑔2 (𝑥 2 + 𝑥)2 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2
Part C
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(√𝑥 + 1) ( )−( ) (√𝑥 − 1) 2 + −2+
𝑑𝑦 2√𝑥 2√𝑥 2√𝑥 2√𝑥 √𝑥 1
= 2 = 2 = 2 = 2
𝑑𝑥 (√𝑥 + 1) (√𝑥 + 1) (√𝑥 + 1) √𝑥(√𝑥 + 1)
Part D
1 1 1 5𝑥 − 1
(2√𝑥)(5) − ( ) (5𝑥 + 1) 10√𝑥 − 5√𝑥 − 5√𝑥 −
𝑑𝑦 √𝑥 √𝑥 = √𝑥 = √𝑥 = 5𝑥 − 1
= = 3
𝑑𝑥 4𝑥 4𝑥 4𝑥 4𝑥
4𝑥 2
Part E
1
(2 + √𝑡)(2) − ( ) (2𝑡)
𝑑𝑦 2√𝑡 4 + 2√𝑡 − √𝑡 4 + √𝑡
= 2 = 2 = 2
𝑑𝑡 (2 + √𝑡) (2 + √𝑡) (2 + √𝑡)
Example 1.40
2+𝑥
Find the first four derivatives of 𝑓(𝑥) = 1−𝑥
𝑓 ′ 𝒈𝑓 ′ − 𝑔′ 𝑓
( ) =
𝑔 𝒈𝟐
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(1 − 𝑥)(1) − (−1)(2 + 𝑥) 3
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2
=
(1 − 𝑥) (1 − 𝑥)2
𝑑 3 𝑑
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = ( 2
)= 3(1 − 𝑥)−2 = 6(1 − 𝑥)−3
𝑑𝑥 (1 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑑
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = 6(1 − 𝑥)−3 = 18(1 − 𝑥)−4
𝑑𝑥
Example 1.41
𝑒𝑥
A.
𝑥
B.
𝑒𝑥
C.
√𝑥
𝐴
D. 𝐵+𝐶𝑒 𝑥
𝑥 × (𝑒 𝑥 )′ − 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥)′ 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥 − 1)
= =
𝑥2 𝑥2 𝑥2
𝑥 𝑥
1 2𝑥𝑒 − 𝑒
′ (√𝑥)(𝑒 𝑥 ) − (𝑒 𝑥 ) ( )
𝑒𝑥 2√𝑥 2√𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 (2𝑥 − 1)
( ) = = = 3
√𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
2𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦 (𝐵 + 𝐶𝑒 𝑥 ) × 0 − 𝐴(𝐶𝑒 𝑥 ) −𝐴(𝐶𝑒 𝑥 )
= =
𝑑𝑥 (𝐵 + 𝐶𝑒 𝑥 )2 (𝐵 + 𝐶𝑒 𝑥 )2
Example 1.42
1 − 𝑥𝑒 𝑥
𝑦=
𝑥 + 𝑒𝑥
(1 − 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 )′ = −(𝑥 × 𝑒 𝑥 + 1 × 𝑒 𝑥 ) = −(𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 )
𝑑𝑦 −(𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 )(𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 ) − (1 − 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 )(1 + 𝑒 𝑥 )
=
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 )
1.43: Identities
(𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 − 𝑏) = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2
(𝑎 + 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2
(𝑎 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 − 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2
(𝑎 + 𝑏)3 = 𝑎3 + 3𝑎2 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏 2 + 𝑏 3
(𝑎 + 𝑏)3 = 𝑎3 + 3𝑎2 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏 2 + 𝑏 3
𝑎3 + 𝑏 3 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )
𝑎3 − 𝑏 3 = (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )
Example 1.44
Find the derivatives of the following:
A. 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)
B. 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 + 1)
C. 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 + 1)(𝑥 4 + 1)
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(𝑥−1)(𝑥 2 +𝑥+1)
D. 𝑦 = 𝑥3
Part A
𝑑 𝑑 2
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1) = (𝑥 − 1) = 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Part B
𝑦 = (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 1) = (𝑥 2 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 1) = 𝑥 4 − 1
𝑑𝑦
= 4𝑥 3
𝑑𝑥
Part C
𝑑𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑥8 − 1 ⇒ = 8𝑥 7
𝑑𝑥
Part D
𝑥3 − 1 𝑥3 1 1
𝑦= 3
= 3 − 3 = 1 − 3 = 1 − 𝑥 −3
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 3
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 4
C. Further Topics
Example 1.45
Let 𝑃(𝑥) be a polynomial of degree 𝑛.
A. Show that the first derivative of 𝑃(𝑥) is a polynomial of degree 𝑛 − 1, with 𝑛 − 1 terms
B. Hence, show that every successive derivative reduces the degree of 𝑃(𝑥) by 1.
C. Find the 𝑛𝑡ℎ derivative of 𝑃(𝑥).
Part A
𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0
If we use
𝑃′ 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑃(𝑥)
′ (𝑥)
𝑃 = 𝑎𝑛 (𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 ) + 𝑎𝑛−1 ((𝑛 − 1)𝑥 𝑛−2 ) + ⋯ + 𝑎1 + 0
Example 1.47
𝑓(𝑥) and ℎ(𝑥) are functions differentiable on their domain:
𝑓(2) = 3, ℎ(2) = −1, 𝑓′(2) = 4, ℎ′(2) = 1
A. Find 𝑔′ (2) if 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑓(𝑥) + 3ℎ(𝑥)
B. Find 𝑝′ (2) if 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)
Part A
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
[2𝑓(𝑥) + 3ℎ(𝑥)] = 2 𝑓(𝑥) + 3 ℎ(𝑥) = 2𝑓 ′ (𝑥) + 3ℎ′ (𝑥) = 2(4) + 3(1) = 11
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Part B
𝑔(2) = 2𝑓(2) + 3ℎ(2) = (2)(3) + 3(−1) = 3
′ (𝑥) ′ (𝑥)]𝑔(𝑥)
𝑝 = [𝑓 + 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥) = (4)(3) + (3)(11) = 12 + 33 = 45
Challenge 1.48
Consider the function
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑛
A. Find the first, second and third derivatives.
B. See the pattern in part 𝐴, and use that to write a formula for the 𝑘 𝑡ℎ derivative, 𝑘 ∈ ℕ.
C. Find the 𝑛𝑡ℎ derivative
D. Find the (𝑛 + 1)𝑠𝑡 derivative
Part A
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑎(𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 )
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2 𝑦
= 𝑎[𝑛(𝑛 − 1)𝑥 𝑛−2 ]
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑3 𝑦
= 𝑎[𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)𝑥 𝑛−3 ]
𝑑𝑥 3
Part B
𝑑𝑘 𝑦
= 𝑎[(𝑛)(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) … (𝑛 − 𝑘 + 1)(𝑥 𝑛−𝑘 )]
𝑑𝑥 𝑘
(𝑛)(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) … (𝑛 − 𝑘 + 1)
(𝑛)(𝑛 − 1) … (𝑛 − 𝑘 + 1)(𝒏 − 𝒌)(𝒏 − 𝒌 − 𝟏)(𝒏 − 𝒌 − 𝟐) … (𝟐)(𝟏)
=
(𝒏 − 𝒌)(𝒏 − 𝒌 − 𝟏)(𝒏 − 𝒌 − 𝟐) … (𝟐)(𝟏)
= 𝑎[(𝑥 𝑛−𝑘 )]
𝑛!
𝑎 [( ) (𝑥 𝑛−𝑘 )]
(𝑛 − 𝑘)!
5! = 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 × 5 = 120
5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 5!
5×4 = =
3×2×1 3!
(1)(2)(3) … (499)(500)
Part C
𝑑𝑛 𝑦
= 𝑎[𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) … (1)𝑥 𝑛−𝑛 ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑛
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𝑑𝑛 𝑦
= 𝑎[𝑛!] = 𝑎(𝑛!)
𝑑𝑥 𝑛
Part C
𝑑𝑛+1 𝑦 𝑑
= 𝑎(𝑛!) = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑛+1 𝑑𝑥
Challenge 1.49
𝑑
Find 𝑑𝑥 (𝑦 ∙ 𝑦0 ∙ 𝑦1 ∙ … ∙ 𝑦𝑛 ) given that:
𝑛)
𝑦 = 𝑥 − 1, 𝑦𝑛 = 𝑥 (2 +1
𝑧 = 𝑦 ∙ 𝑦0 ∙ 𝑦1 ∙ … ∙ 𝑦𝑛
𝑛
𝑧 = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 + 1)(𝑥 4 + 1)(𝑥 8 + 1) … (𝑥 (2 ) + 1)
𝑛
= (𝑥 2 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 1)(𝑥 4 + 1)(𝑥 8 + 1) … (𝑥 (2 ) + 1)
𝑛
= (𝑥 4 − 1)(𝑥 4 + 1)(𝑥 8 + 1) … (𝑥 (2 ) + 1)
𝑛
= (𝑥 8 − 1)(𝑥 8 + 1) … (𝑥 (2 ) + 1)
𝑛
= (𝑥 16 − 1) … (𝑥 (2 ) + 1)
𝑛 𝑛
= (𝑥 (2 ) − 1)(𝑥 (2 ) + 1)
𝑛 𝑛
= (𝑥 (2 +2 ) − 1)
𝑛+1 )
= 𝑥 (2 −1
𝑑𝑧 𝑛+1
= 2𝑛+1 (𝑥 (2 )−1 )
𝑑𝑥
D. Abstract Differentiation
Example 1.50
𝐻(𝑥) = 2𝑓(𝑥) + 3𝑔(𝑥) + 4ℎ(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (3) = 7
𝑔′ (3) = 12
′ (3)
ℎ = −14
Using the information given, evaluate:
A. 𝐻 ′ (3)
Example 1.51
Find the rate of change in the:
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A. area of a square with respect to a change in its side length when its side length is 3?
B. area of a circle with respect to a change in its radius when its radius is 4?
C. volume of a sphere with respect to a change in its radius when its radius is 3?
Part B
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐴 𝑚2
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ⇒ = 2𝜋𝑟 ⇒ | = 2𝜋𝑟|𝑟=4 = 2𝜋(4) = 8𝜋
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑟=4 𝑚
Part C
4 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝐴 𝑚2
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 3 ⇒ = 2𝜋𝑟 ⇒ | = 2𝜋𝑟|𝑟=4 = 2𝜋(4) = 8𝜋
3 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑟=4 𝑚
Example 1.52
Economics
Biology
Other
B. Kinematics
Normally, we consider the coordinate plane with variables:
𝑥 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
𝑦 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
Example 1.54
A body moves along a coordinate line, with its position given by 𝑠 = 𝑡 3 − 4. Find its position when
A. 𝑡 = 0
B. 𝑡 = 2
1.56: Speed
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
Example 1.58
You start your morning walk at 𝑡1 = 6: 05 𝑎𝑚. You complete it at 𝑡2 = 6: 55 𝑎𝑚. What is Δ𝑡. (Δ) is used to
represent a change in a quantity.
Δ𝑡 = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = 6: 55 − 6: 05 = 50 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠
1.59: Displacement
Displacement is the straight-line distance (shortest path) from initial to final position
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = Δ𝑠 = 𝑠⏟2 − 𝑠⏟1 = 𝑓(𝑡 ⏟ 2 ) − 𝑓(𝑡⏟ 1)
𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑂𝑙𝑑 𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑂𝑙𝑑
𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Example 1.60
In the circle drawn alongside, an object at point A moves to C via the path at X. 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑂 = 5 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟. Determine
the:
A. Distance Travelled
B. Displacement
Example 1.61
An object 30 meters from the origin moves 20 meter to the left and then 10 m to the
right.
Determine:
A. Distance Travelled
B. Displacement
Example 1.62
The position of a object along a coordinate line is given by 𝑠 = 2𝑡 + 5.
A. Determine the displacement between 𝑡 = 3 and 𝑡 = 5
B. Let 𝑓(𝑡) = Δs. Find a closed form solution for 𝑓(𝑡) in terms of 𝑡1 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 and 𝑡2 = 𝐸𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
1.63: Velocity
Velocity is the rate of change of position.
Example 1.65
The position of an object along a coordinate line is given by 𝑠 = 2𝑡 + 5. Determine the average velocity
between 𝑡 = 3 and 𝑡 = 5.
Example 1.67
We can find the average velocity for any time period, ranging from a millisecond to a year. However, if we find
the average velocity for smaller and smaller time periods, then we get closer and closer to finding the velocity
at a particular point in time.
This is made precise in the definition of instantaneous velocity.
Note that instantaneous velocity is written as a function, since if we find the limit, that lets us find the velocity
as a function of time.
Example 1.69
The position of an object along a coordinate line is given by 𝑠 = 2𝑡 + 5.
A. Determine the velocity.
B. Show that the velocity is a constant.
𝑑𝑠 𝑑
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑣(𝑡) = = (2𝑡 + 5) = 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
D. Acceleration
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1.70: Acceleration
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.
Example 1.72
The position of an object along a coordinate line is given by 𝑠 = 2𝑡 + 5. Determine the average acceleration
between 𝑡 = 3 and 𝑡 = 5.
We can find the average velocity for any time period, ranging from a millisecond to a year. However, if we find
the average velocity for smaller and smaller time periods, then we get closer and closer to finding the velocity
at a particular point in time.
This is made precise in the definition of instantaneous velocity.
Example 1.75
A. Find the first four derivatives of 𝑦 = sin 𝑥.
B. Find a pattern for the derivatives, and write the pattern.
C. Hence, find 𝑦 (2021), where 𝑦 (𝑛) represents the 𝑛𝑡ℎ derivative of 𝑦
Part A
𝑦′ = cos 𝑥
′′ (𝑦′)′
𝑦 = = (cos 𝑥)′ = − sin 𝑥
(3)
𝑦 = (𝑦 ) = (− sin 𝑥)′ = −(sin 𝑥)′ = − cos 𝑥
′′ ′
𝑛∈𝕎
𝑦 (4𝑛+1) cos 𝑥
𝑦 (4𝑛+2) − sin 𝑥
𝑦 (4𝑛+3) − cos 𝑥
𝑦 (4𝑛) sin 𝑥
Part C
𝑦 (2021) = 𝑦 (400𝑛+1) = cos 𝑥
𝑑 2
𝑥
⏟ sin
⏟𝑥 = 2𝑥
⏟ sin ⏟2 cos
⏟𝑥 + 𝑥 ⏟𝑥 = 𝑥(2 sin 𝑥 + 𝑥 cos 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑓 𝑔 𝑓 ′ 𝑔 𝑓 𝑔′
Example 1.78
𝑑
Show that 𝑑𝑥 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 = cos 2𝜃
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𝑑
sin ⏟𝑥 = cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 (− sin 𝑥) = cos 2 𝑥 − sin2 𝑥 =
⏟𝑥 cos cos
⏟ 2𝜃
𝑑𝑥 𝑓 𝑔 𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐷𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦
Example 1.79
𝑓 𝒈𝑓 ′ − 𝑔′𝑓
𝑄𝑢𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑅𝑢𝑙𝑒: ( ) =
𝑔 𝒈𝟐
sin 𝑥+ln 𝑥
A. 𝑦 =
cos 𝑥+𝑒 𝑥
𝑥 sin 𝑥
B. 𝑦 = cos 𝑥+𝑥
sin 𝑥+cos 𝑥
C. 𝑦 = sin 𝑥−cos 𝑥
Part A
𝑥 1 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 (cos 𝑥 + 𝑒 ) (cos 𝑥 + 𝑥 ) − (sin 𝑥 + ln 𝑥)(− sin 𝑥 + 𝑒 )
=
𝑑𝑥 (cos 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 )2
1
(cos 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 ) (cos 𝑥 + ) + (sin 𝑥 + ln 𝑥)(sin 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 )
= 𝑥
(cos 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 )2
Part B
𝑑𝑦 (cos 𝑥 + 𝑥)(sin 𝑥 + 𝑥 cos 𝑥) − (𝑥 sin 𝑥)(− sin 𝑥 + 1)
=
𝑑𝑥 (cos 𝑥 + 𝑥)2
(cos 𝑥 + 𝑥)(sin 𝑥 + 𝑥 cos 𝑥) + (𝑥 sin 𝑥)(sin 𝑥 + 1)
=
(cos 𝑥 + 𝑥)2
Part C
(sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥) ⏟
⏟ (cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥) − ⏟
(cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥) ⏟
(sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥)
𝑑𝑦 𝑔 𝑓′ 𝑔′ 𝑓
=
𝑑𝑥 ⏟ 𝑥 − cos 𝑥)2
(sin
𝑔2
Factor −1 out of the first term, and note that the second term is a square:
−(sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥)2 − (sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥)2
=
(sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥)2
Use a change of variable. If we let 𝑎 = sin 𝑥 , 𝑏 = cos 𝑥, then the numerator:
= −(𝑎 − 𝑏)2 − (𝑎 + 𝑏)2
= −(𝑎2 − 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 ) − (𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )
= −𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 − 𝑏 2 − 𝑎2 − 2𝑎𝑏 − 𝑏 2
= −2𝑎2 − 2𝑏 2
= (−2)(𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 )
Change back to the original variables:
= (−2)(sin2 𝑥 + cos 2 𝑥)
By the Pythagorean Identity, the second term = 1:
= −2
Hence, the final answer is:
−2
=
(sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥)2
Example 1.80
Find the derivative
A. tan 𝑥
B. csc 𝑥
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C. sec 𝑥
D. cot 𝑥
′
sin 𝑥 ′ cos2 𝑥 + sin2 𝑥 1
(tan 𝑥) = ( ) = 2
= = sec 2 𝑥
cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥 cos2 𝑥
cos 𝑥 ′ sin 𝑥 (− sin 𝑥) − cos 𝑥 (cos 𝑥) −(sin2 𝑥 + cos 2 𝑥) 1
(cot 𝑥)′ = ( ) = 2
= 2
= − 2 = − csc 2 𝑥
sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥
➢ The above are the standard forms of the derivatives of the trigonometric functions.
➢ Note that the functions on the right (the co-functions) each have a negative sign in their derivative.
Example 1.82
Find the derivative of:
A. 𝑦 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥
sec 𝑡
B. 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑡
Part A
𝑦′ = ⏟
sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 tan
⏟𝑥 + sec ⏟ 2 𝑥 = sec 𝑥 (tan2 𝑥 + sec 2 𝑥)
⏟𝑥 sec
𝑓′ 𝑔 𝑓 𝑔′
Part B
(𝑒 𝑡 ) (sec 𝑡 ) (sec
⏟ ⏟ 𝑡 tan 𝑡) − (𝑒
⏟ ⏟ 𝑡)
𝑔 𝑓′ 𝑔′ 𝑓
𝑦′ =
𝑒 2𝑡
Factor 𝑒 𝑡 sec 𝑡 from both terms in the numerator:
𝑒 𝑡 (sec 𝑡)(tan 𝑡 − 1) (sec 𝑡)(tan 𝑡 − 1)
=
𝑒 2𝑡 𝑒𝑡
B. Extension
Example 1.84
𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
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C. Using Identities
Example 1.87
(sec 𝑥+tan 𝑥)(sec 𝑥−tan 𝑥)
Show that the derivative of (csc 𝑥+cot 𝑥)(csc 𝑥−cot 𝑥)
is zero.
sec 2 𝑥 − tan2 𝑥
𝑦=
csc 2 𝑥 − cot 2 𝑥
2 2 2 2
Substitute sec 𝜃 − tan 𝜃 = 1 and csc 𝜃 − cot 𝜃 = 1:
1 𝑑𝑦
𝑦= =1⇒ =0
1 𝑑𝑥
D. Proving Identities
Example 1.88
Prove that
sin2 𝜃 + cos 2 𝜃 = 1
𝑦 = sin2 𝜃 + cos2 𝜃
𝑑𝑦
= 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 − 2 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 = 0
𝑑𝜃
➢ If you wish to find the derivative of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥, but you know 𝑦 as a function of another
variable 𝑢, then you can differentiate using:
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
B. Power Rule
Example 1.90
𝑑𝑦
Find 𝑑𝑥:
A. 𝑦 = (2𝑥 + 1)5
B. 𝑦 = [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛
C. 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 𝑏)2
Part A
We can expand (2𝑥 + 1)5 using the binomial theorem, and then differentiate the resulting polynomial, but
that is lengthy.
Example 1.92
A. 𝑦 = (3𝑥 + 4)5
B. 𝑦 = (2𝑥 − 7)3
C. 𝑦 = (−6𝑥 + 5)8
1
D. 𝑦 = (5𝑥−4)3
Part A
5
𝑑𝑦
𝑦 = ( 3𝑥
⏟+4) ⇒ = 5(3𝑥 + 4)4 × 3 = 15(3𝑥 + 4)4
𝐼𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑥
𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Part B
𝑑𝑦
= 3(2𝑥 − 7)2 × 2 = 6(2𝑥 − 7)2
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝑢 = 2𝑥 − 7 ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑢3 ⇒ = 3𝑢2
𝑑𝑢
Part C
𝑦 = −48(−6𝑥 + 5)7
Part D
Rewrite using exponent rules:
1
𝑦= = (5𝑥 − 4)−3
(5𝑥 − 4)3
𝑑𝑦
= −3(5𝑥 − 4)−5 (5) = −15(5𝑥 − 4)−5
𝑑𝑥
Example 1.93
𝑑𝑦
Find :
𝑑𝑥
A. 𝑦 = (𝑥 2 + 5)100
B. 𝑦 = sin2 𝑥
C. 𝑦 = cos 5 𝑥
D. 𝑦 = sin100 𝑥
𝑥
E. 𝑦 = sin (2)
Part A 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
Differentiate using 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢 × 𝑑𝑥 :
Write 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) as a composite function.
= 100(𝑥 2 + 5)99 × 2𝑥 = 200𝑥(𝑥 2 + 5)99
𝑑𝑢
𝑢 = ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 5 ⇒ = 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 Part B
𝑦 = 𝑢100 ⇒ = 100𝑢99 = 100(𝑥 2 + 5)99 Expand to get:
𝑑𝑢
𝑦 = (sin 𝑥)(sin 𝑥)
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Part I
𝑑 2 sin−1 𝑥
(sin−1 𝑥)2 =
𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2
Part J
𝑑 𝑛 (tan−1 𝑥)𝑛−1
(tan−1 𝑥)𝑛 =
𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑥2
When differentiating square roots make use of the formula for square roots, and its chain rule version. Avoid
converting into exponent form since this will increase the time taken.
𝑦 = √𝑒 𝑥
1 𝑥
𝑦 = √𝑒 𝑥 = (𝑒 𝑥 )2 = 𝑒 2
𝑥
𝑦′ = 𝑒 2 × 2
𝑑 1 1
√2𝑥 = ×2=
𝑑𝑥 2√2𝑥 √2𝑥
𝑑 cos 𝑥
√sin 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 2√sin 𝑥
𝑑 1 √𝑒 𝑥
√𝑒 𝑥 = × 𝑒𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 2√𝑒 𝑥 2
𝑥
1 𝑥 1 cos (2)
× cos ( ) × =
𝑥 2 2 𝑥
2√sin ( ) 4√sin ( )
2 2
Part A
Use the chain rule:
1 1
× (1 + )
2√𝑥 + √𝑥 2√𝑥
Use the distributive property:
1 1
= +
2√𝑥 + √𝑥 4√𝑥 √𝑥 + √𝑥
Add the two fractions by taking the LCM which is 4√𝑥 √𝑥 + √𝑥:
2√𝑥 1 2√𝑥 + 1
= + =
2√𝑥 + √𝑥(2√𝑥) 4√𝑥 √𝑥 + √𝑥 4√𝑥 √𝑥 + √𝑥
Part B
1 1
× (cos 𝑥 + ) × (− sin 𝑥)
2√sin 𝑥 + √cos 𝑥 2√cos 𝑥
Part C
1 −1 1 1
× ×( + )
𝑥 2 2√𝑥 + 1
𝑥 2√ +
2 √ 𝑥 + 1
2√2 − √ + √𝑥 + 1
2
−1 1 1
= ( + )
2 2√𝑥 + 1
𝑥 𝑥
4√2 + √𝑥 + 1√2 − √2 + √𝑥 + 1
C. Exponentials
Example 1.99
A. 𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑥
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2
B. 𝑦 = 𝑒𝑥
C. 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥)
D. 𝑦 = 𝜋𝑒 sin 𝑥
E. 𝑦 = 𝑒 sec 𝑥
Part B
𝑑𝑦
𝑢 = −𝑥 ⇒ = −1
𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑦 𝑑
= 𝑒 −𝑥 × (−𝑥) = 𝑒 −𝑥 × (−1) = −𝑒 −𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Part C
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
𝑦 = 𝑒𝑢 ⇒ = 𝑒𝑢, 𝑢 = 𝑥2 ⇒ = 2𝑥
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 2
= 𝑒⏟𝑢 × 2𝑥
⏟ = 2𝑥𝑒 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
Shortcut
2 2
𝑦 ′ = 𝑒 𝑥 × 2𝑥 = 2𝑥𝑒 𝑥
Part D
𝑑𝑦
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑢 ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑢 ⇒ = 𝑒𝑢
𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢
𝑢 = 𝑓(𝑥) ⇒ = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑓(𝑥)
= 𝑒⏟ × 𝑓′(𝑥)
⏟
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
Part E
𝑑𝑦
𝑒 sin 𝑥 × cos
=⏟ ⏟𝑥 = cos 𝑥 𝑒 sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓′(𝑥)
𝑒
D. Trigonometric Functions
Example 1.100
A. 𝑦 = tan 2𝑥
𝑥
B. 𝑦 = csc 2
C. 𝑦 = cot √𝑥
D. 𝑦 = sec(ln 𝑥)
E. 𝑦 = sin(cos 𝑥)
Part A
𝑑𝑢
𝑢 = 2𝑥 ⇒ =2
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝑦 = tan 2𝑥 = tan 𝑢 ⇒ = sec 2 𝑢
𝑑𝑢
𝑦 ′ = sec
⏟ 2𝑢× ⏟ 2 = 2 sec 2 2𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
Part B
𝑦 ′ = − sin 𝑥 cos(cos 𝑥)
Part C
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1
𝑦 ′ = − csc 2 √𝑥 ×
2√𝑥
Part D
sec(ln 𝑥) tan(ln 𝑥)
𝑦′ =
𝑥
Part E
𝑦 = cos(cos 𝑥) (− sin 𝑥)
Example 1.101
Find the first few derivatives of 𝑦 = tan 𝑥.
𝑦 ′ = sec 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
= × ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥
Example 1.103
3𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑒 cos
𝑦 = 𝑒𝑢, 𝑢 = 𝑣 3, 𝑣 = cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
= 𝑒𝑢, = 3𝑣 2 , = − sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 3
= (𝑒 𝑢 )(3𝑣 2 )(− sin 𝑥) = (𝑒 cos 𝑥 )(3 cos 2 𝑥)(− sin 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
Example 1.104
Find the first and the second derivative of:
𝑥
𝑦 = 9 tan ( )
3
First derivative:
𝑥
𝑦 = 9 tan 𝑢 , 𝑢=
3
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𝑑𝑦 1 𝑥 1 𝑥
9 sec 2 𝑢 × = 9 sec 2 ( ) × = 3 sec 2 ( )
=⏟
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
⏟
3 3 3 3
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥
Second derivative:
𝑥
𝑦 = 3𝑢2 , 𝑢 = sec 𝑣 , 𝑣=
3
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 1 𝑥 𝑥
= 6𝑢 sec 𝑣 tan 𝑣 × = 6 sec ( ) × sec ( ) tan ( ) × = 2 sec 2 ( ) tan ( )
⏟ ×⏟
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
⏟
3 3 3 3 3 3 3
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑥
Example 1.105
𝑡
A. 𝑦 = sin (cos 𝑒 2 )
2
B. 𝑦 = √ln (csc (𝜋𝑥 − ))
𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 1
= cos (cos 𝑒 2 ) (− sin 𝑒 2 ) (𝑒 2 ) ( )
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦 1 1 2 2 2
= × × (− csc (𝜋𝑥 − ) cot (𝜋𝑥 − )) × (𝜋 + 2 )
𝑑𝑥 2 2 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
2√ln (csc (𝜋𝑥 − 𝑥 )) csc (𝜋𝑥 − 𝑥 )
2 2
cot (𝜋𝑥 − 𝑥 ) (𝜋 + 2 )
=− 𝑥
2
2√ln (csc (𝜋𝑥 − 𝑥 ))
F. Product Rule
Example 1.106
Part C
𝑑𝑢
𝑢 = (2𝑥 + 1)5 ⇒ = 10(2𝑥 + 1)4
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑣
𝑣 = (3𝑥 − 4)−3 ⇒ = −9(3𝑥 − 4)−4
𝑑𝑥
And now we can find:
(𝑢𝑣)′ = ⏟
(2𝑥 + 1)5 ⏟
[−9(3𝑥 − 4)−4 ] + ⏟
[10(2𝑥 + 1)4 ] ⏟
(3𝑥 − 4)−3
𝑢 𝑣′ 𝑢′ 𝑣
Factor out the lowest power in each term:
= (2𝑥 + 1)4 (3𝑥 − 4)−4 [−9(2𝑥 + 1) + 10(3𝑥 − 4)]
= (2𝑥 + 1)4 (3𝑥 − 4)−4 [−18𝑥 − 9 + 30𝑥 − 40]
(2𝑥 + 1)4 (12𝑥 − 49)
=
(3𝑥 − 4)4
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Part D
3 ′ 3
(𝑒 𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 2 (𝑒 𝑥 )
(𝑥𝑒 ) = −(𝑥)(𝑒 −𝑥 ) + (1)(𝑒 −𝑥 ) = 𝑒 −𝑥 − 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥
−𝑥 ′
3
𝑦 ′ = 𝑒 −𝑥 − 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 (𝑒 𝑥 )
Part E
𝑦 = −2(2𝑥 + 3)4 (𝑒 −2𝑥 ) + 8(2𝑥 + 3)3 (𝑒 −2𝑥 )
= (𝑒 −2𝑥 )(2𝑥 + 3)3 [−2(2𝑥 + 3)1 + 8]
= (𝑒 −2𝑥 )(2𝑥 + 3)3 [−4𝑥 − 6 + 8]
= (𝑒 −2𝑥 )(2𝑥 + 3)3 [−4𝑥 + 2]
Part F
cos √𝑥 sin √𝑥 cos √𝑥 sin √𝑥
𝑦 = √𝑥 ( )+ = +
2√𝑥 2√𝑥 2 2√𝑥
Part G
𝑦′ = 3 sin2(3𝑥 2 ) × cos(3𝑥 2 ) × 6𝑥 = 18𝑥 sin2 (3𝑥 2 ) cos(3𝑥 2 )
𝑑𝑦
𝑢 = sin (3𝑥 2 ) ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑢3 ⇒ = 3𝑢2
𝑑𝑢
G. Quotient Rule
Example 1.107
(2𝑥+3)7
A. 𝑦 = (4𝑥−1)3
B. 𝑦 = √7 + 𝑥 sec 𝑥
Part A
(2𝑥 + 3)7
𝑦=
(4𝑥 − 1)3
𝑓 = (2𝑥 + 3) ⇒ 𝑓′ = 7(2𝑥 + 3)6 × 2 = 14(2𝑥 + 3)6
7
𝑑𝑦 1
𝑦 = √𝑢 ⇒ =
𝑑𝑢 2√𝑢
′ 1
Differentiate the “square root” using (√𝑥) = 2
√𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 1 sec 𝑥 (𝑥 tan 𝑥 + sec 𝑥)
= × = × sec 𝑥 (𝑥 tan 𝑥 + sec 𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥 2√𝑢 2√7 + 𝑥 sec 𝑥
Example 1.108
𝑦 = cot −1 √𝑡 − 1
𝑑𝑦 −1 1 −1
= 2 × =
𝑑𝑥 1 + (√𝑡 − 1) 2√𝑡 − 1 2𝑡√𝑡 − 1
Example 1.109
1
𝑦 = cot −1 − tan−1 𝑥
𝑥
𝑑 1
(tan−1 𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑥2
𝑑 1 −1 1 1 1 𝑥2 1 1
(cot −1 ) = 2 × (− 2
) = 2 × ( 2
) = 2
× ( 2) = 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 1 𝑥 𝑥 +1 𝑥 𝑥 +1 𝑥 𝑥 +1
1 + (𝑥 ) 𝑥2
𝑑 1 1 1
(cot −1 − tan−1 𝑥) = 2 − =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 + 1 1 + 𝑥2
H. Second Derivatives
Example 1.110
Find the second derivative of:
1 3
A. 𝑦 = (1 + 𝑥)
−1
B. 𝑦 = (1 − √𝑥)
C. 𝑦 = sin(𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 )
Part A
𝑑𝑦 1 2 1 1 2 1
= 3 (1 + ) (− 2 ) = −3 (1 + ) ( 2 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑑2 𝑦 1 2 2 1 1 1
= −3 [(1 + ) (− ) + 2 (1 + ) (− ) ( )] =
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥 𝑥3 𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥2
1 1
Factor out (−2) (1 + 𝑥) (𝑥 3 ):
1 1 1 1
= 6 (1 + ) ( 3 ) [(1 + ) + ]
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
Simplify:
1 1 2
= 6 (1 + ) ( 3 ) [(1 + )]
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
Part B
Find the first derivative:
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−2 1 1 −2 1
𝑦 ′ = −(1 − √𝑥) (− ) = ( ) (1 − √𝑥) (𝑥 −2 )
2√𝑥 2
Find the second derivative using the product rule:
1 −2 1 3 −3 1 1
𝑦 ′′ = ( ) [(1 − √𝑥) (− 𝑥 −2 ) + (−2(1 − √𝑥) ) (− ) (𝑥 −2 )]
2 2 2√𝑥
1 1 1 1 1
= ( )[ (− 3 ) + ( 3 ) (𝑥 )]
2 (1 − √𝑥)2 (1 − √𝑥)
2𝑥 2
1
Factor out 2
(1−√𝑥) 𝑥
1 1 1 1 1
= ( )( ) ( ) [(− ) + ( )]
2 (1 − √𝑥)2 𝑥 2√𝑥 1 − √𝑥
Simplify:
1 1 1 1 1
= ( )( 2 )( )[ − ]
2 (1 − √𝑥) 𝑥 1 − √𝑥 2√𝑥
Part C
𝑦 ′ = cos(𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 ) (2𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 ) = cos(𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 ) [𝑒 𝑥 (2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 )] =
(cos(𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 ))′ = −sin(𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 ) (2𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 )
𝑒 𝑥 (2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 (2 + 2𝑥) + 𝑒 𝑥 (2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 )
Example 1.111
Find the solution sets to 𝑦 ′ = 0 and 𝑦 ′′ = 0 given that 𝑦 = 𝑥(𝑥 − 4)3
𝑑𝑦 𝑎 𝑥
= cos ( )
𝑑𝑥 2 2
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑎 𝑥
2
= − 2 sin ( )
𝑑𝑥 2 2
𝑑3 𝑦 𝑎 𝑥
3
= − 3 cos ( )
𝑑𝑥 2 2
𝑑4 𝑦 𝑎 𝑥
= sin ( )
𝑑𝑥 4 24 2
𝑑12 𝑦 𝑎 𝑥
12
= 12 sin ( ) ⇒ 𝑀𝑖𝑛(𝑎) = 212 = 4096
𝑑𝑥 2 2
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Example 1.114
Given 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 + 5)100 find 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
➢ If you are differentiating with respect to 𝑥, and you introduce another variable, then you have to
differentiate that variable as well.
Example 1.116
𝑦 = 𝑢2
𝑢 = 2𝑥
Example 1.117
𝑦 = (1 + 𝑥 2 )2 , 𝑟 = 1 + 𝑥2
𝑦 = 𝑟2
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑟
= 2𝑟 ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Example 1.119
𝑑 2
𝑦
𝑑𝑥
𝑧 = 𝑦2
𝑑 𝑑 2 𝑑𝑦
𝑧= (𝑦 ) = 2𝑦 ∙
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Example 1.120
Find the given derivatives, if they exist.
𝑑
A. 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥
𝑑
B. 𝑑𝑥
√𝑟, 𝑟 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑
C. 𝑑𝑥
√𝑟, 𝑟 ≠ 𝑓(𝑥)
1
2√𝑥
1 𝑑𝑟
×
2√𝑟 𝑑𝑥
𝐷𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡
𝑑 1
ln 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
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𝑑 2 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑦 = × = 2𝑦
⏟
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝑑 𝑑𝑦
sin 𝑦 = cos 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1 𝑑𝑦
ln 𝑦 = ∙
𝑑𝑥 𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑒 = 𝑒𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 2
𝑑𝑦
tan 𝑦 = sec 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑𝑦
sec 𝑦 = sec 𝑦 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 2
𝑑𝑦
cot 𝑦 = − csc 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑𝑦
csc 𝑦 = − csc 𝑦 cot 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑𝑦
cos2 𝑦 = 2 cos 𝑦 (− sin 𝑦) ( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑦5 5 𝑑𝑦
𝑒 = (𝑒 𝑦 )(5𝑦 4 ) ( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 sin 𝑦 sin 𝑦
𝑑𝑦
𝑒 = (𝑒 )(cos 𝑦) ( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦
= (𝑒 sec2 ) (sec tan ) ( )
𝑑𝑥 2 2 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1 𝑑𝑦
cot 𝑛 (ln 𝑦) = 𝑛 cot 𝑛−1 (ln 𝑦) (− csc 2(ln 𝑦))
𝑑𝑥 𝑦 𝑑𝑥
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Example 1.125
The equation of a circle with center at the origin and radius 𝑟 is given by 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2 , where 𝑟 is a constant.
𝑑𝑦
A. Solve the equation for 𝑦, and hence find 𝑑𝑥.
B. Without solving for 𝑦, differentiate both sides of the above equation with respect to 𝑥, and hence find
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
.
Part A
𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2 − 𝑥 2 ⇒ 𝑦 = ±√𝑟 2 − 𝑥 2
Here, we get two functions, which together make up the circle. We can find their derivatives separately:
𝑑 −2𝑥 −𝑥
√𝑟 2 − 𝑥 2 = =
𝑑𝑥 2√𝑟 2 − 𝑥 2 √𝑟 2 − 𝑥 2
𝑑 −2𝑥 𝑥
(−√𝑟 2 − 𝑥 2 ) = − =
𝑑𝑥 2√𝑟 2 − 𝑥 2 √𝑟 2 − 𝑥 2
And we can combine the two to get:
𝑑𝑦 𝑥
=±
𝑑𝑥 √𝑟 2 − 𝑥 2
Part B
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑟2
When 𝑦 is given implicitly as a function of 𝑥, rather than explicitly, implicit differentiation is very useful.
Example 1.127
𝑑𝑦
Find in terms of 𝑥:
𝑑𝑥
𝑥 3 + 𝑦 2 = 2𝑥 + 5
𝑦 = ±√2𝑥 + 5 − 𝑥 3
Example 1.128
𝑑𝑦
Find 𝑑𝑥:
3𝑥 2 + 𝑦 3 = 𝑦 2
3𝑥 2 = 𝑦 2 − 𝑦 3
Example 1.129
𝑑𝑦
Find 𝑑𝑥:
sin 𝑦 = sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑦
cos 𝑦 = cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 cos 𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 cos 𝑦
Example 1.130
𝑑𝑦
Find 𝑑𝑥:
A. 𝑒 2𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥
B. 𝑒 cos 𝑦 + 𝑒 sin 𝑦 = 𝑒 tan 𝑥
Part A
𝑑𝑦
2𝑒 2𝑦 = 𝑒𝑥
𝑑𝑥
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𝑑𝑦 𝑒𝑥
= 2𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2𝑒
Part B
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑒 cos 𝑦 (− sin 𝑦) + 𝑒 sin 𝑦 (cos 𝑦) = 𝑒 tan 𝑥 (sec 2 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 sin 𝑦
(𝑒 (cos 𝑦) − 𝑒 cos 𝑦 (sin 𝑦)) = 𝑒 tan 𝑥 (sec 2 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑒 tan 𝑥 (sec 2 𝑥)
= sin 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑒 (cos 𝑦) − 𝑒 cos 𝑦 (sin 𝑦)
D. Product Rule
Example 1.132:
Differentiate with respect to 𝑥:
cos 𝑦 sin 𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
(− sin 𝑦 ) (sin 𝑦) + cos 𝑦 (cos 𝑦 ) = cos2 𝑦 − sin2 𝑦 = (cos 2 𝑦 − sin2 𝑦)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Example 1.133:
𝑑𝑦
Find :
𝑑𝑥
𝑥𝑦 2 = 𝑦𝑥 2 + 𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Collate all 𝑑𝑥 terms on the LHS, and all other terms on the RHS:
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
( ) 2𝑥𝑦 − ( ) 𝑥 2 = 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 + 1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Factor 𝑑𝑥 on the LHS:
𝑑𝑦
( ) (2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥 2 ) = 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 + 1
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Solve for 𝑑𝑥:
𝑑𝑦 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 + 1
=
𝑑𝑥 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥 2
Example 1.134
𝑑𝑦
Find 𝑑𝑥:
𝑦 3 = sin 𝑥 cos 𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
3𝑦 2 = cos
⏟𝑥 ⏟ ⏟𝑥 (− sin 𝑦)
cos 𝑦 + sin
𝑑𝑥 ⏟ 𝑑𝑥
𝑓′ 𝑔 𝑓
𝑔′
𝑑𝑦
Collate all 𝑑𝑥 terms on one side:
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
3𝑦 2 + sin 𝑥 sin 𝑦 = cos 𝑥 cos 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Factor out :
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
(3𝑦 2 + sin 𝑥 sin 𝑦) = cos 𝑥 cos 𝑦
𝑑𝑥
Example 1.135
𝑑𝑦
Find 𝑑𝑥:
sec(𝑥 + 𝑦) = csc(𝑥𝑦)
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
sec(𝑥 + 𝑦) tan(𝑥 + 𝑦) (1 + ) = − csc(𝑥𝑦) cot(𝑥𝑦) (𝑥 + 𝑦)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Example 1.136
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𝑑2 𝑦
Evaluate 𝑑𝑥 2 at the point (√2, √2) given that 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑓 ′ 𝑔𝑓′ −𝑓𝑔′
Differentiate both sides of Equation I with respect to 𝑥 using the Quotient Rule: (𝑔) = 𝑔2
in the RHS:
𝑑𝑦
𝑑2 𝑦 (𝑦)(1) − (𝑥) ( ) 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑦
𝑑𝑥
=− = 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑦2 𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑥
Substitute 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑦
𝑥
𝑥 (− 𝑦) − 𝑦 −𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2
= =
𝑦2 𝑦3
Substitute 𝑥 2 = 𝑟 2 − 𝑦 2 :
−(𝑟 2 − 𝑦 2 ) − 𝑦 2 𝑟2
= = −
𝑦3 𝑦3
Substitute (𝑥, 𝑦) = (√2, √2) in the above to evaluate the second derivative at the given point:
𝑟2 𝑟2
=− 3 = −
(√2) 2√2
Example 1.137
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
A. If the point (−1,1) lies on the curve above, find the value of 𝑟.
B. Find the tangent and the normal to the curve above at the point (−1,1) for the value of 𝑟 that you
calculated.
Part A
Substitute (𝑥, 𝑦) = (−1,1) in 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2 :
(−1)2 + 12 = 𝑟 2
𝑟2 = 2
𝑟 = ±√2
Part B
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑟2
Differentiate both sides of the given equation with respect to 𝑥:
𝑑𝑦
2𝑥 + 2𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑥
=−
𝑑𝑥 𝑦
Tangent
Slope at (−1,1):
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−1
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = − =1
1
Substitute (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (−1,1), 𝑚 = 1 into the point-slope form of the equation of a line:
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑦 − 1 = 1(𝑥 + 1)
𝑦=𝑥+2
Normal
Slope of normal is the negative reciprocal of the slope of the tangent:
= −1
Substitute (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (−1,1), 𝑚 = −1 into the point-slope form of the equation of a line:
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑦 − 1 = −1(𝑥 + 1)
𝑦 = −𝑥
Implicit
Differentiation
Second
Chain Rule Applications
Derivatives
Expressions Slope
Equations Tangents
Quotient Rule
Example 1.139
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥
A. Find 𝑓′ using exponentials
B. Find 𝑓′ using the formula for the derivative of an inverse function
Part A
𝑒 ln 𝑥 = 𝑥
Differentiate both sides with respect to 𝑥:
𝑒 ln 𝑥 × (ln 𝑥)′ = 1
′
Solve for (ln 𝑥) :
1 1
(ln 𝑥)′ = =
𝑒 ln 𝑥 𝑥
Part B
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 ⇒ (𝑔−1 )(𝑥) = ln 𝑥 , 𝑔′ (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥
1
(𝑔−1 )′ (𝑥) =
𝑔′ (𝑔−1 (𝑥))
1 1 1
(ln 𝑥)′ (𝑥) = = =
𝑔′ (ln 𝑥) 𝑒 ln 𝑥 𝑥
Example 1.140
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥
A. Find 𝑓′ using exponentials
B. Find 𝑓′ using the formula for the derivative of an inverse function
Part B
𝑎log𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑥
Differentiate both sides with respect to 𝑥:
𝑎log𝑎 𝑥 × ln𝑎 𝑥 × (log 𝑎 𝑥)′ = 1
′
Solve for (log 𝑎 𝑥) :
1 1
(log 𝑎 𝑥)′ = log 𝑥 =
𝑎 𝑎 × ln𝑎 𝑥 𝑥 ln𝑎 𝑥
B. Natural Logarithm
A. ln 𝑥 𝜋
B. ln 𝜃 𝑒
C. ln 2𝑥
D. ln 𝑥 2
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 1 𝜋
ln 𝑥 𝜋 = 𝜋 ln 𝑥 = 𝜋 ln 𝑥 = 𝜋 ( ) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑒 ′ ′ ′
1 𝑒
(ln 𝜃 ) = (𝑒 ln 𝜃) = 𝑒(ln 𝜃) = 𝑒 ( ) =
𝜃 𝜃
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 1 1
(ln 2𝑥) = (ln 2 + ln 𝑥) = ln 2 + ln 𝑥 = 0 + =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 2
(ln 𝑥 2 ) = (2 ln 𝑥) = 2 ln 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑 ln 𝑦
A. 𝑑𝑦
𝑒
𝑑
B. 𝑑𝑥
ln 𝑒 𝑥
𝑑
𝑒 ln 𝑦 = 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑦=1
𝑑𝑦
ln 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝐷𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑠 1
Example 1.144
𝑑
(3 ln 2𝑥 4 )
𝑑𝑥
Example 1.148
Find the derivative with respect to suitable variables:
𝑥𝑒 𝑥 ln 𝑥
Method I
(𝑥)′ 𝑒 𝑥 ln 𝑥 + 𝑥(𝑒 𝑥 )′ ln 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 (ln 𝑥)′
Differentiate:
= 𝑒 𝑥 ln 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 ln 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥
𝑥
Factor out 𝑒 :
= 𝑒 𝑥 (ln 𝑥 + 𝑥 ln 𝑥 + 1)
Factor ln 𝑥 from the first two terms:
= 𝑒 𝑥 [(ln 𝑥)(1 + 𝑥) + 1]
Method II
Example 1.150
A. 3𝑥
B. 𝑏 𝑥
C. 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑑 𝑥
3 = 3𝑥 ln 3
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑥
𝑏 = 𝑏 𝑥 ln 𝑏
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 −𝑥 𝑑 −1 𝑥
𝑒 = (𝑒 ) = (𝑒 −1 )𝑥 ln(𝑒 −1 ) = −𝑒 −𝑥 ln 𝑒 = −𝑒 −𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Example 1.152
A. 32𝑥
𝑥
B. 73
2
C. 5𝑥
𝑥
D. 7𝑥+1
𝑑 2𝑥
(3 ) = (3𝑥 ln 3)(2)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑥 𝑥
(73 ) = 73
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑥2
(5 ) = (5𝑥 2 ln 𝑥)(2𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑥 𝑥 (𝑥 + 1)(1) − (𝑥)(1) 𝑥 1
(7𝑥+1 ) = (7𝑥+1 ln 7) ( ) = (7 𝑥+1 ln 7) ( )
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 + 1)2 (𝑥 + 1)2
𝑑 𝑑 ln 𝑥 1 𝑑 1 1 1
log 𝑎 𝑥 = ( )= ∙ ln 𝑥 = × =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ln 𝑎 ln 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 ln 𝑎 𝑥 𝑥 ln 𝑎
Example 1.154
Use the formula for log of any base to find:
𝑑
A. ln 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑥
B. 𝑒
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 1 1 1
ln 𝑥 = log 𝑒 𝑥 = = =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 ln 𝑒 𝑥×1 𝑥
𝑑 𝑥
𝑒 = 𝑒 ln 𝑒 = 𝑒 × 1 = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Example 1.155
Find the derivative with respect to 𝑥:
A. log 3 𝑥
B. log 5 (𝑥 + 1)
C. log 𝑏 𝑥
D. 𝑐 𝑥
E. 𝜋 × 𝑐 𝑥
F. 𝑒 × log 𝑧 𝑥
G. 𝑐 𝑥+1
𝑑 1
log 3 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 ln 3
𝑑 1
log 𝑏 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 ln 𝑏
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𝑑 𝑥
𝑐 = 𝑐 𝑥 ln 𝑐
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
𝜋 × 𝑐 𝑥 = 𝜋𝑐 𝑥 ln 𝑐
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑒
𝑒 × log 𝑧 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 ln 𝑧
𝑑 𝑥+1 𝑥+1
𝑐 =𝑐 ln 𝑐
𝑑𝑥
Example 1.156
3
𝑦 = log 𝜋3 𝑒 𝑥 − log 𝜋 √𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1 1 1 𝑥−1 𝑥−1
=( ) (1 − ) = ( )( )=( )
𝑑𝑥 3 ln 𝜋 𝑥 3 ln 𝜋 𝑥 𝑥(3 ln 𝜋)
Example 1.158
Compare the two functions below. Are they the same? Are their derivatives the same? Are their derivatives
found using the same properties?
A. 𝑓 = ln √𝑥 , 𝑔 = √ln 𝑥
B. 𝑓 = ln 𝑥 2 , 𝑔 = (ln 𝑥)2
C.
Part A
1 1 𝑑 1 1
𝑓 ′ = ln √𝑥 = ln 𝑥 2 = ln 𝑥 ⇒ ln 𝑥 =
2 𝑑𝑥 2 2𝑥
′
1 1 1
𝑔 = × =
2√ln 𝑥 𝑥 2𝑥√ln 𝑥
Part B
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 2
𝑓′ = (ln 𝑥 2 ) = (2 ln 𝑥) = 2 ln 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑 1 2 ln 𝑥
(ln 𝑥)2 = 2(ln 𝑥) × =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
Example 1.159
𝑑
A. 𝑑𝑥
ln(𝑥 2 + 𝑥)
3
B. √ln 𝑥
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C. (ln 𝑥)3
𝑑 1 2𝑥 + 1
[ln(𝑥 2 + 𝑥)] = 2 × (2𝑥 + 1) = 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 +𝑥 𝑥 +𝑥
𝑑 3 𝑑 1 1 1 1
√ln 𝑥 = (ln 𝑥)3 = 2 × = 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
3(ln 𝑥)3 3𝑥(ln 𝑥)3
𝑑 3(ln 𝑥)2
(ln 𝑥)3 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
Example 1.160
A. ln(sin 𝑥)
𝑥
B. ln (tan 2)
𝑑 cos 𝑥
ln(sin 𝑥) = = cot 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 sin 𝑥
𝑥
𝑑 𝑥 1 𝑥 1 cos 2 1 1
2
ln (tan ) = 𝑥 × sec × = 𝑥 × 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2 tan 2 2 2 2 sin 2
2 cos 2 2 sin 2 cos 2
Using sin 2𝜃 = 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃:
1
=
sin 𝑥
𝑑 1
= cos
⏟𝑥 ⏟ln(sec 𝑥) + sin
⏟𝑥 ∙ × sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 ln(sec 𝑥) + sin 𝑥 tan 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 ⏟
sec 𝑥
𝑓′ 𝑔 𝑓
𝑔′
Example 1.163
𝑒𝑥
Find 𝑦′ given that 𝑦 = ln (1+𝑒 𝑥 )
𝑎
Simplify the expression using log 𝑏 = log 𝑎 − log 𝑏:
𝑦 = ln 𝑒 𝑥 − ln(1 + 𝑒 𝑥 ) = 𝑥 ln 𝑒 − ln(1 + 𝑒 𝑥 ) = 𝑥 − ln(1 + 𝑒 𝑥 )
𝑑𝑢
𝑢 = 1 + 𝑒𝑥 ⇒ = 𝑒𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑧 𝑑 𝑑 1
= ln(1 + 𝑒 𝑥 ) = ln 𝑢 =
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝑢
𝑥
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑢 1 𝑒
= × = × 𝑒𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝑢 1 + 𝑒𝑥
Bringing it all together:
𝑒𝑥 1 + 𝑒𝑥 − 𝑒𝑥 1
𝑦′ = 1 − 𝑥
= 𝑥
=
1+𝑒 1+𝑒 1 + 𝑒𝑥
Example 1.164
Find
𝑑𝑦
| 𝑖𝑓 𝑦 = ln(𝑥 3 + 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝑒 2
𝑑𝑦 3𝑥 2 3𝑥
= 3 = 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑥 + 1
𝑑𝑦 3𝑒 2 3𝑒 2
| = 2 2 = 4
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝑒 2 (𝑒 ) + 1 𝑒 + 1
E. Logarithmic Differentiation
Example 1.165
Find the derivative of 𝑦 = 𝑥(𝑥 + 1)
A. Using the product rule
B. Using implicit differentiation
Part A
𝑦 = 𝑥(1) + (1)(𝑥 + 1) = 2𝑥 + 1
Part B
Take the natural log of both sides of the given equality:
ln 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 + ln(𝑥 + 1)
Differentiate both sides with respect to 𝑥:
1 𝑑𝑦 1 1
× = +
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 + 1
𝑑𝑦
Solve the above for 𝑑𝑥:
𝑑𝑦 1 1
= 𝑦( + )
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥+1
Substitute 𝑦 = 𝑥(𝑥 + 1):
𝑑𝑦 1 1 𝑥(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥(𝑥 + 1)
= 𝑥(𝑥 + 1) ( + )= + = 𝑥 + 1 + 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 1
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥+1 𝑥 𝑥+1
Example 1.166
𝑑𝑦 (𝑥 2 − 1)5
Find if 𝑦 = √ 3
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 + 2)3
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𝑑𝑦
Solve for 𝑑𝑥:
𝑑𝑦 5𝑥 9𝑥 2
= 𝑦 [( 2 )− ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 −1 2(𝑥 3 + 2)
(𝑥 2 −1)5
Substitute 𝑦 = √(𝑥 3 +2)3
𝑑𝑦 (𝑥 2 − 1)5 5𝑥 9𝑥 2
=√ 3 [( ) − ]
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 + 2)3 𝑥 2 − 1 2(𝑥 3 + 2)
Example 1.167
Can you find the derivative of 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑥 using the
A. Power Rule
B. Log Rule
𝑑 𝑥
𝑎 = 𝑎 𝑥 ln 𝑎 , 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑥
Since x is not a constant, the log rule is not applicable.
Example 1.168
Find the derivative of 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑥 .
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Example 1.169
𝑥
A. 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑥
B. 𝑦 = (2𝑥 + 3𝑎)3𝑥+2𝑎 , 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Part A
Take the natural log of both sides:
ln 𝑦 = 𝑥⏟𝑥 ln
⏟ 𝑥
𝑓 𝑔
Differentiate both sides with respect to 𝑥:
1 𝑑𝑦 1
∙ ⏟ 𝑥 )(ln 𝑥 + 1) ln
= (𝑥 ⏟ 𝑥 + 𝑥⏟𝑥
⏟
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 ′ 𝑔 𝑓
𝑥
𝑓
𝑔′
𝑥
Factor out 𝑥 :
𝑑𝑦 1
= 𝑦(𝑥 𝑥 ) [(ln 𝑥 + 1) ln 𝑥 + ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑥
Substitute 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑥 1
= (𝑥 𝑥 )(𝑥 𝑥 ) [(ln 𝑥)2 + ln 𝑥 + ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
Part B
𝑦 = (2𝑥 + 3𝑎)3𝑥+2𝑎
Take the natural log of both sides:
ln 𝑦 = (3𝑥 + 2𝑎) ln(2𝑥 + 3𝑎)
Differentiate both sides with respect to 𝑥:
1 𝑑𝑦 2(3𝑥 + 2𝑎)
∙ = (3) ln(2𝑥 + 3𝑎) +
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 2𝑥 + 3𝑎
𝑑𝑦 2(3𝑥 + 2𝑎)
= 𝑦 [(3) ln(2𝑥 + 3𝑎) + ]
𝑑𝑥 2𝑥 + 3𝑎
𝑑𝑦 2(3𝑥 + 2𝑎)
= ((2𝑥 + 3𝑎)3𝑥+2𝑎 ) [(3) ln(2𝑥 + 3𝑎) + ]
𝑑𝑥 2𝑥 + 3𝑎
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Example 1.170
𝑑𝑦
Find 𝑑𝑥 given that
𝑥𝑦 = 𝑦𝑥
Example 1.171
𝑦 = 𝑥 ln 𝑥
ln 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 ln 𝑥
ln 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 ∙ ln 𝑥
ln 𝑦 = (ln 𝑥)2
Example 1.172
𝑦 = ln(𝑥 2 − 16)
⏟2 − 16)
𝑦 = ln (𝑥
⏟ 𝐼𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑓
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓
1 2𝑥
𝑦= × (𝑥 2 − 16)′ = 2
𝑥2 − 16 𝑥 − 16
important thing to note is that the derivative of an inverse trigonometric function does not involve
trigonometry, but has only algebraic terms.
In all cases above, we need to find the value of the denominator, which is a trigonometric function of an
inverse trigonometric function. We accomplish this using a combination of two techniques:
➢ a change of variable
➢ the introduction of a reference triangle.
Start with the change of variable. Let the angle given by sin−1 𝑥 be 𝜃. That is:
𝑥 𝑜𝑝𝑝
𝜃 = sin−1 𝑥 ⇒ sin 𝜃 = =
1 ℎ𝑦𝑝
Draw a reference triangle, and note that by the Pythagorean theorem, the side
opposite 𝜃:
𝐴𝑑𝑗 = √𝐻𝑦𝑝2 − 𝑂𝑝𝑝2 = √1 − 𝑥 2
Then:
𝑎𝑑𝑗 √1 − 𝑥 2
cos 𝜃 = = = √1 − 𝑥 2
ℎ𝑦𝑝 1
And finally:
𝑑 1 1 1
(sin−1 𝑥) = −1
= =
𝑑𝑥 cos(sin 𝑥) cos 𝜃 √1 − 𝑥 2
Example 1.175
𝑑
A. 𝑑𝑥
sin−1(2𝑥 3 )
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𝑑
B. 𝑑𝑥
sin−1(√𝑥)
𝑑
C. 𝑑𝑥
ln(sin−1 2𝑥)
Part A
𝑑 1 6𝑥 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (2𝑥 3 ) = × 6𝑥 2 =
𝑑𝑥 √1 − (2𝑥 3 )2 √1 − 4𝑥 6
Part B
𝑑 1 1 1
sin−1(√𝑥) = × =
𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2√𝑥 2√𝑥(1 − 𝑥)
Part C
𝑑 1 1 2
ln(sin−1 2𝑥) = −1
× ×2=
𝑑𝑥 sin 2𝑥 √1 − 4𝑥 2 (sin−1 2𝑥)(√1 − 4𝑥 2 )
Example 1.176
1 1
𝑡√1 − 𝑡 2 + sin−1 𝑡
2 2
𝑑 1 −1 1
( sin 𝑡) =
𝑑𝑡 2 2√1 − 𝑡 2
1 − 2𝑡 2 1 2 − 2𝑡 2 1 − 𝑡2
+ = = = √1 − 𝑡 2
2√1 − 𝑡2 2√1 − 𝑡2 2√1 − 𝑡2 √1 − 𝑡2
𝑑 𝑑 𝜋 1
cos−1 𝑥 = ( − sin−1 𝑥) = −
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 √1 − 𝑥 2
Example 1.179
𝑑
A. cos−1(ln 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1 1 1
cos −1(ln 𝑥) = − × =−
𝑑𝑥 √1 − (ln 𝑥)2 𝑥 𝑥√1 − (ln 𝑥)2
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tan 𝑦 = 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1
=
𝑑𝑥 sec 2 𝑦
From the reference triangle:
2
𝑥 1 2
1 1
tan 𝑦 = ⇒ 2
= cos 𝑦 = ( ) =
1 sec 𝑦 2
√𝑥 + 1 1 + 𝑥2
Example 1.181
𝑑
A. tan−1 (2√𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑥
𝑑 −1
B. 𝑑𝑥
tan (𝑒 2)
𝑑 1 1 1
tan−1(2√𝑥) = × =
𝑑𝑥 1 + 4𝑥 √𝑥 √𝑥(1 + 4𝑥)
𝑥
𝑑 𝑥 1 𝑥 1 𝑒2
tan−1 (𝑒 2 ) = 𝑥
× 𝑒2 × =
𝑑𝑥 1+𝑒 2 2(1 + 𝑒 𝑥 )
𝑑 𝑑 𝜋 1
(cot −1 𝑥) = ( − tan−1 𝑥) = −
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 1 + 𝑥2
Example 1.184
𝑑
A. 𝑑𝑡
cot −1 (𝑒 √𝑡 )
𝑑
B. 𝑑𝑥
cot −1 (𝑥 ∙ ln 𝑥)
Part A
2
(𝑒 √𝑡 ) = 𝑒 2√𝑡
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𝑑 1 1 𝑒 √𝑡
cot −1 (𝑒 √𝑡 ) = − × 𝑒 √𝑡 × =−
𝑑𝑡 1 + 𝑒 2√𝑡 2√𝑡 2√𝑡(1 + 𝑒 2√𝑡 )
Part B
𝑑 1 1 + ln 𝑥
cot −1 (𝑥 ∙ ln 𝑥) = − × (1 + ln 𝑥) = −
𝑑𝑥 1 + (𝑥 ∙ ln 𝑥)2 1 + (𝑥 ∙ ln 𝑥)2
C. Derivatives of 𝒔𝒆𝒄−𝟏 𝒙 and 𝒄𝒔𝒄−𝟏 𝒙
Example 1.186
𝑑 𝑥
A. 𝑑𝑥
sec −1 2
𝑑
B. 𝑑𝑥
sec −1 𝑥 2
𝑑 𝑥 1
sec −1 =
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥 𝑥2
2 |2 | √ 4 − 1
𝑑 1 2
sec −1 𝑥 2 = × 2𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 |𝑥 2 |√𝑥 4 − 1 𝑥√𝑥 4 − 1
𝑑 𝑑 𝜋 1
(csc −1 𝑥) = ( − sec −1 𝑥) = −
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 |𝑥|√𝑥 2 − 1
Example 1.189
𝑑 𝑒
A. 𝑑𝑥
(csc −1 2)
𝑑 𝑒
(csc −1 ) = 0
𝑑𝑥 2
D. Further Examples
𝑑 1 𝑑 1
(sin−1 𝑥) = , (cos−1 𝑥) = −
𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2
𝑑 1 𝑑 1
(tan−1 𝑥) = , (cot −1 𝑥) = −
𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑥2
𝑑 1 𝑑 1
(sec −1 𝑥) = , (csc −1 𝑥) = −
𝑑𝑥 𝑥√𝑥 2 − 1 𝑑𝑥 |𝑥|√𝑥 2 − 1
➢ All of the cofunction derivatives have a minus sign in front, and the expression is otherwise the same
as the corresponding function.
𝑑 1
(sin−1 𝑢) =
𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑢2
−1
𝑥−1 ′ 1 𝑥−1 ′
(sin ) = ×( )
𝑥+1 2 𝑥+1
√1 − (𝑥 − 1)
𝑥+1
𝑥 − 1 ′ (𝑥 + 1)(1) − (𝑥 − 1)(1) 2
𝑢=( ) = 2
=
𝑥+1 (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 1)2
1 1 1 1 |𝑥 + 1|
𝑣= = = = =
2 2 4𝑥 2√𝑥 2√𝑥
√1 − (𝑥 − 1) √1 − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 √ 2 |𝑥
𝑥+1 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 1 (𝑥 + 1) + 1|
2 |𝑥 + 1| 1
𝑢𝑣 = 2
∙ =
(𝑥 + 1) 2√𝑥 √𝑥(𝑥 + 1)
Algebraic Method
Use the sum rule:
𝑑 𝑑
𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑐 = 𝑓′(𝑥) + 0 = 𝑓′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Graphical Method
Moving a function up or down does not change the slope at any point of the function.
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Example 1.193
𝑑 𝑥
𝑒 = 𝑒𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑥
𝑒 + 2 = 𝑒𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Algebraic Method
This is true by the constant multiple rule.
Graphical Method
Scaling a function vertically by a factor of 𝑘 also changes the slope by a factor of 𝑘, and hence the property is
true.
Graphical Method
Compressing a function horizontally by a factor of 𝑘, increases the rate of change, and hence the slope by a
factor of 𝑘.
A horizontal shift is equivalent to replacing 𝑥 with 𝑥 + 𝑘. In general, the derivative does not remain the same.
Example 1.197
A. Show by counterexample that
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 ⇒ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥
Shift 𝑓(𝑥) by 1 to the right to get 𝑔(𝑥)
Example 1.198
𝑑 𝑥
𝑒 = 𝑒𝑥
𝑑𝑥
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𝑑 𝑥+𝑐
𝑒 = 𝑒 𝑥+𝑐
𝑑𝑥
Example 1.199
𝑦 = sin(𝜃) ⇒ 𝑦 = cos 𝜃
𝑑𝑦
𝑦 = sin(2𝜋 + 𝜃) = sin(𝜃) ⇒ = cos 𝜃
𝑑𝑥
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2. USING DERIVATIVES
2.1 Slope, Tangents and Normals
A. Slope
Example 2.2
Find the interval where the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + 15𝑥 2 + 36𝑥 has positive slope.
𝑓 ′ = 6𝑥 2 + 30𝑥 + 36
6(𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6)
6(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3)
Example 2.3
1
Find the values where the slope of 𝑦 = 4 𝑥 2 (𝑥 2 − 1) is positive.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 1 2 2 1
= [ 𝑥 (𝑥 − 1)] = (4𝑥 3 − 2𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 4 4
𝑑𝑦
The slope of 𝑦 is given by . Hence, we need the slope to be positive:
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
>0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Substitute 𝑑𝑥 as calculated above:
1
(4𝑥 3 − 2𝑥) > 0
4
4𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 > 0
𝑥(2𝑥 2 − 1) > 0
1 1
𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠: 𝑥 ∈ {−√ , 0, √ }
2 2
The critical points divide the real number into three distinct parts:
1 1 1
(−∞, −√ ) ( −√ , 0) ( 0, √ )
2 2 2
−𝑣𝑒 +𝑣𝑒 −𝑣𝑒
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Example 2.4
𝑏
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 +
𝑥2
Find (𝑎, 𝑏) if the graph of 𝑦 has slope 3 at the point (2,0).
Use the value of the derivative of the curve at the known point:
𝑑𝑦 2𝑏 2𝑏
| = 3 ⇒ 𝑎 − 3| =3⇒𝑎− = 3 ⇒ 4𝑎 − 𝑏 = 12 ⇒ ⏟
𝑏 = 4𝑎 − 12
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=2 𝑥 𝑥=2 8 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰
Substitute 𝑎 = 1 in Equation I:
8𝑎 + 𝑏 = 0 ⇒ 8 + 𝑏 = 0 ⇒ 𝑏 = −8
(𝑎, 𝑏) = (−1,8)
B. Tangents
Example 2.5
𝑦 = 3𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥
Find the coordinates of the point where the tangent to the curve at 𝑥 = 1 meets the curve again.
𝑑𝑦
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 = | = (9𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 2)𝑥=2 = 7
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=2
𝑦(1) = 3(1)3 − 2(1)2 + 2(1) = 3
Substitute 𝑚 = 7, (𝑥, 𝑦) = (1,3) in the slope point form 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) of the equation of a line:
𝑦 − 3 = 7(𝑥 − 1)
𝑦 = 7𝑥 − 4
To find where the tangent to the curve intersects the curve again, equate the two:
3𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 = 7𝑥 − 4
Use the Remainder Theorem:
4
𝑥 = 1 𝑂𝑟 𝑥 = −
3
𝑥 + 14𝑦 − 3 = 0
14𝑦 = −𝑥 + 3
𝑥 3
𝑦=− +
14 14
1
𝑚1 = −
14
Differentiate
𝑚2 = 𝑦 ′ = 3𝑥 2 + 2
Since the tangent is perpendicular to the line, the product of the slopes must be −1:
𝑚1 𝑚2 = −1
1
(− ) (3𝑥 2 + 2) = −1
14
3𝑥 2 + 2 = 14
3𝑥 2 = 12
𝑥2 = 4
𝑥 = ±2
When 𝑥 = 2
𝑦(2) = 23 + (2)2 − 4 = 8 ⇒ (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (2,8)
𝑦(−2) = (−2)3 + (−2)2 − 4 = −16 ⇒ (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) = (−2,16)
𝑦 ′ (2) = 3(2)2 + 4 = 14
′ (−2)
𝑦 = 3(−2)2 + 4 = 14
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑦 − 8 = 14(𝑥 − 2)
𝑦 − 16 = 14(𝑥 + 2)
Example 2.7
Find the points on the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 at which the slope of the tangent is equal to the 𝑦-coordinate of the point.
(CBSE 2011)
𝑦′ = 𝑦
3𝑥 2 = 𝑥 3
𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 = 0
𝑥 2 (𝑥 − 3) = 0
𝑥 ∈ {0,3}
𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑦 = 0 ⇒ (0,0)
𝑥 = 3 ⇒ 𝑦 = 27 ⇒ (3,27)
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C. Normals
Example 2.9
Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 6, find the
A. equation of the tangent to the function at 𝑥 = 1.
B. equation of the normal to the function at 𝑥 = 1.
C. find the coordinates of the point(s) where the tangent is horizontal.
Part A
We can find the coordinates of a point on the line by evaluating the
function at 𝑥 = 1:
𝑓(1) = 12 + 5 − 6 = 0 ⇒ (𝑥, 𝑦) = (1,0)
𝑏
2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −
2𝑎
Example 2.11:
Is it possible for a parabola to not have a horizontal tangent?
Horizontal Tangents
Tangents from a point
No Tangents from a point
Example 2.12
Find the equation of the normal to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 8 when 𝑥 = 2.
Example 2.13
1: Find the equation of the tangent to the curve 𝑦 = √3𝑥 − 2 which is parallel to the line 4𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 5 = 0.
Also, write the equation of the normal to the curve at the point of contact. (CBSE 2019)
Calculate the derivative, and note the derivative is also the slope:
𝑑𝑦 3
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = =
𝑑𝑥 2√3𝑥 − 2
At the point of contact of the tangent, the two values of the slope must be equal:
3
=2=2
2√3𝑥1 − 2
3 = 4√3𝑥1 − 2
9 = 16(3𝑥1 − 2)
41
𝑥1 =
48
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41 3
𝑦1 = √3𝑥1 − 2 = √3 ( )−2 =
48 4
41 3
(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = ( , )
48 4
Tangent:
48𝑥 − 24𝑦 = 23
1
𝑚2 = −
2
Equation of the Normal:
96𝑦 + 48𝑥 − 113 = 0
D. Trigonometric Functions
Example 2.15
𝜋
Find the tangent to the curve 𝑦 = sec 𝑥 at (𝑥, 𝑦) = ( 3 , 2)
𝑦 ′ = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥
𝜋 𝜋
𝑚 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 = sec tan = (2)(√3) = 2√3
3 3
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝜋
𝑦 − 2 = 2√3 (𝑥 − )
3
6 − 2𝜋√3
𝑦 = 2√3𝑥 +
3
Example 2.16
𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥
A. Find the equation of the tangent when 𝑥 = 0.
B. Find the values of 𝑥 for which the function has a horizontal tangent.
Part A Substitute 𝑚 = 1, 𝑐 = 0 in 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑓(0) = sin(0) = 0 𝑦=𝑥
Hence, the coordinates of the point (𝑥, 𝑦) on the Part B
function at 𝑥 = 0 are Slope of a horizontal line is zero. Hence:
(𝑥, 𝑦) = (0,0) ⇒ 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 = 0 𝑓′(0) = 0
cos 𝑥 = 0
𝑓′ = cos 𝑥 𝜋
𝑥 ∈ { + 2𝜋𝑘, 𝑘 ∈ ℤ}
𝑓′(0) = cos(0) = 1 2
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Example 2.17
𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥
𝜋
A. Find the equation of the tangent when 𝑥 = 2 .
B. Find the values of 𝑥 for which the function has a horizontal tangent.
Part A 𝜋
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 1+ =𝑐
2
𝑓 ( ) = sin + cos = 1 + 0 = 1
2 2 2 Hence, the equation of the tangent is:
A point that lies on the line is: 𝜋
𝜋 𝑦 = −𝑥 + 1 +
2
(𝑥, 𝑦) = ( , 1)
2 Part B
𝑓 ′ = cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 𝑓 ′ = cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 = 0
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 cos 𝑥 = sin 𝑥
𝑚 = 𝑓 ′ ( ) = cos − sin = 0 − 1 = −1
2 2 2
𝜋
𝜋 𝑥 ∈ { + 𝜋𝑘, 𝑘 ∈ ℤ}
Substitute 𝑚 = −1, (𝑥, 𝑦) = ( 2 , 1) in 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐: 4
𝜋
1 = (−1) ( ) + 𝑐
2
E. Logarithmic Functions
Example 2.18
Given 𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥 find the equation of the
A. Tangent when 𝑥 = 1.
B. Normal when 𝑥 = 1.
Tangent:
𝑓(1) = ln 1 = 0 ⇒ (𝑥, 𝑦) = (1,0)
𝑑𝑦 1
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1 1
𝑚= | = = =1
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=1 𝑥 1
0 = 1 + 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑐 = −1
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡: 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 1
Normal:
𝑦 = −𝑥 + 1
Example 2.19
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𝜋 𝜋
Find the area of Δ𝑃𝑄𝑅 if 𝑃 is the point on the curve 𝑦 = 1 + tan 3𝑥 with 𝑥 value 12, 𝑄 is the point where 𝑥 = 12
meets the 𝑥 −axis, and 𝑅 is the point where the normal from 𝑃 intersects the 𝑥 −axis.
𝜋 𝜋
𝑃 = ( , 2) , 𝑄 = ( , 0)
12 12
𝑑𝑦 𝜋 2
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 = | 𝜋 = 3 sec 2 3𝑥|𝑥= 𝜋 = 3 sec 2 = 3(√2) = 6
𝑑𝑥 𝑥= 12 4
12
1
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 = −
6
Equation of the normal 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ):
1 𝜋
𝑦 − 2 = − (𝑥 − )
6 12
Substitute 𝑦 = 0 to find the 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡:
1 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
−2 = − (𝑥 − ) ⇒ 12 = 𝑥 − ⇒ 𝑥 = 12 + ⇒ 𝑅 = (12 + , 0)
6 12 12 12 12
1 1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = (𝑃𝑄)(𝑄𝑅) = × 2 × 12 = 12
2 2
F. Integration
Part A
Differentiate both sides of the above equation with respect to time:
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 2
=3∙ = 3( ) = 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 3
Part B
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 2 80
𝑦 = 5𝑥 2 ⇒ = 10𝑥 ∙ = 10(4) ∙ ( ) =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 3 3
Part C
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑟
= 2𝑝 + 2𝑞 + 2𝑟 = 2(1)3 + 2(2)4 + 2(3)9 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Part A
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑏 𝑑𝑎 1 3
=𝑎∙ +𝑏× = (2)(7) + (3) ( ) = 14 + = 15.5
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 2
Part B
𝑑𝑉 𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑙
= 𝑙𝑤 ∙ + 𝑙ℎ ∙ + 𝑤ℎ ∙
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Substitute
= (5)(7)(2) + (5)(3)(−3) + (7)(3)(1) = 70 − 45 + 21 = 46
B. 2D Geometry: Basics
We look at some basic geometry questions.
1
Related rates of change questions make use of implicit differentiation. If you need a refresher, look up the section on implicit
differentiation.
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𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑟
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ⇒ = 2𝜋𝑟 ∙
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐶 𝑑𝑟
𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑟 ⇒ = 2𝜋 ∙
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Part A
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑟 12
= 2𝜋𝑟 ∙ = 2𝜋(60) ∙ (0.02) = 𝜋 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 2 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 5
Part B
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑟
= 2𝜋𝑟 ∙ = 2𝜋(6000) ∙ (−1) = 12000𝜋 𝑚2 = −0.012𝜋 𝑘𝑚2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Part C
𝑑𝐴
=
𝑑𝐶
You need to identify the relation between the variables in terms of their derivatives before you substitute the
values.
Since this was not done, the answer is incorrect.
The key idea in a related rates problem is to be able to convert the rate of change given in the question into
𝑑𝑥
data of the form 𝑑𝑡 , etc.
Example 2.29
𝑚3
A. Rate of change of volume with respect to time is −3 𝑠
.
B. The surface area of a balloon is increasing 5 𝑐𝑚3 every minute.
𝑑𝑉 𝑚3
= −3
𝑑𝑡 𝑠
𝑑𝑆 𝑐𝑚3
=5
𝑑𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛
Example 2.31
𝑐𝑚
The side of a square is increasing at the rate of 1 . Find the rate of change of area when the area of the
𝑠
square is 36 𝑐𝑚2.
𝐴 = 36 ⇒ 𝑠 = 6 𝑐𝑚
Substitute 𝑠 = 6 in
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑠 𝑐𝑚2
𝐴 = 𝑠2 ⇒ = 2𝑠 ∙ = 2(6)(1) = 12
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑠
Example 2.33
𝑐𝑚 𝑐𝑚
The length 𝑥 of a rectangle is decreasing at the rate of 5 𝑚𝑖𝑛, and the width 𝑦 is increasing at the rate of 4 𝑚𝑖𝑛.
When 𝑥 = 8 𝑐𝑚, and 𝑦 = 6 𝑐𝑚, find the rate of change of the perimeter, and the area of the rectangle. (CBSE
2017)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑥 = 8, 𝑦 = 6, = −5 𝑐𝑚, = 4 𝑐𝑚
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Perimeter
𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑐𝑚
𝑃 = 2(𝑥 + 𝑦) ⇒ = 2 ( + ) = 2(−5 + 4) = 2(−1) = −2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛
Area
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑐𝑚2
𝐴 = 𝑥𝑦 ⇒ =𝑥∙ +𝑦∙ = (8)(4) + (6)(−5) = 32 − 30 = 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛
Example 2.36
𝑐𝑚
The side of an equilateral triangle is increasing at the rate of 2 𝑠
. At what rate is its area increasing, when the
side of the triangle is 20 cm? (CBSE 2015)
√3 2 𝑑𝐴 √3 𝑑𝑠 √3
𝐴= 𝑠 ⇒ = 𝑠∙ = ∙ 20 ∙ 2 = 20√3 𝑐𝑚2 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
4 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
2𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 2𝑧
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑐 2
𝑑𝑎 𝑑𝑏 𝑑𝑐
2𝑎 + 2𝑏 = 2𝑐
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑐
Substitute = 0:
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑎 𝑑𝑏
2𝑎 ( ) + 2𝑏 ( ) = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑎 𝑑𝑏
𝑎( )+𝑏( ) = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑎
3 ( ) + 4(2) = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑎
3 ( ) = −8
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑎 8𝑚
=−
𝑑𝑡 3𝑠
Example 2.40
𝑚
In a right triangle, leg 𝑥 is increasing at the rate of 2 𝑠 , while leg 𝑦 is decreasing so that the area of the triangle
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1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑥𝑦 = 6 ⇒ 𝑥𝑦 = 12
2
When:
𝑥 = 3 ⇒ 3𝑦 = 12 ⇒ 𝑦 = 4
Also, differentiate 𝑥𝑦 = 12:
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 +𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
Substitute 𝑥 = 3, 𝑦 = 4, = 2:
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦
3( ) + 4(2) = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦 8
=−
𝑑𝑡 3
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
2𝑧 = 2𝑥 + 2𝑦
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑧 8
2(5) = 2(3)(2) + 2(4) (− )
𝑑𝑡 3
𝑑𝑧 64
10 = 12 −
𝑑𝑡 3
𝑑𝑧 28 14
=− =−
𝑑𝑡 30 15
C. 2D Geometry: Similarity2
Example 2.41
A light is placed on the ground 20 𝑚 away from a building. It shines on the building. A man 2 𝑚 tall walks
𝑚
directly towards the building at 1 . How fast is the length of his shadow on the building changing when he is
𝑠
14 𝑚 from the building.
Define
𝑥 = 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑜𝑤
𝑦 = 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑜𝑤
2
Questions on similarity are generally more difficult than other questions. You can come back to these questions later, if
required.
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𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 +𝑦 =0
⏟𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰
Using the relation that we found above, determine the value of 𝑦 when 𝑥 = 3:
𝑥 2 40 40 20
= ⇒𝑦= = =
20 𝑦 𝑥 6 3
𝑑𝑥 𝑚 20
Substitute 𝑥 = 6, =1 ,𝑦= :
𝑑𝑡 𝑠 3
𝑑𝑦 20 𝑑𝑦 20 𝑑𝑦 20 10 𝑚
6 + ( ) (1) = 0 ⇒ 6 =− ⇒ =− =−
𝑑𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡 18 9 𝑠
Example 2.42
𝑓𝑡
A 6 feet tall man walks at 5 𝑠𝑒𝑐 toward a streetlight with a height of 16 feet. When the base of the light is 10
feet away, at what rate is the:
A. length of his shadow changing?
B. the tip of his shadow moving?
Part A
Let the length of the shadow be 𝑥. Let the distance between the
man and the streetlight be 𝑦. (See adjoining diagram).
From the diagram, and using the fact that the two triangles are
similar, we can set up the ratio:
16 6 3
= ⇒ 5𝑥 = 3𝑦 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑦
𝑥+𝑦 𝑥 5
Differentiate the above with respect to 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑡, and substitute
𝑑𝑦 𝑚
𝑑𝑡
= −5 𝑠 :
𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑦 3 𝑚
= ∙ = ∙ (−5) = −3
𝑑𝑡 5 𝑑𝑡 5 𝑠
The rate of change of the length of his shadow is:
𝑑𝑥 𝑚
= −3
𝑑𝑡 𝑠
Note that the rate is negative since the length of the shadow is decreasing.
Part B
The length of the base of the triangle is:
𝑧 =𝑥+𝑦
The rate of change of the tip of the shadow is equal to the rate of change of the
length of the base of the triangle:
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑚
= + = −3 − 5 = −8
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑠
𝑚
Note that the tip of the shadow is moving at a speed of 8 𝑠
in the direction of
due north.
D. 2D Geometry: Trigonometry
We can differentiate both sides of the area formula with respect to 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 and make use of the three-term
product rule:
𝑑𝐴 1 𝑑𝑎 𝑑𝑏 𝑑𝜃
= (𝑏 sin 𝜃 + 𝑎 sin 𝜃 + 𝑎𝑏 cos 𝜃 )
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Example 2.44
The formula that connects the area of the triangle with the angle between the two
ladders is:
1
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑏 sin 𝜃
2
Substitute 𝑎 = 𝑏 = 6 in the above formula:
1 1
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑏 sin 𝜃 = (6)(6)(sin 𝜃) = 18 sin 𝜃
2 2
Differentiate both sides with respect to time:
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝜃
= 18 cos 𝜃
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜋 𝑑𝜃 1 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
To find the rate of change of area when the triangle is equilateral, substitute 𝜃 = 60° = , = :
3 𝑑𝑡 4 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝜋 1 1 1 9 𝑓𝑡
= 18 (cos ) ∙ = 18 ∙ × = = 2.25
3 4 2 4 4 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Example 2.45
A. Jennifer works at a construction company. She props up two ladders, each 6 feet tall, on the floor, and
leans them against one other at the top forming an isosceles triangle with the ground. She begins to
pull the bases of the ladders such that the top of the triangle is coming closer to the ground. When the
1
ladders form an equilateral triangle, she notices that the angle between them is increasing at 4 radians
per second. At what rate is the area of the triangle increasing in that exact moment? (MAΘ, Mu Area
and Volume 2022/7)
B. A boat approaches a lighthouse 600 meters above sea level at 250 meters per minute. When the boat
is 800 meters away, at what rate is the angle between the ship and the top of the lighthouse changing?
C. Plane Flying
D. Kite Flying
Part B
𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑡
E. 3D Geometry: Single Parameter
𝑑𝑆 𝑑𝑥 8 4 × 8 4 × 8 8 𝑐𝑚2
𝑆 = 6𝑥 2 ⇒ = 12𝑥 = 12𝑥 ∙ 2 = = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 3𝑥 𝑥 12 3 𝑠
Differentiate:
𝑑𝑉 4 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
= ( 𝜋) (3𝑟 2 ) ( ) = 4𝜋𝑟 2
𝑑𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑟
Solve for 𝑑𝑡
:
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑉 1
= ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 4𝜋𝑟 2
𝑑𝑉
Substitute 𝑑𝑡 = 72𝜋, and 𝑟 = 9 in Equation I: Differentiate 𝑆 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 to get:
𝑑𝑆 𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑉 1 1 2 𝑚 = 8𝜋𝑟 ∙
= × 2
= 72𝜋 × 2
= 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 4𝜋𝑟 4𝜋(9) 9 𝑚𝑖𝑛
Substitute 𝑟 = 12 in the above:
Part C
𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑆 2 16 16 4 𝑐𝑚2
Substitute 𝑑𝑡 = 8: = 8𝜋𝑟 ∙ 2 = = =
𝑑𝑡 𝜋𝑟 𝑟 12 3 𝑠
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑉 1 1 2
= × 2
=8× 2
= 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 4𝜋𝑟 4𝜋𝑟 𝜋𝑟
Part A
The question has given us the relation
𝑑𝑟 𝑑ℎ 𝑐𝑚
𝑟=ℎ⇔ = = −1
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ℎ𝑟
Substitute 𝑟 = ℎ in the formula for the volume of a cone and differentiate
1 1 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑟 𝑐𝑚3
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ = 𝜋𝑟 3 ⇒ = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜋(10)2 (−1) = −100𝜋
3 3 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ℎ𝑟
Part B
1
Substitute ℎ = 𝑟 ⇒ 𝑟 = 6ℎ in the formula for the volume of a cone:
6
1 1 𝑑𝑉 𝑑ℎ
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ = 𝜋(6ℎ)2 ℎ = 12𝜋ℎ3 ⇒ = 36𝜋ℎ2 ∙
3 3 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑉 𝑐𝑚3
Solve for 𝑑𝑡 and substitute 𝑑𝑡 = −12 𝑠 , ℎ = 4 𝑐𝑚:
𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑉 1 1 1 𝑐𝑚
= × 2
= −12 × 2
=−
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 36𝜋ℎ 36𝜋(4) 48𝜋 𝑠
Part C
𝑟 2 ℎ
Draw a diagram and note that, using similar triangles ℎ = 6 ⇒ 𝑟 = 3, which we substitute in the formula for
the volume of a cone:
1 2 1 ℎ 2 1 𝑑𝑉 𝜋ℎ2 𝑑ℎ
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 ℎ = 𝜋 ( ) ℎ = 𝜋ℎ3 ⇒ = ∙
3 3 3 27 𝑑𝑡 9 𝑑𝑡
𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑉 𝑐𝑚 3
Solve for 𝑑𝑡 and substitute 𝑑𝑡 = −2 𝑠 , ℎ = 3 𝑐𝑚:
𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑉 9 9 2 𝑐𝑚
= × 2 = (−2) × 2
=−
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜋ℎ 𝜋(3) 𝜋 𝑠
Example 2.51
Fahan is pouring apple juice into his glass that is in the shape of a right truncated cone at a constant rate of 2
cubic inches per second. The lower base is 4 inches in diameter and the upper (open) base has a diameter of 6
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inches. The glass has a total height of 4 inches. At what rate, in inches per second, is the height of liquid in the
glass increasing when the glass is 25% full? (MAΘ, Mu Area and Volume 2022/23)
Hint: The volume of the frustum of a cone (truncated cone) with height ℎ, lower radius 𝑟, and upper radius 𝑅
ℎ𝜋
is 𝑉 = (𝑅 2 + 𝑅𝑟 + 𝑟 2 )
3
1
Substitute 𝑅 = ℎ + 2, 𝑟 = 2:
4
ℎ𝜋 2
𝑉= (𝑅 + 𝑅𝑟 + 𝑟 2 )
3
G. Physics
1 1 1 1 1 120
= + = + ⇒𝑅=
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 30 40 7
1 1 1
Differentiate = + to get:
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 𝑑𝑅 1 𝑑𝑅1 1 𝑑𝑅2
− 2
∙ =− 2∙ − 2∙
𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝑅1 𝑑𝑡 𝑅2 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑅 1 𝑑𝑅1 1 𝑑𝑅2
= 𝑅2 ( 2 ∙ + 2∙ )
𝑑𝑡 𝑅1 𝑑𝑡 𝑅2 𝑑𝑡
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Assuming that the mass remains constant, while the velocity is a function of time, we can differentiate both
sides to get:
𝑑𝐾 1 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
= 𝑚 ∙ 2𝑣 = 𝑚𝑣
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
H. Other Sciences
Example 2.58
Biology, Stewart, Section 3.9, Exercise 36
Example 2.59
A. A particle moves along the parabola 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 . Find the rate of change of the 𝑦 −coordinate if the
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑐𝑚
particle has 𝑥 −coordinate 2, and 𝑑𝑡 = 9 𝑠𝑒𝑐.
𝑥
B. (𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑒) A particle moves along the curve 𝑦 = √1 + sin3 ( ). Find the exact value of the rate of
2
𝜋
change of the 𝑥 −coordinate when the particle is at the point 𝑥 = 2 , and the rate of change of the 𝑦
coordinate per second is 3 𝑚. Note: Do not approximate at any stage.
Part A
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 1 4 𝑐𝑚
𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 ⇒ = 6𝑥 ∙ = 6(2) ∙ =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 9 9 𝑠𝑒𝑐
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Part B
𝑥
Use the chain rule to differentiate 𝑦 = √1 + sin3 (2):
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑥 𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥
= ∙ 3 sin2 ( ) ∙ cos ( ) ∙ ∙
𝑑𝑡 𝑥 2 2 2 𝑑𝑡
2√1 + sin3 (2)
𝑑𝑥
Solve the above for 𝑑𝑡 :
3 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 4√1 + sin (2)
= ∙
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 3 sin2 (𝑥 ) cos (𝑥 )
2 2
𝜋 𝑑𝑦
Substitute 𝑥 = 2 , 𝑑𝑡 = 3:
𝜋 1 3 4√1 + 1 2√2 + 1
3( ) 4 √1 + ( ) 4√
𝑑𝑥 4√1 + sin 4 √2 2√2 2√2
=3∙ 𝜋 𝜋 = = =
𝑑𝑡 3 sin2 (4 ) cos (4 ) 1 2 1 1 1
( ) ( )
√2 √2 2√2 2√2
After some further simplification, we get:
2√2 + 1
= 4√ × 2√2 = 4√2√2 + 1 × √2√2 = 4√8 + √2
2√2
Example 2.60
Parametrization
Videos 2.61
You can find a variety of related rates questions covered in
A. This video playlist by Jake
B. This video by Blackpenredpen
C. This video by the Organic Chemistry Tutor
2.4 𝒚′ : Monotonicity
A. Increasing and Decreasing
A decreasing function is a function where the 𝑦 value always 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 as we go from left to right:
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) < 𝑓(𝑥), ℎ > 0
A non-decreasing function is a function where the 𝑦 value never decreases as we go from left to right:
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) ≥ 𝑓(𝑥), ℎ > 0
A non-increasing function is a function where the 𝑦 value never increases as we go from left to right:
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥), ℎ > 0
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Example 2.63
Classify the following functions as:
A. Increasing
B. Decreasing
C. Non-Decreasing
D. Non-Increasing
E. None of the Above
𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛: 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝐵𝑙𝑢𝑒: 𝑁𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔
Example 2.65
Classify intervals in the function based on whether the
A. function is increasing or decreasing
B. the slope is positive or negative
C. the slope is increasing, decreasing, or constant
D. the function is positive or negative
From (-7,-5):
The function is positive, and increasing.
The slope is positive, and constant.
From (-5,-2)
The function is positive, and decreasing.
The slope is negative, and constant.
From (-2,-1)
The function is negative, and decreasing.
The slope is negative, and constant.
From (-1,0)
The function is negative, and increasing.
The slope is positive, and constant.
From (0,1)
The function is positive, and increasing.
The slope is positive, and constant.
Example 2.66
Graph the derivative of the function alongside.
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Example 2.67
Give an example of a function which does not fit of the four classifications.
𝑦 = sin 𝑥
Example 2.69
Without calculus, identify the intervals/points where sin 𝑥 is increasing, decreasing, or neither.
𝜋 3𝜋
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔: [0, ) ∪ ( , 2𝜋 ] + 2𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ
2 2
𝜋 3𝜋
𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔: [ , ) + 2𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ
2 2
Note: We have not taken points of inflection into account for now.
Example 2.70
State the intervals where the graph of the parabola 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 is increasing and decreasing.
Example 2.72
For each part, find the intervals where 𝑓(𝑥) is increasing and decreasing.
A. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑥3 9𝑥 2
B. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3
− 2
+ 20𝑥
𝑥3 7𝑥 2
C. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3
− 2
+ 12𝑥
′ (𝑥)
D. 𝑓 = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 − 9)
Part A
𝑑𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑒𝑥 ⇒ = 𝑒 𝑥 > 0 ⇒ 𝐴𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 ⇒ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑑𝑥
Part B
𝑓 ′ > 0 ⇒ 𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 + 20 > 0 ⇒ (𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 − 4) > 0 ⇒ 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 {4,5}
′
𝑓 > 0 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 (−∞, 4) ∪ (5, ∞) ⇒ 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙
𝑓 ′ < 0 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 (4,5) ⇒ 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙
Part C
𝑓 ′ > 0 ⇒ 𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 12 > 0 ⇒ (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 4) > 0 ⇒ 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 {3,4}
′
𝑓 > 0 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 (−∞, 3) ∪ (4, ∞) ⇒ 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙
𝑓 ′ < 0 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 (3,4) ⇒ 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙
Part D
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0 ⇒ (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 − 9) > 0 ⇒ 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑥 ∈ {−5,2,9}
The intervals are:
(−∞, −5) ∪ (−5,2) ∪ (2,9) ∪ (9, ∞)
The leftmost interval is:
(−6 − 2) ⏟
𝑓 = −6 ⇒ ⏟ (−6 + 5) ⏟
(−6 − 9)
−𝑣𝑒 −𝑣𝑒 −𝑣𝑒
Example 2.73
For each part, find the intervals where 𝑓(𝑥) is increasing and decreasing.
A. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 −𝑥
B. 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥
2𝑥 3 3𝑥 2
C. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3
− 2
− 2𝑥 + 2023
Part A
𝑓′ = −𝑒 −𝑥 < 0 ⇒ 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
Part B
𝑓′ = − sin 𝑥
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Example 2.74
For each part, find the intervals where 𝑓(𝑥) is increasing and decreasing.
3𝑥+5
A. 𝑓(𝑥) =
5𝑥−6
𝑎𝑥+𝑏
B. 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑐𝑥+𝑑
Part A
Calculate the domain:
6 6
(5𝑥 − 6)2 = 0 ⇒ 5𝑥 = 6 ⇒ 𝑥 = ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠
5 5
6
The value 𝑥 = 5 is a vertical asymptote for the function.
As
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞, lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞
6+ 𝑥→
6
𝑥→ 5
5
Example 2.75
1 1+𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = ln ( )
2 1−𝑥
𝑎
Using the quotient rule log (𝑏 ) = log 𝑎 − log 𝑏:
1
𝑓 = [ln(1 + 𝑥)] − ln(1 − 𝑥)
2
1 1 1
𝑓′ = [ − (−1)]
2 1+𝑥 1−𝑥
1 1 1
= [ + ]
2 1+𝑥 1−𝑥
1 1−𝑥+1+𝑥
= [ ]
2 1 − 𝑥2
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1 2
= [ ]
2 1 − 𝑥2
1
=
1 − 𝑥2
1
1−𝑥 2
> 0 when
1 − 𝑥2 > 0
𝑥2 < 1
−1 < 𝑥 < 1
Example 2.77
Find the coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑠) of all absolute maxima and minima for each function below:
A. The line 𝑦 = 𝑥, −3 < 𝑥 < 4
B. The graph of the parabola 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , −2 ≤ 𝑥 < 2.
2.78: Endpoints
Example 2.79
Find the absolute maximum and the minimum of the function 𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 4.1
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Part A
The minimum value occurs at the left endpoint:
𝑦 = 3(−3) + 4.1 = −9 + 4 = −4.9
The maximum value occurs at the right endpoint:
𝑦 = 3(4) + 4.1 = 12 + 4 = 16.1
Part B
lim + 3𝑥 + 4.1 = −4.9
𝑥→−3
However, −4.9 is never achieved because −3 is not included in the interval under consideration.
Hence,
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑛𝑜 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙
Example 2.80
Find the absolute maximum and minimum of the function 𝑦 = 𝑥 2
A. over the interval (−1,1)
B. over the interval [−1,1]
C. over its natural domain
Part A
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 = (0,0)
𝑁𝑜 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
Part B
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 = (0,0)
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑡 {(−1,1), (1,1)}
Part C
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 = (0,0)
𝑁𝑜 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
No Max / Has a
Min max/min
lim −𝑥 2 = −∞
𝑥→∞
lim −𝑥 2 = −∞
𝑥→−∞
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Example 2.82
Find the absolute maximum and minimum of the function 𝑦 = −𝑥 2
A. over the interval (−1,1)
B. over the interval [−1,1]
C. over its natural domain
Part A
𝑀𝑎𝑥 = (0,0)
𝑁𝑜 𝑀𝑖𝑛
Part B
𝑀𝑎𝑥 = (0,0)
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑡 {(−1, −1), (1, −1)}
Part C
𝑀𝑎𝑥 = (0,0)
𝑁𝑜 𝑀𝑖𝑛
Example 2.83
Does the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 have an absolute maximum or an absolute minimum value?
𝑥 → ∞, 𝑦 → ∞
𝑥 → −∞, 𝑦 → −∞
Therefore, 𝑓(𝑥) has neither an absolute maximum, nor an absolute minimum value. We
call such a function unbounded.
Note:
➢ If the point not an endpoint, then we check both to the left, and the right of the point.
➢ If the point is a left endpoint, then we check only to the right of the point.
➢ If the point is a right endpoint, then we check only to the left of the point.
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Example 2.85
Part of the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 , 𝑥 ∈ ℝ is given alongside.
A. Does it have a relative maximum? A relative minimum? Identify the
integers in the domain between which the maximum and the
minimum are achieved.
B. Does it have an absolute maximum? An absolute minimum?
C. In general, if a graph does not have an absolute maximum/minimum,
can it still have a relative maximum/minimum
Part A
𝑌𝑒𝑠
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 ∈ (−2, −1)
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ (−1,1)
Part B
𝑁𝑜
Part C
𝑌𝑒𝑠, 𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒
Example 2.89
The functions 𝑓(𝑥), ℎ(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are shown in the diagram. They have domains 𝐷𝑓 = [0,6], 𝐷𝑔 = [8,13] and
𝐷ℎ = [15,19].
A. Identify the coordinates of the absolute maximum and the absolute minimum for each function.
B. Identify, in the diagram, the relative maxima and minima.
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Part A
𝑓(𝑥): 𝑀𝑎𝑥: (6,4), 𝑀𝑖𝑛(0,1)
𝑔(𝑥): 𝑀𝑎𝑥: (11,6), 𝑀𝑖𝑛(8,2)
ℎ(𝑥): 𝑀𝑎𝑥(19,5), 𝑀𝑖𝑛(17,2)
Part B
B. Turning Points
Example 2.97
𝑦 = √𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1
= = 0 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑑𝑥 2√𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝑥=0⇒ is not defined
𝑑𝑥
For
𝑑𝑦
𝑥 > 0, > 0 ⇒ 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑑𝑥
Hence
𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑦 = √0 = 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
Example 2.98
′
(𝑥 − 7)3 (𝑥 − 3)2
𝑦 =
(𝑥 − 1)5 (𝑥 − 4)
Identify the:
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Part A
We have already been given the derivative. Do not make the mistake of trying to differentiate it.
(𝑥 − 7)3 (𝑥 − 3)2
>0
(𝑥 − 1)5 (𝑥 − 4)
To find the critical points, we equate the numerator and the denominator to zero and solve it:
(𝑥 − 7)(𝑥 − 3) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {3,7}
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 4) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {1,4}
The critical points are:
𝑥 ∈ {1,3,4,7}
We make a sign diagram. Note that:
(𝑥 − 7)3 ⇒ 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 3 ⇒ 3 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑 ⇒ 𝐼𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛
(𝑥 − 3)2 ⇒ 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 2 ⇒ 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 ⇒ 𝐼𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛
(𝑥 − 1)5 ⇒ 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 5 ⇒ 5 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑 ⇒ 𝐼𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛
(𝑥 − 4) ⇒ 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 1 ⇒ 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑 ⇒ 𝐼𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛
Since each root occurs at most once, the values alternate between positive and negative.
Part B
𝑥 = 1 ⇒ 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
𝑥 = 3 ⇒ 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑥 = 4 ⇒ 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
𝑥 = 7 ⇒ 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
Example 2.99
Determine the maxima and minima for 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 −𝑥 , 𝑛 ∈ ℝ.
𝑛−𝑥 =0⇒𝑥 =𝑛
When 𝑥 = 𝑛:
= 𝑒 −𝑥 (−2𝑛𝑛𝑛−1 + 𝑛𝑛 + 𝑛2 𝑛𝑛−2 − 𝑛𝑛𝑛−2 )
= 𝑒 −𝑥 (−2𝑛𝑛 + 𝑛𝑛 + 𝑛𝑛 − 𝑛𝑛−1 )
= 𝑒 −𝑥 (−𝑛𝑛−1 )
(-3.5)^(-3.5) = (-3.5)^(-7/2)=1/(-3.5)^(7/2)
which leads us to a complex number, and hence I did not consider such numbers while considering the cases.
2.101: Concave Up
If the line segment joining any two points of a graph lies entirely below the graph for the entire interval of the
line segment, then the graph is a concave up graph.
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➢ Any line segment connecting two points on the blue graph always has
the blue line below it (for the interval over which the line segment is
drawn)
Example 2.106
𝑑𝑦
A. Evaluate at 𝑥 = 0 given that 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 .
𝑑𝑥
B. Hence, what is the slope of 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 at 𝑥 = 0?
C. From the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 , is 𝑥 = 0 a turning point?
Part A
𝑑𝑦
| = 3𝑥 2 |𝑥=0 = 3(0)2 = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=0
Part B
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 0
Part C
𝑁𝑜, 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
A. Concavity
Note that
𝑦 ′′ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑦′
➢ 𝑦 ′′ > 0 means that 𝑦′ has positive slope, and is increasing.
✓ If 𝑦′ is increasing, then the function is said to be concave
up.
➢ 𝑦 ′′ < 0 means that 𝑦′ has negative slope, and is decreasing.
✓ If 𝑦′ is decreasing, then the function is said to be concave down.
Example 2.111
Determine the concavity of the following functions:
A. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2
B. 𝑦 = 𝑥 3
Part A
𝑦 = 𝑥 2 ⇒ 𝑦 ′ = 2𝑥 ⇒ 𝑦 ′′ = 2 > 0 ⇒ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑈𝑝 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 (−∞, +∞)
Part B
𝑦 = 𝑥 3 ⇒ 𝑦 ′ = 3𝑥 2 ⇒ 𝑦 ′′ = 6𝑥
6𝑥 > 0 ⇒ 𝑥 > 0
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ (0, ∞)
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ (−∞, 0)
Example 2.113
Find the maxima and minima of:
𝑦 = 𝑥3 − 𝑥
1 1
𝑦 ′ = 3𝑥 2 − 1 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 2 = ⇒𝑥=±
3 √3
𝑦 ′′ = 6𝑥
Substitute
1 1 1
𝑦 ′′ ( ) = 6( ) > 0 ⇒ 𝑀𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 =
√3 √3 √3
1 1 1
𝑦 ′′ (− ) = 6 (− ) < 0 ⇒ 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = −
√3 √3 √3
Example 2.114
𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 1
Find the first derivative and equate it to zero to find the critical points:
𝑦 ′ = 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥(3𝑥 + 6) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {0, −2}
Find the second derivative and use it to check the critical points:
𝑦 ′′ = 6𝑥 + 6
𝑦 ′′ (0) = 6(0) + 6 = 6 > 0 ⇒ 𝑀𝑖𝑛
′′ (−2)
𝑦 = 6(−2) + 6 = −6 < 0 ⇒ 𝑀𝑎𝑥
𝑥 = −1 is a point of inflection since the function changes its concavity at that point.
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Example 2.115
The function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) with one turning point (at C) is graphed alongside.
Determine where:
A. 𝑦 is increasing/decreasing/constant.
B. 𝑦 is positive/negative.
C. 𝑦′ is positive/negative/zero.
D. 𝑦 ′′ is positive/negative
Part A
We can observe from the graph that 𝑦 is:
(−∞, 𝐶) ,
⏟ 𝐶
⏟ , (𝐶,
⏟ ∞)
𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔
Part B
We can observe from the graph that 𝑦 is:
(−∞,
⏟ 𝐴) ∪ (𝐵, ∞) , (𝐴,
⏟ 𝐵)
𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑁𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
Part C
When 𝑦 is decreasing, its slope is negative, when 𝑦 is increasing its slope is positive, and when 𝑦 is constant,
its slope is zero.
Since 𝑦′ is the slope, we can directly convert the answers from Part A into the answers for Part C.
(−∞, 𝐶) , 𝐶
⏟ ⏟ , (𝐶,
⏟ ∞)
𝑁𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
Part D
The function has a single turning point at C.
𝑦 ′ < 0 to the left of C, and 𝑦 ′ > 0 to the right of C.
𝑦 ′′ > 0 over an interval around C.
Since the function has a single turning point, 𝑦′′ cannot change its behavior.
∴ 𝑦 ′′ > 0, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ
Example 2.116
The function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑦 is 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6. Determine where:
A. 𝑦 is increasing/decreasing/constant.
B. 𝑦 is positive/negative.
C. 𝑦′ is positive/negative/zero.
D. 𝑦 ′′ is positive/negative
E. 𝑦 is concave up/concave down
Parts A and C
5 5 5
𝑦 ′ = 2𝑥 + 5 > 0 ⇒ 𝑥 > − , 2𝑥 + 5 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = − , 2𝑥 + 5 < 0 ⇒ 𝑥 < −
2 2 2
5 5 5
(−∞, − ) , − , (− , ∞ )
⏟ 2 ⏟ 2 ⏟ 2
𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑦 ′ 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑦 ′ =0 𝑦 ′ 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
Parts D and E
𝑦 ′′ = 2 > 0 ⇒ (−∞,
⏟ ∞)
𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑢𝑝
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Example 2.117
Column I Column II
For each part below, match each entry in Column I to the
1. 𝑓(𝑐) A. 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
appropriate entry in Column II. For example, 1 − 𝐴 , 2 −
2. 𝑓′(𝑐) B. 𝑁𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝐵, 3 − 𝐵 represents a answer choice.
3. 𝑓 ′′ (𝑐) C. 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜
A. The function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) has a maximum at 𝑥 = 𝑐. D. 𝐶𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
B. The function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) has a minimum at 𝑥 = 𝑐.
C. The function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) has a turning point at 𝑥 = 𝑐.
1 − 𝐷, 2 − 𝐶, 3𝐵
Example 2.118
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
If
𝑏
𝑎 > 0 ⇒ 𝑦 ′′ > 0 ⇒ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑈𝑝 ⇒ − 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
2𝑎
𝑏
𝑎 < 0 ⇒ 𝑦 ′′ < 0 ⇒ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐷𝑜𝑤𝑛 ⇒ − 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
2𝑎
A relative maximum has a concave down shape, and a relative minimum has a concave up shape.
The point where the graph transitions from concave down to concave up or 𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎 is a point of inflection.
Example 2.121
Classify each marked point in the
graph alongside as a maximum, a
minimum or a point of inflection.
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𝜋
( , 1) ⇒ 𝑀𝑎𝑥
2
(𝜋, 0) ⇒ 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
3𝜋
( , −1) ⇒ 𝑀𝑖𝑛
2
(2𝜋, 0) ⇒ 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
5𝜋
( , 1) ⇒ 𝑀𝑎𝑥
2
Example 2.122
𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑥 = 0
Example 2.123
Determine where the functions is increasing/decreasing, its concavity,
the turning points and the points of inflection. Also, determine the
vertical and horizontal asymptotes. Hence, graph the function.
𝑥
A. 𝑦 =
𝑥+5
The function changes from concave up to concave down at 𝑥 = −5. This would resulted in a point of
inflection, but the function is not defined at 𝑥 = −5.
Hence, there are no points of inflection.
Example 2.124
Determine where the function is increasing/decreasing, its concavity, the turning points and the points of
inflection. Also, determine the vertical and horizontal asymptotes. Hence, graph the function.
𝑦 = sin 𝑥 , 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋
B. Critical Points
Example 2.125
Determine where the function is increasing/decreasing, its concavity, the turning points and the points of
inflection. Also, determine the vertical and horizontal asymptotes.
16 𝑥 3
𝑦= 2+
𝑥 3
First Derivative
Find the first derivative
𝑑𝑦 32 −32 + 𝑥 5
= − 3 + 𝑥2 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥3
Equate the first derivative to zero to find the critical points:
−32 + 𝑥 5
=0⇒𝑥=2
𝑥3
Set up and solve an inequality to find the increasing and decreasing intervals:
−32 + 𝑥 5
>0
𝑥3
Make a sign diagram
Second Derivative
Find the second derivative
𝑑2 𝑦 96
= + 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥 4
Evaluate the second derivative at 𝑥 = 2:
𝑑2 𝑦 96
2
| = + 2𝑥 = 10 > 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=2 16
Since the second derivative is greater than zero,
𝑥 = 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
Example 2.126
A circular cylinder, open at one end, is
432 − 𝑟 2
𝑆𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 + 2𝜋𝑟ℎ ⇒ 432𝜋 = 𝜋𝑟(𝑟 + 2ℎ) ⇒ =ℎ
2𝑟
432 − 𝑟 2 𝜋 𝜋
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ = 𝜋𝑟 2 ( ) = ( ) (432𝑟 − 𝑟 3 ) = ( ) (432 × 12 − 123 )𝑟=12 = 1728𝜋
2𝑟 2 2
𝑑𝑉 𝜋
= ( ) (432 − 3𝑟 2 ), 432 − 3𝑟 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑟 = 12
𝑑𝑟 2
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𝑑2 𝑉 𝜋
2
= ( ) (−6𝑟), 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 − 𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟 ⇒ 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
𝑑𝑟 2
Example 2.127
24
Find the area of the triangle formed by the origin, and the intercepts of the tangent to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + at
𝑥
the point (2,16).
𝑑𝑦 24 𝑑𝑦 24
= 2𝑥 − 2 , = 2(2) − 2 = 4 − 6 = −2
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥=2 2
Substitute (2,16) and the slope in the slope-point form to get the equation of the tangent. Then calculate the
intercept, and use the formula for area of a triangle.
𝑏ℎ 10 × 20
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) ⇒ 𝑦 − 16 = (−2)(𝑥 − 2) ⇒ ⏟ 𝑦 = −2𝑥 + 20 ⇒ 𝐴(Δ) = = = 100
𝑥−𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡=10
2 2
𝑦−𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡=20
Bounded
f'=0 Function
Example 2.129
1 5
Find the turning points for 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 𝑥 3 + 2 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 99
Example 2.130
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥
1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 1 ⇒ 3𝑥 2 − 1 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 =
±√3
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1
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 6𝑥 ⇒ 6𝑥 𝑖𝑠 + 𝑣𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = ⇒ 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
+√3
1
6𝑥 𝑖𝑠 − 𝑣𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = ⇒ 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
−√3
Set the second derivative to second:
𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 6𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0
6𝑥 < 0 ⇒ 𝑥 < 0 ⇒ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐷𝑜𝑤𝑛 ∈ (−∞, 0)
6𝑥 > 0 ⇒ 𝑥 > 0 ⇒ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑈𝑝 ∈ (0, ∞)
The graph changes from concave down to concave up at 𝑥 = 0. Hence, this is a point of inflection.
Example 2.131
f(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 + 2
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 − 3 ⇒
Example 2.132
1
Determine the concavity of 𝑦 = 𝑥(4 − 𝑥 2 )2
Domain
Determine the domain:
4 − 𝑥 2 ≥ 0 ⇒ 𝑥 2 ≤ 4 ⇒ −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2
First Derivative
Find the first derivative:
𝑑𝑦 𝑥 −𝑥 2 −𝑥 2 + 4 − 𝑥 2 −2𝑥 2 + 4
= (−2𝑥) + √4 − 𝑥 2 = + √4 − 𝑥 2 = =
𝑑𝑥 2√4 − 𝑥 2 √4 − 𝑥 2 √4 − 𝑥 2 √4 − 𝑥 2
Set the first derivative equal to zero to find any other critical points:
−2𝑥 2 + 4
= 0 ⇒ −2𝑥 2 + 4 = 0 ⇒ 2𝑥 2 = 4 ⇒ 𝑥 = ±√2
√4 − 𝑥 2
Note that the critical points = ±2 are also the endpoints of the domain. Evaluate the values at the endpoints of
the domain:
1 1 1
𝑦(2) = 𝑥(4 − (2)2 )2 = 2(4 − 4)2 = 2(4 − 4)2 = 2(0) = 0
𝑦(−2) = 0
−2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 (4 − 𝑥 2 )(−4𝑥) − 2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥
√4 − 𝑥 2 (−4𝑥) +
= √4 − 𝑥 2 = √4 − 𝑥 2
4−𝑥 2 4 − 𝑥2
Check where the second derivative is greater than zero. The critical points:
2𝑥(𝑥 2 − 6) ⇒ 𝑥 = 0, ±√3
3
(4 − 𝑥 2 )2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = ±2
Part A
Solve for 𝑦:
𝑎𝑏𝑥
𝑦(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 ) = 𝑎𝑏𝑥 ⇒ 𝑦 =
𝑥2
+ 𝑎2
The above is a function since it will give a single value of 𝑦 for a valid value of 𝑥.
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Part B
Find the intercepts:
𝑎𝑏𝑥 𝑎𝑏(0)
𝑥=0⇒𝑦= = 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑖𝑠 (0,0)
+𝑎 2𝑥20 + 𝑎2
𝑎𝑏𝑥
𝑦=0⇒0= 2 ⇒ 0 = 𝑎𝑏𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑖𝑠 (0,0)
𝑥 + 𝑎2
Find the asymptotes:
𝑎𝑏𝑥
𝑦= ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
𝑥2 + 𝑎2
𝑎𝑏𝑥
𝑦= 2 ⇒ 𝐻𝑎𝑠 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑦 = 0
𝑥 + 𝑎2
Part C
Find the first derivative:
′
(𝑎𝑏)(𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 )
𝑦 =
(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )2
Equate the first derivative to zero to find the critical points:
(𝑎𝑏)(𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 )
= 0 ⇒ (𝑎𝑏)(𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 ) = 0
(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )2
Divide by 𝑎𝑏, since 𝑎𝑏 > 0:
𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 = 0′ ⇒ 𝑥 = ±𝑎
Make a sign diagram for the first derivative:
(𝑎𝑏)(𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 ) (+𝑣𝑒)(𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 )
→
(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )2 (+𝑣𝑒)
Two terms are positive. The sign depends on the third term:
𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 > 0 ⇒ 𝑥 2 < 𝑎2 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ (−𝑎, 𝑎)
Part D
Find the second derivative, and equate it to zero:
Simplify further:
(2𝑥)(𝑥 2 − 3𝑎2 )
= (𝑎𝑏) [ ]
(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )3
(𝑎𝑏)(2𝑥)(𝑥 2 − 3𝑎2 )
𝑦 ′′ = =0
(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )3
𝑥 ∈ {−√3𝑎, 0, √3𝑎}
From the sign diagram for the second derivative, each of the three points {−√3𝑎, 0, √3𝑎} is a point of
inflection.
Example 2.134
𝑦 = 2𝑒 3𝑥
Find the first derivative and see where it is greater than zero.
𝑦 ′ = 6𝑒 3𝑥 > 0 ⇒ 𝑒 3𝑥 > 0 ⇒ 𝐴𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 ⇒ 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 ℝ
2.135: Intercepts
The intercepts are the places where the function intersects the x and the y axis. To find the
➢ 𝑥 −intercepts, substitute 𝑦 = 0
➢ 𝑦 −intercepts, substitute 𝑥 = 0
➢ We determine where the denominator is zero by setting the denominator equal to zero and solving
the resulting equation.
➢ In an infinite discontinuity, the limit to the left, and the limit to the right at the points where the
denominator equals zero approaches positive infinity, or negative infinity.
➢ In a removable discontinuity, the limit to the left, and the limit to the right at the points where the
denominator equals zero do not approach positive infinity, or negative infinity.
Rational functions are functions where the numerator and denominator are polynomials.
Check the critical points using the either the first derivative test OR the second derivative test.
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2.144: Concavity
If the second derivative is:
Positive, the function is concave up
Negative, the function is concave down
C. Types of Questions
Find:
A. Find and classify stationary points
I. Where the first derivative is zero / where the tangent is horizontal
B. Find and classify points of inflections
I. Where the second derivative is zero
II. And it is not a turning point
C. Find local maximum and minimum / turning points
I. Equate first derivative to zero
II. Use second derivative test OR first derivative test to eliminate stationary points of inflection
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Example 2.146
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 = 𝑒 sin 𝑝𝑥 , 𝑝 ≥ 0
Identify the:
A. Increasing and Decreasing Intervals for 𝑦
B. 𝑥 values at which 𝑦 has a maximum or a minimum.
Case I
Note that if 𝑝 = 0 then:
𝑒 sin 𝑝𝑥 = 𝑒 sin 0𝑥 = 𝑒 0 = 1
Hence,
𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥
𝑁𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑠
𝑁𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
Case II
If 𝑝 ≠ 0, then determine where the derivative is positive:
𝑦 ′ = 𝑝 ∙ cos 𝑝𝑥 ∙ 𝑒 sin 𝑝𝑥 > 0
𝜋 2𝜋𝐾 3𝜋 2𝜋𝐾
𝑥= + 𝑥= +
2𝑝 𝑝 2𝑝 𝑝
𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑀𝑖𝑛
𝜋 3𝜋 2𝜋
(0,)∪( , )
2𝑝 2𝑝 𝑝
2𝜋
But note that cos 𝑝𝑥 is a period function with period 𝑝 .
2𝜋
Hence, we can add any integer multiple of 𝑝
to the above solution, and it remains valid. Hence, the updated
solution is:
2𝜋𝐾 𝜋 2𝜋𝐾 3𝜋 2𝜋𝐾 2𝜋 2𝜋𝐾
(0 + , + )∪( + , + ),𝐾 ∈ ℤ
𝑝 2𝑝 𝑝 2𝑝 𝑝 𝑝 𝑝
Example 2.147
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𝑦 ′ = cos 𝑥 ∙ 𝑒 sin 𝑥
′′ 2 sin 𝑥
𝑦 = cos 𝑥 ∙ 𝑒 − sin 𝑥 ∙ 𝑒 sin 𝑥 = 𝑒 sin 𝑥 (cos2 𝑥 − sin 𝑥)
Example 2.148
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 = 𝑒 sin 𝑥
Identify the:
A. Concavity
B. 𝑥 values at which 𝑦 has a maximum or a minimum.
Example 2.149
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 has an inflection point at (0,3) and a local maximum at (1,5).
Substitute (0,3) in 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑:
3= 0+0+0+𝑑 ⇒ 𝑑 = 3
Substitute (1,5), 𝑑 = 3 in 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑:
5= 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐+3⇒ ⏟ 2= 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼
𝑦 ′ = 3𝑎𝑥 2 + 2𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
At the local maximum, 𝑦′ must be zero. Substitute (1,0) in 𝑦 ′ = 3𝑎𝑥 2 + 2𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐:
0 = 3𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 𝑐
⏟
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝐼
𝑦 ′′ = 6𝑎𝑥 + 2𝑏
At the point of inflection, 𝑦 ′′ must be zero:
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6𝑎(0) + 2𝑏 = 0 ⇒ 𝑏 = 0
Example 2.150
As
𝑥 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠, −𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠
1
𝑥 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠, − 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝑥
1
Hence, we want a function which when differentiated is −
𝑥
− ln|𝑥|
Example 2.152
Use intermediate value theorem to show that the function 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 10 has
A. at least one root between −6 and −4
B. at least one root between −3 and −1
Part B
𝑓(−3) = −2
𝑓(−1) = 4
Example 2.153
Basic Example
Conditions to be met by 𝑓:
➢ 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏) = 0
➢ 𝑓 is continuous over the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏]
➢ 𝑓 is differentiable at every point of its interior (𝑎, 𝑏)
Example 2.155
Interpret Rolle’s Theorem graphically for the diagram for 𝑓(𝑥)
drawn alongside.
Hence, there is at least one point in the interval (−6, −2) where:
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0
𝑓′(𝑐) is the derivative. The derivative gives the slope of the function at a point. When the derivative is zero,
the slope is zero, and the tangent line to the function at that point is horizontal.
Suppose there is a function 𝑓 such that it meets the other conditions of Rolle’s Theorem, but
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑘, 𝑘∈ℝ
Then, define
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑘
Then, then the new function 𝑔(𝑥) meets all the conditions of Rolle’s Theorem.
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Example 2.157
Does a linear function meet the conditions for Rolle’s Theorem.
A linear function will have the same value for two inputs only when it is a constant function.
In all other cases, there is no value for which
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑘
Hence, a general linear function does not meet the conditions for Rolle’s Theorem.
Example 2.158
Identify the violation of the conditions in Rolle’s Theorem over the given intervals.
A. Over the interval [−7, −3]
B. Over the interval [−1,3]
C. Over the interval [4,7]
Example 2.159
1
Determine the violation of conditions in Rolle’s Theorem in the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 over the intervals −1 to 2.
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Example 2.160
1 𝜋 𝜋
Determine the violation of conditions in Rolle’s Theorem in the function 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| over the intervals − 𝑒 to 𝑒 .
Example 2.161
Determine the violation of conditions in Rolle’s Theorem in the following functions over the given intervals
𝜋 𝜋
A. tan 𝑥 over the interval − 2 to 2
𝜋 𝜋
B. tan 𝑥 over the interval − 4 to 4
Part A
𝜋 𝜋
tan 𝑥 is not defined at 2 and− 2
tan 𝑥 is not continuous at
𝜋 𝜋
𝑎𝑛𝑑 −
2 2
Hence, the functions fails to be continuous over the closed interval
𝜋 𝜋
[− 2 , 2 ] and hence conditions of Rolle’s Theorem are not met.
Part B
𝜋 𝜋
𝑡𝑎𝑛 (− ) = −1 ≠ 1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( )
4 4
Hence,
𝑓(𝑎) ≠ 𝑓(𝑏)
Example 2.162
Determine the violation of conditions in Rolle’s Theorem in the following functions over the given intervals
A. sec 𝑥
1
B.
𝑥
Example 2.163
Verify Rolle’s Theorem for 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑚 (𝑥 − 𝑏)𝑛 , 𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ ℕ on the interval [𝑎, 𝑏]
Find a Value of 𝒄
Equate 𝑓′(𝑐) to zero to find the value of 𝑐:
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = (𝑐 − 𝑎)𝑚−1 (𝑐 − 𝑏)𝑛−1 [𝑚(𝑐 − 𝑏) + 𝑛(𝑐 − 𝑎)] = 0
Use the zero-product property:
(𝑐 − 𝑎)𝑚−1 = 0 ⇒ 𝑐 − 𝑎 = 0 ⇒ 𝑐 = 𝑎 (𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡)
(𝑐 − 𝑏)𝑛−1 = 0 ⇒ 𝑐 − 𝑏 = 0 ⇒ 𝑐 = 𝑏 (𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡)
𝑚𝑏 + 𝑛𝑎
𝑚(𝑐 − 𝑏) + 𝑛(𝑐 − 𝑎) = 0 ⇒ 𝑐(𝑚 + 𝑛) = 𝑚𝑏 + 𝑛𝑎 ⇒ 𝑐 =
𝑚+𝑛
Show that 𝒄 ∈ (𝒂, 𝒃)
The first two solutions give us the endpoints. Ignore them, and show that the third solution lies in the
required interval.
We need:
𝑚𝑏 + 𝑛𝑎
> 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑚𝑏 + 𝑛𝑎 > 𝑎𝑚 + 𝑎𝑛 ⇒ 𝑚𝑏 > 𝑚𝑎 ⇒ 𝑏 > 𝑎
𝑚+𝑛
𝑚𝑏 + 𝑛𝑎
< 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑚𝑏 + 𝑛𝑎 < 𝑏𝑚 + 𝑏𝑛 ⇒ 𝑛𝑎 < 𝑛𝑏 ⇒ 𝑎 < 𝑏
𝑚+𝑛
Since 𝑏 > 𝑎, the conditions are always met. Hence:
𝑚𝑏 + 𝑛𝑎 𝑚𝑏 + 𝑛𝑎
𝑎< <𝑏⇒ ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]
𝑚+𝑛 𝑚+𝑛
Example 2.164
𝑥 2 +𝑎𝑏
Verify Rolle’s Theorem for the function 𝑓(𝑥) = ln [(𝑎+𝑏)𝑥] in the interval [𝑎, 𝑏] where 0 ∉ [𝑎, 𝑏]. (ISC 1999,
2012)
Find a Value of 𝒄
Find the value of 𝑐 by equating the derivative to zero:
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𝑐 2 − 𝑎𝑏
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = =0
𝑐(𝑐 2 + 𝑎𝑏)
𝑐 2 − 𝑎𝑏 = 0
𝑐 2 = 𝑎𝑏
𝑐 = ±√𝑎𝑏
[𝑎, +
Since 𝑏] ∈ ℝ , we choose the positive square root.
𝑐 = √𝑎𝑏
Example 2.165
𝜋 5𝜋
Verify Rolle’s Theorem for the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 2𝑥 (sin 2𝑥 − cos 2𝑥) defined in the interval [ 8 ,8
]. (ISC 2006)
𝜋 5𝜋
𝑓(𝑥) is continuous and differentiable over [ 8 , 8
].
Hence, the conditions for Rolle’s Theorem hold.
Example 2.166
4
It is given that Rolle’s Theorem holds good for the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ [1,2] at the point 𝑥 = .
3
Find the values of 𝑎 and 𝑏.
𝑓′(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
4 2 4 16 8
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 3𝑐 2 + 2𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏 = 3 ( ) + 2𝑎 ( ) + 𝑏 = + 𝑎+𝑏
3 3 3 3
Substitute 𝑏 = −7 − 3𝑎:
16 8 −5 1 −5 − 𝑎
+ 𝑎 − 7 − 3𝑎 = − 𝑎= = 0 ⇒ −5 − 𝑎 = 0 ⇒ 𝑎 = −5
3 3 3 3 3
Substitute 𝑎 = −5 to find the value of 𝑏:
𝑏 = −7 − 3𝑎 = −7 − 3(−5) = −7 + 15 = 8
Conditions:
➢ 𝑓 is continuous over the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏]
➢ 𝑓 is differentiable at every point of the open interval (𝑎, 𝑏)
Notes:
➢ The Mean Value Theorem is a generalization of Rolle’s Theorem.
Example 2.168
𝑥3
Verify the Mean Value Theorem for 𝑦 = − 𝑥 + 1 over the interval (0,2).
2
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3 2
𝑥 −1=1
2
3𝑥 2 = 4
4 2 2√3
𝑥 = ±√ = ± =± ≈ ±1.15
3 √3 3
Reject the negative value. The positive value lies in the interval
(0,2)
Hence, at 𝑥 ≈ 1.15, the slope of the function is equal to the slope at the endpoints of the interval
(0,2)
Example 2.169
A. Show that Rolle’s Theorem is a special case of the Mean Value Theorem.
B. Given that Rolle’s Theorem is a special case of the Mean Value Theorem, why did we mention it
separately? Why not prove Rolle’s Theorem using the Mean Value Theorem?
Part A
Substitute 𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑓(𝑎) = 0 in the statement of the Mean Value Theorem, and we get Rolle’s Theorem.
Part B
The proof of the Mean Value Theorem is established using Rolle’s Theorem. Hence, you cannot prove Roller’s
Theorem using Mean Value Theorem unless you prove Mean Value Theorem without using Rolle’s Theorem
(or its equivalent).
Example 2.170
Verify Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem for the function 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 2 − 𝑥 in the interval [1,4]. (ISC 2013)
2𝑐 − 1 2 4𝑐 2 − 4𝑐 − 3 = 0
=
2√𝑐 2 − 𝑐 √3 Factor:
Cross-multiply: (2𝑐 + 1)(2𝑐 − 3) = 0
√3(2𝑐 − 1) = 4√𝑐 2 − 𝑐 Use the zero-product property:
Square both sides: 1 3
𝑐 = − ,𝑐 =
3(4𝑐 2 − 4𝑐 + 1) = 16(𝑐 2 − 𝑐) 2 2
Show that 𝒄 ∈ (𝒂, 𝒃)
Expand:
3
12𝑐 2 − 12𝑐 + 3 = 16𝑐 2 − 16𝑐 = 1.5 ∈ [1,4]
2
Collate all terms one side:
Example 2.171
Verify Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem for the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥(1 − ln 𝑥) and find the value of c in the
interval [1,2]. (ISC 2015)
Example 2.172
Verify Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem for the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 sin 𝑥 + sin 2𝑥 on [0, 𝜋]. (ISC 2015)
But
𝜋 ∉ (0, 𝜋) ⇒ 𝑅𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝜋
𝑐= ∈ (0, 𝜋)
3
C. Kinematics
Example 2.173
By the mean value theorem, at some point in the time interval (0,5), the derivative of the distance (= 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑)
must equal the average rate of change over the time interval:
𝑑(5) − 𝑑(0) 250
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑑′ (𝑡) = = = 50
5−0 5
Conditions:
➢ 𝑓 and 𝑔 are continuous over the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏]
➢ 𝑓 and g are differentiable at every point of the open interval (𝑎, 𝑏)
Notes:
➢ The Extended Mean Value Theorem is a generalization of the Mean Value Theorem.
Why It Works
Applying the mean theorem to 𝑓 and 𝑔:
𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎) 𝑔(𝑏) − 𝑔(𝑎)
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = , 𝑔′ (𝑐) =
⏟ 𝑏−𝑎 ⏟ 𝑏−𝑎
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰
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Example 2.175
2.11 Optimization
A. Functions
B. Numbers
𝑑𝑦
The solutions to = 0 are the numbers to check for, to obtain the turning points.
𝑑𝑥
Example 2.177
A. The product of two positive integers is 100. Find the minimum value of the sum of these numbers
without using Calculus.
B. The product of two positive real numbers is 100. Find the minimum value of the sum of these
numbers by using Calculus.
Part A
We find the factor pairs of 100:
(1,100)(2,50)(4,25)(5,20)(10,10)
The corresponding sums are:
100, 52, 29, 25, 20
⏟
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
Part B
Let the numbers be 𝑎 and 𝑏.
100
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 = 𝑎𝑏 = 100 ⇒ 𝑏 =
𝑎
We wish to minimize the sum:
100
𝑎+𝑏 =𝑎+
𝑎
If there is a minimum inside the domain, the derivative at the point must be zero. Let
100
𝑦=𝑎+
𝑎
Find the derivative:
𝑑𝑦 100
=1− 2
𝑑𝑎 𝑎
Equate the derivative to zero:
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100 100
1− 2
= 0 ⇒ 1 = 2 ⇒ 𝑎2 = 100 ⇒ 𝑎 = ±10
𝑎 𝑎
Reject the negative value since 𝑎 is a positive number:
𝑎 = 10
We know from Part A that 𝑎 < 10 and 𝑎 > 10 increase 𝑎 + 𝑏. But how do we know this in general.
To solve, we introduce the second derivative test.
At the maximum, the first derivative changes from positive to negative. Hence,
at the maximum, the slope of the first derivative must be negative. Hence, the
second derivative must be negative at a maximum.
Example 2.179
Continue the example from above. Use the second derivative test to determine whether 𝑎 = 10 is a maximum
or a minimum.
𝑑𝑦 100
=1− 2
𝑑𝑎 𝑎
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 100 𝑑𝑦 200
2
= (− 2 ) = (−100𝑎−2 ) = (−2)(−100)𝑎−3 = 3
𝑑𝑎 𝑑𝑎 𝑎 𝑑𝑎 𝑎
𝑑2 𝑦 200
2
| = 3 > 0 ⇒ 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
𝑑𝑎 𝑎=10 𝑎 𝑎=10
C. 2D Geometry
Example 2.180
A farmer fences a rectangle using 100 𝑚 of fence. Find the dimensions that maximize the area.
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑃 = 100
2(𝑙 + 𝑤) = 100
𝑙 + 𝑤 = 50
𝑤 = 50 − 𝑙
Differentiate:
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𝑑
𝐴 = 50 − 2𝑙 = 0 ⇒ 𝑙 = 25
𝑑𝑙
𝑤 = 50 − 𝑙 = 50 − 25 = 25
𝐴 = 𝑙𝑤 = 252 = 625 𝑚2
𝑑2
𝐴 = −2 < 0 ⇒ 𝑀𝑎𝑥
𝑑𝑙 2
Example 2.181
Find the dimensions of a rectangle with a constant perimeter 𝑝 that maximize its area. Find that area.
Example 2.182
A farmer fences three sides of a rectangle using 400 yards of fence. (The fourth side is along a stone wall).
A. Find the dimensions of the rectangle of largest area that can be fenced.
B. The rectangle from Part A has a semicircle of maximum area planted with green grass, and the rest
with purple monkshood. Find the fraction of the farm planted with purple.
Part A
Example 2.183
A. Find the radius of the semicircle that maximizes the area of a Norman window with perimeter 𝑃.
Note: A Norman window consists of a semi-circle sitting atop a rectangle.
B. A window is in the form of a rectangle surmounted by a semicircular opening. The total perimeter of
the window is 10 m. Find the dimensions of the window to admit maximum light through the whole
opening. (CBSE 2011,2014,2017,2018)
Part A
Find a function for the area Find the critical points, and their nature
Find the first derivative and equate it to zero to
find the critical points:
𝑑𝐴 𝑃
= 𝑃 − 𝑟(4 + 𝜋) = 0 ⇒ 𝑟 =
𝑑𝑟 4+𝜋
Find the second derivative and since it is negative,
the critical point is a maximum:
𝑑2 𝐴
= −(4 + 𝜋)
𝑑𝑥 2
Part B
From the diagram, the area of the window is: The radius is:
𝜋𝑟 2 𝑃 10
𝐴= + 𝑙𝑏
⏟ 𝑟= =
⏟
2 4+𝜋 4+𝜋
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
𝑆𝑒𝑚𝑖−𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 The length is twice of the radius:
20
Express the function in a single variable 𝑙 = 2𝑟 =
4+𝜋
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑙 = 2𝑟 10
To find the breadth, substitute 𝑟 = 4+𝜋 into 𝑏 =
To find the breadth in terms of 𝑟, use the
1
constraint on the perimeter: [𝑃− 𝑟(𝜋 + 2)]
2
𝑃 − 2𝑟 − 𝜋𝑟 1 10
2𝑏 + 2𝑟 + 𝜋𝑟 = 𝑃 ⇒ 𝑏 = = [10 − ( ) (𝜋 + 2)]
2 2 4+𝜋
The area of the window (in terms of 𝑟) is: Factor 10 out of the terms inside the bracket:
𝜋𝑟 2 𝑃 − 2𝑟 − 𝜋𝑟 𝜋+2
𝐴= + (2𝑟) ( ) = 5 [1 − ]
2 2 4+𝜋
𝜋𝑟 2 Add the fractions and simplify:
= 𝑃𝑟 − 2𝑟 2 − 4+𝜋−𝜋−2 2 10
2
𝜋 = 5[ ] = 5[ ]=
2
= 𝑃𝑟 − 𝑟 (2 + ) 4+𝜋 4+𝜋 4+𝜋
2
Example 2.184
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𝜋
The constraints on the domain of the function 𝐴 = 𝑃𝑟 − 𝑟 2 (2 + 2 ) are
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 > 0 ⇒ 𝑟 > 0
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ > 0 ⇒ 𝑙 > 0 ⇒ 2𝑟 > 0 ⇒ 𝑟 > 0
𝑃 − 2𝑟 − 𝜋𝑟
𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑡ℎ > 0 ⇒ 𝑏 > 0 ⇒ > 0 ⇒ 𝑃 − 2𝑟 − 𝜋𝑟 > 0
2
𝑃 > 2𝑟 + 𝜋𝑟
2𝑟 + 𝜋𝑟 < 𝑃
𝑟(2 + 𝜋) < 𝑃
𝑃
𝑟<
2+𝜋
𝑃
𝑟 ∈ (0, )
2+𝜋
Example 2.185
A wire of length 2 units is cut into two parts which are bent respectively to form a square of side = 𝑥 units
and a circle of 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 = 𝑟 units. If the sum of the areas of the square and the circle so formed is minimum,
then, find the relation between 𝑥 and 𝑟: (JEE Main 2016-Adapted, CBSE 2010-Adapted)
Write an expression for the length of the wire, and solve for 𝑥:
1 − 𝜋𝑟
4𝑥 + 2𝜋𝑟 = 2 ⇒ 2𝑥 + 𝜋𝑟 = 1 ⇒ 𝑥 =
⏟ 2
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰
We wish to minimize the sum of the area of the square and the circle
𝐴(𝑥) = 𝑥 ⏟2 + 𝜋𝑟⏟2
𝑺𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝑪𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒍𝒆
1−𝜋𝑟
Substitute 𝑥 = from Equation I:
2
1 − 𝜋𝑟 2 1 − 2𝜋𝑟 + 𝑟 2 (𝜋 2 + 4𝜋)
=( ) + 𝜋𝑟 2 =
2 4
We can ignore 4 since it is a constant. Find the derivative of the numerator and equate to zero:
1
𝐴′ (𝑥) = −2𝜋 + 2𝑟(𝜋 2 + 4𝜋) = 0 ⇒ 𝑟(𝜋 2 + 4𝜋) = 𝜋 ⇒ 𝑟 =
𝜋+4
Find the second derivative:
𝐴′′ (𝑥) = 2(𝜋 2 + 4𝜋) > 0 ⇒ 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
At the minimum value:
1 𝜋+4−𝜋
1 − 𝜋𝑟 1 − 𝜋 (𝜋 + 4) 4 1 2
𝑥= = = 𝜋+4 = × =
2 2 2 𝜋+4 2 𝜋+4
And, hence
𝑥 = 2𝑟
Example 2.186
4𝑥 + 2𝜋𝑟 = 2
Assume that it is acceptable to form only a circle, or only a square. In that case:
𝑥 ≥ 0, 𝑟≥0
1 − 𝜋𝑟 1 − 𝜋(0) 1
𝑥 𝑖𝑠 max 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ⇒ 𝑥 = = =
2 2 2
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1 − 2𝑥 1 − 0 1
𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 ⇒ 𝑟 = = =
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
1 − 𝜋𝑟
𝑥= ⇒ 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
𝑥 ∈ [0,2]
𝐴(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 𝜋𝑟 2
Example 2.187
Find the dimensions of a rectangle with two semicircles on either side
that maximize the area if the perimeter is 400.
𝑤 400 − 2𝑙
𝑃 = 2𝑙 + 2𝜋 ( ) = 2𝑙 + 𝜋𝑤 = 400 ⇒ 𝑤 =
2 𝜋
The area of the rectangle is:
400 − 2𝑙 400𝑙 − 2𝑙 2
𝐴(𝑙) = 𝑙𝑤 = 𝑙 ( )=
𝜋 𝜋
Find the first derivative of the area function and equate it to zero:
400 − 4𝑙
𝐴′ = = 0 ⇒ 400 − 4𝑙 = 0 ⇒ 𝑙 = 100
𝜋
To check whether it is a maximum or a minimum, find the second derivative:
4𝑙
𝐴′′ = − < 0
𝜋
Since the second derivative is negative, the value that we have found is a maximum.
𝜃 𝜃 1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟 2 × = 𝜋𝑟 2 × = 𝑟2𝜃
360 2𝜋 2
𝜃 𝜃
𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 2𝜋𝑟 × = 2𝜋𝑟 × = 𝑟𝜃
360 2𝜋
Example 2.189
Twenty metres of wire is available for fencing off a flowerbed in the form of a circular sector. Then the
maximum area (in sq. m) of the flower-bed, is: (JEE Main 2017, Type ISC 2009, Type NDA 2005)3
3
This question is also found in the classic 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑛𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒, I. A. Maron
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Example 2.190
If the sum of the lengths of the hypotenuse and a side of a right-angled triangle is given, find the angle
between them that maximizes the area. (CBSE-Adapted 2014,2017)
= √𝑘 2 − 2𝑘𝑥
𝑑2 𝐴 1 𝑘
Use the formula for the area of a triangle: 2(0) + 2𝐴 ( 2 ) = (2𝑘 2 − 12𝑘 ( ))
2
1 𝑑𝑥 4 3
𝐴 = 𝑥 √𝑘 2 − 2𝑘𝑥 𝑑2 𝐴 1
2
In order to not work with square roots, we square 2𝐴 ( 2 ) = (2𝑘 2 − 4𝑘 2 )
𝑑𝑥 4
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𝑑2 𝐴 −𝑘 2
= < 0 ⇒ 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
𝑑𝑥 2 4𝐴
D. 3D Geometry
Example 2.191
Minimize surface area of a cylinder given that volume of the cylinder
= 54𝜋 𝑐𝑚3
𝑉 = 54𝜋
𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ = 54𝜋
𝑟 2 ℎ = 54
54
ℎ= 2
𝑟
𝑆𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟 2 + 2𝜋𝑟ℎ
54 108𝜋
𝑆𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟 2 + 2𝜋𝑟 ∙ 2 = 2𝜋𝑟 2 + = 2𝜋𝑟 2 + 108𝜋𝑟 −1
𝑟 𝑟
𝑑
𝑆𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 + (108)(−1)𝜋𝑟 −2
𝑑𝑟
Equate the first derivative to zero:
(108)(−1)𝜋
4𝜋𝑟 + =0
𝑟2
Multiply both sides by 𝑟 2 to eliminate fractions:
4𝜋𝑟 3 − 108𝜋 = 0
4𝜋𝑟 3 = 108𝜋
𝑟 3 = 27
𝑟=3
54 54 54
ℎ= = = =9
𝑟 2 32 6
Example 2.192
Show that the surface area of a closed cuboid with square base and given volume is minimum, when it is a
cube. (CBSE 2017)
𝑑𝑆 2𝑉
= 2𝑥 − 2 = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
2𝑉
2𝑥 = 2
𝑥
𝑥3 = 𝑉
Substitute the above critical point in 𝑉 = 𝑥 2 𝑦 to find the value of 𝑦
𝑥3 = 𝑥2𝑦 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑦
In other words, the height is the same as the side length of the base, which means the shape is a cube.
Use the second derivative test
𝑑2 𝑆 4𝑉 4𝑉
2
=2+ 3 =2+ = 2 + 4 = 6 > 0 ⇒ 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 =𝑉
3 𝑥 𝑉
Example 2.193
A square sheet of metal of side length 𝑠 has smaller squares of side length 𝑥 cut at each of its corners, and the
resulting “flaps” folded to form an open-top box with maximum volume. Find the value of 𝑥 in terms of 𝑠. (ISC
1999, Adapted)
Example 2.194
A. Find the height, radius, and volume of the right circular cone with maximum volume among those
with slant height 𝑙 units.
B. The maximum volume (in cubic meters) of the right circular cone having slant height 3 m is (JEE Main
2019, 9 Jan)
Part A 𝜋 2 𝜋
(√𝑙 2 − ℎ2 ) ℎ = (𝑙 2 ℎ − ℎ3 )
Find a function for the volume in terms of the 3 3
height:
Maximize the function
1 𝜋
Substitute 𝑟 = √𝑙 2 − ℎ2 in 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ: Ignore since it is a constant. Find the first
3 3
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Example 2.195
Show that the altitude of right circular cone of maximum volume that can be inscribed in a sphere of radius 𝑟
4𝑟
is 3
. Also, find the maximum volume in terms of volume of the sphere. (CBSE 2010, 2014,2016,2019)
E. Coordinate Geometry
Example 2.196
Find the point on the curve 𝑦 2 = 4𝑥 which is nearest to the point (2, −8).
Let 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) be a general point on the curve 𝑦 2 = 4𝑥. Using the distance formula:
𝐷 = √(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 + 8)2
𝑦2
Substitute 𝑦 2 = 4𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 = 4
:
2
𝑦2 𝑦4
𝐷 = √( − 2) + (𝑦 + 8)2 = √ + 16𝑦 + 68
4 16
𝑑𝑧 4𝑦 3 𝑦3
= + 16 = + 16 = 0 ⇒ 𝑦 3 = −64 ⇒ 𝑦 = −4
𝑑𝑦 16 4
(−4)2 16
𝑥= = =4
4 4
𝑑2 𝑧 3𝑦 2 3(−2)2
| = | = > 0 ⇒ 𝑀𝑖𝑛
𝑑𝑦 2 𝑦=−4 4 𝑦=−4 4
The point is
(4, −4)
Example 2.197
Find the point on the curve 𝑥 + 𝑦 2 = 0 that is closest to the point (0, −3).
Let 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) be a point on the curve. Using the distance formula, the distance between P and (0, −3) is:
𝑑 = √(𝑥 − 0)2 + (𝑦 + 3)2
2 2
Substitute 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −𝑦
𝐷 = √(−𝑦)2 + (𝑦 + 3)2 = √2𝑦 2 + 6𝑦 + 9
Example 2.198
1
Which point on the parabolic arc 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3 is closest to (0, 2)?
2
Let 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) be a point on the curve. Using the distance formula, the distance between 𝑃 and (0,2) is:
𝐷 = √(𝑥 − 0)2 + (𝑦 − 2)2
⏟
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼
Since the above has two variables, (and we are not doing multi-variable calculus!!), reduce the above
function to a single variable. Use the substitution
1
𝑦 = 𝑥 2 ⇒ 2𝑦 = 𝑥 2 ⇒ 𝑥 = √2𝑦
2
in Equation I to get:
2
𝐷 = √(√2𝑦) + (𝑦 − 2)2 = √2𝑦 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 + 4 = √𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 + 4
Instead of minimizing 𝐷 (which has a nasty square root), we minimize 𝐷 2 , which does not have a square root:
𝐷 2 = 𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 + 4
Let 𝑧 = 𝐷 2 . Then, find the first derivative and equate it to zero:
𝑑𝑧 𝑑 2 2
= (𝑦 − 2𝑦 + 4) = 2𝑦 − 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑦 = = 1
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2
Find the second derivative:
𝑑2 𝑧 𝑑
2
= (2𝑦 − 2) = 2 > 0 ⇒ 𝑦 = 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Example 2.199
Find the maximum and the minimum of
𝜋 𝑃
𝑓(𝑟) = 𝑃𝑟 − 𝑟 2 (2 + ) , 𝑟 ∈ (0, )
2 2+𝜋
𝑃
𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑡 𝑟 =
4+𝜋
𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑀𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑟 = 0
𝑃
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑀𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑟 =
2+𝜋
G. Trigonometry
Example 2.200
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Example 2.201
Determine the semi-vertical angle (𝜃) of a cone with given slant height and maximum volume in terms of
cos−1 𝜃. (CBSE 2016, Adapted)
Hint: The angle at the vertex of a cone is the vertical angle. Half the angle at the vertex of a cone is the semi-
vertical angle.
Draw a diagram of a cross section of the cone. Let the semi-vertical angle be 𝜃, height be ℎ, the radius be 𝑟,
and the slant height be 𝑙.
tan2 𝜃 = 2
𝜋
Since 0 < 𝜃 < 2
, take the positive square root:
tan 𝜃 = √2
Second Derivative
𝑑2 𝑣
= −3 sin2 𝜃 cos 𝜃 + 2 cos 𝜃 cos 2 𝜃 + 2 sin 𝜃 (2 cos 𝜃 (− sin 𝜃))
𝑑𝜃 2
= −3 sin2 𝜃 cos 𝜃 + 2 cos 3 𝜃 − 4 sin2 𝜃 cos 𝜃
= 2 cos3 𝜃 − 7 sin2 𝜃 cos 𝜃
When the first derivative is zero, we must have sin2 𝜃 = 2 cos2 𝜃, which we substitute in the above
= 2 cos3 𝜃 − 7(2 cos 2 𝜃) cos 𝜃
= 2 cos 3 𝜃 − 14 cos3 𝜃
= −12 cos 3 𝜃
Example 2.202
Snell’s Law
Strength of a beam
Stiffness of a beam
I. Life Sciences
Example 2.203
Branching angle for a blood vessel
Solve for 𝐿:
𝑝 𝑝2
=𝑤⇒𝐿=
2√𝐿 4𝑤 2
Example 2.205
EOQ
Production Quantity
Profit Maximization
K. Chemistry
L. Statistics
Example 2.206
𝑦 = √𝑥(1 − 𝑥)
If you maximize 𝑦 2 = 𝑥(1 − 𝑥), the 𝑥-value remains the same, but the y
value changes.
Example 2.207
The standard deviation of a binomial distribution with 𝑛 trials and probability of success 𝑝 is given by
𝜎 = √𝑛𝑝(1 − 𝑝)
A. Determine the maximum value of the standard deviation 𝜎 of a binomial distribution with 𝑛 trials.
B. If 𝑛 and 𝑝 can both vary, determine the maximum value of the standard deviation.
Part A
As the question says, the binomial distribution has 𝑛 trials. Hence, consider 𝑛 as a constant, and 𝑝 as an input
to the function 𝑓.
𝑓(𝑝) = √𝑛𝑝(1 − 𝑝)
The domain of the function is:
0≤𝑝≤1
Instead of maximizing 𝑓(𝑝), and having to deal with a square root, we maximize [𝑓(𝑝)]2 .
𝑦 = [𝑓(𝑝)]2 = 𝑛𝑝(1 − 𝑝) = 𝑛(𝑝 − 𝑝2 )
1
𝑦 ′ = 𝑛(1 − 2𝑝) = 0 ⇒ 𝑝 =
2
𝑦 ′′ = 𝑛(−2) < 0 ⇒ 𝑀𝑎𝑥
The maximum value of the standard deviation is:
1 1 1 1 1 1
𝜎 ( ) = √𝑛 ( ) (1 − ) = √𝑛 ( ) ( ) = √𝑛
2 2 2 2 2 2
Part B
𝑓(𝑛, 𝑝) = √𝑛𝑝(1 − 𝑝)
1
lim 𝜎 = lim √𝑛 = ∞ ⇒ 𝜎 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 2
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M. Further Resources
Example 2.208
This video contains some easy problems to start with.
2.12 Kinematics
A. Uniform Acceleration
Example 2.209
𝑚
On an airless planet with gravitational constant 𝑔 = 19 𝑠2 , a space traveler drops a rock from a height of 20m.
Calculate the time for the rock to hit the surface of the planet.
𝑚
𝑎 = 𝑔 = 19
𝑠2
𝑣 = ∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 19 𝑑𝑡 = 19𝑡
19𝑡 2
𝑠 = ∫ 19𝑡 =
2
19𝑡 2 40 40 10
20 = ⇒ 𝑡2 = = 𝑡 = √ = 4√
2 19 19 19
2.13 Economics
A. Elasticity
2.210: Elasticity
𝑑𝑄 𝑃
𝐸= ∙
𝑑𝑃 𝑄
Example 2.211
𝑃 = 400 − 𝑄 2 , 𝑄 = 12
𝑄 = √400 − 𝑃
𝑑𝑄 −1 −1 −1 −1
= = = =
𝑑𝑃 2√400 − 𝑃 2√400 − (400 − 𝑄 ) 2√𝑄
2 2 2𝑄
𝑑𝑄 𝑃 −1 400 − 𝑄 2 𝑄 2 − 400
𝐸= ∙ = ∙ =
𝑑𝑃 𝑄 2𝑄 𝑄 2𝑄 2
Substitute 𝑄 = 12:
144 − 400 256 8
= =− =
2 ∙ 144 288 9
Example 2.212
𝑃 = 100𝑒 −𝑄
ln 𝑃 = ln 100 + ln 𝑒 −𝑄
Use the power rule:
ln 𝑃 = ln(100) − 𝑄
𝑄 = ln(100) − ln 𝑃
𝑑𝑄 1
=−
𝑑𝑃 𝑃
𝑑𝑄 𝑃 1 𝑃 1
𝐸=∙ =− ∙ =−
𝑑𝑃 𝑄 𝑃 𝑄 𝑄
1 1
𝑄 = 14 ⇒ 𝐸 = − ⇒ |𝐸| = > 1 ⇒ 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐
14 14
B. Optimization
Example 2.213
1
Quantity sold is given by 𝑄 = 12 − 6 𝑃. Find the elasticity at the maximum revenue.
𝑃 = 72 − 6𝑄
𝑇𝑅 = (72 − 6𝑄)(𝑄) = 72𝑄 − 6𝑄 2
𝑑
𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝐷𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 = 𝑀𝑅 = (𝑇𝑅) = 72 − 12𝑄 = 0 ⇒ 𝑄 = 6
𝑑𝑃
𝑑 𝑑
𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝐷𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 = 𝑀𝑅 = (72 − 12𝑄) = −12 < 0 ⇒ 𝑀𝑎𝑥
𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑃
𝑑𝑄 1
=−
𝑑𝑃 6
𝑑𝑄 𝑃 1 72 − 6𝑄 𝑄 − 12
𝐸= ∙ =− ∙ =
𝑑𝑃 𝑄 6 𝑄 𝑄
Example 2.214
𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 = 𝑃 = 90 − 2𝑄 − 0.1𝑄 2
𝐶 = 100 + 2𝑄 + 8𝑄 2 − 0.1𝑄 3
𝑇𝑅 = 90𝑄 − 2𝑄 2 − 0.1𝑄 3
Profit = π = TR − C = −100 + 88Q − 10Q2
88
π′ = 88 − 20Q = 0 ⇒ Q = = 4.4
20
𝜋 ′′ = −20 < 0 ⇒ 𝑀𝑎𝑥
Example 2.215
𝑃 = 200 − 5𝑄, 𝐶 = 80𝑄 + 𝑄 2
𝑇𝑅 = 200𝑄 − 5𝑄 2
𝜋 = 𝑇𝑅 − 𝐶 = 120𝑄 − 6𝑄 2
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𝜋 ′ = 120 − 12𝑄 = 0
Profit is maximum when:
120
𝑄= = 10
10
216 Examples