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Differentiation
March 28, 2024
Revision: 3228

AZIZ MANVA
[email protected]

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.1 Slope, Tangents and Normals 62
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................ 2 2.2 Linearization and Differentials 69
1. FINDING DERIVATIVES ........................ 3 2.3 Related Rates of Change 70
2.4 𝒚′: Monotonicity 81
1.1 Derivative Definition 3 2.5 𝒚′: Turning Points 86
1.2 Differentiation 7 2.6 𝒚′′: Concavity and 𝒚′′ test 93
1.3 Rates of Change 17 2.7 Curve Sketching Questions 106
1.4 Trigonometric Derivatives 21 2.8 Intermediate Value Theorem 111
1.5 Chain Rule 26 2.9 Rolle’s Theorem 113
1.6 Implicit Differentiation 36 2.10 Mean Value Theorem 118
1.7 Inverse and Logarithmic Derivatives 44 2.11 Optimization 122
1.8 Inverse Trigonometric Derivatives 54 2.12 Kinematics 137
1.9 Graphical Transformations 59 2.13 Economics 137
2. USING DERIVATIVES ......................... 62
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1. FINDING DERIVATIVES
1.1 Derivative Definition
A. Average Rate of Change

1.1: Secant
The secant is a line that connects two points that lie on 𝒇(𝒙).

Example 1.2
The red graph alongside is the graph of
𝑦 = 𝑥2
The secant line is the blue line connecting the two points on the graph.
A. Identify the points where the line intersects the parabola.
B. Identify the equation of the line.
C. What is the slope of the line?

Part A
(0,0) & (1,1)
Part B
𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑒
Substitute 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑚 = 𝑅𝑢𝑛
= 1 and𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 = 𝑐 = 0 in 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐:
𝑦 =𝑥+0⇒𝑦 =𝑥
Part C
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑚 = 1

1.3: Average Rate of Change

The average rate of change of a function between two points 𝒙𝟏 and 𝒙𝟐 is given by the slope of the secant line
that connects the points (𝒙𝟏 , 𝒇(𝒙𝟏 )) and (𝒙𝟐 , 𝒇(𝒙𝟐 ))
𝚫𝒚 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 𝒇(𝒙𝟐 ) − 𝒇(𝒙𝟏 )
𝑺𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 = = =
𝚫𝒙 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏

We learnt the concept of slope in coordinate geometry, at which point of time, you may or may not have seen
functions.
However, the average rate of change can be defined in terms of functions.

Note that for a point (𝑥, 𝑦) that lies on the graph of the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥):
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
Hence,
𝑦1 = 𝑓(𝑥1 ), 𝑦2 = 𝑓(𝑥2 )
Substitute the above in the definition of slope to get what we want to show:
𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑓(𝑥2 ) − 𝑓(𝑥1 )
=
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑥2 − 𝑥1

Example 1.4
Find the average rate of change of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 over the interval
𝑦 −𝑦
A. (1,2). Use the formula 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑥2 −𝑥1
2 1
𝑓(𝑥2 )−𝑓(𝑥1 )
B. (2,3). Use the formula 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑥2 −𝑥1
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Part A
𝑦 −𝑦
Substitute (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) = (1,2) ⇒ (𝑦1 , 𝑦2 ) = (1,4) in 𝑥2 −𝑥1 :
2 1
Part B
𝑓(𝑥2 )−𝑓(𝑥1 )
Substitute (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) = (2,3) ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 4, 𝑓(𝑥2 ) = 9 in 𝑥2 −𝑥1
:

1.5: Average Rate of Change: Alternate Definition

𝒇(𝒙 + 𝒉) − 𝒇(𝒙)
𝑨𝒗𝒈. 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 =
𝒉
where 𝒉 represents the difference between 𝒙𝟏 and 𝒙𝟐 .

The average rate of change has an alternate definition, which is very useful later on, since we will define the
derivative in terms of the alternate definition.

To get the alternate definition:

Substitute 𝑥2 = 𝑥1 + ℎ in:
𝑓(𝑥2 ) − 𝑓(𝑥1 ) 𝑓(𝑥1 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥1 ) 𝑓(𝑥1 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥1 )
= =
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 (𝑥1 + ℎ) − 𝑥1 ℎ
Since there is only one 𝑥 variable, 𝑥1 = 𝑥:
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝐴𝑣𝑔. 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 =
ℎ

Example 1.6
Find the average rate of change of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 over the interval (1,2) using the alternate definition above.
We have been given
(𝑥, 𝑥 + ℎ) = (1,2) ⇒ ℎ = (𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑥 = 2 − 1 = 1
Also
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(1) = 1
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = 𝑓(2) = 8

Example 1.7
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2
A. Find the average rate of change of 𝑓(𝑥) over the interval [2,2 + ℎ].
B. Find the slope of the tangent to 𝑓(𝑥) at the point (2,4).

Average Rate of change

𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(2 + ℎ) − 𝑓(2) (2 + ℎ)2 − 22 4 + 4ℎ + ℎ2 − 4 4ℎ + ℎ2
= = = = = =4+ℎ
ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ

As the value of h reduces, 4 + ℎ becomes closer and closer to zero.

Hence, the slope of the parabola at 𝑥 = 2 is
4.

Example 1.8
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3
A. Find the slope of the tangent to 𝑓(𝑥) at the point (2, −3).
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Example 1.9
1
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥
A. Find the slope of the tangent to 𝑓(𝑥) at the point (2, −3).

Slope
1 1 2 −2 + ℎ
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) −2 + ℎ + 2 (−2 + ℎ)(2) + (−2 + ℎ)(2) ℎ 1 1
= = = = × =
ℎ ℎ ℎ (−2 + ℎ)(2) ℎ −4 + 2ℎ
As ℎ goes to zero, the slope becomes
1
−4

Example 1.10
𝑥
𝑦= , 𝑃(4, −2)
2−𝑥

Δ𝑦 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 =
=
Δ𝑥 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
4+ℎ 4
( ) − (2 − 4) ( 4 + ℎ ) − (−2) ( 4 + ℎ ) + 2 4+ℎ
+
−4 − 2ℎ
=
2 − (4 + ℎ)
= −2 − ℎ = −2 − ℎ = −2 − ℎ −2 − ℎ = −ℎ × 1
4+ℎ−4 ℎ ℎ ℎ −2 − ℎ ℎ

−1 1
= =
−2 − ℎ 2 + ℎ
1
2
B. Tangent

1.11: Tangent
In geometry, the tangent to a circle is the line that touches a circle in exactly one point.
A tangent to the graph of a function is the line that gives the slope of the function at that point.

The secant is the slope of two points that lie on a function.

The tangent is the slope of the function at a point.

In the formula for average rate of change which is the slope of a secant:
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
ℎ
as ℎ approaches zero, the distance between the two points approaches zero, and the secant approaches the
tangent.

Example 1.12
Consider the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 .
A. Find the average rate of change over the interval (0,1)
B. Find the average rate of change over the interval (0,0.5)
C. Find the average rate of change over the interval (0,0.1)
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D. Hence, guess what the tangent at the point (0,0) will be.

Part A
Secant Line connecting (0,0) and (1,1):
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 1

Part B
Secant Line connecting (0,0) and (0.5,0.25):
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 0.5

Part C
Secant Line connecting (0,0) and (0.1,0.01):

𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 0.1

Part D
Visually, the slope is getting closer and closer to zero.
Hence, we can take a guess, and suppose that at
𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 0

1.13: Tangent

In the formula for average rate of change which is the slope of a secant:
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
ℎ
as ℎ approaches zero, the distance between the two points approaches zero, and the secant approaches the
tangent.
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

1.14: Interpretations of the Derivative

The derivative can be interpreted:
➢ Graphical: Slope of the tangent line at the point of evaluation
➢ Algebraic: Rate of change of the function at a point

C. Derivatives from first principles

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1.15: Derivative of a Function

The derivative of the function 𝑓(𝑥) is given by the limit:
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
If it exists.

1.16: Tangents and Normals

➢ The slope of the tangent line to 𝑓(𝑥) is given by 𝑓′(𝑥).
➢ To find the equation of the tangent, we need one more point, given by (𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥))
➢ The normal to a function is the line which is perpendicular to the tangent line.

The slope of the tangent line to a function is given by evaluating the derivative of the function at that point.

Example 1.17
Find the tangent and the normal to the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 at 𝑥 = 4

Find the derivative

The definition of the derivative is:
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
(𝑥 + ℎ)2 + (𝑥 + ℎ) − (𝑥 2 + 𝑥)
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ2 + 𝑥 + ℎ − 𝑥 2 − 𝑥
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
2𝑥ℎ + ℎ2 + ℎ
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
ℎ(2𝑥 + ℎ + 1)
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
= lim 2𝑥 + ℎ + 1
ℎ→0
= 2𝑥 + 1
Evaluate the derivative
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1 ⇒ 𝑓 ′ (4) = 2(4) + 1 = 9
The slope of the tangent line to 𝑓(𝑥) at 4 is 9.
Find the y-intercept
Substitute 𝑥 = 4, 𝑦 = 20:
𝑦 = 9𝑥 + 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑐 = −16
𝑚 = 9, 𝑐 = −16 ⇒ 𝑦 = 9𝑥 − 16

Normal
1
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙: 𝑚𝑛 × 9 = −1 ⇒ 𝑚𝑛 = −
9
Substitute 𝑥 = 4, 𝑦 = 20 in
1 1 184
𝑦 = − 𝑥 + 𝑐 ⇒ 20 = − (4) + 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑐 =
9 9 9
1 184
𝑦=− 𝑥+
9 9
1.2 Differentiation
A. Basic Rules
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1.18: Notation for Derivative

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
The derivative of the y with respect to 𝑥 is written:
𝑑𝑦
𝐷𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 = 𝑦⏟′ = 𝑓′(𝑥)
⏟ =
⏟
𝑑𝑥
𝑷𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝑷𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒆
𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑳𝒆𝒊𝒃𝒏𝒊𝒛
𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

1.19: Tangents and Normals

➢ The slope of the tangent line to 𝑓(𝑥) is given by 𝑓′(𝑥).

1.20: Constant Function Rule

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑢𝑙𝑒: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑓 ′ = 0

➢ A constant function represents a horizontal line.

➢ A horizontal line has slope zero (from coordinate geometry).

Example 1.21
A. 𝑦 = 4
B. 𝑦 = 𝜋

𝑑𝑦 𝑑
= (4) = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑
= (4) = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1.22: Power Rule

𝑑 𝑛
𝑥 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 , 𝑛≠0
𝑑𝑥

➢ This is very important for calculating the derivatives of polynomial functions.

➢ 𝑥 is a variable, and 𝑛 is a constant.

Example 1.23
𝑑𝑦
Find 𝑑𝑥:
A. 𝑦 = 𝑥 5
B. 𝑦 = √𝑥
1
C. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2
1
D. 𝑦 =
√𝑥
3
E. 𝑦 = √𝑥

Part A Part B
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 5 𝑑 𝑑 1 1 −1 1
= 𝑥 = 5𝑥 4 √𝑥 = 𝑥2 = 𝑥 2 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 2√𝑥
We can also do in this in function notation: Part C
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 5 ⇒ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 5𝑥 4 𝑑 1 𝑑 −2 2
We can also write this in 𝑦′ notation: ( 2) = 𝑥 = (−2)𝑥 −3 = − 3
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑥 5 ⇒ 𝑦 ′ = 5𝑥 4 Part D
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𝑑 1 𝑑 −1 1 3 1 𝑑 3 𝑑 1 1 −2 1
( )= 𝑥 2 = − 𝑥 −2 = − 3 ( √𝑥 ) = 𝑥3 = 𝑥 3 = 2
𝑑𝑥 √𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 3
2𝑥 2 3𝑥 3
Part E

1.24:Constant Multiple Rules

If 𝑐 is a constant and 𝑓(𝑥) is a differentiable function, then
[𝑐𝑓(𝑥)]′ = 𝑐 × 𝑓′(𝑥)

We can justify the constant multiple rule using transformations.

➢ 𝑐𝑓(𝑥) is a vertical scaling of 𝑓(𝑥).
➢ Hence, its slope (and derivative) is c times the original function 𝑓(𝑥).

Example 1.25
Differentiate:
A. 3𝑥 4
1
B. 2 𝑥 5
√𝑥
C. 3

(3𝑥 4 )′ = 3(𝑥 4 )′ = 3(4𝑥 3 ) = 12𝑥 3

1 1 1 5
( 𝑥 5 ) = (𝑥 5 )′ = (5𝑥 4 ) = 𝑥 4
2 2 2 2
′
√ 𝑥 1 ′ 1 1 1
( ) = (√𝑥) = ∙ =
3 3 3 2√𝑥 6√𝑥

1.26: Derivative of √𝒙
𝑑 1
√𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 2√𝑥

𝑑 𝑑 1 1 −1 1 1
√𝑥 = 𝑥2 = 𝑥 2 = 1 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
2𝑥 2 2√𝑥

Example 1.27
√𝑥
A. 𝑦 =
3

𝑑𝑦 1
𝑦′ = =
𝑑𝑥 6√𝑥

1.28: Second and Further Derivatives

If you take the derivative of 𝑓 ′ (𝑥), that is written:
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥)

Example 1.29
Find all derivatives of
A. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 4
B. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 5
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Part A 𝑑2 𝑦
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = (2𝑥 4 )′ = 2(𝑥 4 )′ = 2(4𝑥 3 ) = 8𝑥 3 = 20𝑥 3
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 24𝑥 2 𝑑3 𝑦
= 60𝑥 2
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = 48𝑥 𝑑𝑥 3
𝑓 (4) (𝑥) = 48 𝑑4 𝑦
= 120𝑥
𝑓 (𝑛) = 0, 𝑛 ≥ 5, 𝑛∈ℕ 𝑑𝑥 4
Part B 𝑑5 𝑦
= 120
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 5
= 5𝑥 4 𝑑𝑛 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 = 0, 𝑛 ≥ 6
𝑑𝑥 𝑛

B. Sum, Difference, Product and Quotient Rules

Finding the derivative of a sum or a difference is as simple as finding the derivative of the individual terms. In
other words, we can distribute the operation of taking a derivative.

1.30: Sum and Difference Rule

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
(𝑎 ± 𝑏) = 𝑎± 𝑏
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

➢ The sum and difference is very useful when differentiating a polynomial, since it lets us differentiate
“term by term”.
➢ In other words, you can distribute the 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 over the brackets.

Just as:
𝑦(𝑎 + 𝑏) = 𝑦𝑎 + 𝑦𝑏
Similarly:
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
(𝑎 ± 𝑏) = 𝑎± 𝑏
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Example 1.31
Find the derivative of:

Polynomials F.
1
−
2
+
√3
+ 𝜋𝑒𝑥 − 𝑒𝜋
2 5
A. 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 𝑥
5𝑥 3 5𝑥 3
B. 𝑡 2 + 𝜋𝑡 + 𝑒 Radicals
𝑥4 𝑥3 𝑥2 2 33 56
C. 𝑥 5 + − +
𝑥
+5+6 G. 3
√𝜃 + 5 √𝜃 2 + 9 √𝜃 7
2 3 4
1
D. 5𝜃 2022 − 3𝜃 1011 + 2022 H. 2 ( + √𝛽)
√𝛽
Negative Exponents
1
E. 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2

Polynomials Part F
Part A Move the variable 𝑥 to the numerator in all terms:
𝑑 2 𝑑 2 𝑑 2 5
(𝑥 + 𝑥) = 𝑥 + 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 1 −1
2𝑥 −3 √3𝑥 −3
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 − + + 𝜋𝑒𝑥 − 𝑒𝜋
Part B 5 5
Differentiate term by term:
Negative Exponents 2 2 5 √3 5 8
(−1)𝑥 −2 − ( ) (− ) 𝑥 −3 + ( ) (− ) 𝑥 −3 + 𝜋 𝑒
5 3 5 3
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Simplify: Differentiate term by term:

1 4 √3 𝑑𝑦 2 1 −1 3 2 −1 5 7 1
− +( ) − ( 8) + 𝜋𝑒 = ( ) 𝜃 2 + ( ) 𝜃 3 + ( ) 𝜃6
𝑥 2 5 𝑑𝑥 3 2 5 3 9 6
15𝑥 3 3𝑥 3 Rewrite:
Radicals
1 1 2 35 1
Part G = ( ) 𝜃 −2 + ( 1 ) + ( ) 𝜃 6
Rewrite using fractional exponents: 3 54
5𝜃 3
2 1 3 2 5 7
𝑦 = 𝜃2 + 𝜃3 + 𝜃6
3 5 9

1.32: Exponential and Logarithmic Derivatives

𝑑 𝑥
𝑒 = 𝑒𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 −𝑥
𝑒 = −𝑒 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1
ln 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

➢ 𝑒 𝑥 is the 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 function that is its own derivative.

➢ 𝑒 is a constant and 𝑥 is a variable

Example 1.33: Exponential Derivatives

A. 2𝑒 𝜃
B. 𝑒 ∙ 𝑒𝑧
C. 𝑒 𝑧+2
D. 𝑒𝜋
E. 4 ∙ 𝑒𝑦
F. 𝑒 𝑧−1

′ ′
(2𝑒 𝜃 ) = 2 × (𝑒 𝜃 ) = 2 × 𝑒 𝜃 = 2𝑒 𝜃
(𝑒 ∙ 𝑒 𝑧 )′ = 𝑒(𝑒 𝑧 )′ = 𝑒 ∙ 𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧+1
(𝑒 × 𝑒 𝑧 )′ = 𝑒 2 × (𝑒 𝑧 )′ = 𝑒 2 × 𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑧+2
2

4 ∙ 𝑒𝑦
𝑒 ∙ 𝑒𝑧
𝑒 𝑧+2
𝑒 𝑧−1

Example 1.34

A. ln(𝑥 4 ) + 𝑥 2 + 2
B. 𝑒𝑥 + 𝜋 + 𝑒
C. 𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑧𝑒
D. 𝑒 𝑟+2 − 𝑟 𝑒+2

4
[4 ln 𝑥]′ + (2𝑥)′ + (2)′ = +2
𝑥
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𝑒𝑥
𝑒 𝑧 + 𝑒𝑧 𝑒−1
𝑟+2
𝑒 − (𝑒 + 2)𝑟 𝑒+1

1.35: Product Rule

(𝑓𝑔)′ = 𝑓 ′ 𝑔 + 𝑓𝑔′ = 𝑓⏟′ 𝑔
⏟ + 𝑓
⏟ 𝑔⏟′
𝐷𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑁𝑜 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑁𝑜 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝑜𝑓 𝑓 𝑡𝑜 𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑓 𝑜𝑓 𝑔

To find the derivative of the product of two functions find the sum of:
➢ The product of the derivative of the first function and the second function.
➢ The product of the derivative of the second function by the first function.

Example 1.36
𝑦 = (3𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 − 1)

𝑦 ′ = (3)(𝑥 2 − 1) + (3𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 3 + 6𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 = 9𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3

Example 1.37
Find the derivative of:
A. 𝑥 3 (𝑥 + 1)
B. 𝑥𝑒 𝑥
C. 𝑒 𝑥 ∙ ln 𝑥
D. 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥
E. √𝑥𝑒 𝑥

𝑦 = 𝑥 3 (𝑥 + 1) = 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 ⇒ 𝑦 ′ = 4𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2

⏟3 ⏟
𝑦=𝑥 (𝑥 + 1) ⇒ 𝑦 ′ = 𝑓 ′ 𝑔 + 𝑔′ 𝑓 = (3𝑥 2 )(𝑥 + 1) + (𝑥 3 )(1) = 3𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 = 4𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2
𝒇 𝒈

Product Rule
𝑥 × (𝑒 𝑥 )′ + (𝑥)′ × 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 (1 + 𝑥)

𝑒𝑥 1
𝑒 𝑥 × (ln 𝑥)′ + (𝑒 𝑥 )′ × ln 𝑥 = + 𝑒 𝑥 ln 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 ( + ln 𝑥)
𝑥 𝑥
𝑥 2 × (𝑒 𝑥 )′ + (𝑥 2 )′ × 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥 2 + 2)
𝑥 ′ ′ 𝑥 𝑥
𝑒𝑥 1
√𝑥 × (𝑒 ) + (√𝑥) × 𝑒 = √𝑥𝑒 + = 𝑒 𝑥 (√𝑥 + )
2√𝑥 2√𝑥

1.38: Quotient Rule

For 𝑔 ≠ 0:
𝑓 ′ 𝒈𝑓 ′ − 𝑔′ 𝑓
( ) =
𝑔 𝒈𝟐

Example 1.39
Find the derivative of:
𝑥
A.
2𝑥+1
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3𝑥 3
B. 𝑥 2 +𝑥
√𝑥−1
C.
√𝑥+1
5𝑥+1
D.
2√𝑥
2𝑡
E. 2+√𝑡

Part A
𝑓 = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓′ = 1
𝑔 = 2𝑥 + 1 ⇒ 𝑔′ = 2

𝑓 ′ 𝑔𝑓′ − 𝑔′𝑓 (2𝑥 + 1) ∙ 1 − 2 ∙ 𝑥 1

( ) = 2
= 2
=
𝑔 𝑔 (2𝑥 + 1) (2𝑥 + 1)2
Part B
𝑓 = 3𝑥 3 ⇒ 𝑓 ′ = 9𝑥 2
𝑔 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑔′ = 2𝑥 + 1

𝑓 ′ 𝑔𝑓 ′ − 𝑔′ 𝑓 (𝑥 2 + 𝑥) ∙ 9𝑥 2 − (2𝑥 + 1) ∙ (3𝑥 3 ) 9𝑥 4 + 9𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 3 3𝑥 4 + 6𝑥 3
( ) = = = =
𝑔 𝑔2 (𝑥 2 + 𝑥)2 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2

Divide the numerator and denominator by 𝑥 2 :

3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1
𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑐𝑢𝑡:
3𝑥 3 3𝑥 2
=
𝑥2 + 𝑥 𝑥 + 1

Part C
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(√𝑥 + 1) ( )−( ) (√𝑥 − 1) 2 + −2+
𝑑𝑦 2√𝑥 2√𝑥 2√𝑥 2√𝑥 √𝑥 1
= 2 = 2 = 2 = 2
𝑑𝑥 (√𝑥 + 1) (√𝑥 + 1) (√𝑥 + 1) √𝑥(√𝑥 + 1)

Part D
1 1 1 5𝑥 − 1
(2√𝑥)(5) − ( ) (5𝑥 + 1) 10√𝑥 − 5√𝑥 − 5√𝑥 −
𝑑𝑦 √𝑥 √𝑥 = √𝑥 = √𝑥 = 5𝑥 − 1
= = 3
𝑑𝑥 4𝑥 4𝑥 4𝑥 4𝑥
4𝑥 2
Part E
1
(2 + √𝑡)(2) − ( ) (2𝑡)
𝑑𝑦 2√𝑡 4 + 2√𝑡 − √𝑡 4 + √𝑡
= 2 = 2 = 2
𝑑𝑡 (2 + √𝑡) (2 + √𝑡) (2 + √𝑡)

Example 1.40
2+𝑥
Find the first four derivatives of 𝑓(𝑥) = 1−𝑥

𝑓 ′ 𝒈𝑓 ′ − 𝑔′ 𝑓
( ) =
𝑔 𝒈𝟐
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(1 − 𝑥)(1) − (−1)(2 + 𝑥) 3
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2
=
(1 − 𝑥) (1 − 𝑥)2
𝑑 3 𝑑
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = ( 2
)= 3(1 − 𝑥)−2 = 6(1 − 𝑥)−3
𝑑𝑥 (1 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑑
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = 6(1 − 𝑥)−3 = 18(1 − 𝑥)−4
𝑑𝑥

Example 1.41
𝑒𝑥
A.
𝑥
B.
𝑒𝑥
C.
√𝑥
𝐴
D. 𝐵+𝐶𝑒 𝑥

𝑥 × (𝑒 𝑥 )′ − 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥)′ 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥 − 1)
= =
𝑥2 𝑥2 𝑥2
𝑥 𝑥
1 2𝑥𝑒 − 𝑒
′ (√𝑥)(𝑒 𝑥 ) − (𝑒 𝑥 ) ( )
𝑒𝑥 2√𝑥 2√𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 (2𝑥 − 1)
( ) = = = 3
√𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
2𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦 (𝐵 + 𝐶𝑒 𝑥 ) × 0 − 𝐴(𝐶𝑒 𝑥 ) −𝐴(𝐶𝑒 𝑥 )
= =
𝑑𝑥 (𝐵 + 𝐶𝑒 𝑥 )2 (𝐵 + 𝐶𝑒 𝑥 )2

Example 1.42
1 − 𝑥𝑒 𝑥
𝑦=
𝑥 + 𝑒𝑥

(1 − 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 )′ = −(𝑥 × 𝑒 𝑥 + 1 × 𝑒 𝑥 ) = −(𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 )
𝑑𝑦 −(𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 )(𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 ) − (1 − 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 )(1 + 𝑒 𝑥 )
=
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 )

1.43: Identities
(𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 − 𝑏) = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2
(𝑎 + 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2
(𝑎 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 − 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2
(𝑎 + 𝑏)3 = 𝑎3 + 3𝑎2 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏 2 + 𝑏 3
(𝑎 + 𝑏)3 = 𝑎3 + 3𝑎2 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏 2 + 𝑏 3
𝑎3 + 𝑏 3 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )
𝑎3 − 𝑏 3 = (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )

Example 1.44
Find the derivatives of the following:
A. 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)
B. 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 + 1)
C. 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 + 1)(𝑥 4 + 1)
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(𝑥−1)(𝑥 2 +𝑥+1)
D. 𝑦 = 𝑥3

Part A
𝑑 𝑑 2
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1) = (𝑥 − 1) = 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Part B
𝑦 = (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 1) = (𝑥 2 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 1) = 𝑥 4 − 1
𝑑𝑦
= 4𝑥 3
𝑑𝑥
Part C
𝑑𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑥8 − 1 ⇒ = 8𝑥 7
𝑑𝑥
Part D
𝑥3 − 1 𝑥3 1 1
𝑦= 3
= 3 − 3 = 1 − 3 = 1 − 𝑥 −3
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 3
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 4

C. Further Topics

Example 1.45
Let 𝑃(𝑥) be a polynomial of degree 𝑛.
A. Show that the first derivative of 𝑃(𝑥) is a polynomial of degree 𝑛 − 1, with 𝑛 − 1 terms
B. Hence, show that every successive derivative reduces the degree of 𝑃(𝑥) by 1.
C. Find the 𝑛𝑡ℎ derivative of 𝑃(𝑥).

Part A
𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0
If we use
𝑃′ 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑃(𝑥)
′ (𝑥)
𝑃 = 𝑎𝑛 (𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 ) + 𝑎𝑛−1 ((𝑛 − 1)𝑥 𝑛−2 ) + ⋯ + 𝑎1 + 0

And the above has 𝑛 − 1 terms.

Part B
𝑑
In Part A, we proved 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑃′ (𝑥) ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑛 − 1, which is true for all polynomials. Hence,
𝑑𝑥
𝑃′′ (𝑥) ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑛 − 2
𝑃′′′ (𝑥) ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑛 − 3
Part C
Use 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) to represent the 𝑛𝑡ℎ derivative:
𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑛 − 𝑛 = 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 0
Which has value

1.46: Sum and Difference Rule: Function Variant

𝒅 𝒅 𝒅 𝒅
𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) + 𝒉(𝒙) ⇒ 𝒚= [𝒇(𝒙) + 𝒉(𝒙)] = 𝒇(𝒙) + 𝒉(𝒙)
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
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Example 1.47
𝑓(𝑥) and ℎ(𝑥) are functions differentiable on their domain:
𝑓(2) = 3, ℎ(2) = −1, 𝑓′(2) = 4, ℎ′(2) = 1
A. Find 𝑔′ (2) if 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑓(𝑥) + 3ℎ(𝑥)
B. Find 𝑝′ (2) if 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)

Part A
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
[2𝑓(𝑥) + 3ℎ(𝑥)] = 2 𝑓(𝑥) + 3 ℎ(𝑥) = 2𝑓 ′ (𝑥) + 3ℎ′ (𝑥) = 2(4) + 3(1) = 11
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Part B
𝑔(2) = 2𝑓(2) + 3ℎ(2) = (2)(3) + 3(−1) = 3
′ (𝑥) ′ (𝑥)]𝑔(𝑥)
𝑝 = [𝑓 + 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥) = (4)(3) + (3)(11) = 12 + 33 = 45

Challenge 1.48
Consider the function
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑛
A. Find the first, second and third derivatives.
B. See the pattern in part 𝐴, and use that to write a formula for the 𝑘 𝑡ℎ derivative, 𝑘 ∈ ℕ.
C. Find the 𝑛𝑡ℎ derivative
D. Find the (𝑛 + 1)𝑠𝑡 derivative

Part A
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑎(𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 )
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2 𝑦
= 𝑎[𝑛(𝑛 − 1)𝑥 𝑛−2 ]
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑3 𝑦
= 𝑎[𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)𝑥 𝑛−3 ]
𝑑𝑥 3

Part B
𝑑𝑘 𝑦
= 𝑎[(𝑛)(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) … (𝑛 − 𝑘 + 1)(𝑥 𝑛−𝑘 )]
𝑑𝑥 𝑘

(𝑛)(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) … (𝑛 − 𝑘 + 1)
(𝑛)(𝑛 − 1) … (𝑛 − 𝑘 + 1)(𝒏 − 𝒌)(𝒏 − 𝒌 − 𝟏)(𝒏 − 𝒌 − 𝟐) … (𝟐)(𝟏)
=
(𝒏 − 𝒌)(𝒏 − 𝒌 − 𝟏)(𝒏 − 𝒌 − 𝟐) … (𝟐)(𝟏)
= 𝑎[(𝑥 𝑛−𝑘 )]
𝑛!
𝑎 [( ) (𝑥 𝑛−𝑘 )]
(𝑛 − 𝑘)!

5! = 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 × 5 = 120
5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 5!
5×4 = =
3×2×1 3!
(1)(2)(3) … (499)(500)
Part C
𝑑𝑛 𝑦
= 𝑎[𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) … (1)𝑥 𝑛−𝑛 ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑛
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𝑑𝑛 𝑦
= 𝑎[𝑛!] = 𝑎(𝑛!)
𝑑𝑥 𝑛
Part C
𝑑𝑛+1 𝑦 𝑑
= 𝑎(𝑛!) = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑛+1 𝑑𝑥

Challenge 1.49
𝑑
Find 𝑑𝑥 (𝑦 ∙ 𝑦0 ∙ 𝑦1 ∙ … ∙ 𝑦𝑛 ) given that:
𝑛)
𝑦 = 𝑥 − 1, 𝑦𝑛 = 𝑥 (2 +1

𝑧 = 𝑦 ∙ 𝑦0 ∙ 𝑦1 ∙ … ∙ 𝑦𝑛
𝑛
𝑧 = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 + 1)(𝑥 4 + 1)(𝑥 8 + 1) … (𝑥 (2 ) + 1)
𝑛
= (𝑥 2 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 1)(𝑥 4 + 1)(𝑥 8 + 1) … (𝑥 (2 ) + 1)
𝑛
= (𝑥 4 − 1)(𝑥 4 + 1)(𝑥 8 + 1) … (𝑥 (2 ) + 1)
𝑛
= (𝑥 8 − 1)(𝑥 8 + 1) … (𝑥 (2 ) + 1)
𝑛
= (𝑥 16 − 1) … (𝑥 (2 ) + 1)
𝑛 𝑛
= (𝑥 (2 ) − 1)(𝑥 (2 ) + 1)
𝑛 𝑛
= (𝑥 (2 +2 ) − 1)
𝑛+1 )
= 𝑥 (2 −1

𝑑𝑧 𝑛+1
= 2𝑛+1 (𝑥 (2 )−1 )
𝑑𝑥

D. Abstract Differentiation

Example 1.50
𝐻(𝑥) = 2𝑓(𝑥) + 3𝑔(𝑥) + 4ℎ(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (3) = 7
𝑔′ (3) = 12
′ (3)
ℎ = −14
Using the information given, evaluate:
A. 𝐻 ′ (3)

𝐻′(𝑥) = [2𝑓(𝑥) + 3𝑔(𝑥) + 4ℎ(𝑥)]′

Apply the sum rule:
𝐻′(𝑥) = [2𝑓(𝑥)]′ + [3𝑔(𝑥)]′ + [4ℎ(𝑥)]′
Apply the constant multiple rule:
𝐻′(𝑥) = 2𝑓′(𝑥) + 3𝑔′(𝑥) + 4ℎ′(𝑥)
𝐻′(3) = 2𝑓′(3) + 3𝑔′(3) + 4ℎ′(3)
𝐻 ′(3) = 2(7) + 3(12) + 4(−14) = 14 + 36 − 56 = −6

1.3 Rates of Change

A. Rate of Change

Example 1.51
Find the rate of change in the:
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A. area of a square with respect to a change in its side length when its side length is 3?
B. area of a circle with respect to a change in its radius when its radius is 4?
C. volume of a sphere with respect to a change in its radius when its radius is 3?

Part B
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐴 𝑚2
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ⇒ = 2𝜋𝑟 ⇒ | = 2𝜋𝑟|𝑟=4 = 2𝜋(4) = 8𝜋
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑟=4 𝑚
Part C

4 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝐴 𝑚2
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 3 ⇒ = 2𝜋𝑟 ⇒ | = 2𝜋𝑟|𝑟=4 = 2𝜋(4) = 8𝜋
3 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑟=4 𝑚

Example 1.52
Economics
Biology
Other

B. Kinematics
Normally, we consider the coordinate plane with variables:
𝑥 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
𝑦 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

We can also consider other variables. For example, we could plot:

𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑥𝑖𝑠
𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

1.53: Position at time 𝒕

Consider an object moving along a coordinate line.
The position of a body at time 𝑡 is given by 𝑠.
𝑠 = 𝑓(𝑡)

Example 1.54
A body moves along a coordinate line, with its position given by 𝑠 = 𝑡 3 − 4. Find its position when
A. 𝑡 = 0
B. 𝑡 = 2

1.55: Distance Travelled

Total length of the path taken by an object from the start time to the end time is the distance.

1.56: Speed
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒

1.57: Distance and Speed are Scalars

Distance and Speed are scalar quantities. They do not have a direction associated with them.
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Example 1.58
You start your morning walk at 𝑡1 = 6: 05 𝑎𝑚. You complete it at 𝑡2 = 6: 55 𝑎𝑚. What is Δ𝑡. (Δ) is used to
represent a change in a quantity.

Δ𝑡 = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = 6: 55 − 6: 05 = 50 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠

1.59: Displacement
Displacement is the straight-line distance (shortest path) from initial to final position
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = Δ𝑠 = 𝑠⏟2 − 𝑠⏟1 = 𝑓(𝑡 ⏟ 2 ) − 𝑓(𝑡⏟ 1)
𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑂𝑙𝑑 𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑂𝑙𝑑
𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Example 1.60
In the circle drawn alongside, an object at point A moves to C via the path at X. 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑂 = 5 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟. Determine
the:
A. Distance Travelled
B. Displacement

Example 1.61
An object 30 meters from the origin moves 20 meter to the left and then 10 m to the
right.
Determine:
A. Distance Travelled
B. Displacement

Example 1.62
The position of a object along a coordinate line is given by 𝑠 = 2𝑡 + 5.
A. Determine the displacement between 𝑡 = 3 and 𝑡 = 5
B. Let 𝑓(𝑡) = Δs. Find a closed form solution for 𝑓(𝑡) in terms of 𝑡1 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 and 𝑡2 = 𝐸𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒

Δ𝑠 = 𝑠(𝑡2 ) − 𝑠(𝑡1 ) = 𝑠(5) − 𝑠(3) = 2(5) + 5 − [2(3) + 5] = 15 − 11 = 4

Δ𝑠 = 𝑠(𝑡2 ) − 𝑠(𝑡1 ) = 2𝑡2 + 5 − (2𝑡1 + 5) = 2(𝑡2 − 𝑡1 )
C. Velocity

1.63: Velocity
Velocity is the rate of change of position.

1.64: Average Velocity

𝑠(𝑡1 + Δ𝑡) − 𝑠(𝑡1 )
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
Δ𝑡
Where
𝑠(𝑡1 ) = 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡1
𝑠(𝑡1 + Δ𝑡)

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 − 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
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Substitute 𝑠(𝑡2 ) = 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 and 𝑠(𝑡1 ) = 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛:

𝑠(𝑡2 ) − 𝑠(𝑡1 ) 𝑠(𝑡1 + Δ𝑡) − 𝑠(𝑡1 ) 𝑠(𝑡1 + Δ𝑡) − 𝑠(𝑡1 )
= =
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 𝑡1 + Δ𝑡 − 𝑡1 Δ𝑡

Example 1.65
The position of an object along a coordinate line is given by 𝑠 = 2𝑡 + 5. Determine the average velocity
between 𝑡 = 3 and 𝑡 = 5.

The average velocity is:

𝑠(𝑡2 ) − 𝑠(𝑡1 ) 𝑠(5) − 𝑠(3) 2(5) + 5 − [2(3) + 5] 15 − 11 4
= = = = =2
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 5−3 2 2 2

1.66: Average Velocity: Alternate Definition

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 Δ𝑠
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 Δ𝑡

Example 1.67

1.68: Instantaneous Velocity as a Derivative

Instantaneous velocity is the derivative of position with respect to time.
𝑠(𝑡 + Δ𝑡) − 𝑠(𝑡) 𝑑𝑠
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑣(𝑡) = lim =
Δ𝑡→0 Δ𝑡 𝑑𝑡

We can find the average velocity for any time period, ranging from a millisecond to a year. However, if we find
the average velocity for smaller and smaller time periods, then we get closer and closer to finding the velocity
at a particular point in time.
This is made precise in the definition of instantaneous velocity.
Note that instantaneous velocity is written as a function, since if we find the limit, that lets us find the velocity
as a function of time.

Example 1.69
The position of an object along a coordinate line is given by 𝑠 = 2𝑡 + 5.
A. Determine the velocity.
B. Show that the velocity is a constant.

𝑑𝑠 𝑑
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑣(𝑡) = = (2𝑡 + 5) = 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

The velocity function is:

𝑣(𝑡) = 2
Which is a constant function.
Hence, the velocity is constant.

D. Acceleration
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1.70: Acceleration
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.

1.71: Average Acceleration

𝑣(𝑡1 + Δ𝑡) − 𝑣(𝑡1 )
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
Δ𝑡

The average acceleration is given by:

𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 − 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣(𝑡2 ) − 𝑣(𝑡1 ) 𝑣(𝑡1 + Δ𝑡) − 𝑣(𝑡1 ) 𝑣(𝑡1 + Δ𝑡) − 𝑣(𝑡1 )
= = =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 𝑡1 + Δ𝑡 − 𝑡1 Δ𝑡

Example 1.72
The position of an object along a coordinate line is given by 𝑠 = 2𝑡 + 5. Determine the average acceleration
between 𝑡 = 3 and 𝑡 = 5.

The average acceleration is:

𝑑𝑠 𝑑
𝑣(𝑡) = = (2𝑡 + 5) = 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑣(𝑡2 ) − 𝑣(𝑡1 )
=
𝑡2 − 𝑡1

1.73: Instantaneous Acceleration as a Derivative

Instantaneous acceleration is the derivative of velocity with respect to time.
𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑣 𝑑 (𝑑𝑡 ) 𝑣(𝑡 + Δ𝑡) − 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑑2 𝑠
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = == lim = 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 Δ𝑡→0 Δ𝑡 𝑑𝑡

We can find the average velocity for any time period, ranging from a millisecond to a year. However, if we find
the average velocity for smaller and smaller time periods, then we get closer and closer to finding the velocity
at a particular point in time.
This is made precise in the definition of instantaneous velocity.

The derivative of displacement with respect to time is velocity.

The derivative of velocity with respect to time is acceleration.
The derivative of acceleration with respect to time is jerk.

The second derivative of displacement with respect to time is acceleration.

1.4 Trigonometric Derivatives

A. Basics
In Calculus, we state the trigonometric functions in terms of radians, unless explicitly stated otherwise.

1.74: Derivative of 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 and 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙

𝑑
sin 𝑥 = cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
cos 𝑥 = − sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

➢ The derivative of a trigonometric function will always be a trigonometric function.

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Example 1.75
A. Find the first four derivatives of 𝑦 = sin 𝑥.
B. Find a pattern for the derivatives, and write the pattern.
C. Hence, find 𝑦 (2021), where 𝑦 (𝑛) represents the 𝑛𝑡ℎ derivative of 𝑦

Part A
𝑦′ = cos 𝑥
′′ (𝑦′)′
𝑦 = = (cos 𝑥)′ = − sin 𝑥
(3)
𝑦 = (𝑦 ) = (− sin 𝑥)′ = −(sin 𝑥)′ = − cos 𝑥
′′ ′

𝑦 (4) = (𝑦 3 )′ = (− cos 𝑥)′ = −(cos 𝑥)′ = −(−sin 𝑥) = sin 𝑥

Part B

𝑛∈𝕎
𝑦 (4𝑛+1) cos 𝑥
𝑦 (4𝑛+2) − sin 𝑥
𝑦 (4𝑛+3) − cos 𝑥
𝑦 (4𝑛) sin 𝑥

Part C
𝑦 (2021) = 𝑦 (400𝑛+1) = cos 𝑥

Example 1.76: Sum/Difference and Constant Multiple Rule

𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅𝑢𝑙𝑒: (𝑓 ± 𝑔)′ = 𝑓 ′ ± 𝑔′
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑅𝑢𝑙𝑒: (𝑐𝑓)′ = 𝑐𝑓 ′ , 𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
A. sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥
B. 4 sin 𝑥 − 2 cos 𝑥

Sum and Difference Rule Use the constant multiple rule

cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 = 4(sin 𝑥)′ − 2(cos 𝑥)′
Constant Multiple Rule Take the derivatives now:
(4 sin 𝑥 − 2 cos 𝑥)′ = 4 cos 𝑥 − 2(−sin 𝑥)
Using the sum and difference rule: = 4 cos 𝑥 + 2 sin 𝑥
= (4 sin 𝑥)′ − (2 cos 𝑥)′

Example 1.77: Product Rule

𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑅𝑢𝑙𝑒: (𝑓𝑔)′ = 𝑓′𝑔 + 𝑓𝑔′
2
A. 𝑥 sin 𝑥
B. (ln 𝑥)(sin 𝑥)

𝑑 2
𝑥
⏟ sin
⏟𝑥 = 2𝑥
⏟ sin ⏟2 cos
⏟𝑥 + 𝑥 ⏟𝑥 = 𝑥(2 sin 𝑥 + 𝑥 cos 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑓 𝑔 𝑓 ′ 𝑔 𝑓 𝑔′

Example 1.78
𝑑
Show that 𝑑𝑥 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 = cos 2𝜃
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𝑑
sin ⏟𝑥 = cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 (− sin 𝑥) = cos 2 𝑥 − sin2 𝑥 =
⏟𝑥 cos cos
⏟ 2𝜃
𝑑𝑥 𝑓 𝑔 𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐷𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦

Example 1.79
𝑓 𝒈𝑓 ′ − 𝑔′𝑓
𝑄𝑢𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑅𝑢𝑙𝑒: ( ) =
𝑔 𝒈𝟐
sin 𝑥+ln 𝑥
A. 𝑦 =
cos 𝑥+𝑒 𝑥
𝑥 sin 𝑥
B. 𝑦 = cos 𝑥+𝑥
sin 𝑥+cos 𝑥
C. 𝑦 = sin 𝑥−cos 𝑥

Part A
𝑥 1 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 (cos 𝑥 + 𝑒 ) (cos 𝑥 + 𝑥 ) − (sin 𝑥 + ln 𝑥)(− sin 𝑥 + 𝑒 )
=
𝑑𝑥 (cos 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 )2
1
(cos 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 ) (cos 𝑥 + ) + (sin 𝑥 + ln 𝑥)(sin 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 )
= 𝑥
(cos 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 )2
Part B
𝑑𝑦 (cos 𝑥 + 𝑥)(sin 𝑥 + 𝑥 cos 𝑥) − (𝑥 sin 𝑥)(− sin 𝑥 + 1)
=
𝑑𝑥 (cos 𝑥 + 𝑥)2
(cos 𝑥 + 𝑥)(sin 𝑥 + 𝑥 cos 𝑥) + (𝑥 sin 𝑥)(sin 𝑥 + 1)
=
(cos 𝑥 + 𝑥)2
Part C
(sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥) ⏟
⏟ (cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥) − ⏟
(cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥) ⏟
(sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥)
𝑑𝑦 𝑔 𝑓′ 𝑔′ 𝑓
=
𝑑𝑥 ⏟ 𝑥 − cos 𝑥)2
(sin
𝑔2
Factor −1 out of the first term, and note that the second term is a square:
−(sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥)2 − (sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥)2
=
(sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥)2
Use a change of variable. If we let 𝑎 = sin 𝑥 , 𝑏 = cos 𝑥, then the numerator:
= −(𝑎 − 𝑏)2 − (𝑎 + 𝑏)2
= −(𝑎2 − 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 ) − (𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )
= −𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 − 𝑏 2 − 𝑎2 − 2𝑎𝑏 − 𝑏 2
= −2𝑎2 − 2𝑏 2
= (−2)(𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 )
Change back to the original variables:
= (−2)(sin2 𝑥 + cos 2 𝑥)
By the Pythagorean Identity, the second term = 1:
= −2
Hence, the final answer is:
−2
=
(sin 𝑥 − cos 𝑥)2

Example 1.80
Find the derivative
A. tan 𝑥
B. csc 𝑥
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C. sec 𝑥
D. cot 𝑥

′
sin 𝑥 ′ cos2 𝑥 + sin2 𝑥 1
(tan 𝑥) = ( ) = 2
= = sec 2 𝑥
cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥 cos2 𝑥
cos 𝑥 ′ sin 𝑥 (− sin 𝑥) − cos 𝑥 (cos 𝑥) −(sin2 𝑥 + cos 2 𝑥) 1
(cot 𝑥)′ = ( ) = 2
= 2
= − 2 = − csc 2 𝑥
sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥

1 ′ cos 𝑥 × 0 − 1 × (− sin 𝑥) sin 𝑥 1

(sec 𝑥)′ = ( ) = 2
= × = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥
cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥
1 ′ sin 𝑥 × 0 − 1 × cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥 1
(csc 𝑥)′ = ( ) = 2
=− × = − csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥
sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥

1.81: Trigonometric Derivatives: Summary

𝑑 𝑑
(sin 𝑥) = cos 𝑥 , (cos 𝑥) = − sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
(sec 𝑥) = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 , (csc 𝑥) = − csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
(tan 𝑥) = sec 2 𝑥 , (cot 𝑥) = − csc 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

➢ The above are the standard forms of the derivatives of the trigonometric functions.
➢ Note that the functions on the right (the co-functions) each have a negative sign in their derivative.

Example 1.82
Find the derivative of:
A. 𝑦 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥
sec 𝑡
B. 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑡

Part A
𝑦′ = ⏟
sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 tan
⏟𝑥 + sec ⏟ 2 𝑥 = sec 𝑥 (tan2 𝑥 + sec 2 𝑥)
⏟𝑥 sec
𝑓′ 𝑔 𝑓 𝑔′
Part B
(𝑒 𝑡 ) (sec 𝑡 ) (sec
⏟ ⏟ 𝑡 tan 𝑡) − (𝑒
⏟ ⏟ 𝑡)
𝑔 𝑓′ 𝑔′ 𝑓
𝑦′ =
𝑒 2𝑡
Factor 𝑒 𝑡 sec 𝑡 from both terms in the numerator:
𝑒 𝑡 (sec 𝑡)(tan 𝑡 − 1) (sec 𝑡)(tan 𝑡 − 1)
=
𝑒 2𝑡 𝑒𝑡
B. Extension

1.83: Product Rule

(𝑓𝑔ℎ)′ = 𝑓𝑔ℎ′ + 𝑓𝑔′ ℎ + 𝑓 ′ 𝑔ℎ
[𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)ℎ(𝑥)]′ = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)ℎ′ (𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′

(𝑓𝑔ℎ)′ = (𝑓𝑔 × ℎ)′ = (𝑓𝑔)′ × ℎ + 𝑓𝑔 × ℎ′ = (𝑓𝑔′ + 𝑓′𝑔)ℎ + 𝑓𝑔ℎ′ = 𝑓𝑔ℎ′ + 𝑓𝑔′ ℎ + 𝑓 ′ 𝑔ℎ

Example 1.84
𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
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𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 = −𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥

= 𝑒 𝑥 (cos2 𝑥 − sin2 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥)

1.85: Product Rule

(𝑒𝑓𝑔ℎ)′ = 𝑒𝑓𝑔ℎ′ + 𝑒𝑓𝑔′ ℎ + 𝑒𝑓 ′ 𝑔ℎ + 𝑒′𝑓𝑔ℎ

C. Using Identities

1.86: Identities derived from the Pythagorean Identity

tan2 𝜃 + 1 = sec 2 𝜃
1 + cot 2 𝜃 = csc 2 𝜃

Example 1.87
(sec 𝑥+tan 𝑥)(sec 𝑥−tan 𝑥)
Show that the derivative of (csc 𝑥+cot 𝑥)(csc 𝑥−cot 𝑥)
is zero.

sec 2 𝑥 − tan2 𝑥
𝑦=
csc 2 𝑥 − cot 2 𝑥
2 2 2 2
Substitute sec 𝜃 − tan 𝜃 = 1 and csc 𝜃 − cot 𝜃 = 1:
1 𝑑𝑦
𝑦= =1⇒ =0
1 𝑑𝑥
D. Proving Identities

Example 1.88
Prove that
sin2 𝜃 + cos 2 𝜃 = 1

𝑦 = sin2 𝜃 + cos2 𝜃
𝑑𝑦
= 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 − 2 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 = 0
𝑑𝜃

Since the derivative is zero,

𝑑𝑦
= 0 ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝐶, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐶
𝑑𝜃
𝜋
Substitute 𝜃 = 4
𝜋 𝜋 1 2 1 2 1 1
sin2 ( ) + cos2 ( ) = ( ) + ( ) = + = 1 ⇒ 𝐶 = 1
4 4 √2 √2 2 2

E. Simple Harmonic Motion

F. Derivatives of Degree Measure

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1.5 Chain Rule

A. Basics

1.89: Chain Rule

Suppose
𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑢), 𝑢 = ℎ(𝑥) ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑢) = 𝑔(ℎ(𝑥))
And the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) is given by:
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥

➢ If you wish to find the derivative of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑥, but you know 𝑦 as a function of another
variable 𝑢, then you can differentiate using:
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥

B. Power Rule

Example 1.90
𝑑𝑦
Find 𝑑𝑥:
A. 𝑦 = (2𝑥 + 1)5
B. 𝑦 = [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛
C. 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 𝑏)2

Part A
We can expand (2𝑥 + 1)5 using the binomial theorem, and then differentiate the resulting polynomial, but
that is lengthy.

Instead, we express 𝑦 as a function of 𝑢 and find the derivative of 𝑦 with respect to 𝑢:

𝑑𝑢
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢 = 2𝑥 + 1 ⇒ =2
𝑑𝑥
Write the given function in terms of 𝑢 and differentiate it:
𝑑𝑦
𝑦 = (2𝑥 + 1)5 = 𝑢5 ⇒ = 5𝑢4
𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑦
⏟4 × ⏟
= 5𝑢 2 = 10𝑢4
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
Change back to the original variable:
𝑑𝑦
= 10(2𝑥 + 1)4
𝑑𝑥
Part B
𝑑
[𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 = 𝑛[𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛−1 × 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
Part C
𝑑𝑢
𝑢 =𝑥+𝑏 ⇒ =1
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝑦 = (𝑥 + 𝑏)2 = 𝑢2 ⇒ = 2𝑢
𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑦
= (2𝑢)(1) = 2𝑢 = 2(𝑥 + 𝑏)
𝑑𝑥
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1.91: Outer and Inner Functions

➢ Differentiate the “outer function” as usual, keeping the inner function in place.
➢ Differentiate the “inner function”

Example 1.92
A. 𝑦 = (3𝑥 + 4)5
B. 𝑦 = (2𝑥 − 7)3
C. 𝑦 = (−6𝑥 + 5)8
1
D. 𝑦 = (5𝑥−4)3

Part A
5
𝑑𝑦
𝑦 = ( 3𝑥
⏟+4) ⇒ = 5(3𝑥 + 4)4 × 3 = 15(3𝑥 + 4)4
𝐼𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑥
𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Part B
𝑑𝑦
= 3(2𝑥 − 7)2 × 2 = 6(2𝑥 − 7)2
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝑢 = 2𝑥 − 7 ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑢3 ⇒ = 3𝑢2
𝑑𝑢
Part C
𝑦 = −48(−6𝑥 + 5)7
Part D
Rewrite using exponent rules:
1
𝑦= = (5𝑥 − 4)−3
(5𝑥 − 4)3
𝑑𝑦
= −3(5𝑥 − 4)−5 (5) = −15(5𝑥 − 4)−5
𝑑𝑥

Example 1.93
𝑑𝑦
Find :
𝑑𝑥
A. 𝑦 = (𝑥 2 + 5)100
B. 𝑦 = sin2 𝑥
C. 𝑦 = cos 5 𝑥
D. 𝑦 = sin100 𝑥
𝑥
E. 𝑦 = sin (2)

Part A 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
Differentiate using 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢 × 𝑑𝑥 :
Write 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) as a composite function.
= 100(𝑥 2 + 5)99 × 2𝑥 = 200𝑥(𝑥 2 + 5)99
𝑑𝑢
𝑢 = ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 5 ⇒ = 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 Part B
𝑦 = 𝑢100 ⇒ = 100𝑢99 = 100(𝑥 2 + 5)99 Expand to get:
𝑑𝑢
𝑦 = (sin 𝑥)(sin 𝑥)
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Differentiate using the product rule: Let:

𝑦 ′ = (sin 𝑥)(cos 𝑥) + (cos 𝑥)(sin 𝑥) 𝑢 = cos 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑢5
Simplify to get: Differentiate:
= 2(sin 𝑥)(cos 𝑥) 𝑑𝑦
⏟4 × (−
= 5𝑢 ⏟ sin 𝑥) = −5(cos4 𝑥)(sin 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
𝑢 = sin 𝑥 ⇒ = cos 𝑥 Part D
𝑑𝑥
𝑦 = sin2 𝑥 = 𝑢2 𝑦 ′ = 100(sin99 𝑥)(cos 𝑥)
𝑑𝑦 Part E
= 2𝑢
𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 𝑥 1
= × = 2𝑢(cos 𝑥) = 2(sin 𝑥)(cos 𝑥) cos ( ) ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥 2 2
Part C

Example 1.94: Inverse Trig Functions

𝑑
A. (sin−1 𝑥)2
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
B. (tan−1 𝑥)𝑛 , 𝑛 ∈ ℕ, 𝑛 ≥ 2
𝑑𝑥

Part I
𝑑 2 sin−1 𝑥
(sin−1 𝑥)2 =
𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2
Part J
𝑑 𝑛 (tan−1 𝑥)𝑛−1
(tan−1 𝑥)𝑛 =
𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑥2

1.95: Chain Rule

𝑑 1 𝑑 1
√𝑥 = , √𝑓(𝑥) = × 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 2√𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2√𝑓(𝑥)

When differentiating square roots make use of the formula for square roots, and its chain rule version. Avoid
converting into exponent form since this will increase the time taken.

Example 1.96: Square Roots

𝑦 = √𝑒 𝑥

1 𝑥
𝑦 = √𝑒 𝑥 = (𝑒 𝑥 )2 = 𝑒 2
𝑥
𝑦′ = 𝑒 2 × 2

Example 1.97: Square Roots

𝑑𝑦
Find for each part below:
𝑑𝑥
A. 𝑦 = √2𝑥
𝑥
B. 𝑦 = √sin (2)
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𝑑 1 1
√2𝑥 = ×2=
𝑑𝑥 2√2𝑥 √2𝑥
𝑑 cos 𝑥
√sin 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 2√sin 𝑥
𝑑 1 √𝑒 𝑥
√𝑒 𝑥 = × 𝑒𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 2√𝑒 𝑥 2
𝑥
1 𝑥 1 cos (2)
× cos ( ) × =
𝑥 2 2 𝑥
2√sin ( ) 4√sin ( )
2 2

Example 1.98: Nested Square Roots

Differentiate with respect to 𝑥:
A. √𝑥 + √𝑥
B. √sin 𝑥 + √cos 𝑥
𝑥
C. √2 − √2 + √𝑥 + 1

Part A
Use the chain rule:
1 1
× (1 + )
2√𝑥 + √𝑥 2√𝑥
Use the distributive property:
1 1
= +
2√𝑥 + √𝑥 4√𝑥 √𝑥 + √𝑥
Add the two fractions by taking the LCM which is 4√𝑥 √𝑥 + √𝑥:
2√𝑥 1 2√𝑥 + 1
= + =
2√𝑥 + √𝑥(2√𝑥) 4√𝑥 √𝑥 + √𝑥 4√𝑥 √𝑥 + √𝑥
Part B
1 1
× (cos 𝑥 + ) × (− sin 𝑥)
2√sin 𝑥 + √cos 𝑥 2√cos 𝑥
Part C
1 −1 1 1
× ×( + )
𝑥 2 2√𝑥 + 1
𝑥 2√ +
2 √ 𝑥 + 1
2√2 − √ + √𝑥 + 1
2

−1 1 1
= ( + )
2 2√𝑥 + 1
𝑥 𝑥
4√2 + √𝑥 + 1√2 − √2 + √𝑥 + 1

C. Exponentials

Example 1.99
A. 𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑥
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2
B. 𝑦 = 𝑒𝑥
C. 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥)
D. 𝑦 = 𝜋𝑒 sin 𝑥
E. 𝑦 = 𝑒 sec 𝑥

Part B
𝑑𝑦
𝑢 = −𝑥 ⇒ = −1
𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑦 𝑑
= 𝑒 −𝑥 × (−𝑥) = 𝑒 −𝑥 × (−1) = −𝑒 −𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Part C
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
𝑦 = 𝑒𝑢 ⇒ = 𝑒𝑢, 𝑢 = 𝑥2 ⇒ = 2𝑥
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 2
= 𝑒⏟𝑢 × 2𝑥
⏟ = 2𝑥𝑒 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
Shortcut
2 2
𝑦 ′ = 𝑒 𝑥 × 2𝑥 = 2𝑥𝑒 𝑥
Part D
𝑑𝑦
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑢 ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑢 ⇒ = 𝑒𝑢
𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢
𝑢 = 𝑓(𝑥) ⇒ = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑓(𝑥)
= 𝑒⏟ × 𝑓′(𝑥)
⏟
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
Part E
𝑑𝑦
𝑒 sin 𝑥 × cos
=⏟ ⏟𝑥 = cos 𝑥 𝑒 sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓′(𝑥)
𝑒

D. Trigonometric Functions

Example 1.100
A. 𝑦 = tan 2𝑥
𝑥
B. 𝑦 = csc 2
C. 𝑦 = cot √𝑥
D. 𝑦 = sec(ln 𝑥)
E. 𝑦 = sin(cos 𝑥)

Part A
𝑑𝑢
𝑢 = 2𝑥 ⇒ =2
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝑦 = tan 2𝑥 = tan 𝑢 ⇒ = sec 2 𝑢
𝑑𝑢
𝑦 ′ = sec
⏟ 2𝑢× ⏟ 2 = 2 sec 2 2𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
Part B
𝑦 ′ = − sin 𝑥 cos(cos 𝑥)
Part C
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1
𝑦 ′ = − csc 2 √𝑥 ×
2√𝑥
Part D
sec(ln 𝑥) tan(ln 𝑥)
𝑦′ =
𝑥
Part E
𝑦 = cos(cos 𝑥) (− sin 𝑥)

Example 1.101
Find the first few derivatives of 𝑦 = tan 𝑥.

𝑦 ′ = sec 2 𝑥

𝑦 ′′ = 2 (sec 𝑥)(sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥) = 2 sec 2 𝑥 tan 𝑥

𝑦 ′′′ = 2[2 (sec 𝑥)(sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥) tan 𝑥] + 2 sec 2 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥

= 4 sec 2 𝑥 tan2 𝑥 + 2 sec 4 𝑥
= 2 sec 2 𝑥 (2 tan2 𝑥 + sec 2 𝑥)

E. Mult-Step Chain Rule

1.102: Chain Rule with Three Functions

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑢), 𝑢 = 𝑓(𝑣), 𝑣 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
= × ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥

Example 1.103
3𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑒 cos

𝑦 = 𝑒𝑢, 𝑢 = 𝑣 3, 𝑣 = cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
= 𝑒𝑢, = 3𝑣 2 , = − sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 3
= (𝑒 𝑢 )(3𝑣 2 )(− sin 𝑥) = (𝑒 cos 𝑥 )(3 cos 2 𝑥)(− sin 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

Example 1.104
Find the first and the second derivative of:
𝑥
𝑦 = 9 tan ( )
3

First derivative:
𝑥
𝑦 = 9 tan 𝑢 , 𝑢=
3
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𝑑𝑦 1 𝑥 1 𝑥
9 sec 2 𝑢 × = 9 sec 2 ( ) × = 3 sec 2 ( )
=⏟
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
⏟
3 3 3 3
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥
Second derivative:
𝑥
𝑦 = 3𝑢2 , 𝑢 = sec 𝑣 , 𝑣=
3
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 1 𝑥 𝑥
= 6𝑢 sec 𝑣 tan 𝑣 × = 6 sec ( ) × sec ( ) tan ( ) × = 2 sec 2 ( ) tan ( )
⏟ ×⏟
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
⏟
3 3 3 3 3 3 3
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑥

Example 1.105
𝑡
A. 𝑦 = sin (cos 𝑒 2 )
2
B. 𝑦 = √ln (csc (𝜋𝑥 − ))
𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 1
= cos (cos 𝑒 2 ) (− sin 𝑒 2 ) (𝑒 2 ) ( )
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦 1 1 2 2 2
= × × (− csc (𝜋𝑥 − ) cot (𝜋𝑥 − )) × (𝜋 + 2 )
𝑑𝑥 2 2 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
2√ln (csc (𝜋𝑥 − 𝑥 )) csc (𝜋𝑥 − 𝑥 )
2 2
cot (𝜋𝑥 − 𝑥 ) (𝜋 + 2 )
=− 𝑥
2
2√ln (csc (𝜋𝑥 − 𝑥 ))

F. Product Rule

Example 1.106

A. 𝑦 = (2𝑥 + 1)5 (3𝑥 − 4)−3

3
B. 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥
𝑥3
C. 𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑒 −3𝑥 + 𝑒 3
D. 𝑦 = (2𝑥 + 3)4 𝑒 −2𝑥
E. 𝑦 = √𝑥 sin √𝑥
𝑦 = sin3(3𝑥 2 )

Part C
𝑑𝑢
𝑢 = (2𝑥 + 1)5 ⇒ = 10(2𝑥 + 1)4
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑣
𝑣 = (3𝑥 − 4)−3 ⇒ = −9(3𝑥 − 4)−4
𝑑𝑥
And now we can find:
(𝑢𝑣)′ = ⏟
(2𝑥 + 1)5 ⏟
[−9(3𝑥 − 4)−4 ] + ⏟
[10(2𝑥 + 1)4 ] ⏟
(3𝑥 − 4)−3
𝑢 𝑣′ 𝑢′ 𝑣
Factor out the lowest power in each term:
= (2𝑥 + 1)4 (3𝑥 − 4)−4 [−9(2𝑥 + 1) + 10(3𝑥 − 4)]
= (2𝑥 + 1)4 (3𝑥 − 4)−4 [−18𝑥 − 9 + 30𝑥 − 40]
(2𝑥 + 1)4 (12𝑥 − 49)
=
(3𝑥 − 4)4
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Part D
3 ′ 3
(𝑒 𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 2 (𝑒 𝑥 )
(𝑥𝑒 ) = −(𝑥)(𝑒 −𝑥 ) + (1)(𝑒 −𝑥 ) = 𝑒 −𝑥 − 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥
−𝑥 ′
3
𝑦 ′ = 𝑒 −𝑥 − 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 (𝑒 𝑥 )
Part E
𝑦 = −2(2𝑥 + 3)4 (𝑒 −2𝑥 ) + 8(2𝑥 + 3)3 (𝑒 −2𝑥 )
= (𝑒 −2𝑥 )(2𝑥 + 3)3 [−2(2𝑥 + 3)1 + 8]
= (𝑒 −2𝑥 )(2𝑥 + 3)3 [−4𝑥 − 6 + 8]
= (𝑒 −2𝑥 )(2𝑥 + 3)3 [−4𝑥 + 2]
Part F
cos √𝑥 sin √𝑥 cos √𝑥 sin √𝑥
𝑦 = √𝑥 ( )+ = +
2√𝑥 2√𝑥 2 2√𝑥
Part G
𝑦′ = 3 sin2(3𝑥 2 ) × cos(3𝑥 2 ) × 6𝑥 = 18𝑥 sin2 (3𝑥 2 ) cos(3𝑥 2 )

𝑑𝑦
𝑢 = sin (3𝑥 2 ) ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑢3 ⇒ = 3𝑢2
𝑑𝑢

G. Quotient Rule

Example 1.107
(2𝑥+3)7
A. 𝑦 = (4𝑥−1)3
B. 𝑦 = √7 + 𝑥 sec 𝑥

Part A
(2𝑥 + 3)7
𝑦=
(4𝑥 − 1)3
𝑓 = (2𝑥 + 3) ⇒ 𝑓′ = 7(2𝑥 + 3)6 × 2 = 14(2𝑥 + 3)6
7

𝑔 = (4𝑥 − 1)3 ⇒ 𝑔′ = 3(4𝑥 − 1)2 × 4 = 12(4𝑥 − 1)2

𝑑𝑦 14(4𝑥 − 1)3 (2𝑥 + 3)6 − 12(2𝑥 + 3)7 (4𝑥 − 1)2
=
𝑑𝑥 (4𝑥 − 1)6
2
Divide numerator and denominator by (4𝑥 − 1) :
14(4𝑥 − 1)(2𝑥 + 3)6 − 12(2𝑥 + 3)7
=
(4𝑥 − 1)4
6
Factor out (2𝑥 + 3) in the numerator:
(2𝑥 + 3)6 [14(4𝑥 − 1) − 12(2𝑥 + 3)]
=
(4𝑥 − 1)4
Simplify:
(2𝑥 + 3)6 [56𝑥 − 14 − 24𝑥 − 36]
=
(4𝑥 − 1)4
(2𝑥 + 3)6 [32𝑥 − 50]
=
(4𝑥 − 1)4
Part B
𝑦 = √7 + 𝑥 sec 𝑥
𝑑𝑢
𝑢 = 7 + 𝑥 sec 𝑥 ⇒ = 𝑥 sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 + (1) sec 𝑥 = sec 𝑥 (𝑥 tan 𝑥 + sec 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
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𝑑𝑦 1
𝑦 = √𝑢 ⇒ =
𝑑𝑢 2√𝑢
′ 1
Differentiate the “square root” using (√𝑥) = 2
√𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 1 sec 𝑥 (𝑥 tan 𝑥 + sec 𝑥)
= × = × sec 𝑥 (𝑥 tan 𝑥 + sec 𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥 2√𝑢 2√7 + 𝑥 sec 𝑥

Example 1.108
𝑦 = cot −1 √𝑡 − 1

𝑑𝑦 −1 1 −1
= 2 × =
𝑑𝑥 1 + (√𝑡 − 1) 2√𝑡 − 1 2𝑡√𝑡 − 1

Example 1.109
1
𝑦 = cot −1 − tan−1 𝑥
𝑥

𝑑 1
(tan−1 𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑥2
𝑑 1 −1 1 1 1 𝑥2 1 1
(cot −1 ) = 2 × (− 2
) = 2 × ( 2
) = 2
× ( 2) = 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 1 𝑥 𝑥 +1 𝑥 𝑥 +1 𝑥 𝑥 +1
1 + (𝑥 ) 𝑥2
𝑑 1 1 1
(cot −1 − tan−1 𝑥) = 2 − =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 + 1 1 + 𝑥2
H. Second Derivatives

Example 1.110
Find the second derivative of:
1 3
A. 𝑦 = (1 + 𝑥)
−1
B. 𝑦 = (1 − √𝑥)
C. 𝑦 = sin(𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 )

Part A
𝑑𝑦 1 2 1 1 2 1
= 3 (1 + ) (− 2 ) = −3 (1 + ) ( 2 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

𝑑2 𝑦 1 2 2 1 1 1
= −3 [(1 + ) (− ) + 2 (1 + ) (− ) ( )] =
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥 𝑥3 𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥2
1 1
Factor out (−2) (1 + 𝑥) (𝑥 3 ):
1 1 1 1
= 6 (1 + ) ( 3 ) [(1 + ) + ]
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
Simplify:
1 1 2
= 6 (1 + ) ( 3 ) [(1 + )]
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
Part B
Find the first derivative:
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−2 1 1 −2 1
𝑦 ′ = −(1 − √𝑥) (− ) = ( ) (1 − √𝑥) (𝑥 −2 )
2√𝑥 2
Find the second derivative using the product rule:
1 −2 1 3 −3 1 1
𝑦 ′′ = ( ) [(1 − √𝑥) (− 𝑥 −2 ) + (−2(1 − √𝑥) ) (− ) (𝑥 −2 )]
2 2 2√𝑥
1 1 1 1 1
= ( )[ (− 3 ) + ( 3 ) (𝑥 )]
2 (1 − √𝑥)2 (1 − √𝑥)
2𝑥 2
1
Factor out 2
(1−√𝑥) 𝑥
1 1 1 1 1
= ( )( ) ( ) [(− ) + ( )]
2 (1 − √𝑥)2 𝑥 2√𝑥 1 − √𝑥
Simplify:
1 1 1 1 1
= ( )( 2 )( )[ − ]
2 (1 − √𝑥) 𝑥 1 − √𝑥 2√𝑥
Part C
𝑦 ′ = cos(𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 ) (2𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 ) = cos(𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 ) [𝑒 𝑥 (2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 )] =
(cos(𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 ))′ = −sin(𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 ) (2𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 )
𝑒 𝑥 (2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 (2 + 2𝑥) + 𝑒 𝑥 (2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 )

𝑦 ′′ = cos(𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 ) [𝑒 𝑥 (2 + 2𝑥) + 𝑒 𝑥 (2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 )] −sin(𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 ) (2𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 )[𝑒 𝑥 (2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 )]

= cos(𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 ) [𝑒 𝑥 (2 + 4𝑥 + 𝑥 2 )] −sin(𝑥 2 𝑒 𝑥 ) 𝑒 2𝑥 (2𝑥 + 𝑥 2 )2

Example 1.111
Find the solution sets to 𝑦 ′ = 0 and 𝑦 ′′ = 0 given that 𝑦 = 𝑥(𝑥 − 4)3

Find the first derivative, and equate it to zero:

𝑦 ′ = (1)(𝑥 − 4)3 + 3𝑥(𝑥 − 4)2 = (𝑥 − 4)2 (𝑥 − 4 + 3𝑥) = (𝑥 − 4)2 (4𝑥 − 4)
𝑦 ′ = 4(𝑥 − 4)2 (𝑥 − 1) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {1,4}
Find the second derivative, and equate it to zero:
𝑦 ′′ = 4[2(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 1) + (𝑥 − 4)2 ] = 4(𝑥 − 4)[2𝑥 − 2 + (𝑥 − 4)]
𝑦 ′′ = 12(𝑥 − 4)[𝑥 − 2] = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {2,4}

Example 1.112: 𝒏𝒕𝒉 Derivative

𝑥 𝑥
The 𝑛𝑡ℎ derivative of 𝑦 = 𝑎 sin (2) , 𝑎 > 0 is 𝑦 = sin (2). If 𝑛 > 10, find the minimum value of 𝑎.

𝑑𝑦 𝑎 𝑥
= cos ( )
𝑑𝑥 2 2
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑎 𝑥
2
= − 2 sin ( )
𝑑𝑥 2 2
𝑑3 𝑦 𝑎 𝑥
3
= − 3 cos ( )
𝑑𝑥 2 2
𝑑4 𝑦 𝑎 𝑥
= sin ( )
𝑑𝑥 4 24 2

𝑑12 𝑦 𝑎 𝑥
12
= 12 sin ( ) ⇒ 𝑀𝑖𝑛(𝑎) = 212 = 4096
𝑑𝑥 2 2
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I. Chain Rule: Alternate Version

1.113: Chain Rule (Alternate Version)

Let

And we can write:

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(ℎ(𝑥)) ⇒ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑔′ (ℎ(𝑥)) × ℎ′ (𝑥)

Example 1.114
Given 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 + 5)100 find 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)

We want to write 𝑓(𝑥) in the form 𝑔(ℎ(𝑥)). Let”

ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 5 ⇒ ℎ′(𝑥) = 2𝑥
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 100 ⇒ 𝑔′(𝑥) = 100𝑥 99
Now, start with the formula:
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑔′ (ℎ(𝑥)) × ℎ′ (𝑥)

Substitute ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 5, ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 5 ⇒ ℎ′(𝑥) = 2𝑥

= 𝑔′ (𝑥 2 + 5) × 2𝑥
Apply 𝑔′(𝑥) = 100𝑥 99:
= 100(𝑥 2 + 5)99 × 2𝑥 = 200𝑥(𝑥 2 + 5)100

1.6 Implicit Differentiation

A. Basics

1.115: Chain Rule

If we differentiate 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑢), then
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥

➢ If you are differentiating with respect to 𝑥, and you introduce another variable, then you have to
differentiate that variable as well.

Example 1.116
𝑦 = 𝑢2
𝑢 = 2𝑥

Differentiate both sides with respect to 𝑥:

𝑑𝑢 𝑑 2
= 𝑥 = 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Differentiate both sides with respect to 𝑢:
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 2
= 𝑢 = 2𝑢
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
Differentiate both sides with respect to 𝑥:
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 2 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
= 𝑢 = × = 2𝑢
⏟×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢
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Example 1.117
𝑦 = (1 + 𝑥 2 )2 , 𝑟 = 1 + 𝑥2

𝑦 = 𝑟2
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑟
= 2𝑟 ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1.118: Chain Rule Concept

If 𝑟 is a function of 𝑥, then:
𝑑 2 𝑑𝑟
(𝑟 ) = 2𝑟
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
If 𝑟 is not a function of 𝑥, then we cannot find:
𝑑 2
(𝑟 )
𝑑𝑥

Example 1.119
𝑑 2
𝑦
𝑑𝑥

𝑧 = 𝑦2
𝑑 𝑑 2 𝑑𝑦
𝑧= (𝑦 ) = 2𝑦 ∙
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Example 1.120
Find the given derivatives, if they exist.
𝑑
A. 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥
𝑑
B. 𝑑𝑥
√𝑟, 𝑟 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑
C. 𝑑𝑥
√𝑟, 𝑟 ≠ 𝑓(𝑥)

1
2√𝑥
1 𝑑𝑟
×
2√𝑟 𝑑𝑥
𝐷𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡

B. Implicit Differentiation with Expressions

1.121: Implicit Differentiation

𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦
𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑦) ⇒ = ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 1
ln 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
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Example 1.122: Chain Rule

Differentiate each expression below with respect to 𝑥. You may assume that 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).
A. 𝑦 2
B. sin 𝑦
C. ln 𝑦
D. 𝑒 𝑦
E. tan 𝑦
F. sec 𝑦
G. cot 𝑦
H. csc 𝑦

𝑑 2 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑦 = × = 2𝑦
⏟
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦

𝑑 𝑑𝑦
sin 𝑦 = cos 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1 𝑑𝑦
ln 𝑦 = ∙
𝑑𝑥 𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑒 = 𝑒𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 2
𝑑𝑦
tan 𝑦 = sec 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑𝑦
sec 𝑦 = sec 𝑦 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 2
𝑑𝑦
cot 𝑦 = − csc 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑𝑦
csc 𝑦 = − csc 𝑦 cot 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Example 1.123: Multi-Step Chain Rule

Differentiate each expression below with respect to 𝑥:
A. cos2 𝑦
5
B. 𝑒 𝑦
C. 𝑒 sin 𝑦
𝑦
D. 𝑒 sec2
E. cot 𝑛 (ln 𝑦) , 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, 𝑛 ≠ 1

𝑑 𝑑𝑦
cos2 𝑦 = 2 cos 𝑦 (− sin 𝑦) ( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑦5 5 𝑑𝑦
𝑒 = (𝑒 𝑦 )(5𝑦 4 ) ( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 sin 𝑦 sin 𝑦
𝑑𝑦
𝑒 = (𝑒 )(cos 𝑦) ( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦
= (𝑒 sec2 ) (sec tan ) ( )
𝑑𝑥 2 2 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1 𝑑𝑦
cot 𝑛 (ln 𝑦) = 𝑛 cot 𝑛−1 (ln 𝑦) (− csc 2(ln 𝑦))
𝑑𝑥 𝑦 𝑑𝑥
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Example 1.124: Multi-Step Chain Rule

Differentiate each expression below with respect to 𝑥:
𝑦
sec2(ln )
𝑒 2

𝑑 sec2 ln𝑦 sec2 ln

𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦
𝑒 2 = (𝑒 2 ) (2 sec (ln )) (sec (ln ) tan (ln )) ( ) ( )
𝑑𝑥 2 2 2 𝑦 𝑑𝑥
Note that:
𝑦 𝑑 1 1
ln = ln 𝑦 − ln 2 ⇒ ln 𝑦 − ln
⏟ 2 = −0=
2 𝑑𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑦 𝑦

C. Implicit Differentiation with Equations

Example 1.125
The equation of a circle with center at the origin and radius 𝑟 is given by 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2 , where 𝑟 is a constant.
𝑑𝑦
A. Solve the equation for 𝑦, and hence find 𝑑𝑥.
B. Without solving for 𝑦, differentiate both sides of the above equation with respect to 𝑥, and hence find
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
.

Part A
𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2 − 𝑥 2 ⇒ 𝑦 = ±√𝑟 2 − 𝑥 2
Here, we get two functions, which together make up the circle. We can find their derivatives separately:
𝑑 −2𝑥 −𝑥
√𝑟 2 − 𝑥 2 = =
𝑑𝑥 2√𝑟 2 − 𝑥 2 √𝑟 2 − 𝑥 2
𝑑 −2𝑥 𝑥
(−√𝑟 2 − 𝑥 2 ) = − =
𝑑𝑥 2√𝑟 2 − 𝑥 2 √𝑟 2 − 𝑥 2
And we can combine the two to get:
𝑑𝑦 𝑥
=±
𝑑𝑥 √𝑟 2 − 𝑥 2
Part B
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑟2

Differentiate both sides with respect to 𝑥:

𝑑 2 𝑑 2 𝑑 2
𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑟
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
2𝑥 + 2𝑦 ∙ =0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Now, we have an equation in terms of .
Treat as a regular variable and solve the above equation for :
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 2𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
=− =− =±
𝑑𝑥 2𝑦 𝑦 √𝑟 2 − 𝑥 2

1.126: Implicit Functions

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When 𝑦 is given implicitly as a function of 𝑥, rather than explicitly, implicit differentiation is very useful.

Example 1.127
𝑑𝑦
Find in terms of 𝑥:
𝑑𝑥
𝑥 3 + 𝑦 2 = 2𝑥 + 5

𝑦 = ±√2𝑥 + 5 − 𝑥 3

Differentiate both sides of the given equation with respect to 𝑥:

𝑑𝑦
3𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 =2
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 2 − 3𝑥 2 2 − 3𝑥 2
= =±
𝑑𝑥 2𝑦 2√2𝑥 + 5 − 𝑥 3

Example 1.128
𝑑𝑦
Find 𝑑𝑥:
3𝑥 2 + 𝑦 3 = 𝑦 2

3𝑥 2 = 𝑦 2 − 𝑦 3

Differentiate both sides of the given equation with respect to 𝑥:

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
6𝑥 = 2𝑦 − 3𝑦 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Factor out 𝑑𝑥:
𝑑𝑦
(3𝑦 2 − 2𝑦) = −6𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Divide both sides by (3𝑦 2 − 2𝑦):
𝑑𝑦 −6𝑥 6𝑥
= 2 =
𝑑𝑥 3𝑦 − 2𝑦 2𝑦 − 3𝑦 2

Example 1.129
𝑑𝑦
Find 𝑑𝑥:
sin 𝑦 = sin 𝑥

𝑑𝑦
cos 𝑦 = cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 cos 𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 cos 𝑦

Example 1.130
𝑑𝑦
Find 𝑑𝑥:
A. 𝑒 2𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥
B. 𝑒 cos 𝑦 + 𝑒 sin 𝑦 = 𝑒 tan 𝑥

Part A
𝑑𝑦
2𝑒 2𝑦 = 𝑒𝑥
𝑑𝑥
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𝑑𝑦 𝑒𝑥
= 2𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2𝑒
Part B
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑒 cos 𝑦 (− sin 𝑦) + 𝑒 sin 𝑦 (cos 𝑦) = 𝑒 tan 𝑥 (sec 2 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 sin 𝑦
(𝑒 (cos 𝑦) − 𝑒 cos 𝑦 (sin 𝑦)) = 𝑒 tan 𝑥 (sec 2 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑒 tan 𝑥 (sec 2 𝑥)
= sin 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑒 (cos 𝑦) − 𝑒 cos 𝑦 (sin 𝑦)
D. Product Rule

1.131: Product Rule

(𝑓𝑔)′ = 𝑓 ′ 𝑔 + 𝑓𝑔′

Example 1.132:
Differentiate with respect to 𝑥:
cos 𝑦 sin 𝑦

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
(− sin 𝑦 ) (sin 𝑦) + cos 𝑦 (cos 𝑦 ) = cos2 𝑦 − sin2 𝑦 = (cos 2 𝑦 − sin2 𝑦)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Example 1.133:
𝑑𝑦
Find :
𝑑𝑥
𝑥𝑦 2 = 𝑦𝑥 2 + 𝑥

Differentiate both sides of the given equation with respect to 𝑥:

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2
𝑥 (2𝑦) ( ) + (1)
⏟
⏟
⏟𝑦 ⏟2 = ⏟
𝑦 (2𝑥)
⏟+ ⏟𝑥 ⏟+1
𝑓
𝑑𝑥 ′ ′
𝑑𝑥 𝑔
𝑓 𝑔 𝑓 𝑔
𝑔′ 𝑓′

𝑑𝑦
Collate all 𝑑𝑥 terms on the LHS, and all other terms on the RHS:
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
( ) 2𝑥𝑦 − ( ) 𝑥 2 = 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 + 1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
Factor 𝑑𝑥 on the LHS:
𝑑𝑦
( ) (2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥 2 ) = 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 + 1
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
Solve for 𝑑𝑥:
𝑑𝑦 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 2 + 1
=
𝑑𝑥 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥 2

Example 1.134
𝑑𝑦
Find 𝑑𝑥:
𝑦 3 = sin 𝑥 cos 𝑦

Differentiate both sides of the given equation with respect to 𝑥:

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𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
3𝑦 2 = cos
⏟𝑥 ⏟ ⏟𝑥 (− sin 𝑦)
cos 𝑦 + sin
𝑑𝑥 ⏟ 𝑑𝑥
𝑓′ 𝑔 𝑓
𝑔′

𝑑𝑦
Collate all 𝑑𝑥 terms on one side:
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
3𝑦 2 + sin 𝑥 sin 𝑦 = cos 𝑥 cos 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Factor out :
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
(3𝑦 2 + sin 𝑥 sin 𝑦) = cos 𝑥 cos 𝑦
𝑑𝑥

Divide both sides by 3𝑦 2 + sin 𝑥 sin 𝑦:

𝑑𝑦 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑦
= 2
𝑑𝑥 3𝑦 + sin 𝑥 sin 𝑦

Example 1.135
𝑑𝑦
Find 𝑑𝑥:
sec(𝑥 + 𝑦) = csc(𝑥𝑦)

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
sec(𝑥 + 𝑦) tan(𝑥 + 𝑦) (1 + ) = − csc(𝑥𝑦) cot(𝑥𝑦) (𝑥 + 𝑦)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Use a change of variable. Let:

sec(𝑥 + 𝑦) tan(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑨
− csc(𝑥𝑦) cot(𝑥𝑦) = 𝑩
Then, we get:
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝐴 (1 + ) = 𝐵 (𝑥 + 𝑦)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Use the distributive property:
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝐴+𝐴 = 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Collate 𝑑𝑥 terms on one side:
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝐴 − 𝐵𝑥 = 𝐵𝑦 − 𝐴
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Factor 𝑑𝑥:
𝑑𝑦
(𝐴 − 𝐵𝑥) = 𝐵𝑦 − 𝐴
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Solve for 𝑑𝑥:
𝑑𝑦 𝐵𝑦 − 𝐴
=
𝑑𝑥 𝐴 − 𝐵𝑥
Change back to the original variable:
𝑑𝑦 csc(𝑥𝑦) cot(𝑥𝑦) 𝑦 + sec(𝑥 + 𝑦) tan(𝑥 + 𝑦)
=−
𝑑𝑥 sec(𝑥 + 𝑦) tan(𝑥 + 𝑦) + csc(𝑥𝑦) cot(𝑥𝑦) 𝑥

E. Second Derivatives/Quotient Rule

Example 1.136
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𝑑2 𝑦
Evaluate 𝑑𝑥 2 at the point (√2, √2) given that 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Differentiate both sides of the given equation with respect to 𝑥:

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑥
2𝑥 + 2𝑦 =0⇒ =−
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
⏟ 𝑦
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰

𝑓 ′ 𝑔𝑓′ −𝑓𝑔′
Differentiate both sides of Equation I with respect to 𝑥 using the Quotient Rule: (𝑔) = 𝑔2
in the RHS:
𝑑𝑦
𝑑2 𝑦 (𝑦)(1) − (𝑥) ( ) 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 − 𝑦
𝑑𝑥
=− = 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑦2 𝑦

𝑑𝑦 𝑥
Substitute 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑦
𝑥
𝑥 (− 𝑦) − 𝑦 −𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2
= =
𝑦2 𝑦3

Substitute 𝑥 2 = 𝑟 2 − 𝑦 2 :
−(𝑟 2 − 𝑦 2 ) − 𝑦 2 𝑟2
= = −
𝑦3 𝑦3

Substitute (𝑥, 𝑦) = (√2, √2) in the above to evaluate the second derivative at the given point:
𝑟2 𝑟2
=− 3 = −
(√2) 2√2

F. Tangents, Slopes and Normals

Example 1.137
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
A. If the point (−1,1) lies on the curve above, find the value of 𝑟.
B. Find the tangent and the normal to the curve above at the point (−1,1) for the value of 𝑟 that you
calculated.

Part A
Substitute (𝑥, 𝑦) = (−1,1) in 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2 :
(−1)2 + 12 = 𝑟 2
𝑟2 = 2
𝑟 = ±√2
Part B

𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑟2
Differentiate both sides of the given equation with respect to 𝑥:
𝑑𝑦
2𝑥 + 2𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑥
=−
𝑑𝑥 𝑦
Tangent
Slope at (−1,1):
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−1
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = − =1
1
Substitute (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (−1,1), 𝑚 = 1 into the point-slope form of the equation of a line:
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑦 − 1 = 1(𝑥 + 1)
𝑦=𝑥+2
Normal
Slope of normal is the negative reciprocal of the slope of the tangent:
= −1

Substitute (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (−1,1), 𝑚 = −1 into the point-slope form of the equation of a line:
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑦 − 1 = −1(𝑥 + 1)
𝑦 = −𝑥

Implicit
Differentiation

Second
Chain Rule Applications
Derivatives

Expressions Slope

Equations Tangents

Product Rule Normals

Quotient Rule

1.7 Inverse and Logarithmic Derivatives

A. Derivative of an Inverse Function

1.138: Derivative of an Inverse Function

1
(𝑓 −1 )′ (𝑥) =
𝑓 ′ (𝑓 −1 (𝑥))
Provided that
➢ 𝑓(𝑥) is invertible and differentiable
➢ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) ≠ 0 at any point in its domain

By definition, a function and its inverse “cancel” each other. Hence:

𝑓(𝑓 −1 (𝑥)) = 𝑥
Differentiate both sides of the above using the chain rule:
1
𝑓 ′ (𝑓 −1 (𝑥)) × (𝑓 −1 )′ (𝑥) = 1 ⇒ (𝑓 −1 )′ (𝑥) =
𝑓 ′ (𝑓 −1 (𝑥))
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Example 1.139
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥
A. Find 𝑓′ using exponentials
B. Find 𝑓′ using the formula for the derivative of an inverse function

Part A
𝑒 ln 𝑥 = 𝑥
Differentiate both sides with respect to 𝑥:
𝑒 ln 𝑥 × (ln 𝑥)′ = 1
′
Solve for (ln 𝑥) :
1 1
(ln 𝑥)′ = =
𝑒 ln 𝑥 𝑥
Part B
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 ⇒ (𝑔−1 )(𝑥) = ln 𝑥 , 𝑔′ (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥

1
(𝑔−1 )′ (𝑥) =
𝑔′ (𝑔−1 (𝑥))
1 1 1
(ln 𝑥)′ (𝑥) = = =
𝑔′ (ln 𝑥) 𝑒 ln 𝑥 𝑥

Example 1.140
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥
A. Find 𝑓′ using exponentials
B. Find 𝑓′ using the formula for the derivative of an inverse function

Part B
𝑎log𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑥
Differentiate both sides with respect to 𝑥:
𝑎log𝑎 𝑥 × ln𝑎 𝑥 × (log 𝑎 𝑥)′ = 1
′
Solve for (log 𝑎 𝑥) :
1 1
(log 𝑎 𝑥)′ = log 𝑥 =
𝑎 𝑎 × ln𝑎 𝑥 𝑥 ln𝑎 𝑥
B. Natural Logarithm

1.141: Derivative of the Natural Logarithm

𝑑 1
ln 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

Example 1.142: Log Rules

Some derivatives can be calculated conveniently by making use of the laws of logarithms.

A. ln 𝑥 𝜋
B. ln 𝜃 𝑒
C. ln 2𝑥
D. ln 𝑥 2

Use the power rule for logarithms: log 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑛 log 𝑥

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𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 1 𝜋
ln 𝑥 𝜋 = 𝜋 ln 𝑥 = 𝜋 ln 𝑥 = 𝜋 ( ) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑒 ′ ′ ′
1 𝑒
(ln 𝜃 ) = (𝑒 ln 𝜃) = 𝑒(ln 𝜃) = 𝑒 ( ) =
𝜃 𝜃
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 1 1
(ln 2𝑥) = (ln 2 + ln 𝑥) = ln 2 + ln 𝑥 = 0 + =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 2
(ln 𝑥 2 ) = (2 ln 𝑥) = 2 ln 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥

Example 1.143: Log Rules

𝑑 ln 𝑦
A. 𝑑𝑦
𝑒
𝑑
B. 𝑑𝑥
ln 𝑒 𝑥

𝑑
𝑒 ln 𝑦 = 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑦=1
𝑑𝑦
ln 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝐷𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑠 1

Example 1.144
𝑑
(3 ln 2𝑥 4 )
𝑑𝑥

Simplify the function that we wish to differentiate:

3 ln 2𝑥 4 = 3(ln 2 + ln 𝑥 4 ) = 3(ln 2 + 4 ln 𝑥) = 3 ln 2 + 12 ln 𝑥

Substitute the simplified version and find the derivative:

𝑑 12 12
3 ln 2 + 12 ln 𝑥 = 0 + =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

Example 1.145: Product Rule

(𝑓𝑔) = 𝑓 ′ 𝑔 + 𝑓𝑔′
A. 𝑥 ∙ ln 𝑥
B. √𝑥 ∙ ln 𝑥

𝑥 × (ln 𝑥)′ + (𝑥)′ × ln 𝑥 = 1 + ln 𝑥

′ ln 𝑥 √𝑥
(√𝑥) ln 𝑥 + √𝑥(ln 𝑥)′ = +
2√𝑥 𝑥

Example 1.146: Quotient Rule

𝑓 ′ 𝒈𝑓 ′ − 𝑔′ 𝑓
( ) =
𝑔 𝒈𝟐
ln 𝑥
A. 𝑥
ln 𝑥
B.
√𝑥
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𝑥 × (ln 𝑥)′ − ln 𝑥 (𝑥)′ 1 − ln 𝑥

=
𝑥2 𝑥2
1 1 1 1 2 − ln 𝑥
(√𝑥) (𝑥 ) − ( ) (ln 𝑥) ( ) − (ln 𝑥) ( )
𝑑 ln 𝑥 2√𝑥 √ 𝑥 2√𝑥 2√𝑥 2 − ln 𝑥
( )= 2 = = = 3
𝑑𝑥 √𝑥 (√𝑥) 𝑥 𝑥
2𝑥 2

1.147: Three Term Product Rule

(𝑓𝑔ℎ)′ = 𝑓𝑔ℎ′ + 𝑓𝑔′ ℎ + 𝑓 ′ 𝑔ℎ

(𝑓𝑔ℎ)′ = (𝑓𝑔 × ℎ)′ = (𝑓𝑔)′ × ℎ + 𝑓𝑔 × ℎ′ = (𝑓𝑔′ + 𝑓′𝑔)ℎ + 𝑓𝑔ℎ′ = 𝑓𝑔ℎ′ + 𝑓𝑔′ ℎ + 𝑓 ′ 𝑔ℎ

Example 1.148
Find the derivative with respect to suitable variables:
𝑥𝑒 𝑥 ln 𝑥

Method I
(𝑥)′ 𝑒 𝑥 ln 𝑥 + 𝑥(𝑒 𝑥 )′ ln 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 (ln 𝑥)′
Differentiate:
= 𝑒 𝑥 ln 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 ln 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥
𝑥
Factor out 𝑒 :
= 𝑒 𝑥 (ln 𝑥 + 𝑥 ln 𝑥 + 1)
Factor ln 𝑥 from the first two terms:
= 𝑒 𝑥 [(ln 𝑥)(1 + 𝑥) + 1]

Method II

C. Exponentials to Any Base

1.149: Derivative of a Power of any Base

𝑑 𝑥
𝑎 = 𝑎 𝑥 ln 𝑎
𝑑𝑥

Example 1.150
A. 3𝑥
B. 𝑏 𝑥
C. 𝑒 −𝑥

𝑑 𝑥
3 = 3𝑥 ln 3
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑥
𝑏 = 𝑏 𝑥 ln 𝑏
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 −𝑥 𝑑 −1 𝑥
𝑒 = (𝑒 ) = (𝑒 −1 )𝑥 ln(𝑒 −1 ) = −𝑒 −𝑥 ln 𝑒 = −𝑒 −𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1.151: Derivative of a Power of any Base

If 𝑢 = 𝑓(𝑥):
𝑑 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑎 = 𝑎𝑢 ln 𝑎 ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
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Example 1.152
A. 32𝑥
𝑥
B. 73
2
C. 5𝑥
𝑥
D. 7𝑥+1

𝑑 2𝑥
(3 ) = (3𝑥 ln 3)(2)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑥 𝑥
(73 ) = 73
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑥2
(5 ) = (5𝑥 2 ln 𝑥)(2𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑥 𝑥 (𝑥 + 1)(1) − (𝑥)(1) 𝑥 1
(7𝑥+1 ) = (7𝑥+1 ln 7) ( ) = (7 𝑥+1 ln 7) ( )
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 + 1)2 (𝑥 + 1)2

1.153: Derivative of Log to any Base

𝑑 1
log 𝑎 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 ln 𝑎

𝑑 𝑑 ln 𝑥 1 𝑑 1 1 1
log 𝑎 𝑥 = ( )= ∙ ln 𝑥 = × =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ln 𝑎 ln 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 ln 𝑎 𝑥 𝑥 ln 𝑎

Example 1.154
Use the formula for log of any base to find:
𝑑
A. ln 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑥
B. 𝑒
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑 1 1 1
ln 𝑥 = log 𝑒 𝑥 = = =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 ln 𝑒 𝑥×1 𝑥
𝑑 𝑥
𝑒 = 𝑒 ln 𝑒 = 𝑒 × 1 = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

Example 1.155
Find the derivative with respect to 𝑥:
A. log 3 𝑥
B. log 5 (𝑥 + 1)
C. log 𝑏 𝑥
D. 𝑐 𝑥
E. 𝜋 × 𝑐 𝑥
F. 𝑒 × log 𝑧 𝑥
G. 𝑐 𝑥+1

𝑑 1
log 3 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 ln 3
𝑑 1
log 𝑏 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 ln 𝑏
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𝑑 𝑥
𝑐 = 𝑐 𝑥 ln 𝑐
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
𝜋 × 𝑐 𝑥 = 𝜋𝑐 𝑥 ln 𝑐
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑒
𝑒 × log 𝑧 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 ln 𝑧
𝑑 𝑥+1 𝑥+1
𝑐 =𝑐 ln 𝑐
𝑑𝑥

Example 1.156
3
𝑦 = log 𝜋3 𝑒 𝑥 − log 𝜋 √𝑥

Use log properties to simplify before we differentiate.

Use the change of base rule:
3 3
log 𝑒 𝑒 𝑥 log 𝑒 √𝑥 ln 𝑒 𝑥 ln √𝑥 𝑥 ln 𝑥 1
𝑦= − = − = − = ( ) (𝑥 − ln 𝑥)
log 𝑒 𝜋 3 log 𝑒 𝜋 ln 𝜋 3 ln 𝜋 3 ln 𝜋 3 ln 𝜋 3 ln 𝜋

𝑑𝑦 1 1 1 𝑥−1 𝑥−1
=( ) (1 − ) = ( )( )=( )
𝑑𝑥 3 ln 𝜋 𝑥 3 ln 𝜋 𝑥 𝑥(3 ln 𝜋)

Example 1.157: Chain Rule

𝑑 log 𝑥
A. 𝑑𝑥
5 2

𝑑 log 𝑥 1 5log2 𝑥 × log 2 5

5 2 = (5log2 𝑥 )(ln 5) ( )=
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 ln 2 𝑥
D. Chain Rule

Example 1.158
Compare the two functions below. Are they the same? Are their derivatives the same? Are their derivatives
found using the same properties?
A. 𝑓 = ln √𝑥 , 𝑔 = √ln 𝑥
B. 𝑓 = ln 𝑥 2 , 𝑔 = (ln 𝑥)2
C.

Part A
1 1 𝑑 1 1
𝑓 ′ = ln √𝑥 = ln 𝑥 2 = ln 𝑥 ⇒ ln 𝑥 =
2 𝑑𝑥 2 2𝑥
′
1 1 1
𝑔 = × =
2√ln 𝑥 𝑥 2𝑥√ln 𝑥
Part B
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 2
𝑓′ = (ln 𝑥 2 ) = (2 ln 𝑥) = 2 ln 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑 1 2 ln 𝑥
(ln 𝑥)2 = 2(ln 𝑥) × =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

Example 1.159
𝑑
A. 𝑑𝑥
ln(𝑥 2 + 𝑥)
3
B. √ln 𝑥
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C. (ln 𝑥)3

𝑑 1 2𝑥 + 1
[ln(𝑥 2 + 𝑥)] = 2 × (2𝑥 + 1) = 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 +𝑥 𝑥 +𝑥
𝑑 3 𝑑 1 1 1 1
√ln 𝑥 = (ln 𝑥)3 = 2 × = 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
3(ln 𝑥)3 3𝑥(ln 𝑥)3
𝑑 3(ln 𝑥)2
(ln 𝑥)3 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

Example 1.160
A. ln(sin 𝑥)
𝑥
B. ln (tan 2)

𝑑 cos 𝑥
ln(sin 𝑥) = = cot 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 sin 𝑥
𝑥
𝑑 𝑥 1 𝑥 1 cos 2 1 1
2
ln (tan ) = 𝑥 × sec × = 𝑥 × 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2 tan 2 2 2 2 sin 2
2 cos 2 2 sin 2 cos 2
Using sin 2𝜃 = 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃:
1
=
sin 𝑥

Example 1.161: Product Rule

𝑑
sin
⏟𝑥 ln(sec
⏟ 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑓 𝑔

𝑑 1
= cos
⏟𝑥 ⏟ln(sec 𝑥) + sin
⏟𝑥 ∙ × sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 ln(sec 𝑥) + sin 𝑥 tan 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 ⏟
sec 𝑥
𝑓′ 𝑔 𝑓
𝑔′

Example 1.162: Multi Step Chain Rule

𝑑 cot(ln(csc𝑥))
𝑒 2
𝑑𝑥
𝑥
cot(ln(csc )) 𝑥 1 𝑥 𝑥 1
𝑒 ∙ (− csc 2 ln (csc )) ∙
2
𝑥 ∙ (− csc cot ) ∙
2 csc 2 2 2 2
1 cot(ln(csc𝑥)) 𝑥 𝑥
= 𝑒 2 ∙ (csc 2 ln (csc )) (cot )
2 2 2

Example 1.163
𝑒𝑥
Find 𝑦′ given that 𝑦 = ln (1+𝑒 𝑥 )

𝑎
Simplify the expression using log 𝑏 = log 𝑎 − log 𝑏:
𝑦 = ln 𝑒 𝑥 − ln(1 + 𝑒 𝑥 ) = 𝑥 ln 𝑒 − ln(1 + 𝑒 𝑥 ) = 𝑥 − ln(1 + 𝑒 𝑥 )

First, find the derivative of 𝑧 = ln(1 + 𝑒 𝑥 ):

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𝑑𝑢
𝑢 = 1 + 𝑒𝑥 ⇒ = 𝑒𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑧 𝑑 𝑑 1
= ln(1 + 𝑒 𝑥 ) = ln 𝑢 =
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝑢
𝑥
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑢 1 𝑒
= × = × 𝑒𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥 𝑢 1 + 𝑒𝑥
Bringing it all together:
𝑒𝑥 1 + 𝑒𝑥 − 𝑒𝑥 1
𝑦′ = 1 − 𝑥
= 𝑥
=
1+𝑒 1+𝑒 1 + 𝑒𝑥

Example 1.164
Find
𝑑𝑦
| 𝑖𝑓 𝑦 = ln(𝑥 3 + 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝑒 2

𝑑𝑦 3𝑥 2 3𝑥
= 3 = 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑥 + 1
𝑑𝑦 3𝑒 2 3𝑒 2
| = 2 2 = 4
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝑒 2 (𝑒 ) + 1 𝑒 + 1

E. Logarithmic Differentiation

Example 1.165
Find the derivative of 𝑦 = 𝑥(𝑥 + 1)
A. Using the product rule
B. Using implicit differentiation

Part A
𝑦 = 𝑥(1) + (1)(𝑥 + 1) = 2𝑥 + 1
Part B
Take the natural log of both sides of the given equality:
ln 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 + ln(𝑥 + 1)
Differentiate both sides with respect to 𝑥:
1 𝑑𝑦 1 1
× = +
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 + 1
𝑑𝑦
Solve the above for 𝑑𝑥:
𝑑𝑦 1 1
= 𝑦( + )
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥+1
Substitute 𝑦 = 𝑥(𝑥 + 1):
𝑑𝑦 1 1 𝑥(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥(𝑥 + 1)
= 𝑥(𝑥 + 1) ( + )= + = 𝑥 + 1 + 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 1
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥+1 𝑥 𝑥+1

Example 1.166
𝑑𝑦 (𝑥 2 − 1)5
Find if 𝑦 = √ 3
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 + 2)3
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Convert the square root into an exponent and combine:

5
(𝑥 2 − 1)2
𝑦= 3
(𝑥 3 + 2)2

Take the natural log of both sides:

5
(𝑥 2 − 1)2
ln 𝑦 = ln [ 3]
(𝑥 3 + 2)2

Use the quotient rule from logarithms:

5 3
ln 𝑦 = ln(𝑥 2 − 1)2 − ln(𝑥 3 + 2)2

Use the power rule from logarithms:

5 3
ln 𝑦 = ln(𝑥 2 − 1) − ln(𝑥 3 + 2)
2 2

Differentiate both sides implicitly with respect to 𝑥:

1 𝑑𝑦 5 2𝑥 3 3𝑥 2
∙ = ( )( 2 )− ( 3 )
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥 −1 2 𝑥 +2

𝑑𝑦
Solve for 𝑑𝑥:
𝑑𝑦 5𝑥 9𝑥 2
= 𝑦 [( 2 )− ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 −1 2(𝑥 3 + 2)

(𝑥 2 −1)5
Substitute 𝑦 = √(𝑥 3 +2)3

𝑑𝑦 (𝑥 2 − 1)5 5𝑥 9𝑥 2
=√ 3 [( ) − ]
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 + 2)3 𝑥 2 − 1 2(𝑥 3 + 2)

Example 1.167
Can you find the derivative of 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑥 using the
A. Power Rule
B. Log Rule

The power rule is

𝑑 𝑛
𝑥 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 , 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑥
Since x is not a constant, the power rule is not applicable.

𝑑 𝑥
𝑎 = 𝑎 𝑥 ln 𝑎 , 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑥
Since x is not a constant, the log rule is not applicable.

Example 1.168
Find the derivative of 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑥 .
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(𝑥 ln 𝑥)′ = 𝑥 × (ln 𝑥)′ + (𝑥)′ × ln 𝑥 = 1 + ln 𝑥

Part A
𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑥 = 𝑒 ln 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 ln 𝑥
Hence, we get:
𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 ln 𝑥
Differentiate both sides, and use the chain rule on the RHS:
𝑑𝑦
= (𝑒 𝑥 ln 𝑥 )(𝑥 ln 𝑥)′ = (𝑥 𝑥 )(1 + ln 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
Part B: Using Implicit Differentiation
𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥
Take the natural log of both sides:
ln 𝑦 = ⏟
𝑥 ln
⏟ 𝑥
𝑓 𝑔
Differentiate both sides implicitly with respect to 𝑥:
1 𝑑𝑦
∙ = ln 𝑥 + 1
𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑦(ln 𝑥 + 1) = (𝑥 𝑥 )(ln 𝑥 + 1)
𝑑𝑥

Example 1.169
𝑥
A. 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑥
B. 𝑦 = (2𝑥 + 3𝑎)3𝑥+2𝑎 , 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Part A
Take the natural log of both sides:
ln 𝑦 = 𝑥⏟𝑥 ln
⏟ 𝑥
𝑓 𝑔
Differentiate both sides with respect to 𝑥:
1 𝑑𝑦 1
∙ ⏟ 𝑥 )(ln 𝑥 + 1) ln
= (𝑥 ⏟ 𝑥 + 𝑥⏟𝑥
⏟
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 ′ 𝑔 𝑓
𝑥
𝑓
𝑔′
𝑥
Factor out 𝑥 :
𝑑𝑦 1
= 𝑦(𝑥 𝑥 ) [(ln 𝑥 + 1) ln 𝑥 + ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑥
Substitute 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑥 1
= (𝑥 𝑥 )(𝑥 𝑥 ) [(ln 𝑥)2 + ln 𝑥 + ]
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
Part B
𝑦 = (2𝑥 + 3𝑎)3𝑥+2𝑎
Take the natural log of both sides:
ln 𝑦 = (3𝑥 + 2𝑎) ln(2𝑥 + 3𝑎)
Differentiate both sides with respect to 𝑥:
1 𝑑𝑦 2(3𝑥 + 2𝑎)
∙ = (3) ln(2𝑥 + 3𝑎) +
𝑦 𝑑𝑥 2𝑥 + 3𝑎
𝑑𝑦 2(3𝑥 + 2𝑎)
= 𝑦 [(3) ln(2𝑥 + 3𝑎) + ]
𝑑𝑥 2𝑥 + 3𝑎
𝑑𝑦 2(3𝑥 + 2𝑎)
= ((2𝑥 + 3𝑎)3𝑥+2𝑎 ) [(3) ln(2𝑥 + 3𝑎) + ]
𝑑𝑥 2𝑥 + 3𝑎
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Example 1.170
𝑑𝑦
Find 𝑑𝑥 given that
𝑥𝑦 = 𝑦𝑥

Take the natural log of both sides:

𝑦 ln 𝑥 = 𝑥 ln 𝑦
Differentiate both sides with respect to 𝑥:
1 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦
𝑦 ( ) + ( ) (ln 𝑥) = 𝑥 ( ) ( ) + ln 𝑦
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Collate all 𝑑𝑥 terms on the LHS:
𝑑𝑦 𝑥 𝑦
[ln 𝑥 − ] = ln 𝑦 −
𝑑𝑥 𝑦 𝑥
Add the fractions:
𝑑𝑦 𝑦(ln 𝑥) − 𝑥 𝑥(ln 𝑦) − 𝑦
[ ]=
𝑑𝑥 𝑦 𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Solve for :
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑦 𝑥(ln 𝑦) − 𝑦
= ( )( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑦(ln 𝑥) − 𝑥
𝑦 𝑥 ln 𝑦 − 𝑦
ln 𝑦 − 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 ln 𝑦 − 𝑦 𝑦
𝑥 = 𝑦 ln 𝑥 − 𝑥 = 𝑥
×
𝑦 ln 𝑥 − 𝑥
=
ln 𝑥 −
𝑦 𝑦

Example 1.171
𝑦 = 𝑥 ln 𝑥

ln 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 ln 𝑥
ln 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 ∙ ln 𝑥
ln 𝑦 = (ln 𝑥)2

Example 1.172
𝑦 = ln(𝑥 2 − 16)

⏟2 − 16)
𝑦 = ln (𝑥
⏟ 𝐼𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑓
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓

1 2𝑥
𝑦= × (𝑥 2 − 16)′ = 2
𝑥2 − 16 𝑥 − 16

1.8 Inverse Trigonometric Derivatives

A. Derivative of 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 𝒙 and 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 𝒙
The derivatives of the inverse trigonometric functions can be calculated using a variety of methods. An
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important thing to note is that the derivative of an inverse trigonometric function does not involve
trigonometry, but has only algebraic terms.

1.173: Derivative of 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 𝒙

𝑑 1
(sin−1 𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2

Method I: Implicit Differentiation

Let
𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥 ⇒ sin 𝑦 = 𝑥
Differentiate both sides implicitly with respect to 𝑥:
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 1 1
cos 𝑦 =1⇒ = =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 cos 𝑦 cos(sin−1 𝑥)
Method II: Using the Chain Rule
Differentiate both sides of the identity sin(sin−1 𝑥) = 𝑥 using the chain rule:
𝑑 𝑑 1
cos(sin−1 𝑥) (sin−1 𝑥) = 1 ⇒ (sin−1 𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 cos(sin−1 𝑥)
Method III: Using the formula for the derivative of an inverse function
Make the substitutions 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = cos 𝑥 , 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = sin−1 𝑥 in the formula:
1 1
(𝑓 −1 )′ (𝑥) = =
𝑓 (𝑓 (𝑥)) cos(sin−1 𝑥)
′ −1

In all cases above, we need to find the value of the denominator, which is a trigonometric function of an
inverse trigonometric function. We accomplish this using a combination of two techniques:
➢ a change of variable
➢ the introduction of a reference triangle.

Start with the change of variable. Let the angle given by sin−1 𝑥 be 𝜃. That is:
𝑥 𝑜𝑝𝑝
𝜃 = sin−1 𝑥 ⇒ sin 𝜃 = =
1 ℎ𝑦𝑝
Draw a reference triangle, and note that by the Pythagorean theorem, the side
opposite 𝜃:
𝐴𝑑𝑗 = √𝐻𝑦𝑝2 − 𝑂𝑝𝑝2 = √1 − 𝑥 2
Then:
𝑎𝑑𝑗 √1 − 𝑥 2
cos 𝜃 = = = √1 − 𝑥 2
ℎ𝑦𝑝 1
And finally:
𝑑 1 1 1
(sin−1 𝑥) = −1
= =
𝑑𝑥 cos(sin 𝑥) cos 𝜃 √1 − 𝑥 2

1.174: Chain Rule with 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 𝒙

If 𝑢 = 𝑓(𝑥), then
𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢
(sin−1 𝑢) = ×
𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑢2 𝑑𝑥

Example 1.175
𝑑
A. 𝑑𝑥
sin−1(2𝑥 3 )
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𝑑
B. 𝑑𝑥
sin−1(√𝑥)
𝑑
C. 𝑑𝑥
ln(sin−1 2𝑥)

Part A
𝑑 1 6𝑥 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (2𝑥 3 ) = × 6𝑥 2 =
𝑑𝑥 √1 − (2𝑥 3 )2 √1 − 4𝑥 6
Part B
𝑑 1 1 1
sin−1(√𝑥) = × =
𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2√𝑥 2√𝑥(1 − 𝑥)
Part C
𝑑 1 1 2
ln(sin−1 2𝑥) = −1
× ×2=
𝑑𝑥 sin 2𝑥 √1 − 4𝑥 2 (sin−1 2𝑥)(√1 − 4𝑥 2 )

Example 1.176
1 1
𝑡√1 − 𝑡 2 + sin−1 𝑡
2 2

Using the product rule

𝑑 1 1 1 −2𝑡 1 −𝑡 2 1 − 2𝑡 2
( 𝑡√1 − 𝑡 2 ) = √1 − 𝑡 2 + 𝑡 ∙ = √1 − 𝑡 2 + =
𝑑𝑡 2 2 2 2√1 − 𝑡 2 2 2√1 − 𝑡 2 2√1 − 𝑡 2

𝑑 1 −1 1
( sin 𝑡) =
𝑑𝑡 2 2√1 − 𝑡 2

1 − 2𝑡 2 1 2 − 2𝑡 2 1 − 𝑡2
+ = = = √1 − 𝑡 2
2√1 − 𝑡2 2√1 − 𝑡2 2√1 − 𝑡2 √1 − 𝑡2

1.177: Inverse Trig Identity

𝜋
cos−1 𝑥 = − sin−1 𝑥
2

1.178: Derivative of 𝐜𝐨𝐬 −𝟏 𝒙

𝑑 1
cos −1 𝑥 = −
𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2

𝑑 𝑑 𝜋 1
cos−1 𝑥 = ( − sin−1 𝑥) = −
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 √1 − 𝑥 2

Example 1.179
𝑑
A. cos−1(ln 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 1 1 1
cos −1(ln 𝑥) = − × =−
𝑑𝑥 √1 − (ln 𝑥)2 𝑥 𝑥√1 − (ln 𝑥)2
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B. Derivatives of 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝒙 and 𝒄𝒐𝒕−𝟏 𝒙

1.180: Derivative of 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝒙

𝑑 1
(tan−1 𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑥2
𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢
(tan−1 𝑢) = 2
×
𝑑𝑥 1+𝑢 𝑑𝑥

tan 𝑦 = 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1
=
𝑑𝑥 sec 2 𝑦
From the reference triangle:
2
𝑥 1 2
1 1
tan 𝑦 = ⇒ 2
= cos 𝑦 = ( ) =
1 sec 𝑦 2
√𝑥 + 1 1 + 𝑥2

Example 1.181
𝑑
A. tan−1 (2√𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑥
𝑑 −1
B. 𝑑𝑥
tan (𝑒 2)

𝑑 1 1 1
tan−1(2√𝑥) = × =
𝑑𝑥 1 + 4𝑥 √𝑥 √𝑥(1 + 4𝑥)
𝑥
𝑑 𝑥 1 𝑥 1 𝑒2
tan−1 (𝑒 2 ) = 𝑥
× 𝑒2 × =
𝑑𝑥 1+𝑒 2 2(1 + 𝑒 𝑥 )

1.182: Inverse Trig Identity

𝜋
cot −1 𝑥 = − tan−1 𝑥
2

1.183: Derivative of 𝐜𝐨𝐭 −𝟏 𝒙

𝑑 1
(cot −1 𝑥) = −
𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑥2
𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢
(cot −1 𝑢) = − ×
𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑢2 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑 𝜋 1
(cot −1 𝑥) = ( − tan−1 𝑥) = −
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 1 + 𝑥2

Example 1.184
𝑑
A. 𝑑𝑡
cot −1 (𝑒 √𝑡 )
𝑑
B. 𝑑𝑥
cot −1 (𝑥 ∙ ln 𝑥)

Part A
2
(𝑒 √𝑡 ) = 𝑒 2√𝑡
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𝑑 1 1 𝑒 √𝑡
cot −1 (𝑒 √𝑡 ) = − × 𝑒 √𝑡 × =−
𝑑𝑡 1 + 𝑒 2√𝑡 2√𝑡 2√𝑡(1 + 𝑒 2√𝑡 )
Part B

𝑑 1 1 + ln 𝑥
cot −1 (𝑥 ∙ ln 𝑥) = − × (1 + ln 𝑥) = −
𝑑𝑥 1 + (𝑥 ∙ ln 𝑥)2 1 + (𝑥 ∙ ln 𝑥)2
C. Derivatives of 𝒔𝒆𝒄−𝟏 𝒙 and 𝒄𝒔𝒄−𝟏 𝒙

1.185: Derivative of 𝐬𝐞𝐜 −𝟏 𝒙

𝑑 1
(sec −1 𝑥) =
𝑑𝑥 |𝑥|√𝑥 2 − 1
𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢
(sec −1 𝑢) = ×
𝑑𝑥 |𝑢|√𝑢2 − 1 𝑑𝑥

Example 1.186
𝑑 𝑥
A. 𝑑𝑥
sec −1 2
𝑑
B. 𝑑𝑥
sec −1 𝑥 2

𝑑 𝑥 1
sec −1 =
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥 𝑥2
2 |2 | √ 4 − 1
𝑑 1 2
sec −1 𝑥 2 = × 2𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 |𝑥 2 |√𝑥 4 − 1 𝑥√𝑥 4 − 1

1.187: Inverse Trig Identity

𝜋
csc −1 𝑥 = − sec −1 𝑥
2

1.188: Derivative of 𝐜𝐬𝐜 −𝟏 𝒙

𝑑 1
(csc −1 𝑥) = −
𝑑𝑥 |𝑥|√𝑥 2 − 1

𝑑 𝑑 𝜋 1
(csc −1 𝑥) = ( − sec −1 𝑥) = −
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 |𝑥|√𝑥 2 − 1

Example 1.189
𝑑 𝑒
A. 𝑑𝑥
(csc −1 2)

𝑑 𝑒
(csc −1 ) = 0
𝑑𝑥 2
D. Further Examples

1.190: Summary of Inverse Trigonometric Derivatives

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𝑑 1 𝑑 1
(sin−1 𝑥) = , (cos−1 𝑥) = −
𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2
𝑑 1 𝑑 1
(tan−1 𝑥) = , (cot −1 𝑥) = −
𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑥2
𝑑 1 𝑑 1
(sec −1 𝑥) = , (csc −1 𝑥) = −
𝑑𝑥 𝑥√𝑥 2 − 1 𝑑𝑥 |𝑥|√𝑥 2 − 1

➢ All of the cofunction derivatives have a minus sign in front, and the expression is otherwise the same
as the corresponding function.

Example 1.191: Quotient Rule

Find the derivative of:
𝑑 𝑥−1
sin−1 ( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑥+1

𝑑 1
(sin−1 𝑢) =
𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑢2

−1
𝑥−1 ′ 1 𝑥−1 ′
(sin ) = ×( )
𝑥+1 2 𝑥+1
√1 − (𝑥 − 1)
𝑥+1

𝑥 − 1 ′ (𝑥 + 1)(1) − (𝑥 − 1)(1) 2
𝑢=( ) = 2
=
𝑥+1 (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 + 1)2
1 1 1 1 |𝑥 + 1|
𝑣= = = = =
2 2 4𝑥 2√𝑥 2√𝑥
√1 − (𝑥 − 1) √1 − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 √ 2 |𝑥
𝑥+1 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 1 (𝑥 + 1) + 1|

2 |𝑥 + 1| 1
𝑢𝑣 = 2
∙ =
(𝑥 + 1) 2√𝑥 √𝑥(𝑥 + 1)

1.9 Graphical Transformations

A. Shifts
Recall that, by definition, the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) is 𝑓′(𝑥). That is:
𝑑
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
1.192: Vertical Shift
𝑑
𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑓′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

Algebraic Method
Use the sum rule:
𝑑 𝑑
𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑐 = 𝑓′(𝑥) + 0 = 𝑓′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Graphical Method
Moving a function up or down does not change the slope at any point of the function.
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Hence, the derivative remains unchanged.

Example 1.193

𝑑 𝑥
𝑒 = 𝑒𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑥
𝑒 + 2 = 𝑒𝑥
𝑑𝑥

1.194: Vertical Scale

𝑑 𝑑
𝑘𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Algebraic Method
This is true by the constant multiple rule.
Graphical Method
Scaling a function vertically by a factor of 𝑘 also changes the slope by a factor of 𝑘, and hence the property is
true.

1.195: Horizontal Scaling

𝑑
𝑓(𝑘𝑥) = 𝑘 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

Graphical Method
Compressing a function horizontally by a factor of 𝑘, increases the rate of change, and hence the slope by a
factor of 𝑘.

1.196: Horizontal Shift

𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑘)

A horizontal shift is equivalent to replacing 𝑥 with 𝑥 + 𝑘. In general, the derivative does not remain the same.

Example 1.197
A. Show by counterexample that

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 ⇒ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥
Shift 𝑓(𝑥) by 1 to the right to get 𝑔(𝑥)

𝑔(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 1)2 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 ⇒ 𝑔′(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 2

Example 1.198

𝑑 𝑥
𝑒 = 𝑒𝑥
𝑑𝑥
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𝑑 𝑥+𝑐
𝑒 = 𝑒 𝑥+𝑐
𝑑𝑥

Example 1.199

𝑦 = sin(𝜃) ⇒ 𝑦 = cos 𝜃
𝑑𝑦
𝑦 = sin(2𝜋 + 𝜃) = sin(𝜃) ⇒ = cos 𝜃
𝑑𝑥
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2. USING DERIVATIVES
2.1 Slope, Tangents and Normals
A. Slope

2.1: Slope Interpretation of Derivative

The derivative of a function at a point represents the slope of the function at that point.

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑎𝑡 𝑥

Example 2.2
Find the interval where the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + 15𝑥 2 + 36𝑥 has positive slope.

𝑓 ′ = 6𝑥 2 + 30𝑥 + 36

6(𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6)
6(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3)

(−∞, −3) ∪ (−2, ∞)

Example 2.3
1
Find the values where the slope of 𝑦 = 4 𝑥 2 (𝑥 2 − 1) is positive.

𝑑𝑦 𝑑 1 2 2 1
= [ 𝑥 (𝑥 − 1)] = (4𝑥 3 − 2𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 4 4
𝑑𝑦
The slope of 𝑦 is given by . Hence, we need the slope to be positive:
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
>0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Substitute 𝑑𝑥 as calculated above:
1
(4𝑥 3 − 2𝑥) > 0
4
4𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 > 0
𝑥(2𝑥 2 − 1) > 0

To find the critical points, equate the LHS to zero:

1
𝑥(2𝑥 2 − 1) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 0 𝑂𝑅 2𝑥 2 − 1 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = ±√
2

1 1
𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠: 𝑥 ∈ {−√ , 0, √ }
2 2
The critical points divide the real number into three distinct parts:

1 1 1
(−∞, −√ ) ( −√ , 0) ( 0, √ )
2 2 2
−𝑣𝑒 +𝑣𝑒 −𝑣𝑒
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Example 2.4
𝑏
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 +
𝑥2
Find (𝑎, 𝑏) if the graph of 𝑦 has slope 3 at the point (2,0).

Use the value of the curve at the known point:

𝑏 𝑏
𝑎𝑥 + 2 | = 0 ⇒ 2𝑎 + = 0 ⇒ ⏟
8𝑎 + 𝑏 = 0
𝑥 𝑥=2 4 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰

Use the value of the derivative of the curve at the known point:
𝑑𝑦 2𝑏 2𝑏
| = 3 ⇒ 𝑎 − 3| =3⇒𝑎− = 3 ⇒ 4𝑎 − 𝑏 = 12 ⇒ ⏟
𝑏 = 4𝑎 − 12
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=2 𝑥 𝑥=2 8 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰

Substitute the value of b from Equation II in Equation I:

8𝑎 + 4𝑎 − 12 = 0 ⇒ 12𝑎 = 12 ⇒ 𝑎 = 1

Substitute 𝑎 = 1 in Equation I:
8𝑎 + 𝑏 = 0 ⇒ 8 + 𝑏 = 0 ⇒ 𝑏 = −8

(𝑎, 𝑏) = (−1,8)
B. Tangents

Example 2.5
𝑦 = 3𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥
Find the coordinates of the point where the tangent to the curve at 𝑥 = 1 meets the curve again.

𝑑𝑦
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 = | = (9𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 2)𝑥=2 = 7
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=2
𝑦(1) = 3(1)3 − 2(1)2 + 2(1) = 3
Substitute 𝑚 = 7, (𝑥, 𝑦) = (1,3) in the slope point form 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) of the equation of a line:
𝑦 − 3 = 7(𝑥 − 1)
𝑦 = 7𝑥 − 4
To find where the tangent to the curve intersects the curve again, equate the two:

3𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 = 7𝑥 − 4
Use the Remainder Theorem:

𝑃(1) = 3𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 4 = 3(1)3 − 2(1)2 − 5(1) + 4 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 − 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

Factor:
(𝑥 − 1)(3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 4) = 0
(𝑥 − 1)(3𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 1) = 0
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4
𝑥 = 1 𝑂𝑟 𝑥 = −
3

Example 2.6: Multiple Tangents

Find the equation of tangents to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 − 4 which are perpendicular to the line 𝑥 + 14𝑦 − 3 =
0. (CBSE 2016)

𝑥 + 14𝑦 − 3 = 0
14𝑦 = −𝑥 + 3
𝑥 3
𝑦=− +
14 14
1
𝑚1 = −
14

Differentiate
𝑚2 = 𝑦 ′ = 3𝑥 2 + 2

Since the tangent is perpendicular to the line, the product of the slopes must be −1:
𝑚1 𝑚2 = −1
1
(− ) (3𝑥 2 + 2) = −1
14
3𝑥 2 + 2 = 14
3𝑥 2 = 12
𝑥2 = 4
𝑥 = ±2

When 𝑥 = 2
𝑦(2) = 23 + (2)2 − 4 = 8 ⇒ (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (2,8)
𝑦(−2) = (−2)3 + (−2)2 − 4 = −16 ⇒ (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) = (−2,16)

𝑦 ′ (2) = 3(2)2 + 4 = 14
′ (−2)
𝑦 = 3(−2)2 + 4 = 14

𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑦 − 8 = 14(𝑥 − 2)
𝑦 − 16 = 14(𝑥 + 2)

Example 2.7
Find the points on the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 at which the slope of the tangent is equal to the 𝑦-coordinate of the point.
(CBSE 2011)

𝑦′ = 𝑦
3𝑥 2 = 𝑥 3
𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 = 0
𝑥 2 (𝑥 − 3) = 0
𝑥 ∈ {0,3}

𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑦 = 0 ⇒ (0,0)
𝑥 = 3 ⇒ 𝑦 = 27 ⇒ (3,27)
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C. Normals

2.8: Normal at a point

The line perpendicular to the tangent at a point is called the normal.

Example 2.9
Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 6, find the
A. equation of the tangent to the function at 𝑥 = 1.
B. equation of the normal to the function at 𝑥 = 1.
C. find the coordinates of the point(s) where the tangent is horizontal.

Part A
We can find the coordinates of a point on the line by evaluating the
function at 𝑥 = 1:
𝑓(1) = 12 + 5 − 6 = 0 ⇒ (𝑥, 𝑦) = (1,0)

Find the derivative and use it to calculate the slope at 𝑥 = 1:

𝑓 ′ = 2𝑥 + 5 ⇒ 𝑚 = 𝑓 ′ (1) = 2 + 5 = 7

Since know (𝑥, 𝑦) = (1,0) and 𝑚 = 7, we can find the 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 by

substituting in the equation of a line:
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 ⇒ 0 = 7 + 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑐 = −7

Finally, we can substitute 𝑚 = 7, 𝑐 = −7 in 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐:

𝑦 = 7𝑥 − 7
Part B
From the above, we know:
1
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 7 ⇒ 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 = −
7
1
Substitute (𝑥, 𝑦) = (1,0) and 𝑚 = − 7 in the equation of a line:
1 1
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 ⇒ 0 = − + 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑐 =
7 7
1 1
Substitute 𝑚 = − 7 , 𝑐 = 7 in 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐:
1 1
𝑦=− 𝑥+
7 7
Part C
5
2𝑥 + 5 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −
2

2.10: Vertex of a Parabola

The minimum/maximum of a parabola 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 occurs when the tangent to the parabola is
horizontal, and is given by:
𝑏
−
2𝑎

The slope function of the parabola is given by:

𝑦 ′ = 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏

For the tangent to be horizontal, the slope must be zero:

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𝑏
2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −
2𝑎

Example 2.11:
Is it possible for a parabola to not have a horizontal tangent?
Horizontal Tangents
Tangents from a point
No Tangents from a point

Example 2.12
Find the equation of the normal to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 8 when 𝑥 = 2.

Find the point on the curve when 𝑥 = 2:

𝑦(2) = 23 − 8 = 8 − 8 = 0
The derivative gives you the slope of the curve at a point. Hence, evaluate the derivative at 𝑥 = 2:
𝑑𝑦
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 = | = 3𝑥 2 |𝑥=2 = 3(2)2 = 12
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=2
Since the normal and the tangent are perpendicular to each other, their slopes are negative reciprocals of each
other.
1 1
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 = − =−
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 12
1
Substitute 𝑚 = − 12 , (𝑥, 𝑦) = (2,0) in the slope point form 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) of the equation of a line:
1
𝑦 − 0 = − (𝑥 − 2)
12
1 1
𝑦=− 𝑥+
12 6

Example 2.13
1: Find the equation of the tangent to the curve 𝑦 = √3𝑥 − 2 which is parallel to the line 4𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 5 = 0.
Also, write the equation of the normal to the curve at the point of contact. (CBSE 2019)

Rearrange the line in slope intercept form to identify the slope:

4 5 4
4𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 5 = 0 ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑥 + ⇒ 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑚 = = 2
2 2 2

Calculate the derivative, and note the derivative is also the slope:
𝑑𝑦 3
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = =
𝑑𝑥 2√3𝑥 − 2

At the point of contact of the tangent, the two values of the slope must be equal:
3
=2=2
2√3𝑥1 − 2
3 = 4√3𝑥1 − 2
9 = 16(3𝑥1 − 2)
41
𝑥1 =
48
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41 3
𝑦1 = √3𝑥1 − 2 = √3 ( )−2 =
48 4
41 3
(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = ( , )
48 4

Tangent:
48𝑥 − 24𝑦 = 23

1
𝑚2 = −
2
Equation of the Normal:
96𝑦 + 48𝑥 − 113 = 0

Example 2.14: Implicit Differentiation

𝑥2 𝑦2
10: Find the equations of the tangent and the normal to the curves 𝑎2 − 𝑏2 = 1 at the point (√2𝑎, 𝑏). (CBSE
2014)

D. Trigonometric Functions

Example 2.15
𝜋
Find the tangent to the curve 𝑦 = sec 𝑥 at (𝑥, 𝑦) = ( 3 , 2)
𝑦 ′ = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥

𝜋 𝜋
𝑚 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 = sec tan = (2)(√3) = 2√3
3 3

𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝜋
𝑦 − 2 = 2√3 (𝑥 − )
3
6 − 2𝜋√3
𝑦 = 2√3𝑥 +
3

Example 2.16
𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥
A. Find the equation of the tangent when 𝑥 = 0.
B. Find the values of 𝑥 for which the function has a horizontal tangent.

Part A Substitute 𝑚 = 1, 𝑐 = 0 in 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑓(0) = sin(0) = 0 𝑦=𝑥
Hence, the coordinates of the point (𝑥, 𝑦) on the Part B
function at 𝑥 = 0 are Slope of a horizontal line is zero. Hence:
(𝑥, 𝑦) = (0,0) ⇒ 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 = 0 𝑓′(0) = 0
cos 𝑥 = 0
𝑓′ = cos 𝑥 𝜋
𝑥 ∈ { + 2𝜋𝑘, 𝑘 ∈ ℤ}
𝑓′(0) = cos(0) = 1 2
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Example 2.17
𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥
𝜋
A. Find the equation of the tangent when 𝑥 = 2 .
B. Find the values of 𝑥 for which the function has a horizontal tangent.

Part A 𝜋
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 1+ =𝑐
2
𝑓 ( ) = sin + cos = 1 + 0 = 1
2 2 2 Hence, the equation of the tangent is:
A point that lies on the line is: 𝜋
𝜋 𝑦 = −𝑥 + 1 +
2
(𝑥, 𝑦) = ( , 1)
2 Part B
𝑓 ′ = cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 𝑓 ′ = cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 = 0
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 cos 𝑥 = sin 𝑥
𝑚 = 𝑓 ′ ( ) = cos − sin = 0 − 1 = −1
2 2 2
𝜋
𝜋 𝑥 ∈ { + 𝜋𝑘, 𝑘 ∈ ℤ}
Substitute 𝑚 = −1, (𝑥, 𝑦) = ( 2 , 1) in 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐: 4

𝜋
1 = (−1) ( ) + 𝑐
2

E. Logarithmic Functions

Example 2.18
Given 𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥 find the equation of the
A. Tangent when 𝑥 = 1.
B. Normal when 𝑥 = 1.
Tangent:
𝑓(1) = ln 1 = 0 ⇒ (𝑥, 𝑦) = (1,0)
𝑑𝑦 1
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1 1
𝑚= | = = =1
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=1 𝑥 1
0 = 1 + 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑐 = −1

𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡: 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 1

Normal:
𝑦 = −𝑥 + 1

Example 2.19
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𝜋 𝜋
Find the area of Δ𝑃𝑄𝑅 if 𝑃 is the point on the curve 𝑦 = 1 + tan 3𝑥 with 𝑥 value 12, 𝑄 is the point where 𝑥 = 12
meets the 𝑥 −axis, and 𝑅 is the point where the normal from 𝑃 intersects the 𝑥 −axis.

𝜋 𝜋
𝑃 = ( , 2) , 𝑄 = ( , 0)
12 12
𝑑𝑦 𝜋 2
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 = | 𝜋 = 3 sec 2 3𝑥|𝑥= 𝜋 = 3 sec 2 = 3(√2) = 6
𝑑𝑥 𝑥= 12 4
12

1
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 = −
6
Equation of the normal 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ):
1 𝜋
𝑦 − 2 = − (𝑥 − )
6 12
Substitute 𝑦 = 0 to find the 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡:
1 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
−2 = − (𝑥 − ) ⇒ 12 = 𝑥 − ⇒ 𝑥 = 12 + ⇒ 𝑅 = (12 + , 0)
6 12 12 12 12
1 1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = (𝑃𝑄)(𝑄𝑅) = × 2 × 12 = 12
2 2
F. Integration

2.2 Linearization and Differentials

Example 2.20
Find approximate values for both 𝑔(2.1) and 𝑔(1.85), given that 𝑔(2.0) = −3.5 and
(a) 𝑔′(2.0) = 10: 0
(b) 𝑔′(2.0) = −4: 2 (Phillips Exeter Math-4 2022/330)

Use the tangent line.

Part A
Substitute 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 10, (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (2, −3.5):
𝑦 + 3.5 = 10(𝑥 − 2)
𝑦 = 10𝑥 − 23.5
Substitute
𝑥 = 2.1 ⇒ 𝑦 = 10(2.1) − 23.5
𝑥 = 1.85 ⇒ 𝑦 = 10(1.85) − 23.5
Part B
Substitute 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = −4.2, (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (2, −3.5):
𝑦 + 3.5 = −4.2(𝑥 − 2)
𝑦 = −4.2𝑥 + 4.9
Substitute:
𝑥 = 2.1 ⇒ 𝑦 = −4.2(2.1) + 4.9
𝑥 = 1.85 ⇒ 𝑦 = −4.2(1.85) + 4.9
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2.3 Related Rates of Change

A. Basics
Related rates questions give a rate of change, and ask to find another rate of change. For example, given the
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑟
rate of change of volume of a sphere with respect to time (= 𝑑𝑡
), find the rate of change of radius (= 𝑑𝑡
), or
𝑑𝑆
the rate of change of surface area (= 𝑑𝑡
). Hence, they involve problems from geometry or coordinate
geometry. Related rates of change are important in applied subjects such as physics, or biology.

Example 2.21: Differentiation1

𝑑𝑦
Find the value of 𝑑𝑡 if:
𝑑𝑥 2
A. 𝑦 = 3𝑥, when 𝑑𝑡 = 3.
𝑑𝑥 2
B. 𝑦 = 5𝑥 2 , given that 𝑥 = 4 and 𝑑𝑡 = 3.
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑟
C. 𝑦 = 𝑝2 + 𝑞 2 + 𝑟 2 , 𝑑𝑡 = 3, 𝑑𝑡 = 4, 𝑑𝑡 = 9, 𝑝 = 1, 𝑞 = 2, 𝑟 = 3

Part A
Differentiate both sides of the above equation with respect to time:
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 2
=3∙ = 3( ) = 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 3
Part B
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 2 80
𝑦 = 5𝑥 2 ⇒ = 10𝑥 ∙ = 10(4) ∙ ( ) =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 3 3
Part C
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑟
= 2𝑝 + 2𝑞 + 2𝑟 = 2(1)3 + 2(2)4 + 2(3)9 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Example 2.22: Product Rule

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑎 1 𝑑𝑏
A. Given that 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑏, 𝑎 = 𝑓(𝑡), 𝑏 = 𝑓(𝑡), find 𝑑𝑡 if for a particular value of 𝑡, 𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = 3, 𝑑𝑡 = 2 , 𝑑𝑡 = 7.
𝑑ℎ 𝑓𝑡 𝑑𝑤 𝑓𝑡 𝑑𝑙 𝑓𝑡 𝑑𝑉
B. If 𝑉 = 𝑙𝑤ℎ and =2 , = −3 , =1 when 𝑙 = 5, 𝑤 = 7, ℎ = 3, find .
𝑑𝑡 𝑠 𝑑𝑡 𝑠 𝑑𝑡 𝑠 𝑑𝑡

Part A
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑏 𝑑𝑎 1 3
=𝑎∙ +𝑏× = (2)(7) + (3) ( ) = 14 + = 15.5
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 2

Part B
𝑑𝑉 𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑙
= 𝑙𝑤 ∙ + 𝑙ℎ ∙ + 𝑤ℎ ∙
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Substitute
= (5)(7)(2) + (5)(3)(−3) + (7)(3)(1) = 70 − 45 + 21 = 46
B. 2D Geometry: Basics
We look at some basic geometry questions.

2.23: Area of a Circle

1
Related rates of change questions make use of implicit differentiation. If you need a refresher, look up the section on implicit
differentiation.
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𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑟
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ⇒ = 2𝜋𝑟 ∙
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐶 𝑑𝑟
𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑟 ⇒ = 2𝜋 ∙
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Example 2.24: Circles

A. A circle is expanding so that its radius increases 0.02 units every second. Find the rate of change of
area when the radius is 60 units. Answer in terms of 𝜋.
𝑚
B. A 𝐵𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒 𝑅𝑜𝑦𝑎𝑙𝑒 game uses a circular island whose radius shrinks at the rate of 1 𝑠 . Find the rate of
decrease, in terms of 𝜋m in the area of the island in 𝑘𝑚2 when the radius is 6000 𝑚.
C.

Part A
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑟 12
= 2𝜋𝑟 ∙ = 2𝜋(60) ∙ (0.02) = 𝜋 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 2 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 5
Part B
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑟
= 2𝜋𝑟 ∙ = 2𝜋(6000) ∙ (−1) = 12000𝜋 𝑚2 = −0.012𝜋 𝑘𝑚2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Part C

Example 2.25: Circles

Find the rate of change of the area 𝐴 of a circle with respect to its circumference 𝐶.

𝑑𝐴
=
𝑑𝐶

2.26: Warning: Premature Substitution

In a related rates question, it is important to make the substitution at the right time, and not before.
Substituting beforehand can result in not being able to solve the question.

Example 2.27: Circles

Find the mistake in the following “solution” to the question “A circle is expanding so that its radius increases
0.02 units every second. Find the rate of change of area when the radius is 60 units.”

The area of a circle is:

𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2
Substitute 𝑟 = 60:
𝐴 = 𝜋(60)2
𝐴 = 3600𝜋
Differentiate:
𝑑𝐴
=0
𝑑𝑡

You need to identify the relation between the variables in terms of their derivatives before you substitute the
values.
Since this was not done, the answer is incorrect.

2.28: Converting Word Expressions into Rates

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The key idea in a related rates problem is to be able to convert the rate of change given in the question into
𝑑𝑥
data of the form 𝑑𝑡 , etc.

Example 2.29
𝑚3
A. Rate of change of volume with respect to time is −3 𝑠
.
B. The surface area of a balloon is increasing 5 𝑐𝑚3 every minute.

𝑑𝑉 𝑚3
= −3
𝑑𝑡 𝑠
𝑑𝑆 𝑐𝑚3
=5
𝑑𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛

2.30: Area of a Square

𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑠
𝐴 = 𝑠2 ⇒ = 2𝑠 ∙
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Example 2.31
𝑐𝑚
The side of a square is increasing at the rate of 1 . Find the rate of change of area when the area of the
𝑠
square is 36 𝑐𝑚2.

𝐴 = 36 ⇒ 𝑠 = 6 𝑐𝑚
Substitute 𝑠 = 6 in
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑠 𝑐𝑚2
𝐴 = 𝑠2 ⇒ = 2𝑠 ∙ = 2(6)(1) = 12
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑠

2.32: Area and Perimeter of a Rectangle

𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑃 = 2(𝑥 + 𝑦) ⇒ = 2( + )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝐴 = 𝑥𝑦 ⇒ =𝑥∙ +𝑦∙
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Example 2.33
𝑐𝑚 𝑐𝑚
The length 𝑥 of a rectangle is decreasing at the rate of 5 𝑚𝑖𝑛, and the width 𝑦 is increasing at the rate of 4 𝑚𝑖𝑛.
When 𝑥 = 8 𝑐𝑚, and 𝑦 = 6 𝑐𝑚, find the rate of change of the perimeter, and the area of the rectangle. (CBSE
2017)

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑥 = 8, 𝑦 = 6, = −5 𝑐𝑚, = 4 𝑐𝑚
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Perimeter
𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑐𝑚
𝑃 = 2(𝑥 + 𝑦) ⇒ = 2 ( + ) = 2(−5 + 4) = 2(−1) = −2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛
Area
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑐𝑚2
𝐴 = 𝑥𝑦 ⇒ =𝑥∙ +𝑦∙ = (8)(4) + (6)(−5) = 32 − 30 = 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛

2.34: Drawing Diagrams

In geometry questions, it is usually very helpful to draw a diagram.
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2.35: Area of an Equilateral Triangle

√3 2 𝑑𝐴 √3 𝑑𝑠
𝐴= 𝑠 ⇒ = 𝑠∙
4 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

Example 2.36
𝑐𝑚
The side of an equilateral triangle is increasing at the rate of 2 𝑠
. At what rate is its area increasing, when the
side of the triangle is 20 cm? (CBSE 2015)

√3 2 𝑑𝐴 √3 𝑑𝑠 √3
𝐴= 𝑠 ⇒ = 𝑠∙ = ∙ 20 ∙ 2 = 20√3 𝑐𝑚2 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
4 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2

2.37: Pythagorean Theorem

𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑧2

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
2𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 2𝑧
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Example 2.38: Pythagorean Theorem

A. A ladder 5𝑚 long is leaning against a wall. The bottom of the ladder is pulled along the ground away
𝑚
from the wall at the rate of 2 . How fast is the height on the wall decreasing when the foot of ladder is
𝑠
4𝑚 away from the wall? (CBSE 2012, Type ISC 2019)
B. Changing length of sides of a triangle

𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑐 2
𝑑𝑎 𝑑𝑏 𝑑𝑐
2𝑎 + 2𝑏 = 2𝑐
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑐
Substitute = 0:
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑎 𝑑𝑏
2𝑎 ( ) + 2𝑏 ( ) = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑎 𝑑𝑏
𝑎( )+𝑏( ) = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑎
3 ( ) + 4(2) = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑎
3 ( ) = −8
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑎 8𝑚
=−
𝑑𝑡 3𝑠

2.39: Area of a Triangle

1
𝐴 = ℎ𝑏
2

Differentiating both sides, and using the product rule:

𝑑𝐴 1 𝑑𝑏 1 𝑑ℎ
= ℎ∙ + 𝑏∙
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

Example 2.40
𝑚
In a right triangle, leg 𝑥 is increasing at the rate of 2 𝑠 , while leg 𝑦 is decreasing so that the area of the triangle
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is always equal to 6 𝑚2 . How fast is the hypotenuse changing when 𝑥 = 3𝑚?

1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑥𝑦 = 6 ⇒ 𝑥𝑦 = 12
2
When:
𝑥 = 3 ⇒ 3𝑦 = 12 ⇒ 𝑦 = 4
Also, differentiate 𝑥𝑦 = 12:
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 +𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
Substitute 𝑥 = 3, 𝑦 = 4, = 2:
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦
3( ) + 4(2) = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦 8
=−
𝑑𝑡 3

𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
2𝑧 = 2𝑥 + 2𝑦
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑧 8
2(5) = 2(3)(2) + 2(4) (− )
𝑑𝑡 3
𝑑𝑧 64
10 = 12 −
𝑑𝑡 3
𝑑𝑧 28 14
=− =−
𝑑𝑡 30 15

C. 2D Geometry: Similarity2

Example 2.41
A light is placed on the ground 20 𝑚 away from a building. It shines on the building. A man 2 𝑚 tall walks
𝑚
directly towards the building at 1 . How fast is the length of his shadow on the building changing when he is
𝑠
14 𝑚 from the building.

Define
𝑥 = 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑜𝑤
𝑦 = 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑜𝑤

From the question

𝑑𝑥 𝑚 𝑑𝑦
=1 ⇒ =?
𝑑𝑡 𝑠 𝑑𝑡

Hence, set up an equation that relates 𝑥 and 𝑦 using similarity of

triangles:
𝑥 2
= ⇒ 𝑥𝑦 = 40
20 𝑦

Differentiate the above to get:

2
Questions on similarity are generally more difficult than other questions. You can come back to these questions later, if
required.
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𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 +𝑦 =0
⏟𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰

Using the relation that we found above, determine the value of 𝑦 when 𝑥 = 3:
𝑥 2 40 40 20
= ⇒𝑦= = =
20 𝑦 𝑥 6 3

𝑑𝑥 𝑚 20
Substitute 𝑥 = 6, =1 ,𝑦= :
𝑑𝑡 𝑠 3
𝑑𝑦 20 𝑑𝑦 20 𝑑𝑦 20 10 𝑚
6 + ( ) (1) = 0 ⇒ 6 =− ⇒ =− =−
𝑑𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡 18 9 𝑠

Example 2.42
𝑓𝑡
A 6 feet tall man walks at 5 𝑠𝑒𝑐 toward a streetlight with a height of 16 feet. When the base of the light is 10
feet away, at what rate is the:
A. length of his shadow changing?
B. the tip of his shadow moving?

Part A
Let the length of the shadow be 𝑥. Let the distance between the
man and the streetlight be 𝑦. (See adjoining diagram).

From the diagram, and using the fact that the two triangles are
similar, we can set up the ratio:
16 6 3
= ⇒ 5𝑥 = 3𝑦 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑦
𝑥+𝑦 𝑥 5
Differentiate the above with respect to 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑡, and substitute
𝑑𝑦 𝑚
𝑑𝑡
= −5 𝑠 :
𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑦 3 𝑚
= ∙ = ∙ (−5) = −3
𝑑𝑡 5 𝑑𝑡 5 𝑠
The rate of change of the length of his shadow is:
𝑑𝑥 𝑚
= −3
𝑑𝑡 𝑠
Note that the rate is negative since the length of the shadow is decreasing.

Part B
The length of the base of the triangle is:
𝑧 =𝑥+𝑦
The rate of change of the tip of the shadow is equal to the rate of change of the
length of the base of the triangle:
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑚
= + = −3 − 5 = −8
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑠
𝑚
Note that the tip of the shadow is moving at a speed of 8 𝑠
in the direction of
due north.
D. 2D Geometry: Trigonometry

2.43: Area of a Triangle

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The trigonometric formula for the area of a triangle is:

1
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑏 sin 𝜃
2

We can differentiate both sides of the area formula with respect to 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 and make use of the three-term
product rule:
𝑑𝐴 1 𝑑𝑎 𝑑𝑏 𝑑𝜃
= (𝑏 sin 𝜃 + 𝑎 sin 𝜃 + 𝑎𝑏 cos 𝜃 )
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Example 2.44

The formula that connects the area of the triangle with the angle between the two
ladders is:
1
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑏 sin 𝜃
2
Substitute 𝑎 = 𝑏 = 6 in the above formula:
1 1
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑏 sin 𝜃 = (6)(6)(sin 𝜃) = 18 sin 𝜃
2 2
Differentiate both sides with respect to time:
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝜃
= 18 cos 𝜃
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜋 𝑑𝜃 1 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
To find the rate of change of area when the triangle is equilateral, substitute 𝜃 = 60° = , = :
3 𝑑𝑡 4 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝜋 1 1 1 9 𝑓𝑡
= 18 (cos ) ∙ = 18 ∙ × = = 2.25
3 4 2 4 4 𝑠𝑒𝑐

Example 2.45
A. Jennifer works at a construction company. She props up two ladders, each 6 feet tall, on the floor, and
leans them against one other at the top forming an isosceles triangle with the ground. She begins to
pull the bases of the ladders such that the top of the triangle is coming closer to the ground. When the
1
ladders form an equilateral triangle, she notices that the angle between them is increasing at 4 radians
per second. At what rate is the area of the triangle increasing in that exact moment? (MAΘ, Mu Area
and Volume 2022/7)
B. A boat approaches a lighthouse 600 meters above sea level at 250 meters per minute. When the boat
is 800 meters away, at what rate is the angle between the ship and the top of the lighthouse changing?
C. Plane Flying
D. Kite Flying

Part B
𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑡
E. 3D Geometry: Single Parameter

2.46: Volume of a Cube

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑥
𝑉 = 𝑥3 ⇒ = 3𝑥 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Example 2.47: Cubes

𝑐𝑚3
The volume of a cube is increasing at the rate of 8 . How fast is the surface area increasing when the length
𝑠
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of its edge is 12 cm. (CBSE 2019)

Let the edge length of the cube be 𝑥 cm.

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑉 1 8
𝑉 = 𝑥3 ⇒ = 3𝑥 2 ⇒ = × 2= 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 3𝑥 3𝑥

𝑑𝑆 𝑑𝑥 8 4 × 8 4 × 8 8 𝑐𝑚2
𝑆 = 6𝑥 2 ⇒ = 12𝑥 = 12𝑥 ∙ 2 = = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 3𝑥 𝑥 12 3 𝑠

2.48: Volume and Surface Area of a Sphere

4 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑉 1
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 3 ⇒ = ×
3 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 4𝜋𝑟 2
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑉 1 1 2
𝑆 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 ⇒ = × 2
=8× 2
= 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 4𝜋𝑟 4𝜋𝑟 𝜋𝑟

Differentiate:
𝑑𝑉 4 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
= ( 𝜋) (3𝑟 2 ) ( ) = 4𝜋𝑟 2
𝑑𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑟
Solve for 𝑑𝑡
:
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑉 1
= ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 4𝜋𝑟 2

Example 2.49: Sphere

A. A spherical iron ball 10 cm in radius is coated with a layer of ice of uniform thickness that melts at a
𝑐𝑚3
rate of 50 𝑚𝑖𝑛 . When the thickness of ice is 5 𝑐𝑚, then the rate at which the thickness of ice decreases
is: (JEE Main 2005)
B. A spherical balloon is filled with 4500𝜋 cubic meters of helium gas. If a leak in the balloon causes the
gas to escape at the rate of 72𝜋 cubic meters per minute, then the rate (in meters per minute) at
which the radius of the balloon decreases 49 minutes after the leakage began is: (JEE Main 2012)
𝑐𝑚3
C. The volume of a sphere is increasing at the rate of 8 . Find the rate at which its surface area is
𝑠
increasing when the radius is 12 cm. (CBSE 2017)

Part A The radius of the sphere (which includes the iron

: ball and the ice) when thickness of ice is 5 cm
𝑑𝑉 4 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑟 = 10 + 5 = 15 𝑐𝑚
= ( 𝜋) (3𝑟 2 ) ( ) = 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑑𝑉 𝑐𝑚3
𝑑𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 Substitute 𝑑𝑡 = 50 𝑚𝑖𝑛 and 𝑟 = 15 𝑐𝑚 in Equation
𝑑𝑟
Solve for 𝑑𝑡 :
I:
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑉 1 𝑑𝑟 𝑐𝑚3 1 1 𝑐𝑚
= × = 50 × =
⏟
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛 4𝜋(15) 𝑐𝑚 2 2 18𝜋 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰
Part B
When the ice melts, the volume decreases. Hence,
Volume after 49 minutes:
rate of decrease of volume of ice with respect to
= 4500𝜋 − 49(72𝜋)
time:
= 9𝜋[500 − 49(8)]
𝑑𝑉 𝑐𝑚3
= = 50 = 9𝜋[500 − 392]
𝑑𝑡 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 972𝜋
Rate of decrease of thickness of ice is the rate of
Radius at 49 minutes:
decrease of radius of sphere (including the ice):
4 3
𝑑𝑟 𝜋𝑟 = 972𝜋 ⇒ 𝑟 3 = 729 ⇒ 𝑟 = 9
= 3
𝑑𝑡
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𝑑𝑉
Substitute 𝑑𝑡 = 72𝜋, and 𝑟 = 9 in Equation I: Differentiate 𝑆 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 to get:
𝑑𝑆 𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑉 1 1 2 𝑚 = 8𝜋𝑟 ∙
= × 2
= 72𝜋 × 2
= 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 4𝜋𝑟 4𝜋(9) 9 𝑚𝑖𝑛
Substitute 𝑟 = 12 in the above:
Part C
𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑆 2 16 16 4 𝑐𝑚2
Substitute 𝑑𝑡 = 8: = 8𝜋𝑟 ∙ 2 = = =
𝑑𝑡 𝜋𝑟 𝑟 12 3 𝑠
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑉 1 1 2
= × 2
=8× 2
= 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 4𝜋𝑟 4𝜋𝑟 𝜋𝑟

F. 3D Geometry: Multiple Parameters

Example 2.50: Cones

A. A right circular cone shaped block of ice is melting in such a way that its height and radius are both
𝑐𝑚
decreasing at 1 ℎ𝑟 . How fast is the volume decreasing when 𝑟 = ℎ = 10 𝑐𝑚.
𝑐𝑚3
B. Sand is pouring from a pipe at a rate of 12 𝑠
. The falling sand forms a cone on the ground in such a
way that the height of cone is always one-sixth of the radius of the base. How fast is the height of sand
cone increasing when the height is 4 cm? (CBSE 2011)
𝑐𝑚3
C. A conical cup is 4 cm across and 6 cm deep. Water leaks out of the bottom at the rate of 2 . How fast
𝑠
is the water level dropping when the height of the water is 3 cm?

Part A
The question has given us the relation
𝑑𝑟 𝑑ℎ 𝑐𝑚
𝑟=ℎ⇔ = = −1
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ℎ𝑟
Substitute 𝑟 = ℎ in the formula for the volume of a cone and differentiate
1 1 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑟 𝑐𝑚3
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ = 𝜋𝑟 3 ⇒ = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜋(10)2 (−1) = −100𝜋
3 3 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ℎ𝑟
Part B
1
Substitute ℎ = 𝑟 ⇒ 𝑟 = 6ℎ in the formula for the volume of a cone:
6
1 1 𝑑𝑉 𝑑ℎ
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ = 𝜋(6ℎ)2 ℎ = 12𝜋ℎ3 ⇒ = 36𝜋ℎ2 ∙
3 3 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑉 𝑐𝑚3
Solve for 𝑑𝑡 and substitute 𝑑𝑡 = −12 𝑠 , ℎ = 4 𝑐𝑚:
𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑉 1 1 1 𝑐𝑚
= × 2
= −12 × 2
=−
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 36𝜋ℎ 36𝜋(4) 48𝜋 𝑠
Part C
𝑟 2 ℎ
Draw a diagram and note that, using similar triangles ℎ = 6 ⇒ 𝑟 = 3, which we substitute in the formula for
the volume of a cone:
1 2 1 ℎ 2 1 𝑑𝑉 𝜋ℎ2 𝑑ℎ
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 ℎ = 𝜋 ( ) ℎ = 𝜋ℎ3 ⇒ = ∙
3 3 3 27 𝑑𝑡 9 𝑑𝑡
𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑉 𝑐𝑚 3
Solve for 𝑑𝑡 and substitute 𝑑𝑡 = −2 𝑠 , ℎ = 3 𝑐𝑚:
𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑉 9 9 2 𝑐𝑚
= × 2 = (−2) × 2
=−
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜋ℎ 𝜋(3) 𝜋 𝑠

Example 2.51
Fahan is pouring apple juice into his glass that is in the shape of a right truncated cone at a constant rate of 2
cubic inches per second. The lower base is 4 inches in diameter and the upper (open) base has a diameter of 6
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inches. The glass has a total height of 4 inches. At what rate, in inches per second, is the height of liquid in the
glass increasing when the glass is 25% full? (MAΘ, Mu Area and Volume 2022/23)

Hint: The volume of the frustum of a cone (truncated cone) with height ℎ, lower radius 𝑟, and upper radius 𝑅
ℎ𝜋
is 𝑉 = (𝑅 2 + 𝑅𝑟 + 𝑟 2 )
3

1
Substitute 𝑅 = ℎ + 2, 𝑟 = 2:
4
ℎ𝜋 2
𝑉= (𝑅 + 𝑅𝑟 + 𝑟 2 )
3

G. Physics

Example 2.52: Voltage

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅

Differentiate both sides of the above with respect to 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑡:

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑅 𝑑𝐼
=𝐼∙ +𝑅∙
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

2.53: Two Parallel Resistors

The unit of resistance is 𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠(Ω). If parallel resistors have individual resistances 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 , then the system
has resistance 𝑅 given by
1 1 1
= +
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2

Differentiate both sides of the above with respect to 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑡:

1 𝑑𝑅 1 𝑑𝑅1 1 𝑑𝑅2
− 2∙ =− 2∙ − 2∙
𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝑅1 𝑑𝑡 𝑅2 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑅
Solving for 𝑑𝑡 :
𝑑𝑅 1 𝑑𝑅1 1 𝑑𝑅2
= 𝑅2 ( 2 ∙ + 2∙ )
𝑑𝑡 𝑅1 𝑑𝑡 𝑅2 𝑑𝑡

(Calculator) Example 2.54: Resistance

Ω Ω
In a system with two resistors, 𝑅1 is increasing by 0.5 s and 𝑅2 is decreasing by 0.2 s . Find the rate of change
of total resistance when 𝑅1 = 30 Ω, and 𝑅2 = 40 Ω.

1 1 1 1 1 120
= + = + ⇒𝑅=
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 30 40 7
1 1 1
Differentiate = + to get:
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 𝑑𝑅 1 𝑑𝑅1 1 𝑑𝑅2
− 2
∙ =− 2∙ − 2∙
𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝑅1 𝑑𝑡 𝑅2 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑅 1 𝑑𝑅1 1 𝑑𝑅2
= 𝑅2 ( 2 ∙ + 2∙ )
𝑑𝑡 𝑅1 𝑑𝑡 𝑅2 𝑑𝑡
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120 𝑑𝑅1 𝑑𝑅2

Substitute 𝑅 = 7
, 𝑑𝑡 = 30, 𝑑𝑡
= 40:
𝑑𝑅 120 2 1 1 31
=( ) ( 2 ∙ 0.5 + 2 ∙ −0.2) =
𝑑𝑡 7 30 40 245

2.55: 𝒏 Parallel Resistors

1 1 1 1
Differentiating 𝑅
= 𝑅 + 𝑅 + ⋯ + 𝑅 gives us
1 2 𝑛
𝑑𝑅 𝑅 2 𝑑𝑅1 𝑅 2 𝑑𝑅2 𝑅 2 𝑑𝑅𝑛
=( ) +( ) + ⋯+ ( )
𝑑𝑡 𝑅1 𝑑𝑡 𝑅2 𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝑛 𝑑𝑡

Differentiate both sides of the given equation:

1 𝑑𝑅 1 𝑑𝑅1 1 𝑑𝑅2 1 𝑑𝑅𝑛
− 2∙ =− 2∙ − ∙ − ⋯− ∙
𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝑅1 𝑑𝑡 𝑅2 𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝑛 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑅
Solve for 𝑑𝑡 :
𝑑𝑅 𝑅 2 𝑑𝑅1 𝑅 2 𝑑𝑅2 𝑅 2 𝑑𝑅𝑛
=( ) +( ) + ⋯+ ( )
𝑑𝑡 𝑅1 𝑑𝑡 𝑅2 𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝑛 𝑑𝑡

Example 2.56: Kinetic Energy

1
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2

Assuming that the mass remains constant, while the velocity is a function of time, we can differentiate both
sides to get:
𝑑𝐾 1 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
= 𝑚 ∙ 2𝑣 = 𝑚𝑣
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
H. Other Sciences

Example 2.57: Chemistry

𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇

Example 2.58
Biology, Stewart, Section 3.9, Exercise 36

I. Coordinate Geometry and Further Resources

Example 2.59
A. A particle moves along the parabola 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 . Find the rate of change of the 𝑦 −coordinate if the
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑐𝑚
particle has 𝑥 −coordinate 2, and 𝑑𝑡 = 9 𝑠𝑒𝑐.
𝑥
B. (𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑒) A particle moves along the curve 𝑦 = √1 + sin3 ( ). Find the exact value of the rate of
2
𝜋
change of the 𝑥 −coordinate when the particle is at the point 𝑥 = 2 , and the rate of change of the 𝑦
coordinate per second is 3 𝑚. Note: Do not approximate at any stage.

Part A
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 1 4 𝑐𝑚
𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 ⇒ = 6𝑥 ∙ = 6(2) ∙ =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 9 9 𝑠𝑒𝑐
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Part B
𝑥
Use the chain rule to differentiate 𝑦 = √1 + sin3 (2):
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑥 𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥
= ∙ 3 sin2 ( ) ∙ cos ( ) ∙ ∙
𝑑𝑡 𝑥 2 2 2 𝑑𝑡
2√1 + sin3 (2)
𝑑𝑥
Solve the above for 𝑑𝑡 :
3 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 4√1 + sin (2)
= ∙
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 3 sin2 (𝑥 ) cos (𝑥 )
2 2
𝜋 𝑑𝑦
Substitute 𝑥 = 2 , 𝑑𝑡 = 3:

𝜋 1 3 4√1 + 1 2√2 + 1
3( ) 4 √1 + ( ) 4√
𝑑𝑥 4√1 + sin 4 √2 2√2 2√2
=3∙ 𝜋 𝜋 = = =
𝑑𝑡 3 sin2 (4 ) cos (4 ) 1 2 1 1 1
( ) ( )
√2 √2 2√2 2√2
After some further simplification, we get:
2√2 + 1
= 4√ × 2√2 = 4√2√2 + 1 × √2√2 = 4√8 + √2
2√2

Example 2.60
Parametrization

Videos 2.61
You can find a variety of related rates questions covered in
A. This video playlist by Jake
B. This video by Blackpenredpen
C. This video by the Organic Chemistry Tutor

2.4 𝒚′ : Monotonicity
A. Increasing and Decreasing

2.62: Increasing and Decreasing Function

An increasing function is a function where the 𝑦 value 𝑎𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 increases as we go from left to right:
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) > 𝑓(𝑥), ℎ > 0

A decreasing function is a function where the 𝑦 value always 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 as we go from left to right:
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) < 𝑓(𝑥), ℎ > 0

A non-decreasing function is a function where the 𝑦 value never decreases as we go from left to right:
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) ≥ 𝑓(𝑥), ℎ > 0

A non-increasing function is a function where the 𝑦 value never increases as we go from left to right:
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥), ℎ > 0
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Example 2.63
Classify the following functions as:
A. Increasing
B. Decreasing
C. Non-Decreasing
D. Non-Increasing
E. None of the Above

𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛: 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝐵𝑙𝑢𝑒: 𝑁𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔

2.64: Increasing and Decreasing Function

If a function is increasing, its slope is positive.
If a function is decreasing, its slope is negative.

Example 2.65
Classify intervals in the function based on whether the
A. function is increasing or decreasing
B. the slope is positive or negative
C. the slope is increasing, decreasing, or constant
D. the function is positive or negative

From (-7,-5):
The function is positive, and increasing.
The slope is positive, and constant.

From (-5,-2)
The function is positive, and decreasing.
The slope is negative, and constant.

From (-2,-1)
The function is negative, and decreasing.
The slope is negative, and constant.

From (-1,0)
The function is negative, and increasing.
The slope is positive, and constant.

From (0,1)
The function is positive, and increasing.
The slope is positive, and constant.

Example 2.66
Graph the derivative of the function alongside.
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The derivative is defined for

(−7, −5) ∪ (−5, −1) ∪ (−1,1)

We use the property that the derivative (where it is defined)

is equal to the slope of the function at that point.

Example 2.67
Give an example of a function which does not fit of the four classifications.

𝑦 = sin 𝑥

2.68: Increasing and Decreasing Interval

A function may not be increasing or decreasing throughout its domain. However, it may be increasing or
decreasing on some interval in its domain.

Example 2.69
Without calculus, identify the intervals/points where sin 𝑥 is increasing, decreasing, or neither.

𝜋 3𝜋
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔: [0, ) ∪ ( , 2𝜋 ] + 2𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ
2 2
𝜋 3𝜋
𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔: [ , ) + 2𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ
2 2

Note: We have not taken points of inflection into account for now.

Example 2.70
State the intervals where the graph of the parabola 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 is increasing and decreasing.

The 𝑥 coordinate vertex of the parabola is:

𝑏 5
=− = − = −2.5
2𝑎 2
Hence, the interval we want are:
𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔: (−∞, −2.5]
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔: [−2.5, ∞)

2.71: First Derivative Test for Increasing and Decreasing Functions

If y is continuous on an interval and:
➢ 𝑦′ is positive on an interval, then 𝑦 is increasing on that interval.
➢ 𝑦′ is negative on an interval, then 𝑦 is decreasing on that interval.
➢ 𝑦′ is zero on an interval, then 𝑦 is neither increasing nor decreasing on that interval.

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0 ⇒ 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 > 0 ⇒ 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) < 0 ⇒ 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 < 0 ⇒ 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔
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𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 ⇒ 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 0 ⇒ 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑛𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔

Example 2.72
For each part, find the intervals where 𝑓(𝑥) is increasing and decreasing.
A. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑥3 9𝑥 2
B. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3
− 2
+ 20𝑥
𝑥3 7𝑥 2
C. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3
− 2
+ 12𝑥
′ (𝑥)
D. 𝑓 = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 − 9)

Part A

𝑑𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑒𝑥 ⇒ = 𝑒 𝑥 > 0 ⇒ 𝐴𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 ⇒ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑑𝑥
Part B
𝑓 ′ > 0 ⇒ 𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 + 20 > 0 ⇒ (𝑥 − 5)(𝑥 − 4) > 0 ⇒ 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 {4,5}
′
𝑓 > 0 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 (−∞, 4) ∪ (5, ∞) ⇒ 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙
𝑓 ′ < 0 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 (4,5) ⇒ 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙
Part C
𝑓 ′ > 0 ⇒ 𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 12 > 0 ⇒ (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 4) > 0 ⇒ 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 {3,4}
′
𝑓 > 0 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 (−∞, 3) ∪ (4, ∞) ⇒ 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙
𝑓 ′ < 0 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 (3,4) ⇒ 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙
Part D
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0 ⇒ (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 − 9) > 0 ⇒ 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑥 ∈ {−5,2,9}
The intervals are:
(−∞, −5) ∪ (−5,2) ∪ (2,9) ∪ (9, ∞)
The leftmost interval is:
(−6 − 2) ⏟
𝑓 = −6 ⇒ ⏟ (−6 + 5) ⏟
(−6 − 9)
−𝑣𝑒 −𝑣𝑒 −𝑣𝑒

The final answer is the union of the positive intervals:

𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑠: (−5,2) ∪ (9, ∞)
𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑠: (−∞, −5) ∪ (2,9)

Example 2.73
For each part, find the intervals where 𝑓(𝑥) is increasing and decreasing.
A. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 −𝑥
B. 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥
2𝑥 3 3𝑥 2
C. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3
− 2
− 2𝑥 + 2023

Part A
𝑓′ = −𝑒 −𝑥 < 0 ⇒ 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠
Part B
𝑓′ = − sin 𝑥
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− sin 𝑥 < 0, 𝑥 ∈ (0, 𝜋) + 2𝑛𝜋 ⇒ 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔

− sin 𝑥 > 0, 𝑥 ∈ (𝜋, 2𝜋) + 2𝑛𝜋 ⇒ 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔
Part C
𝑓 ′ = 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2 = (2𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2)
1
𝑓 ′ > 0, 𝑥 ∈ (−∞, − ) ∪ (2, ∞) ⇒ 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔
2
′
1
𝑓 > 0, 𝑥 ∈ (− , 2) ⇒ 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔
2

Example 2.74
For each part, find the intervals where 𝑓(𝑥) is increasing and decreasing.
3𝑥+5
A. 𝑓(𝑥) =
5𝑥−6
𝑎𝑥+𝑏
B. 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑐𝑥+𝑑

Part A
Calculate the domain:
6 6
(5𝑥 − 6)2 = 0 ⇒ 5𝑥 = 6 ⇒ 𝑥 = ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠
5 5
6
The value 𝑥 = 5 is a vertical asymptote for the function.
As
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞, lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞
6+ 𝑥→
6
𝑥→ 5
5

The horizontal asymptote for the function is:

3𝑥 5 5
3𝑥 + 5 + 3+
lim = lim 𝑥 𝑥 = lim 𝑥=3
𝑥→∞ 5𝑥 − 6 𝑥→∞ 5𝑥 6 𝑥→∞ 6
5−𝑥 5
𝑥 −𝑥
Calculate the first derivative:
43
𝑓′ = − > 0 ⇒ 𝑁𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒
(5𝑥 − 6)2
Since the first derivative is always negative, the function is decreasing throughout its domain:
𝑓 ′ < 0, 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷𝑓

Example 2.75
1 1+𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = ln ( )
2 1−𝑥

𝑎
Using the quotient rule log (𝑏 ) = log 𝑎 − log 𝑏:
1
𝑓 = [ln(1 + 𝑥)] − ln(1 − 𝑥)
2
1 1 1
𝑓′ = [ − (−1)]
2 1+𝑥 1−𝑥
1 1 1
= [ + ]
2 1+𝑥 1−𝑥
1 1−𝑥+1+𝑥
= [ ]
2 1 − 𝑥2
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1 2
= [ ]
2 1 − 𝑥2
1
=
1 − 𝑥2
1
1−𝑥 2
> 0 when
1 − 𝑥2 > 0
𝑥2 < 1
−1 < 𝑥 < 1

Function is increasing for

(−1,1)

2.5 𝒚′ : Turning Points

A. Maxima and Minima
JEE Advanced Subjective 17

2.76: Absolute Maximum and Minimum (Informal)

➢ The greatest 𝑦 value on the graph of a function is its absolute maximum.
➢ The smallest 𝑦 value on the graph of a function is its absolute minimum.

The absolute maximum (or minimum) can be attained multiple times.

Example 2.77
Find the coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑠) of all absolute maxima and minima for each function below:
A. The line 𝑦 = 𝑥, −3 < 𝑥 < 4
B. The graph of the parabola 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , −2 ≤ 𝑥 < 2.

(You should not need Calculus to do this question).

𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 = (−2,4)

𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 = (0,0)

2.78: Endpoints

➢ Checking the endpoints of a function is critical when finding maxima or

minima.
➢ Currently, we have not introduced Calculus, but checking endpoints remains necessary even after
differentiation techniques for optimization have been introduced.

Example 2.79
Find the absolute maximum and the minimum of the function 𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 4.1
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A. over the interval [−3,4].

B. over the interval (−3,4).

Part A
The minimum value occurs at the left endpoint:
𝑦 = 3(−3) + 4.1 = −9 + 4 = −4.9
The maximum value occurs at the right endpoint:
𝑦 = 3(4) + 4.1 = 12 + 4 = 16.1
Part B
lim + 3𝑥 + 4.1 = −4.9
𝑥→−3
However, −4.9 is never achieved because −3 is not included in the interval under consideration.
Hence,
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑛𝑜 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙

lim 3𝑥 + 4.1 = 16.1

𝑥→4 −
However, 16.1 is never achieved because 4 is not included in the interval under consideration.
Hence,
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑛𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙

Example 2.80
Find the absolute maximum and minimum of the function 𝑦 = 𝑥 2
A. over the interval (−1,1)
B. over the interval [−1,1]
C. over its natural domain

Part A

𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 = (0,0)
𝑁𝑜 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
Part B
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 = (0,0)
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑡 {(−1,1), (1,1)}
Part C
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 = (0,0)
𝑁𝑜 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚

2.81: Unbounded and Bounded Functions

Type of
➢ Functions that increase without restriction are called
Function
unbounded.
➢ Functions that have an absolute maximum and an absolute
minimum value are called bounded. Unbounded Bounded

No Max / Has a
Min max/min
lim −𝑥 2 = −∞
𝑥→∞
lim −𝑥 2 = −∞
𝑥→−∞
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Example 2.82
Find the absolute maximum and minimum of the function 𝑦 = −𝑥 2
A. over the interval (−1,1)
B. over the interval [−1,1]
C. over its natural domain

Part A

𝑀𝑎𝑥 = (0,0)
𝑁𝑜 𝑀𝑖𝑛
Part B
𝑀𝑎𝑥 = (0,0)
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑡 {(−1, −1), (1, −1)}
Part C
𝑀𝑎𝑥 = (0,0)
𝑁𝑜 𝑀𝑖𝑛

Example 2.83
Does the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 have an absolute maximum or an absolute minimum value?

𝑥 → ∞, 𝑦 → ∞
𝑥 → −∞, 𝑦 → −∞
Therefore, 𝑓(𝑥) has neither an absolute maximum, nor an absolute minimum value. We
call such a function unbounded.

2.84: Relative Maximum and Minimum

➢ If a function decreases both to the left and to the right of a point, that point is a 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 maximum.
✓ A relative maximum creates a “mountain” in the graph
➢ If a function increases both to the left and to the right of a point, that point is a 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 minimum.
✓ A relative minimum creates a “valley” in the graph

➢ Plural of maximum is maxima

➢ Plural of minimum is minima

Note:
➢ If the point not an endpoint, then we check both to the left, and the right of the point.
➢ If the point is a left endpoint, then we check only to the right of the point.
➢ If the point is a right endpoint, then we check only to the left of the point.
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Example 2.85
Part of the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 , 𝑥 ∈ ℝ is given alongside.
A. Does it have a relative maximum? A relative minimum? Identify the
integers in the domain between which the maximum and the
minimum are achieved.
B. Does it have an absolute maximum? An absolute minimum?
C. In general, if a graph does not have an absolute maximum/minimum,
can it still have a relative maximum/minimum

Part A
𝑌𝑒𝑠
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 ∈ (−2, −1)
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ (−1,1)
Part B
𝑁𝑜
Part C
𝑌𝑒𝑠, 𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑙 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒

2.86: Inclusive Interval

An interval that includes its endpoints can have a local minimum at its endpoints.

2.87: Exclusive Interval

➢ An interval that does not its endpoints cannot have a local minimum at its endpoints.

2.88: Comparing Absolute and Relative Maxima/Minima

➢ Any absolute maximum/minimum is always a relative maximum.
➢ A relative maximum/minimum may or may not be an absolute maximum/minimum.

Example 2.89
The functions 𝑓(𝑥), ℎ(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are shown in the diagram. They have domains 𝐷𝑓 = [0,6], 𝐷𝑔 = [8,13] and
𝐷ℎ = [15,19].

A. Identify the coordinates of the absolute maximum and the absolute minimum for each function.
B. Identify, in the diagram, the relative maxima and minima.
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Part A
𝑓(𝑥): 𝑀𝑎𝑥: (6,4), 𝑀𝑖𝑛(0,1)
𝑔(𝑥): 𝑀𝑎𝑥: (11,6), 𝑀𝑖𝑛(8,2)
ℎ(𝑥): 𝑀𝑎𝑥(19,5), 𝑀𝑖𝑛(17,2)

Part B

2.90: Relative vs Absolute

➢ You can have more than one relative minimum or relative maximum, each of which has different
values.
➢ You can have more than one absolute maximum or minimum, but they have the same y-value.

B. Turning Points

2.91: Turning Point

➢ Note that if any maximum is not at the endpoint of the domain, it creates a “turning point”.
➢ At a turning point, the slope changes from positive to negative, or negative to positive.

2.92: Slope at Maxima/Minima

At a maximum, or a minimum, the slope must be zero.

➢ The converse of the above statement is not true in general.

➢ If the slope is zero, this does not always mean that it is a turning point.

2.93: Maximum within the domain

If a maximum occurs within the domain of a function,
➢ the slope at the maximum is zero
➢ the slope going from left to right goes from +𝑣𝑒 to −𝑣𝑒
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2.94: Minimum within the domain

If a minimum occurs within the domain of a function,
➢ the slope at the minimum is zero
➢ the slope going from right to left goes from −𝑣𝑒 to +𝑣𝑒

2.95: First Derivative Test for Critical Points

If a function attains a minimum or a maximum in an interval, the first derivative must be zero.

2.96: First Derivative Test

If the first derivative changes sign at a critical point
from positive to negative at a point, the function has a maximum at that point.
from negative to positive at a point, the function has a minimum at that point.

Example 2.97
𝑦 = √𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1
= = 0 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑑𝑥 2√𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝑥=0⇒ is not defined
𝑑𝑥
For
𝑑𝑦
𝑥 > 0, > 0 ⇒ 𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑑𝑥
Hence
𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑦 = √0 = 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚

Example 2.98
′
(𝑥 − 7)3 (𝑥 − 3)2
𝑦 =
(𝑥 − 1)5 (𝑥 − 4)
Identify the:
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A. Increasing and Decreasing Intervals for 𝑦

B. 𝑥 values at which 𝑦 has a maximum or a minimum.

Part A
We have already been given the derivative. Do not make the mistake of trying to differentiate it.
(𝑥 − 7)3 (𝑥 − 3)2
>0
(𝑥 − 1)5 (𝑥 − 4)
To find the critical points, we equate the numerator and the denominator to zero and solve it:
(𝑥 − 7)(𝑥 − 3) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {3,7}
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 4) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {1,4}
The critical points are:
𝑥 ∈ {1,3,4,7}
We make a sign diagram. Note that:
(𝑥 − 7)3 ⇒ 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 3 ⇒ 3 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑 ⇒ 𝐼𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛
(𝑥 − 3)2 ⇒ 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 2 ⇒ 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 ⇒ 𝐼𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛
(𝑥 − 1)5 ⇒ 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 5 ⇒ 5 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑 ⇒ 𝐼𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛
(𝑥 − 4) ⇒ 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 1 ⇒ 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑 ⇒ 𝐼𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛

𝑥 = 8, 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ⇒ 𝑦 ′ = 0

Since each root occurs at most once, the values alternate between positive and negative.

(−∞, 1) (1,3) (3,4) (4,7) (7, ∞)

𝑦′ −𝑣𝑒 +𝑣𝑒 +𝑣𝑒 −𝑣𝑒 +𝑣𝑒
𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔

Part B
𝑥 = 1 ⇒ 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
𝑥 = 3 ⇒ 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑥 = 4 ⇒ 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
𝑥 = 7 ⇒ 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚

Example 2.99
Determine the maxima and minima for 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 −𝑥 , 𝑛 ∈ ℝ.

Find the first derivative and equate it to zero:

𝑦 ′ = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑒 −𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑛 𝑒 −𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑒 −𝑥 (𝑛 − 𝑥) = 0
Use the zero-product property:
𝑥 𝑛−1 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 0
−𝑥
𝑒 = 0 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
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𝑛−𝑥 =0⇒𝑥 =𝑛

For 𝑥 = 0, we consider the first derivative:

Find the second derivative:

𝑦 ′′ = −2𝑛𝑒 −𝑥 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑛2 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑥 𝑛−2 − 𝑛𝑒 −𝑥 𝑥 𝑛−2
𝑦 ′′ = 𝑒 −𝑥 (−2𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑛2 𝑥 𝑛−2 − 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−2 )

When 𝑥 = 𝑛:
= 𝑒 −𝑥 (−2𝑛𝑛𝑛−1 + 𝑛𝑛 + 𝑛2 𝑛𝑛−2 − 𝑛𝑛𝑛−2 )
= 𝑒 −𝑥 (−2𝑛𝑛 + 𝑛𝑛 + 𝑛𝑛 − 𝑛𝑛−1 )
= 𝑒 −𝑥 (−𝑛𝑛−1 )

𝑒 −𝑛 is always positive. We consider cases for the value of 𝑛.

𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐼: 𝑛 > 0 ⇒ 𝑛𝑛−1 > 0 ⇒ −𝑛𝑛−1 < 0 ⇒ 𝑀𝑎𝑥
𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐼𝐼: 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 ⇒ −𝑛𝑛−1 > 0 ⇒ 𝑀𝑖𝑛
𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐼𝐼𝐼: 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 ⇒ −𝑛𝑛−1 < 0 ⇒ 𝑀𝑎𝑥

(-3.5)^(-3.5) = (-3.5)^(-7/2)=1/(-3.5)^(7/2)
which leads us to a complex number, and hence I did not consider such numbers while considering the cases.

2.6 𝒚′′: Concavity and 𝒚′′ test

2.100: Parabolas Opening Up and Down
➢ A parabola with positive leading coefficient is an “upward” parabola. This is a special case of a
“concave up” graph.
➢ A parabola with negative leading coefficient is an “downward” parabola. This is a special case of a
“concave down” graph.

2.101: Concave Up
If the line segment joining any two points of a graph lies entirely below the graph for the entire interval of the
line segment, then the graph is a concave up graph.
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➢ Any line segment connecting two points on the blue graph always has
the blue line below it (for the interval over which the line segment is
drawn)

2.102: Concave Up (Increasing vs. Decreasing)

2.103: Concave Down

If the line segment joining any two points of a graph lies entirely above the graph for the entire interval of the
line segment, then the graph is a concave down graph.

2.104: Concave Up (Increasing vs. Decreasing)

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2.105: Point of Inflection

If the slope of a graph is zero at a point, but that point is not a turning point, then it is a point of inflection for
the graph.

Example 2.106
𝑑𝑦
A. Evaluate at 𝑥 = 0 given that 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 .
𝑑𝑥
B. Hence, what is the slope of 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 at 𝑥 = 0?
C. From the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 , is 𝑥 = 0 a turning point?

Part A
𝑑𝑦
| = 3𝑥 2 |𝑥=0 = 3(0)2 = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=0
Part B
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 0
Part C
𝑁𝑜, 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡

2.107: Point of Inflection

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A. Concavity

2.108: Second Derivative Test for Concavity

At a point, a function is:

➢ concave up if the tangent line to the graph at a point is below the graph
➢ concave down if the tangent line to the graph at the point is above the graph.

2.109: Second Derivative Test for Concavity

Over an interval, a function is:

➢ concave up if the secant line connecting two points on the graph is above the graph
➢ concave down if the secant line connecting two points on the graph at the point is below the graph.

2.110: Second Derivative Test for Concavity

➢ If 𝑦 ′′ > 0 over an interval, then the function is concave up over
that interval.
➢ If 𝑦 ′′ < 0 over an interval, then the function is concave down over
that interval.

Note that
𝑦 ′′ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑦′
➢ 𝑦 ′′ > 0 means that 𝑦′ has positive slope, and is increasing.
✓ If 𝑦′ is increasing, then the function is said to be concave
up.
➢ 𝑦 ′′ < 0 means that 𝑦′ has negative slope, and is decreasing.
✓ If 𝑦′ is decreasing, then the function is said to be concave down.

Example 2.111
Determine the concavity of the following functions:
A. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2
B. 𝑦 = 𝑥 3

Part A
𝑦 = 𝑥 2 ⇒ 𝑦 ′ = 2𝑥 ⇒ 𝑦 ′′ = 2 > 0 ⇒ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑈𝑝 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 (−∞, +∞)
Part B
𝑦 = 𝑥 3 ⇒ 𝑦 ′ = 3𝑥 2 ⇒ 𝑦 ′′ = 6𝑥
6𝑥 > 0 ⇒ 𝑥 > 0
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ (0, ∞)
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ (−∞, 0)

2.112: Second Derivative Test for Maximum and Minimum

For a function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), if at a point 𝑦 ′ = 0 and
➢ 𝑦 ′′ > 0, then the function has a minimum.
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➢ 𝑦 ′′ < 0, then the function has a maximum.

➢ 𝑦 ′′ = 0, then the function may have a maximum, a minimum or a point of inflection.

Example 2.113
Find the maxima and minima of:
𝑦 = 𝑥3 − 𝑥

1 1
𝑦 ′ = 3𝑥 2 − 1 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 2 = ⇒𝑥=±
3 √3
𝑦 ′′ = 6𝑥

Substitute
1 1 1
𝑦 ′′ ( ) = 6( ) > 0 ⇒ 𝑀𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 =
√3 √3 √3
1 1 1
𝑦 ′′ (− ) = 6 (− ) < 0 ⇒ 𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = −
√3 √3 √3

To find the points of infection, equate the second derivative to zero:

𝑦 ′′ = 6𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 0
1 1
𝑦 ′′ ( ) = 6 ( ) > 0 ⇒ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑈𝑝
√3 √3
1 1
𝑦 ′′ (− ) = 6 (− ) < 0 ⇒ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐷𝑜𝑤𝑛
√3 √3

Example 2.114
𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 1

Find the first derivative and equate it to zero to find the critical points:
𝑦 ′ = 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥(3𝑥 + 6) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {0, −2}

Find the second derivative and use it to check the critical points:
𝑦 ′′ = 6𝑥 + 6
𝑦 ′′ (0) = 6(0) + 6 = 6 > 0 ⇒ 𝑀𝑖𝑛
′′ (−2)
𝑦 = 6(−2) + 6 = −6 < 0 ⇒ 𝑀𝑎𝑥

To find the points of inflection, equate the second derivative to zero:

6𝑥 + 6 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −1

Use the second derivative test for points of inflection.

𝑦 ′′ (0) = 6(0) + 6 = 6 > 0 ⇒ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑈𝑝
𝑦 ′′ (−2) = 6(−2) + 6 = −6 < 0 ⇒ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐷𝑜𝑤𝑛

𝑥 = −1 is a point of inflection since the function changes its concavity at that point.
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Example 2.115
The function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) with one turning point (at C) is graphed alongside.
Determine where:
A. 𝑦 is increasing/decreasing/constant.
B. 𝑦 is positive/negative.
C. 𝑦′ is positive/negative/zero.
D. 𝑦 ′′ is positive/negative

Part A
We can observe from the graph that 𝑦 is:
(−∞, 𝐶) ,
⏟ 𝐶
⏟ , (𝐶,
⏟ ∞)
𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔
Part B
We can observe from the graph that 𝑦 is:
(−∞,
⏟ 𝐴) ∪ (𝐵, ∞) , (𝐴,
⏟ 𝐵)
𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑁𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
Part C
When 𝑦 is decreasing, its slope is negative, when 𝑦 is increasing its slope is positive, and when 𝑦 is constant,
its slope is zero.
Since 𝑦′ is the slope, we can directly convert the answers from Part A into the answers for Part C.
(−∞, 𝐶) , 𝐶
⏟ ⏟ , (𝐶,
⏟ ∞)
𝑁𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
Part D
The function has a single turning point at C.
𝑦 ′ < 0 to the left of C, and 𝑦 ′ > 0 to the right of C.
𝑦 ′′ > 0 over an interval around C.
Since the function has a single turning point, 𝑦′′ cannot change its behavior.
∴ 𝑦 ′′ > 0, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ

Example 2.116
The function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑦 is 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6. Determine where:
A. 𝑦 is increasing/decreasing/constant.
B. 𝑦 is positive/negative.
C. 𝑦′ is positive/negative/zero.
D. 𝑦 ′′ is positive/negative
E. 𝑦 is concave up/concave down

Parts A and C
5 5 5
𝑦 ′ = 2𝑥 + 5 > 0 ⇒ 𝑥 > − , 2𝑥 + 5 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = − , 2𝑥 + 5 < 0 ⇒ 𝑥 < −
2 2 2
5 5 5
(−∞, − ) , − , (− , ∞ )
⏟ 2 ⏟ 2 ⏟ 2
𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑦 ′ 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑦 ′ =0 𝑦 ′ 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒

Parts D and E
𝑦 ′′ = 2 > 0 ⇒ (−∞,
⏟ ∞)
𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑢𝑝
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Example 2.117
Column I Column II
For each part below, match each entry in Column I to the
1. 𝑓(𝑐) A. 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
appropriate entry in Column II. For example, 1 − 𝐴 , 2 −
2. 𝑓′(𝑐) B. 𝑁𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝐵, 3 − 𝐵 represents a answer choice.
3. 𝑓 ′′ (𝑐) C. 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜
A. The function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) has a maximum at 𝑥 = 𝑐. D. 𝐶𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
B. The function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) has a minimum at 𝑥 = 𝑐.
C. The function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) has a turning point at 𝑥 = 𝑐.

1 − 𝐷, 2 − 𝐶, 3𝐵

Example 2.118
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐

Equate the first derivative to zero:

𝑏
𝑦 ′ = 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −
2𝑎
𝑦 ′′ = 2𝑎 > 0 ⇒ 𝑎 > 0

If
𝑏
𝑎 > 0 ⇒ 𝑦 ′′ > 0 ⇒ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑈𝑝 ⇒ − 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
2𝑎

𝑏
𝑎 < 0 ⇒ 𝑦 ′′ < 0 ⇒ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐷𝑜𝑤𝑛 ⇒ − 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
2𝑎

2.119: Point of Inflection

A point of inflection is a point where the graph of a function changes shape from concave up to concave down
or vice versa.

Since the graph changes shape

➢ the second derivative will change sign
➢ the first derivative will not change sign

2.120: Inflection between Max and Min

Between a relative maximum and a relative minimum that are connected by a continuous graph, there exists a
point of inflection.

A relative maximum has a concave down shape, and a relative minimum has a concave up shape.
The point where the graph transitions from concave down to concave up or 𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎 is a point of inflection.

Example 2.121
Classify each marked point in the
graph alongside as a maximum, a
minimum or a point of inflection.
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𝜋
( , 1) ⇒ 𝑀𝑎𝑥
2
(𝜋, 0) ⇒ 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
3𝜋
( , −1) ⇒ 𝑀𝑖𝑛
2
(2𝜋, 0) ⇒ 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
5𝜋
( , 1) ⇒ 𝑀𝑎𝑥
2

Example 2.122

𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑥 = 0

Example 2.123
Determine where the functions is increasing/decreasing, its concavity,
the turning points and the points of inflection. Also, determine the
vertical and horizontal asymptotes. Hence, graph the function.
𝑥
A. 𝑦 =
𝑥+5

Equate the denominator to zero to find the domain of the function

𝑥 + 5 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −5 ⇒ 𝐷𝑓 = 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 − 5
𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = −5
Evaluate the limit of the function at infinity to find the horizontal asymptote.
𝑥
𝑥 1
lim = lim 𝑥 = = lim =1
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 + 5 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 5 𝑥→∞ 5
+ 1+
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

Find the first derivative:

(𝑥 + 5)(1) − (𝑥)(1) 5
𝑦′ = =
(𝑥 + 5) (𝑥 + 5)2
5
(𝑥+5)2
> 0 for all numbers in its domain, so the function is increasing for all numbers in its domain.

Equate the first derivative to zero to find the turning points:

5
= 0 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠
(𝑥 + 5)2
Find the second derivative:
−10(𝑥 + 5) 10
𝑦 ′′ = 4
=−
(𝑥 + 5) (𝑥 + 5)3

The critical points are:

(𝑥 + 5)3 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −5

(−∞, −5) (−5, ∞)

+𝑣𝑒 −𝑣𝑒
Shape 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑈𝑝 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐷𝑜𝑤𝑛
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The function changes from concave up to concave down at 𝑥 = −5. This would resulted in a point of
inflection, but the function is not defined at 𝑥 = −5.
Hence, there are no points of inflection.

Example 2.124
Determine where the function is increasing/decreasing, its concavity, the turning points and the points of
inflection. Also, determine the vertical and horizontal asymptotes. Hence, graph the function.
𝑦 = sin 𝑥 , 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋

B. Critical Points

Example 2.125
Determine where the function is increasing/decreasing, its concavity, the turning points and the points of
inflection. Also, determine the vertical and horizontal asymptotes.
16 𝑥 3
𝑦= 2+
𝑥 3

First Derivative
Find the first derivative
𝑑𝑦 32 −32 + 𝑥 5
= − 3 + 𝑥2 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥3
Equate the first derivative to zero to find the critical points:
−32 + 𝑥 5
=0⇒𝑥=2
𝑥3
Set up and solve an inequality to find the increasing and decreasing intervals:
−32 + 𝑥 5
>0
𝑥3
Make a sign diagram

Second Derivative
Find the second derivative
𝑑2 𝑦 96
= + 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑥 4
Evaluate the second derivative at 𝑥 = 2:
𝑑2 𝑦 96
2
| = + 2𝑥 = 10 > 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=2 16
Since the second derivative is greater than zero,
𝑥 = 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚

Example 2.126
A circular cylinder, open at one end, is
432 − 𝑟 2
𝑆𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 + 2𝜋𝑟ℎ ⇒ 432𝜋 = 𝜋𝑟(𝑟 + 2ℎ) ⇒ =ℎ
2𝑟
432 − 𝑟 2 𝜋 𝜋
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ = 𝜋𝑟 2 ( ) = ( ) (432𝑟 − 𝑟 3 ) = ( ) (432 × 12 − 123 )𝑟=12 = 1728𝜋
2𝑟 2 2
𝑑𝑉 𝜋
= ( ) (432 − 3𝑟 2 ), 432 − 3𝑟 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑟 = 12
𝑑𝑟 2
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𝑑2 𝑉 𝜋
2
= ( ) (−6𝑟), 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 − 𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟 ⇒ 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
𝑑𝑟 2

Example 2.127
24
Find the area of the triangle formed by the origin, and the intercepts of the tangent to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + at
𝑥
the point (2,16).
𝑑𝑦 24 𝑑𝑦 24
= 2𝑥 − 2 , = 2(2) − 2 = 4 − 6 = −2
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥=2 2
Substitute (2,16) and the slope in the slope-point form to get the equation of the tangent. Then calculate the
intercept, and use the formula for area of a triangle.
𝑏ℎ 10 × 20
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) ⇒ 𝑦 − 16 = (−2)(𝑥 − 2) ⇒ ⏟ 𝑦 = −2𝑥 + 20 ⇒ 𝐴(Δ) = = = 100
𝑥−𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡=10
2 2
𝑦−𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡=20

Bounded
f'=0 Function

C. Finding Maxima/Minima Check

f''>0 f''<0 f''=0 Check POI
Endpoints
Example 2.128
Find the maximum/minimum values for 𝑓(𝑥) = Minima Maxima Check f' Turning
Points
3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 4, 𝑥 ∈ [−4, 3]
+ve to -ve: -ve to +ve NoInflection
change
Find the first and second derivatives: Points
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 6𝑥 + 5 ⇒ 𝑓
⏟′′ = (6𝑥 + 5)′ = 6
+𝒗𝒆⇒𝑴𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒂
Maxima Minima Inflection
The turning point we found is a minimum. Equate
the first derivative to zero to find the value of 𝑥, at the turning point:
5 5 5 2 5
6𝑥 + 5 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = − ⇒ 𝑓 (− ) = 3 (− ) + 5 (− ) + 4 = 1.916
⏟ 6 ⏟ 6 6 6
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒇′ 𝒕𝒐 𝒛𝒆𝒓𝒐 𝐸𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑎𝑡−
5
6
Check the value of 𝑓(𝑥) at the endpoints:
𝑓(−4) = 3(−4)2 + 5(−4) + 4 = 32 ,
⏟ 𝑓(3) = 3(3)2 + 5(3) + 4 = 46,
⏟
𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐸𝑛𝑑𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐸𝑛𝑑𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡

Example 2.129
1 5
Find the turning points for 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 𝑥 3 + 2 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 99

Find the first derivative and equate it to zero:

𝑓 ′ = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 = 0 ⇒ (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = (−2, −3)
Evaluate the second derivative at the x values where the first derivative is zero:
𝑓 ′′ = 2𝑥 + 5 ⇒ ⏟ 𝑓 ′′ (−2) = 2(−2) + 5 = 1 , 𝑓 ′′ (−3) = 2(−3) + 5 = −1
⏟
+𝑣𝑒⇒𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎 −𝑣𝑒⇒𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎

Example 2.130
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥
1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 1 ⇒ 3𝑥 2 − 1 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 =
±√3
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1
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 6𝑥 ⇒ 6𝑥 𝑖𝑠 + 𝑣𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = ⇒ 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
+√3
1
6𝑥 𝑖𝑠 − 𝑣𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = ⇒ 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
−√3
Set the second derivative to second:
𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 6𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0
6𝑥 < 0 ⇒ 𝑥 < 0 ⇒ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐷𝑜𝑤𝑛 ∈ (−∞, 0)
6𝑥 > 0 ⇒ 𝑥 > 0 ⇒ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑈𝑝 ∈ (0, ∞)
The graph changes from concave down to concave up at 𝑥 = 0. Hence, this is a point of inflection.

Example 2.131
f(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 + 2
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 − 3 ⇒

Example 2.132
1
Determine the concavity of 𝑦 = 𝑥(4 − 𝑥 2 )2

Domain
Determine the domain:
4 − 𝑥 2 ≥ 0 ⇒ 𝑥 2 ≤ 4 ⇒ −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2

First Derivative
Find the first derivative:
𝑑𝑦 𝑥 −𝑥 2 −𝑥 2 + 4 − 𝑥 2 −2𝑥 2 + 4
= (−2𝑥) + √4 − 𝑥 2 = + √4 − 𝑥 2 = =
𝑑𝑥 2√4 − 𝑥 2 √4 − 𝑥 2 √4 − 𝑥 2 √4 − 𝑥 2

The derivative is not defined for

√4 − 𝑥 2 = 0 ⇒ 4 − 𝑥 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = ±2

Set the first derivative equal to zero to find any other critical points:
−2𝑥 2 + 4
= 0 ⇒ −2𝑥 2 + 4 = 0 ⇒ 2𝑥 2 = 4 ⇒ 𝑥 = ±√2
√4 − 𝑥 2

The critical points for the function are:

{±√2, ±2}

Note that the critical points = ±2 are also the endpoints of the domain. Evaluate the values at the endpoints of
the domain:
1 1 1
𝑦(2) = 𝑥(4 − (2)2 )2 = 2(4 − 4)2 = 2(4 − 4)2 = 2(0) = 0
𝑦(−2) = 0

Increasing and Decreasing Intervals

To find the increasing intervals, check where the first derivative is greater than zero:
−2𝑥 2 + 4
>0
√4 − 𝑥 2
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The critical points are:

𝑥 = ±√2
√4 − 𝑥 2 ⇒ 𝑥 = ±2

(−2, −√2) (−√2, √2) (√2, 2)

−𝑣𝑒 +𝑣𝑒 −𝑣𝑒

𝐴𝑡 − √2 𝑦 ′ 𝑔𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 − 𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 + 𝑣𝑒: 𝑀𝑖𝑛

𝐴𝑡 √2 𝑦 ′ 𝑔𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 + 𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 − 𝑣𝑒: 𝑀𝑎𝑥
Second Derivative
Calculate the second derivative:
−𝑥
√4 − 𝑥 2 (−4𝑥) − (−2𝑥 2 + 4) ∙
𝑑2 𝑦 √4 − 𝑥 2
=
𝑑𝑥 2 4 − 𝑥2

−2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 (4 − 𝑥 2 )(−4𝑥) − 2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥
√4 − 𝑥 2 (−4𝑥) +
= √4 − 𝑥 2 = √4 − 𝑥 2
4−𝑥 2 4 − 𝑥2

−16𝑥 + 4𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2𝑥 3 − 12𝑥 2𝑥(𝑥 2 − 6)

= 3 = 3 = 3
(4 − 𝑥 2 )2 (4 − 𝑥 2 )2 (4 − 𝑥 2 )2

Check where the second derivative is greater than zero. The critical points:
2𝑥(𝑥 2 − 6) ⇒ 𝑥 = 0, ±√3
3
(4 − 𝑥 2 )2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = ±2

(−2, −√3) (−√3, 0) (0, √3) (√3, 2)

+𝑣𝑒 +𝑣𝑒 −𝑣𝑒 −𝑣𝑒

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑢𝑝 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (−2,0)

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (0,2)

Example 2.133: Newton’s Serpentine

The function 𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑎2 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑏𝑥 = 0, 𝑎𝑏 > 0 was studied by 𝐿’𝐻𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 and 𝐻𝑢𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑠. 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛 studied, named
and classified it.
A. Show that it is a function.
B. Find the intercepts and asymptotes.
C. Find the critical points using the first derivative test, and determine whether they are maxima or
minima.
D. Use the second derivative test to find points of inflection, if any.
E. Sketch the function.

Part A
Solve for 𝑦:
𝑎𝑏𝑥
𝑦(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 ) = 𝑎𝑏𝑥 ⇒ 𝑦 =
𝑥2
+ 𝑎2
The above is a function since it will give a single value of 𝑦 for a valid value of 𝑥.
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Part B
Find the intercepts:
𝑎𝑏𝑥 𝑎𝑏(0)
𝑥=0⇒𝑦= = 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑖𝑠 (0,0)
+𝑎 2𝑥20 + 𝑎2
𝑎𝑏𝑥
𝑦=0⇒0= 2 ⇒ 0 = 𝑎𝑏𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑖𝑠 (0,0)
𝑥 + 𝑎2
Find the asymptotes:
𝑎𝑏𝑥
𝑦= ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜
𝑥2 + 𝑎2
𝑎𝑏𝑥
𝑦= 2 ⇒ 𝐻𝑎𝑠 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑦 = 0
𝑥 + 𝑎2
Part C
Find the first derivative:
′
(𝑎𝑏)(𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 )
𝑦 =
(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )2
Equate the first derivative to zero to find the critical points:
(𝑎𝑏)(𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 )
= 0 ⇒ (𝑎𝑏)(𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 ) = 0
(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )2
Divide by 𝑎𝑏, since 𝑎𝑏 > 0:
𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 = 0′ ⇒ 𝑥 = ±𝑎
Make a sign diagram for the first derivative:
(𝑎𝑏)(𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 ) (+𝑣𝑒)(𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 )
→
(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )2 (+𝑣𝑒)

Two terms are positive. The sign depends on the third term:
𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 > 0 ⇒ 𝑥 2 < 𝑎2 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ (−𝑎, 𝑎)

(−∞, −𝑎) (−𝑎, 𝑎) (𝑎, ∞)

2 2 −𝑣𝑒 +𝑣𝑒 −𝑣𝑒
𝑎 −𝑥
𝑎𝑏𝑥 Decreasing Increasing Decreasing
𝑥 + 𝑎2
2

From the sign diagram:

𝑎𝑏(−𝑎) 𝑏
𝑥 = −𝑎 ⇒ 𝑦 = 2 2
= − 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑔𝑙𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑎
𝑥 +𝑎 2
𝑎𝑏(𝑎) 𝑏
𝑥=𝑎⇒𝑦= 2 = 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑔𝑙𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎
𝑥 + 𝑎2 2

Part D
Find the second derivative, and equate it to zero:

(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )2 (−2𝑥) − (𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 )2(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )(2𝑥)

𝑦′′ = (𝑎𝑏) [ ]
(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )4
Factor (2𝑥)(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 ) from the numerator:
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(2𝑥)(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )[−(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 ) − (𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 )2]

= (𝑎𝑏) [ ]
(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )4

Cancel and simplify:

(2𝑥)[(−𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 ) − (2𝑎2 − 2𝑥 2 )]
= (𝑎𝑏) [ ]
(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )3

Simplify further:
(2𝑥)(𝑥 2 − 3𝑎2 )
= (𝑎𝑏) [ ]
(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )3

(𝑎𝑏)(2𝑥)(𝑥 2 − 3𝑎2 )
𝑦 ′′ = =0
(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )3

𝑥 ∈ {−√3𝑎, 0, √3𝑎}

From the sign diagram for the second derivative, each of the three points {−√3𝑎, 0, √3𝑎} is a point of
inflection.

Example 2.134
𝑦 = 2𝑒 3𝑥

Find the first derivative and see where it is greater than zero.
𝑦 ′ = 6𝑒 3𝑥 > 0 ⇒ 𝑒 3𝑥 > 0 ⇒ 𝐴𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 ⇒ 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 ℝ

Find the second derivative and see where it is less:

𝑦 ′′ = 18𝑒 3𝑥 < 0 ⇒ 𝑁𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 ⇒ 𝑁𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝐷𝑜𝑤𝑛

2.7 Curve Sketching Questions

A. Summary of Non-Derivative Rules

2.135: Intercepts
The intercepts are the places where the function intersects the x and the y axis. To find the
➢ 𝑥 −intercepts, substitute 𝑦 = 0
➢ 𝑦 −intercepts, substitute 𝑥 = 0

2.136: Domain of the Function

The domain of the function is all the numbers which are valid inputs for the function.

2.137: Continuous versus Non-Continuous Function

A continuous function is one which can be drawn without lifting your pencil. If a function is not continuous, it
is discontinuous. The types of discontinuity are:
A. Jump Discontinuity
B. Removable Discontinuity
C. Infinite Discontinuity
D. Oscillating Discontinuity
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2.138: Vertical Asymptotes

Identify the vertical asymptotes of a function by determining where the denominator is zero.

➢ We determine where the denominator is zero by setting the denominator equal to zero and solving
the resulting equation.
➢ In an infinite discontinuity, the limit to the left, and the limit to the right at the points where the
denominator equals zero approaches positive infinity, or negative infinity.
➢ In a removable discontinuity, the limit to the left, and the limit to the right at the points where the
denominator equals zero do not approach positive infinity, or negative infinity.

2.139: Horizontal Asymptotes

To find the horizontal asymptote, you find the limit of the function at positive and negative infinity.

Some specific cases for polynomial functions, and rational functions:

➢ Degree of numerator is less than degree of denominator: Horizontal asymptote is the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠, or 𝑦 =
0.
➢ Degree of numerator is equal to degree of denominator: Horizontal asymptote is ratio of leading
coefficients when the numerator and denominator are written in standard form.
➢ Degree of numerator is one greater than degree of denominator: No Horizontal asymptote. Oblique
asymptote, which can be found by dividing numerator by denominator.
➢ Degree of numerator is two greater than degree of denominator: No Horizontal asymptote. Quadratic
expression which the function approaches asymptotically, which can be found by dividing numerator
by denominator.

Rational functions are functions where the numerator and denominator are polynomials.

B. Summary of Derivative Rules

2.140: Increasing and Decreasing Intervals

If the first derivative is:
Positive, function is increasing
Negative, function is decreasing

➢ To find whether a quantity is increasing or decreasing, we set up an inequality.

➢ To solve the inequality, we find the critical points of the inequality (where the numerator or the
denominator becomes zero).
➢ To determine the intervals where the inequality holds, we use a sign diagram and then apply. To
✓ The Wavy Curve method
✓ Or use test points for each interval in the sign diagram.

2.141: Turning Points and Points of Inflection:

Critical points are values which satisfy 𝑓′(𝑥) = 0 or where 𝑓′(𝑥) is undefined.

Check the critical points using the either the first derivative test OR the second derivative test.
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2.142: First Derivative Test

If, at a critical point the first derivative

changes from positive to negative, the point is a max.
changes from negative to positive, the point is a min.
does not change sign, it is a point of inflection.

2.143: Second Derivative Test

If at a point, the second derivative is

negative, it is a max.
positive, it is a min.
zero, the test is inconclusive.

2.144: Concavity
If the second derivative is:
Positive, the function is concave up
Negative, the function is concave down

2.145: Standard Instruction for Curve Sketching

When asked to sketch a curve, pay attention to the following:
A. 𝑥 and 𝑦 intercepts
B. Domain
C. Discontinuities: Point/Jump/Infinite
D. Asymptotes: Horizontal / Vertical / Slant
E. Increasing and Decreasing Intervals
F. Turning Points (aka Local Maxima/Minima) and Global Max/Min
G. Concavity
H. Period, if any
I. Points of Inflection
a. Stationary points (𝑓 ′ = 0)
b. Non-stationary (𝑓 ′ ≠ 0)
J. Intersection with other graphs
K. Other points of interest specific to the question

C. Types of Questions
Find:
A. Find and classify stationary points
I. Where the first derivative is zero / where the tangent is horizontal
B. Find and classify points of inflections
I. Where the second derivative is zero
II. And it is not a turning point
C. Find local maximum and minimum / turning points
I. Equate first derivative to zero
II. Use second derivative test OR first derivative test to eliminate stationary points of inflection
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D. Find global max/min

I. Find local max/min
II. Evaluate endpoints
III. Arrive at final answer after considering points I and II
E. Find the intercepts
I. x-intercepts: Substitute y=0
II. y-intercepts: Substitute x=0

Example 2.146
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 = 𝑒 sin 𝑝𝑥 , 𝑝 ≥ 0
Identify the:
A. Increasing and Decreasing Intervals for 𝑦
B. 𝑥 values at which 𝑦 has a maximum or a minimum.

Case I
Note that if 𝑝 = 0 then:
𝑒 sin 𝑝𝑥 = 𝑒 sin 0𝑥 = 𝑒 0 = 1
Hence,
𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥
𝑁𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑠
𝑁𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
Case II
If 𝑝 ≠ 0, then determine where the derivative is positive:
𝑦 ′ = 𝑝 ∙ cos 𝑝𝑥 ∙ 𝑒 sin 𝑝𝑥 > 0

Note that since 𝑝 ≠ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒 sin 𝑝𝑥 > 0, the sign is controlled by

cos 𝑝𝑥. Note that cos 𝑝𝑥 is a horizontal stretch of cos 𝑥 by a factor
1
of .
𝑝

𝜋 2𝜋𝐾 3𝜋 2𝜋𝐾
𝑥= + 𝑥= +
2𝑝 𝑝 2𝑝 𝑝
𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑀𝑖𝑛

𝜋 3𝜋 2𝜋
(0,)∪( , )
2𝑝 2𝑝 𝑝
2𝜋
But note that cos 𝑝𝑥 is a period function with period 𝑝 .
2𝜋
Hence, we can add any integer multiple of 𝑝
to the above solution, and it remains valid. Hence, the updated
solution is:
2𝜋𝐾 𝜋 2𝜋𝐾 3𝜋 2𝜋𝐾 2𝜋 2𝜋𝐾
(0 + , + )∪( + , + ),𝐾 ∈ ℤ
𝑝 2𝑝 𝑝 2𝑝 𝑝 𝑝 𝑝

Example 2.147
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𝑦 ′ = cos 𝑥 ∙ 𝑒 sin 𝑥
′′ 2 sin 𝑥
𝑦 = cos 𝑥 ∙ 𝑒 − sin 𝑥 ∙ 𝑒 sin 𝑥 = 𝑒 sin 𝑥 (cos2 𝑥 − sin 𝑥)

Where is this positive:

𝑒 sin 𝑥 (cos 2 𝑥 − sin 𝑥) > 0
Since 𝑒 sin 𝑥 is always greater than zero, we find the critical point by equating the trigonometric term to zero:
cos 2 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 = 0
1 − sin2 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 = 0
Substitute 𝑧 = sin 𝑥
1 − 𝑧2 − 𝑧 = 0
𝑧2 + 𝑧 − 1 = 0
1 − √5 1 + √5
𝑧 ∈ {− ,− }
2 2
Note that
1 − √5
𝑧 = sin 𝑥 = − ≈ −1.61 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝜙
2
1 + √5 1 + √5
𝑧 = sin 𝑥 = − ⇒ 𝑥 = sin−1 (− )
2 2

Example 2.148
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 = 𝑒 sin 𝑥
Identify the:
A. Concavity
B. 𝑥 values at which 𝑦 has a maximum or a minimum.

Type equation here.

Example 2.149
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 has an inflection point at (0,3) and a local maximum at (1,5).

Substitute (0,3) in 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑:
3= 0+0+0+𝑑 ⇒ 𝑑 = 3

Substitute (1,5), 𝑑 = 3 in 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑:
5= 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐+3⇒ ⏟ 2= 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼

𝑦 ′ = 3𝑎𝑥 2 + 2𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
At the local maximum, 𝑦′ must be zero. Substitute (1,0) in 𝑦 ′ = 3𝑎𝑥 2 + 2𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐:
0 = 3𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 𝑐
⏟
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼𝐼

𝑦 ′′ = 6𝑎𝑥 + 2𝑏
At the point of inflection, 𝑦 ′′ must be zero:
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6𝑎(0) + 2𝑏 = 0 ⇒ 𝑏 = 0

Substitute 𝑏 = 0 in Equations I and II:

0 = 3𝑎 + 𝑐
2= 𝑎+𝑐
Subtract:
2𝑎 = −2 ⇒ 𝑎 = −1
𝑐=3

Example 2.150

Find a function whose graph y = f(x)

A. has negative slopes, which increase as x increases;
B. has positive slopes, which decrease as x increases.

Slope is negative, we can take

1
− , −𝑥, …
𝑥

As
𝑥 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠, −𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠
1
𝑥 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠, − 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝑥
1
Hence, we want a function which when differentiated is −
𝑥
− ln|𝑥|

2.8 Intermediate Value Theorem

A. Basics

2.151: Intermediate Value Theorem

The conditions for the intermediate value theorem are as follows.

➢ The function should be defined on a closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏]
➢ The function should be continuous over the same interval [𝑎, 𝑏]
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Example 2.152
Use intermediate value theorem to show that the function 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 10 has
A. at least one root between −6 and −4
B. at least one root between −3 and −1

Find the roots and graph it

𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 + 10 = 0
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 5) = 0
𝑥 ∈ {−2, −5}
Part A
The conditions for the intermediate value theorem are as follows.
➢ The function should be defined on a closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏]
➢ The function should be continuous over the same interval [𝑎, 𝑏]

Intermediate Value Theorem applies since:

➢ 𝑓(𝑥) is defined over [−6, −4]
➢ 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous over [−6, −4]

Hence, 𝑓(𝑥) takes on all values between

𝑓(−6) = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(−4) = −2 ⇒ −2 ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 ≤ 4

In particular, it takes on the value

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 = 0

And hence 𝑓(𝑥) has a root in this interval.

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Part B

𝑓(−3) = −2
𝑓(−1) = 4

Example 2.153
Basic Example

2.9 Rolle’s Theorem

A. Rolle’s Theorem

2.154: Rolle’s Theorem

Given a function 𝑓 there is at least one number 𝑐 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) at which
𝑓′(𝑐) = 0

Conditions to be met by 𝑓:
➢ 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏) = 0
➢ 𝑓 is continuous over the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏]
➢ 𝑓 is differentiable at every point of its interior (𝑎, 𝑏)

Example 2.155
Interpret Rolle’s Theorem graphically for the diagram for 𝑓(𝑥)
drawn alongside.

In the diagram, note that

𝑓(−6) = 𝑓(−2) = 0
The function is continuous over the interval [−6, −2], and it is
differentiable over the same interval.
Hence, the conditions of Rolle’s Theorem are met.

Hence, there is at least one point in the interval (−6, −2) where:
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0

𝑓′(𝑐) is the derivative. The derivative gives the slope of the function at a point. When the derivative is zero,
the slope is zero, and the tangent line to the function at that point is horizontal.

2.156: Generalization of Rolle’s Theorem

Rolle’s Theorem can be generalized so that the condition
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏) = 0
Becomes simply
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏)

Suppose there is a function 𝑓 such that it meets the other conditions of Rolle’s Theorem, but
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑘, 𝑘∈ℝ
Then, define
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑘
Then, then the new function 𝑔(𝑥) meets all the conditions of Rolle’s Theorem.
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Hence, there is a point 𝑐 at which

𝑔′ (𝑐) = 0

Note that since 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) differ only by a constant,

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑔′(𝑥)

Hence, the value of c at which

𝑔′ (𝑐) = 0 ⇒ 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0

Example 2.157
Does a linear function meet the conditions for Rolle’s Theorem.

A linear function will have the same value for two inputs only when it is a constant function.
In all other cases, there is no value for which
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑘

Hence, a general linear function does not meet the conditions for Rolle’s Theorem.

Example 2.158
Identify the violation of the conditions in Rolle’s Theorem over the given intervals.
A. Over the interval [−7, −3]
B. Over the interval [−1,3]
C. Over the interval [4,7]

Over the interval [−7, −3]

𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 [−7, −3]

Over the interval [−1,3]

𝐹𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0, ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 [−1,3]

Over the interval [4,7]

There are no values 𝑎 and 𝑏 in the interval [4,7] for which 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏)

Example 2.159
1
Determine the violation of conditions in Rolle’s Theorem in the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 over the intervals −1 to 2.
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𝑓(𝑎) ≠ 𝑓(𝑏) since

1
𝑓(−1) = −1 ≠ = 𝑓(2)
2

Example 2.160
1 𝜋 𝜋
Determine the violation of conditions in Rolle’s Theorem in the function 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| over the intervals − 𝑒 to 𝑒 .

𝑓(𝑥) is not continuous at 𝑥 = 0 since the function is not defined at 𝑥 = 0.

Example 2.161
Determine the violation of conditions in Rolle’s Theorem in the following functions over the given intervals
𝜋 𝜋
A. tan 𝑥 over the interval − 2 to 2
𝜋 𝜋
B. tan 𝑥 over the interval − 4 to 4

Part A
𝜋 𝜋
tan 𝑥 is not defined at 2 and− 2
tan 𝑥 is not continuous at
𝜋 𝜋
𝑎𝑛𝑑 −
2 2
Hence, the functions fails to be continuous over the closed interval
𝜋 𝜋
[− 2 , 2 ] and hence conditions of Rolle’s Theorem are not met.

Part B
𝜋 𝜋
𝑡𝑎𝑛 (− ) = −1 ≠ 1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( )
4 4
Hence,
𝑓(𝑎) ≠ 𝑓(𝑏)

Example 2.162
Determine the violation of conditions in Rolle’s Theorem in the following functions over the given intervals
A. sec 𝑥
1
B.
𝑥

B. Verifying the Theorem

Example 2.163
Verify Rolle’s Theorem for 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑚 (𝑥 − 𝑏)𝑛 , 𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ ℕ on the interval [𝑎, 𝑏]

Show that the conditions hold

𝑓(𝑎) = (𝑎 − 𝑎)𝑚 (𝑥 − 𝑏)𝑛 = 0(𝑥 − 𝑏)𝑛 = 0
𝑓(𝑏) = (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑚 (𝑏 − 𝑏)𝑛 = (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑚 (0) = 0
Since 𝑓 is a polynomial of degree 𝑚 + 𝑛, it is both continuous and differentiable over ℝ.

Find the derivative

Use the product rule to find the derivative:
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑚−1 (𝑥 − 𝑏)𝑛 + 𝑛(𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑚 (𝑥 − 𝑏)𝑛−1
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Factor (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑚−1 (𝑥 − 𝑏)𝑛−1 from each term:

= (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑚−1 (𝑥 − 𝑏)𝑛−1 [𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑏) + 𝑛(𝑥 − 𝑎)]

Find a Value of 𝒄
Equate 𝑓′(𝑐) to zero to find the value of 𝑐:
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = (𝑐 − 𝑎)𝑚−1 (𝑐 − 𝑏)𝑛−1 [𝑚(𝑐 − 𝑏) + 𝑛(𝑐 − 𝑎)] = 0
Use the zero-product property:
(𝑐 − 𝑎)𝑚−1 = 0 ⇒ 𝑐 − 𝑎 = 0 ⇒ 𝑐 = 𝑎 (𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡)
(𝑐 − 𝑏)𝑛−1 = 0 ⇒ 𝑐 − 𝑏 = 0 ⇒ 𝑐 = 𝑏 (𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡)
𝑚𝑏 + 𝑛𝑎
𝑚(𝑐 − 𝑏) + 𝑛(𝑐 − 𝑎) = 0 ⇒ 𝑐(𝑚 + 𝑛) = 𝑚𝑏 + 𝑛𝑎 ⇒ 𝑐 =
𝑚+𝑛
Show that 𝒄 ∈ (𝒂, 𝒃)
The first two solutions give us the endpoints. Ignore them, and show that the third solution lies in the
required interval.
We need:
𝑚𝑏 + 𝑛𝑎
> 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑚𝑏 + 𝑛𝑎 > 𝑎𝑚 + 𝑎𝑛 ⇒ 𝑚𝑏 > 𝑚𝑎 ⇒ 𝑏 > 𝑎
𝑚+𝑛
𝑚𝑏 + 𝑛𝑎
< 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑚𝑏 + 𝑛𝑎 < 𝑏𝑚 + 𝑏𝑛 ⇒ 𝑛𝑎 < 𝑛𝑏 ⇒ 𝑎 < 𝑏
𝑚+𝑛
Since 𝑏 > 𝑎, the conditions are always met. Hence:
𝑚𝑏 + 𝑛𝑎 𝑚𝑏 + 𝑛𝑎
𝑎< <𝑏⇒ ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]
𝑚+𝑛 𝑚+𝑛

Example 2.164
𝑥 2 +𝑎𝑏
Verify Rolle’s Theorem for the function 𝑓(𝑥) = ln [(𝑎+𝑏)𝑥] in the interval [𝑎, 𝑏] where 0 ∉ [𝑎, 𝑏]. (ISC 1999,
2012)

Show that the conditions hold

𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑏 𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑏
𝑓(𝑎) = ln [ ] = ln [ 2 ] = ln 1 = 0
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑎 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑏
𝑏 2 + 𝑎𝑏 𝑏 2 + 𝑎𝑏
𝑓(𝑏) = ln [ ] = ln [ ] = ln 1 = 0
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑏 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2
The natural log function has domain (0, ∞). Since it is given that 0 ∉ [𝑎, 𝑏],
𝑎 < 𝑏 < 0 𝑂𝑅 𝑏 > 𝑎 > 0
If 𝑎 < 𝑏 < 0, then the interval [𝑎, 𝑏] lies completely outside the domain of 𝑓(𝑥).
If 𝑏 > 𝑎 > 0, then the natural log function is continuous and differentiable over its domain. Hence, it is
differentiable and continuous over [𝑎, 𝑏].

Find the derivative

Use the quotient log rule to simplify the function before we differentiate:
𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑏
𝑓(𝑥) = ln [ ] = ln[𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑏] − ln 𝑥 − ln(𝑎 + 𝑏)
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑥
Find the derivative:
2𝑥 1 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑎𝑏 𝑥 2 − 𝑎𝑏
𝑓′ = 2 − = =
𝑥 + 𝑎𝑏 𝑥 𝑥(𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑏) 𝑥(𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑏)

Find a Value of 𝒄
Find the value of 𝑐 by equating the derivative to zero:
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𝑐 2 − 𝑎𝑏
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = =0
𝑐(𝑐 2 + 𝑎𝑏)
𝑐 2 − 𝑎𝑏 = 0
𝑐 2 = 𝑎𝑏
𝑐 = ±√𝑎𝑏
[𝑎, +
Since 𝑏] ∈ ℝ , we choose the positive square root.
𝑐 = √𝑎𝑏

Show that 𝒄 ∈ (𝒂, 𝒃)

And we know that √𝑎𝑏 is the geometric mean of 𝑎 and 𝑏. Hence
𝑐 = √𝑎𝑏 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]

Example 2.165
𝜋 5𝜋
Verify Rolle’s Theorem for the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 2𝑥 (sin 2𝑥 − cos 2𝑥) defined in the interval [ 8 ,8
]. (ISC 2006)

Show that the conditions hold

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 √2 √2 𝜋
𝑓 ( ) = 𝑒 4 (sin − cos ) = 𝑒 4 ( − ) = 𝑒 4 (0) = 0
8 4 4 2 2
5𝜋 5𝜋 5𝜋 5𝜋 𝜋 √2 √2 5𝜋
𝑓( ) = 𝑒 4 (sin − cos ) = 𝑒 4 (− − (− )) = 𝑒 4 (0) = 0
8 4 4 2 2
𝜋 5𝜋
𝑓( ) = 𝑓( ) = 0
8 8

𝜋 5𝜋
𝑓(𝑥) is continuous and differentiable over [ 8 , 8
].
Hence, the conditions for Rolle’s Theorem hold.

Find the derivative

𝑓 ′ = 𝑒 2𝑥 (2 cos 2𝑥 + 2 sin 2𝑥) + 2𝑒 2𝑥 (sin 2𝑥 − cos 2𝑥)
Factor 2 in the first term:
= 2𝑒 2𝑥 (cos 2𝑥 + sin 2𝑥) + 2𝑒 2𝑥 (sin 2𝑥 − cos 2𝑥)
Factor 2𝑒 2𝑥 :
= 2𝑒 2𝑥 (cos 2𝑥 + sin 2𝑥 + sin 2𝑥 − cos 2𝑥)
Simplify:
= 4𝑒 2𝑥 (sin 2𝑥)
Find a Value of 𝒄
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 0
4𝑒 2𝑐 (sin 2𝑐) = 0
𝑒 2𝑐 (sin 2𝑐) = 0
Use the zero-product property:
𝑒 2𝑐 = 0 ⇒ 𝑁𝑜 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
sin 2𝑐 = 0
Show that 𝒄 ∈ (𝒂, 𝒃)
𝜋 5𝜋
2𝑐 = 0 ⇒ 𝑐 = 0 ∉ [ , ]
8 8
𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋
2𝑐 = 𝜋 ⇒ 𝑐 = ∈ [ , ]
2 8 8
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Example 2.166
4
It is given that Rolle’s Theorem holds good for the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ [1,2] at the point 𝑥 = .
3
Find the values of 𝑎 and 𝑏.

For Rolle’s Theorem to hold

𝑓(1) = 𝑓(2)

13 + 𝑎(12 ) + 𝑏(1) = 23 + 𝑎(22 ) + 𝑏(2) = 0

1 + 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 8 + 4𝑎 + 2𝑏
3𝑎 + 𝑏 = −7
𝑏 = −7 − 3𝑎

𝑓′(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
4 2 4 16 8
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = 3𝑐 2 + 2𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏 = 3 ( ) + 2𝑎 ( ) + 𝑏 = + 𝑎+𝑏
3 3 3 3
Substitute 𝑏 = −7 − 3𝑎:
16 8 −5 1 −5 − 𝑎
+ 𝑎 − 7 − 3𝑎 = − 𝑎= = 0 ⇒ −5 − 𝑎 = 0 ⇒ 𝑎 = −5
3 3 3 3 3
Substitute 𝑎 = −5 to find the value of 𝑏:
𝑏 = −7 − 3𝑎 = −7 − 3(−5) = −7 + 15 = 8

2.10 Mean Value Theorem

A. Mean Value Theorem

2.167: Mean Value Theorem

There is at least one number in 𝑐 in (𝑎, 𝑏) at which
𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓′(𝑐) =
𝑏−𝑎

Conditions:
➢ 𝑓 is continuous over the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏]
➢ 𝑓 is differentiable at every point of the open interval (𝑎, 𝑏)

Notes:
➢ The Mean Value Theorem is a generalization of Rolle’s Theorem.

Example 2.168
𝑥3
Verify the Mean Value Theorem for 𝑦 = − 𝑥 + 1 over the interval (0,2).
2
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The slope connecting the endpoints is:

𝑓(2) − 𝑓(0) 3 − 1 2
𝑎 = 0, 𝑏 = 2 ⇒ = = =1
2−0 2 2
Type equation here.
3
𝑦′ = 𝑥2 − 1
2

3 2
𝑥 −1=1
2
3𝑥 2 = 4
4 2 2√3
𝑥 = ±√ = ± =± ≈ ±1.15
3 √3 3

Reject the negative value. The positive value lies in the interval
(0,2)

Hence, at 𝑥 ≈ 1.15, the slope of the function is equal to the slope at the endpoints of the interval
(0,2)

Example 2.169
A. Show that Rolle’s Theorem is a special case of the Mean Value Theorem.
B. Given that Rolle’s Theorem is a special case of the Mean Value Theorem, why did we mention it
separately? Why not prove Rolle’s Theorem using the Mean Value Theorem?

Part A
Substitute 𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑓(𝑎) = 0 in the statement of the Mean Value Theorem, and we get Rolle’s Theorem.

Part B
The proof of the Mean Value Theorem is established using Rolle’s Theorem. Hence, you cannot prove Roller’s
Theorem using Mean Value Theorem unless you prove Mean Value Theorem without using Rolle’s Theorem
(or its equivalent).

B. Verifying the Theorem

Example 2.170
Verify Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem for the function 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 2 − 𝑥 in the interval [1,4]. (ISC 2013)

Show that the conditions hold 2𝑥 − 1

𝑓′ =
𝑥2 − 𝑥 ≥ 0 2√𝑥 2 − 𝑥
𝑥(𝑥 − 1) ≥ 0 Find a Value of 𝒄
Roots of the above quadratic are: 𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎)
Substitute 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 4 in 𝑏−𝑎
:
𝑥 ∈ {0,1}
This is an upward facing quadratic. √42 − 4 − √12 − 1 √12 − √0 2√3 2
= = =
𝑥 2 − 𝑥 ≥ 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ≥ 1 𝑂𝑅 𝑥 ≤ 0 4−1 3 3 √3
The function is defined throughout the given
interval. It is continuous throughout [1,4] and 𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) =
differentiable over (1,4). 𝑏−𝑎
Find the derivative Substitute:
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2𝑐 − 1 2 4𝑐 2 − 4𝑐 − 3 = 0
=
2√𝑐 2 − 𝑐 √3 Factor:
Cross-multiply: (2𝑐 + 1)(2𝑐 − 3) = 0
√3(2𝑐 − 1) = 4√𝑐 2 − 𝑐 Use the zero-product property:
Square both sides: 1 3
𝑐 = − ,𝑐 =
3(4𝑐 2 − 4𝑐 + 1) = 16(𝑐 2 − 𝑐) 2 2
Show that 𝒄 ∈ (𝒂, 𝒃)
Expand:
3
12𝑐 2 − 12𝑐 + 3 = 16𝑐 2 − 16𝑐 = 1.5 ∈ [1,4]
2
Collate all terms one side:

Example 2.171
Verify Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem for the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥(1 − ln 𝑥) and find the value of c in the
interval [1,2]. (ISC 2015)

Show that the conditions hold

The function is continuous and differentiable over Find the derivative:
[1,2]. 𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) =
Find the derivative 𝑏−𝑎
1 − ln 𝑐 = 1 − ln 4
𝑓 ′ = 𝑥 (− ) + (1)(1 − ln 𝑥)
𝑥 ln 4 − ln 𝑐 = 1
= −1 + 1 − ln 𝑥 4
ln = 1
= − ln 𝑥 𝑐
Find a Value of 𝒄 4
= 𝑒1
𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎)
Substitute 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 2 in 𝑏−𝑎 : 𝑐
4 4
2(1 − ln 2) − 1(1 − ln 1) 𝑐= ≈
= 𝑒 2.71
2−1
2 − 2 ln 2 − 1 Show that 𝒄 ∈ (𝒂, 𝒃)
=
1 4
= 1 − 2 ln 2 = 1 − ln 4 1< < 2 ⇒ 𝑐 ∈ [1,2]
2.71

Example 2.172
Verify Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem for the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 sin 𝑥 + sin 2𝑥 on [0, 𝜋]. (ISC 2015)

Show that the conditions hold 𝑓(𝑏)−𝑓(𝑎)

We need to show that 𝑓′(𝑐) = 𝑏−𝑎
:
The 𝑠𝑖𝑛 function is continuous and differentiable
2 cos 𝑐 + 2 cos 2𝑐 = 0
over ℝ.
cos 𝑐 + cos 2𝑐 = 0
Hence, it is continuous and differentiable over
Use the property cos 2𝑐 = 2 cos2 𝑐 − 1
[0, 𝜋].
2 cos2 𝑐 + cos 𝑐 − 1 = 0
Let cos 𝑐 = 𝑘:
Find the derivative
2𝑘 2 + 𝑘 − 1 = 0
𝑓 ′ = 2 cos 𝑥 + 2 cos 2𝑥
2𝑘 2 + 2𝑘 − 𝑘 − 1 = 0
2𝑘(𝑘 + 1) − 1(𝑘 + 1) = 0
Find a Value of 𝒄
(2𝑘 − 1)(𝑘 + 1) = 0
𝑓(𝜋) = 2 sin 𝜋 + sin 2𝜋 = 0 + 0 = 0
Use the zero-product property:
𝑓(0) = 2 sin 0 + sin 2 × 0 = 0 + 0 = 0
1
𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎) 𝑓(𝜋) − 𝑓(0) 0 cos 𝑐 = 𝑘 ∈ { , −1}
= = =0 2
𝑏−𝑎 𝜋 −0 𝜋 𝜋
𝑐 ∈ { , 𝜋}
3
Show that 𝒄 ∈ (𝒂, 𝒃)
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But
𝜋 ∉ (0, 𝜋) ⇒ 𝑅𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝜋
𝑐= ∈ (0, 𝜋)
3

Show that the conditions hold

Find the derivative
Find a Value of 𝒄
Show that 𝒄 ∈ (𝒂, 𝒃)

C. Kinematics

Example 2.173

(𝑡, 𝑑) ∈ {(0,0), (5,250)}

By the mean value theorem, at some point in the time interval (0,5), the derivative of the distance (= 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑)
must equal the average rate of change over the time interval:
𝑑(5) − 𝑑(0) 250
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑑′ (𝑡) = = = 50
5−0 5

D. Extended Mean Value Theorem

2.174: Extended Mean Value Theorem

There is at least one number in 𝑐 in (𝑎, 𝑏) at which
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) 𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎)
=
𝑔′ (𝑐) 𝑔(𝑏) − 𝑔(𝑎)

Conditions:
➢ 𝑓 and 𝑔 are continuous over the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏]
➢ 𝑓 and g are differentiable at every point of the open interval (𝑎, 𝑏)

Notes:
➢ The Extended Mean Value Theorem is a generalization of the Mean Value Theorem.

Why It Works
Applying the mean theorem to 𝑓 and 𝑔:
𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎) 𝑔(𝑏) − 𝑔(𝑎)
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = , 𝑔′ (𝑐) =
⏟ 𝑏−𝑎 ⏟ 𝑏−𝑎
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝑰
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Divide Equation II by Equation I:

𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓 ′ (𝑐) 𝑏−𝑎 𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎)
′
= =
𝑔 (𝑐) 𝑔(𝑏) − 𝑔(𝑎) 𝑔(𝑏) − 𝑔(𝑎)
𝑏−𝑎
Which is the result we want.

Example 2.175

2.11 Optimization
A. Functions

B. Numbers

2.176: First Derivative Test

At a turning point, the slope must be zero. Hence, to find the candidates for turning points, equate the first
derivative to zero.

𝑑𝑦
The solutions to = 0 are the numbers to check for, to obtain the turning points.
𝑑𝑥

Example 2.177
A. The product of two positive integers is 100. Find the minimum value of the sum of these numbers
without using Calculus.
B. The product of two positive real numbers is 100. Find the minimum value of the sum of these
numbers by using Calculus.

Part A
We find the factor pairs of 100:
(1,100)(2,50)(4,25)(5,20)(10,10)
The corresponding sums are:
100, 52, 29, 25, 20
⏟
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
Part B
Let the numbers be 𝑎 and 𝑏.
100
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 = 𝑎𝑏 = 100 ⇒ 𝑏 =
𝑎
We wish to minimize the sum:
100
𝑎+𝑏 =𝑎+
𝑎

If there is a minimum inside the domain, the derivative at the point must be zero. Let
100
𝑦=𝑎+
𝑎
Find the derivative:
𝑑𝑦 100
=1− 2
𝑑𝑎 𝑎
Equate the derivative to zero:
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100 100
1− 2
= 0 ⇒ 1 = 2 ⇒ 𝑎2 = 100 ⇒ 𝑎 = ±10
𝑎 𝑎
Reject the negative value since 𝑎 is a positive number:
𝑎 = 10

We know from Part A that 𝑎 < 10 and 𝑎 > 10 increase 𝑎 + 𝑏. But how do we know this in general.
To solve, we introduce the second derivative test.

2.178: Second Derivative Test

If you have a list of candidates from the first derivative test for the maximum and minimum of a function, then
𝑑2 𝑦
> 0 ⇒ 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2 𝑦
< 0 ⇒ 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
𝑑𝑥 2

Consider the maximum graphed alongside:

➢ To the left of the maximum, the slope (first derivative) is positive.
➢ To the right of the maximum, the slope (first derivative) is negative.
➢ At the maximum, the slope (first derivative) is zero.

At the maximum, the first derivative changes from positive to negative. Hence,
at the maximum, the slope of the first derivative must be negative. Hence, the
second derivative must be negative at a maximum.

Example 2.179
Continue the example from above. Use the second derivative test to determine whether 𝑎 = 10 is a maximum
or a minimum.

𝑑𝑦 100
=1− 2
𝑑𝑎 𝑎
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 100 𝑑𝑦 200
2
= (− 2 ) = (−100𝑎−2 ) = (−2)(−100)𝑎−3 = 3
𝑑𝑎 𝑑𝑎 𝑎 𝑑𝑎 𝑎

𝑑2 𝑦 200
2
| = 3 > 0 ⇒ 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
𝑑𝑎 𝑎=10 𝑎 𝑎=10

C. 2D Geometry

Example 2.180
A farmer fences a rectangle using 100 𝑚 of fence. Find the dimensions that maximize the area.

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑃 = 100
2(𝑙 + 𝑤) = 100
𝑙 + 𝑤 = 50
𝑤 = 50 − 𝑙

The area function:

= 𝐴 = 𝑙𝑤 = 𝑙(50 − 𝑙) = 50𝑙 − 𝑙 2

Differentiate:
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𝑑
𝐴 = 50 − 2𝑙 = 0 ⇒ 𝑙 = 25
𝑑𝑙
𝑤 = 50 − 𝑙 = 50 − 25 = 25

𝐴 = 𝑙𝑤 = 252 = 625 𝑚2

𝑑2
𝐴 = −2 < 0 ⇒ 𝑀𝑎𝑥
𝑑𝑙 2

Example 2.181
Find the dimensions of a rectangle with a constant perimeter 𝑝 that maximize its area. Find that area.

Find a function for the area in terms of length

Let
𝑝
2(𝑙 + 𝑤) = 𝑝 ⇒ 𝑤 = −𝑙
2
Then the area is:
𝑝 𝑙𝑝
𝐴 = 𝑙𝑤 = 𝑙 ( − 𝑙) = − 𝑙 2
2 2
Find the critical points and check for maximum/minimum
Differentiate the area function:
𝑑𝐴 𝑝
= − 2𝑙,
𝑑𝑙 2
Equate the derivative to zero to find the 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠:
𝑝 𝑝 𝑝
− 2𝑙 = 0 ⇒ = 2𝑙 ⇒ 𝑙 =
2 2 4
Find the second derivative:
𝑑2 𝐴
= −2 < 0
𝑑𝑙 2
Find the area for the maximum
Since the second derivative is less than zero at a critical point, it is a maximum:
𝑝 𝑝2
𝑙 = 𝑤 = ⇒ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 =
4 16
In other words, for a given perimeter, the area of a rectangle is maximized when it is a square.

Example 2.182
A farmer fences three sides of a rectangle using 400 yards of fence. (The fourth side is along a stone wall).
A. Find the dimensions of the rectangle of largest area that can be fenced.
B. The rectangle from Part A has a semicircle of maximum area planted with green grass, and the rest
with purple monkshood. Find the fraction of the farm planted with purple.

Part A

Area of the rectangle is:

𝐴 = 𝑤𝑙 = 𝑤(400 − 2𝑤) = 400𝑤 − 2𝑤 2

Find the first derivative and equate it to zero:

𝑑𝐴
= 400 − 4𝑤 = 0 ⇒ 4𝑤 = 400 ⇒ 𝑤 = 100
𝑑𝑤
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Find the second derivative:

𝑑2 𝐴 𝑑
2
= (400 − 4𝑤) = −4 < 0 ⇒ 𝑤 = 100 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑤

400 − 2𝑤 = 400 − 200 = 200

𝐷𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 = (𝑙, 𝑤) = (200,100)

Part B
20000 − 5000𝜋 20000 4
= −1= −1
5000𝜋 5000𝜋 𝜋

Example 2.183
A. Find the radius of the semicircle that maximizes the area of a Norman window with perimeter 𝑃.
Note: A Norman window consists of a semi-circle sitting atop a rectangle.
B. A window is in the form of a rectangle surmounted by a semicircular opening. The total perimeter of
the window is 10 m. Find the dimensions of the window to admit maximum light through the whole
opening. (CBSE 2011,2014,2017,2018)

Part A
Find a function for the area Find the critical points, and their nature
Find the first derivative and equate it to zero to
find the critical points:
𝑑𝐴 𝑃
= 𝑃 − 𝑟(4 + 𝜋) = 0 ⇒ 𝑟 =
𝑑𝑟 4+𝜋
Find the second derivative and since it is negative,
the critical point is a maximum:
𝑑2 𝐴
= −(4 + 𝜋)
𝑑𝑥 2
Part B
From the diagram, the area of the window is: The radius is:
𝜋𝑟 2 𝑃 10
𝐴= + 𝑙𝑏
⏟ 𝑟= =
⏟
2 4+𝜋 4+𝜋
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
𝑆𝑒𝑚𝑖−𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 The length is twice of the radius:
20
Express the function in a single variable 𝑙 = 2𝑟 =
4+𝜋
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑙 = 2𝑟 10
To find the breadth, substitute 𝑟 = 4+𝜋 into 𝑏 =
To find the breadth in terms of 𝑟, use the
1
constraint on the perimeter: [𝑃− 𝑟(𝜋 + 2)]
2
𝑃 − 2𝑟 − 𝜋𝑟 1 10
2𝑏 + 2𝑟 + 𝜋𝑟 = 𝑃 ⇒ 𝑏 = = [10 − ( ) (𝜋 + 2)]
2 2 4+𝜋
The area of the window (in terms of 𝑟) is: Factor 10 out of the terms inside the bracket:
𝜋𝑟 2 𝑃 − 2𝑟 − 𝜋𝑟 𝜋+2
𝐴= + (2𝑟) ( ) = 5 [1 − ]
2 2 4+𝜋
𝜋𝑟 2 Add the fractions and simplify:
= 𝑃𝑟 − 2𝑟 2 − 4+𝜋−𝜋−2 2 10
2
𝜋 = 5[ ] = 5[ ]=
2
= 𝑃𝑟 − 𝑟 (2 + ) 4+𝜋 4+𝜋 4+𝜋
2

Example 2.184
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𝜋
The constraints on the domain of the function 𝐴 = 𝑃𝑟 − 𝑟 2 (2 + 2 ) are
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 > 0 ⇒ 𝑟 > 0
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ > 0 ⇒ 𝑙 > 0 ⇒ 2𝑟 > 0 ⇒ 𝑟 > 0
𝑃 − 2𝑟 − 𝜋𝑟
𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑡ℎ > 0 ⇒ 𝑏 > 0 ⇒ > 0 ⇒ 𝑃 − 2𝑟 − 𝜋𝑟 > 0
2
𝑃 > 2𝑟 + 𝜋𝑟
2𝑟 + 𝜋𝑟 < 𝑃
𝑟(2 + 𝜋) < 𝑃
𝑃
𝑟<
2+𝜋

𝑃
𝑟 ∈ (0, )
2+𝜋

Example 2.185
A wire of length 2 units is cut into two parts which are bent respectively to form a square of side = 𝑥 units
and a circle of 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 = 𝑟 units. If the sum of the areas of the square and the circle so formed is minimum,
then, find the relation between 𝑥 and 𝑟: (JEE Main 2016-Adapted, CBSE 2010-Adapted)

Write an expression for the length of the wire, and solve for 𝑥:
1 − 𝜋𝑟
4𝑥 + 2𝜋𝑟 = 2 ⇒ 2𝑥 + 𝜋𝑟 = 1 ⇒ 𝑥 =
⏟ 2
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰
We wish to minimize the sum of the area of the square and the circle
𝐴(𝑥) = 𝑥 ⏟2 + 𝜋𝑟⏟2
𝑺𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝑪𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒍𝒆
1−𝜋𝑟
Substitute 𝑥 = from Equation I:
2
1 − 𝜋𝑟 2 1 − 2𝜋𝑟 + 𝑟 2 (𝜋 2 + 4𝜋)
=( ) + 𝜋𝑟 2 =
2 4
We can ignore 4 since it is a constant. Find the derivative of the numerator and equate to zero:
1
𝐴′ (𝑥) = −2𝜋 + 2𝑟(𝜋 2 + 4𝜋) = 0 ⇒ 𝑟(𝜋 2 + 4𝜋) = 𝜋 ⇒ 𝑟 =
𝜋+4
Find the second derivative:
𝐴′′ (𝑥) = 2(𝜋 2 + 4𝜋) > 0 ⇒ 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
At the minimum value:
1 𝜋+4−𝜋
1 − 𝜋𝑟 1 − 𝜋 (𝜋 + 4) 4 1 2
𝑥= = = 𝜋+4 = × =
2 2 2 𝜋+4 2 𝜋+4
And, hence
𝑥 = 2𝑟

Example 2.186

4𝑥 + 2𝜋𝑟 = 2
Assume that it is acceptable to form only a circle, or only a square. In that case:
𝑥 ≥ 0, 𝑟≥0

1 − 𝜋𝑟 1 − 𝜋(0) 1
𝑥 𝑖𝑠 max 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ⇒ 𝑥 = = =
2 2 2
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1 − 2𝑥 1 − 0 1
𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 ⇒ 𝑟 = = =
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
1 − 𝜋𝑟
𝑥= ⇒ 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
𝑥 ∈ [0,2]

𝐴(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 𝜋𝑟 2

Example 2.187
Find the dimensions of a rectangle with two semicircles on either side
that maximize the area if the perimeter is 400.

𝑤 400 − 2𝑙
𝑃 = 2𝑙 + 2𝜋 ( ) = 2𝑙 + 𝜋𝑤 = 400 ⇒ 𝑤 =
2 𝜋
The area of the rectangle is:
400 − 2𝑙 400𝑙 − 2𝑙 2
𝐴(𝑙) = 𝑙𝑤 = 𝑙 ( )=
𝜋 𝜋
Find the first derivative of the area function and equate it to zero:
400 − 4𝑙
𝐴′ = = 0 ⇒ 400 − 4𝑙 = 0 ⇒ 𝑙 = 100
𝜋
To check whether it is a maximum or a minimum, find the second derivative:
4𝑙
𝐴′′ = − < 0
𝜋
Since the second derivative is negative, the value that we have found is a maximum.

The width corresponding to the maximum length is:

400 − 2𝑙 400 − 2(100) 200
𝑤= = =
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋

2.188: Area and Arc Length of a Circle

In radians:
1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝑟 2 𝜃
2
𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑟𝜃

𝜃 𝜃 1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟 2 × = 𝜋𝑟 2 × = 𝑟2𝜃
360 2𝜋 2
𝜃 𝜃
𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 2𝜋𝑟 × = 2𝜋𝑟 × = 𝑟𝜃
360 2𝜋

Example 2.189
Twenty metres of wire is available for fencing off a flowerbed in the form of a circular sector. Then the
maximum area (in sq. m) of the flower-bed, is: (JEE Main 2017, Type ISC 2009, Type NDA 2005)3

3
This question is also found in the classic 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑛𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒, I. A. Maron
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Find a function for the area in terms of radius

The perimeter of the sector is 20:
𝑃 = 20
2𝑟 + 𝑟𝜃 = 20
20 − 2𝑟
𝜃=
⏟ 𝑟
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰
Substitute Equation I in the formula for area of the sector:
1 1 20 − 2𝑟
𝐴 = 𝑟2𝜃 = 𝑟2 ( ) = 10𝑟 − 𝑟 2
2 2 𝑟
Find the critical points and check for maximum/minimum
Find the first derivative and equate it to zero:
𝐴′ = 10 − 2𝑟 = 0 ⇒ 𝑟 = 5
′′
𝐴 = −2 < 0 ⇒ 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
Substitute the value of 𝑟 in Equation I to find the corresponding value of 𝜃:
20 − 2𝑟 20 − 2(5) 10
𝜃= = = =2
𝑟 5 5
The maximum area is:
1 1
𝐴 = 𝑟 2 𝜃 = (52 )(2) = 25
2 2

Example 2.190
If the sum of the lengths of the hypotenuse and a side of a right-angled triangle is given, find the angle
between them that maximizes the area. (CBSE-Adapted 2014,2017)

Find area as a function of the base both sides:

Let the length of the side be 𝑥. 1 1
𝐴2 = 𝑥 2 (𝑘 2 − 2𝑘𝑥) = (𝑥 2 𝑘 2 − 2𝑘𝑥 3 )
Let the combined length of the hypotenuse and the 4 4
side be 𝑘. Find the critical points
Then, the length of the hypotenuse Differentiate both sides implicitly with respect to
=𝑘−𝑥 𝑥:
𝑑𝐴 1
2𝐴 ∙ = (2𝑘 2 𝑥 − 6𝑘𝑥 2 )
𝑑𝑥 4
𝑑𝐴
Solve for and equate it to zero:
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝐴 𝑘 2 𝑥 − 3𝑘𝑥 2
= =0
𝑑𝑥 4𝐴
2 2
𝑘 𝑥 − 3𝑘𝑥 = 0
𝑘 2 𝑥 = 3𝑘𝑥 2
𝑘
𝑥=
3
Find the nature of the critical points
By the Pythagorean Theorem, the length of the Find the second derivative:
third side: 𝑑𝐴 2 𝑑2 𝐴 1
= √(𝑘 − 𝑥)2 − 𝑥 2 2 ( ) + 2𝐴 ( 2 ) = (2𝑘 2 − 12𝑘𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 4
= √𝑘 2 − 2𝑘𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝐴
At the critical point 𝑑𝑥 = 0, and 𝑥 = 3:
𝑘

= √𝑘 2 − 2𝑘𝑥
𝑑2 𝐴 1 𝑘
Use the formula for the area of a triangle: 2(0) + 2𝐴 ( 2 ) = (2𝑘 2 − 12𝑘 ( ))
2
1 𝑑𝑥 4 3
𝐴 = 𝑥 √𝑘 2 − 2𝑘𝑥 𝑑2 𝐴 1
2
In order to not work with square roots, we square 2𝐴 ( 2 ) = (2𝑘 2 − 4𝑘 2 )
𝑑𝑥 4
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𝑑2 𝐴 −𝑘 2
= < 0 ⇒ 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
𝑑𝑥 2 4𝐴

D. 3D Geometry

Example 2.191
Minimize surface area of a cylinder given that volume of the cylinder
= 54𝜋 𝑐𝑚3

𝑉 = 54𝜋
𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ = 54𝜋
𝑟 2 ℎ = 54
54
ℎ= 2
𝑟

𝑆𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟 2 + 2𝜋𝑟ℎ
54 108𝜋
𝑆𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟 2 + 2𝜋𝑟 ∙ 2 = 2𝜋𝑟 2 + = 2𝜋𝑟 2 + 108𝜋𝑟 −1
𝑟 𝑟

𝑑
𝑆𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 + (108)(−1)𝜋𝑟 −2
𝑑𝑟
Equate the first derivative to zero:
(108)(−1)𝜋
4𝜋𝑟 + =0
𝑟2
Multiply both sides by 𝑟 2 to eliminate fractions:
4𝜋𝑟 3 − 108𝜋 = 0
4𝜋𝑟 3 = 108𝜋
𝑟 3 = 27
𝑟=3

54 54 54
ℎ= = = =9
𝑟 2 32 6

Example 2.192
Show that the surface area of a closed cuboid with square base and given volume is minimum, when it is a
cube. (CBSE 2017)

Finding surface area as a function of side length of base

Let the side length of the square base be 𝑥.
Let the height of the cuboid be 𝑦.
𝑉
𝑉 = 𝑥2𝑦 ⇒ 𝑦 =
𝑥2
𝑉 𝑉
𝑆𝐴 = 2(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑦) = 2 [𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 ( 2 )] = 2 [𝑥 2 + 2 ]
𝑥 𝑥
Find the critical points
Ignore the 2 since it is a constant.
Find the first derivative and equate it to zero to find the critical points:
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𝑑𝑆 2𝑉
= 2𝑥 − 2 = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
2𝑉
2𝑥 = 2
𝑥
𝑥3 = 𝑉
Substitute the above critical point in 𝑉 = 𝑥 2 𝑦 to find the value of 𝑦
𝑥3 = 𝑥2𝑦 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑦
In other words, the height is the same as the side length of the base, which means the shape is a cube.
Use the second derivative test
𝑑2 𝑆 4𝑉 4𝑉
2
=2+ 3 =2+ = 2 + 4 = 6 > 0 ⇒ 𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 =𝑉
3 𝑥 𝑉

Example 2.193
A square sheet of metal of side length 𝑠 has smaller squares of side length 𝑥 cut at each of its corners, and the
resulting “flaps” folded to form an open-top box with maximum volume. Find the value of 𝑥 in terms of 𝑠. (ISC
1999, Adapted)

Find a function for the volume in terms of the cut

𝑉 = (𝑠 − 2𝑥)2 (𝑥) = (4𝑥 2 − 4𝑠𝑥 + 𝑠 2 )(𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 − 4𝑠𝑥 2 + 𝑠 2 𝑥

Find the critical points and check for maximum/minimum

Differentiate both sides with respect to 𝑥, and equate the derivative to zero:
𝑑𝑉
= 12𝑥 2 − 8𝑠𝑥 + 𝑠 2 = 0
𝑑𝑥

This is a quadratic in 𝑥. Apply the quadratic formula:

−(−8𝑠) ± √64𝑠 2 − (4)(12)(𝑠 2 ) 8𝑠 ± 4𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
𝑥= = ⇒𝑥∈{ , }
24 24 2 6
But note that:
𝑠 𝑠
𝑠 − 2𝑥 > 0 ⇒ 𝑠 > 2𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 < ⇒ 𝑅𝑒𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
2 2
Find the second derivative, and evaluate it at the remaining critical point:
𝑑2 𝑉 𝑑2 𝑉 𝑠
2
= 24𝑥 − 8𝑠 ⇒ 2
| = 24 ( ) − 8𝑠 = 4𝑠 − 8𝑠 = −4𝑠 < 0 ⇒ 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝑠 6
6
Hence, the value in terms of s is:
𝑠
𝑥=
6

Example 2.194
A. Find the height, radius, and volume of the right circular cone with maximum volume among those
with slant height 𝑙 units.
B. The maximum volume (in cubic meters) of the right circular cone having slant height 3 m is (JEE Main
2019, 9 Jan)

Part A 𝜋 2 𝜋
(√𝑙 2 − ℎ2 ) ℎ = (𝑙 2 ℎ − ℎ3 )
Find a function for the volume in terms of the 3 3
height:
Maximize the function
1 𝜋
Substitute 𝑟 = √𝑙 2 − ℎ2 in 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ: Ignore since it is a constant. Find the first
3 3
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derivative of the rest and equate it to zero:

𝑙 𝑙 2𝑙 2 1
𝑉 ′ = 𝑙 2 − 3ℎ2 = 0 ⇒ ℎ = Substitute ℎ = ,𝑟 =√ in 𝑉 = 3 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ to find
√3 √3 3
the maximum volume:
2
Find the second derivative:
𝑉 ′′ = −6ℎ < 0 1 2𝑙 2 𝑙 2𝜋𝑙 3
𝑉 = 𝜋( √ ) =
⇒ 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 3 3 √3 9√3
Part B
𝑙
Substitute ℎ = in 𝑟 = √𝑙 2 − ℎ2 to find the Substituting 𝑙 = 3 in the above:
√3
radius: 2𝜋𝑙 2 2𝜋(33 )
𝑉= = = 2√3𝜋
2 9√3 9√3
𝑙 2𝑙 2
√𝑙 2 − ( ) =√
√3 3

Example 2.195
Show that the altitude of right circular cone of maximum volume that can be inscribed in a sphere of radius 𝑟
4𝑟
is 3
. Also, find the maximum volume in terms of volume of the sphere. (CBSE 2010, 2014,2016,2019)

Find volume as a function of height: 4𝑟ℎ = 3ℎ2

4𝑟
ℎ=
3
Check the critical points
Find the second derivative:
𝑑2 𝑉
= 4𝑟 − 6ℎ
𝑑ℎ2
Evaluate the second derivative at the critical point:
𝑑2 𝑉 4𝑟
2 4𝑟
= 4𝑟 − 6 ( ) = −4𝑟 < 0 ⇒ 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚
𝑑ℎ ℎ= 3
3
Find the maximum value
4𝑟 𝜋
Substitute ℎ = in 𝑉 = (2𝑟ℎ2 − ℎ3 ):
3 3
𝑂𝐴 = ℎ − 𝑟 𝜋 4𝑟 2 4𝑟 3
In Δ𝑂𝐴𝐵, by Pythagoras Theorem: = [2𝑟 ( ) − ( ) ]
3 3 3
𝐴𝐵2 + 𝑂𝐴2 = 𝑂𝐵2
Simplify:
𝑅 2 + (ℎ − 𝑟)2 = 𝑟 2
𝜋 32𝑟 3 64𝑟 3
𝑅 2 + ℎ2 − 2𝑟ℎ + 𝑟 2 = 𝑟 2 [ − ]
3 9 27
𝑅 2 = 2𝑟ℎ − ℎ2
Factor 32𝑟 3 :
Substitute 𝑅 2 = 2𝑟ℎ − ℎ2 in the volume of a cone: 32𝜋𝑟 3 3 1 32𝜋𝑟 3 1
= [ − ]= [ ]
1 𝜋 𝜋 3 27 27 3 27
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑅 2 ℎ = (2𝑟ℎ − ℎ2 )ℎ = (2𝑟ℎ2 − ℎ3 ) 4 3 8 8
3 3 3 = 𝜋𝑟 [ ] = 𝑉𝑆𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 [ ]
Find the critical points 3 27 27
𝜋 Where
Ignore 3 since it is a constant.
𝑉𝑆𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
Find the first derivative of the rest of the
Hence, the cone of maximum volume inscribed in a
expression and equate it to zero to find the critical
sphere of radius 𝑟 has
points: 4𝑟 8
𝑑𝑉 ℎ= , 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑆𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 [ ]
= 4𝑟ℎ − 3ℎ2 = 0 3 27
𝑑ℎ
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E. Coordinate Geometry

Example 2.196
Find the point on the curve 𝑦 2 = 4𝑥 which is nearest to the point (2, −8).

Let 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) be a general point on the curve 𝑦 2 = 4𝑥. Using the distance formula:
𝐷 = √(𝑥 − 2)2 + (𝑦 + 8)2

𝑦2
Substitute 𝑦 2 = 4𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 = 4
:
2
𝑦2 𝑦4
𝐷 = √( − 2) + (𝑦 + 8)2 = √ + 16𝑦 + 68
4 16

Instead of optimizing D, which has a square root, we optimize:

𝑦4
𝑧 = 𝐷2 = + 16𝑦 + 68
16

𝑑𝑧 4𝑦 3 𝑦3
= + 16 = + 16 = 0 ⇒ 𝑦 3 = −64 ⇒ 𝑦 = −4
𝑑𝑦 16 4

(−4)2 16
𝑥= = =4
4 4

𝑑2 𝑧 3𝑦 2 3(−2)2
| = | = > 0 ⇒ 𝑀𝑖𝑛
𝑑𝑦 2 𝑦=−4 4 𝑦=−4 4

The point is
(4, −4)

Example 2.197
Find the point on the curve 𝑥 + 𝑦 2 = 0 that is closest to the point (0, −3).

Let 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) be a point on the curve. Using the distance formula, the distance between P and (0, −3) is:
𝑑 = √(𝑥 − 0)2 + (𝑦 + 3)2
2 2
Substitute 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −𝑦
𝐷 = √(−𝑦)2 + (𝑦 + 3)2 = √2𝑦 2 + 6𝑦 + 9

Instead of minimizing the function, we minimize its square:

𝑑2 = 2𝑦 2 + 6𝑦 + 9

Let 𝑧 = 𝐷 2 . Then, find the first derivative and equate it to zero:

𝑑𝑧 𝑑 6 3
= (2𝑦 2 + 6𝑦 + 9) = 4𝑦 + 6 = 0 ⇒ 𝑦 = − = −
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 4 2
Find the second derivative:
𝑑2 𝑧 𝑑 3
2
= (4𝑦 + 6) = 4 > 0 ⇒ 𝑦 = − 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2
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Example 2.198
1
Which point on the parabolic arc 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3 is closest to (0, 2)?
2

Let 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) be a point on the curve. Using the distance formula, the distance between 𝑃 and (0,2) is:
𝐷 = √(𝑥 − 0)2 + (𝑦 − 2)2
⏟
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐼
Since the above has two variables, (and we are not doing multi-variable calculus!!), reduce the above
function to a single variable. Use the substitution
1
𝑦 = 𝑥 2 ⇒ 2𝑦 = 𝑥 2 ⇒ 𝑥 = √2𝑦
2
in Equation I to get:
2
𝐷 = √(√2𝑦) + (𝑦 − 2)2 = √2𝑦 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 + 4 = √𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 + 4

Instead of minimizing 𝐷 (which has a nasty square root), we minimize 𝐷 2 , which does not have a square root:
𝐷 2 = 𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 + 4
Let 𝑧 = 𝐷 2 . Then, find the first derivative and equate it to zero:
𝑑𝑧 𝑑 2 2
= (𝑦 − 2𝑦 + 4) = 2𝑦 − 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑦 = = 1
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2
Find the second derivative:
𝑑2 𝑧 𝑑
2
= (2𝑦 − 2) = 2 > 0 ⇒ 𝑦 = 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦

Substitute 𝑦 = 1 in the formula for the arc:

𝑥 = √2𝑦 = √2(1) = √2
The closest point is then:
(√2, 1)
F. Functions

Example 2.199
Find the maximum and the minimum of
𝜋 𝑃
𝑓(𝑟) = 𝑃𝑟 − 𝑟 2 (2 + ) , 𝑟 ∈ (0, )
2 2+𝜋

Find the critical points, and their nature

Find the first derivative and equate it to zero to find the critical points:
𝑑𝐴 𝑃
= 𝑃 − 𝑟(4 + 𝜋) = 0 ⇒ 𝑟 =
𝑑𝑟 4+𝜋
Find the second derivative and since it is negative, the critical point is a maximum:
𝑑2 𝐴
= −(4 + 𝜋)
𝑑𝑥 2
Check the endpoints:
𝑟 = 0 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑟) = 0
𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 2 𝜋 𝑃2 𝑃2 4+𝜋
𝑟= ⇒ 𝑓(𝑟) = 𝑃 −( ) (2 + ) = − 2
( )
2+𝜋 2+𝜋 2+𝜋 2 2 + 𝜋 (2 + 𝜋) 2
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𝑃
𝑀𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑡 𝑟 =
4+𝜋
𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑀𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑟 = 0
𝑃
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑀𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑟 =
2+𝜋
G. Trigonometry

Example 2.200
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Example 2.201
Determine the semi-vertical angle (𝜃) of a cone with given slant height and maximum volume in terms of
cos−1 𝜃. (CBSE 2016, Adapted)
Hint: The angle at the vertex of a cone is the vertical angle. Half the angle at the vertex of a cone is the semi-
vertical angle.

Draw a diagram of a cross section of the cone. Let the semi-vertical angle be 𝜃, height be ℎ, the radius be 𝑟,
and the slant height be 𝑙.

The volume of the cone is:

1
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
3

Since we want to optimize in terms of 𝜃, rewrite the above expression in those

terms:
𝑟
sin 𝜃 = ⇒ 𝑟 = 𝑙 sin 𝜃
𝑙
ℎ
cos 𝜃 = ⇒ ℎ = 𝑙 cos 𝜃
𝑙
1
Substitute the above in 𝑉 = 3 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ:
𝜋 2 𝜋 𝜋𝑙 3
𝑉= 𝑟 ℎ = ( ) (𝑙 2 sin2 𝜃)(𝑙 cos 𝜃) = ( ) (sin2 𝜃)(cos 𝜃)
3 3 3

Instead of optimizing V, we ignore the constant and optimize:

𝑉
𝑣 = 3 = (sin2 𝜃)(cos 𝜃)
𝜋𝑙
3
First Derivative
Find the first derivative:
𝑑𝑣
= (sin2 𝜃)(− sin 𝜃) + (2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃)(cos 𝜃)
𝑑𝜃
Equate the first derivative to zero:
(−sin3 𝜃) + (2 sin 𝜃 cos 2 𝜃) = 0
sin3 𝜃 = 2 sin 𝜃 cos2 𝜃
Since sin 𝜃 ≠ 0, divide both sides by sin 𝜃:
sin2 𝜃 = 2 cos 2 𝜃
sin2 𝜃
=2
cos2 𝜃
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tan2 𝜃 = 2
𝜋
Since 0 < 𝜃 < 2
, take the positive square root:
tan 𝜃 = √2

Second Derivative
𝑑2 𝑣
= −3 sin2 𝜃 cos 𝜃 + 2 cos 𝜃 cos 2 𝜃 + 2 sin 𝜃 (2 cos 𝜃 (− sin 𝜃))
𝑑𝜃 2
= −3 sin2 𝜃 cos 𝜃 + 2 cos 3 𝜃 − 4 sin2 𝜃 cos 𝜃
= 2 cos3 𝜃 − 7 sin2 𝜃 cos 𝜃

When the first derivative is zero, we must have sin2 𝜃 = 2 cos2 𝜃, which we substitute in the above
= 2 cos3 𝜃 − 7(2 cos 2 𝜃) cos 𝜃
= 2 cos 3 𝜃 − 14 cos3 𝜃
= −12 cos 3 𝜃

Since 𝜃 is in the first quadrant:

cos 𝜃 > 0 ⇒ cos3 𝜃 > 0 ⇒ −12 cos3 𝜃 < 0 ⇒ tan 𝜃 = √2 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚

Draw a triangle and note that

𝑂𝑝𝑝 = √2, 𝐴𝑑𝑗 = 1 ⇒ 𝐻𝑦𝑝 = √2 + 1 = √3
1 1
cos 𝜃 = ⇒ 𝜃 = cos −1 ( )
√3 √3

H. Physics and Engineering

Example 2.202
Snell’s Law
Strength of a beam
Stiffness of a beam

I. Life Sciences

Example 2.203
Branching angle for a blood vessel

J. Economics and Finance

Example 2.204: Optimal Amount of Labor

A firm has profit function 𝑓(𝐿) = 𝑝𝐿0.5 − 𝑤𝐿 where 𝑝 represents price of the good sold, 𝑤 represents wage, 𝐿
represents labor. Assume that 𝑝 and 𝑤 are fixed. What is the optimal level of labor to maximize profit (in
terms of 𝑝 and 𝑤)? (Note that at the optimal level of labour, the derivative of the profit function is zero) (MAΘ,
Limits and Derivatives, 2019/30, Adapted)

Find the derivative of the profit function and equate it to zero:

𝑝
𝑓′ = −𝑤 =0
2√𝐿
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Solve for 𝐿:
𝑝 𝑝2
=𝑤⇒𝐿=
2√𝐿 4𝑤 2

Example 2.205
EOQ
Production Quantity
Profit Maximization

K. Chemistry

L. Statistics

Example 2.206
𝑦 = √𝑥(1 − 𝑥)

If you maximize 𝑦 2 = 𝑥(1 − 𝑥), the 𝑥-value remains the same, but the y
value changes.

Example 2.207
The standard deviation of a binomial distribution with 𝑛 trials and probability of success 𝑝 is given by
𝜎 = √𝑛𝑝(1 − 𝑝)
A. Determine the maximum value of the standard deviation 𝜎 of a binomial distribution with 𝑛 trials.
B. If 𝑛 and 𝑝 can both vary, determine the maximum value of the standard deviation.

Part A
As the question says, the binomial distribution has 𝑛 trials. Hence, consider 𝑛 as a constant, and 𝑝 as an input
to the function 𝑓.
𝑓(𝑝) = √𝑛𝑝(1 − 𝑝)
The domain of the function is:
0≤𝑝≤1
Instead of maximizing 𝑓(𝑝), and having to deal with a square root, we maximize [𝑓(𝑝)]2 .
𝑦 = [𝑓(𝑝)]2 = 𝑛𝑝(1 − 𝑝) = 𝑛(𝑝 − 𝑝2 )

1
𝑦 ′ = 𝑛(1 − 2𝑝) = 0 ⇒ 𝑝 =
2
𝑦 ′′ = 𝑛(−2) < 0 ⇒ 𝑀𝑎𝑥
The maximum value of the standard deviation is:
1 1 1 1 1 1
𝜎 ( ) = √𝑛 ( ) (1 − ) = √𝑛 ( ) ( ) = √𝑛
2 2 2 2 2 2
Part B
𝑓(𝑛, 𝑝) = √𝑛𝑝(1 − 𝑝)
1
lim 𝜎 = lim √𝑛 = ∞ ⇒ 𝜎 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 2
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M. Further Resources

Example 2.208
This video contains some easy problems to start with.

2.12 Kinematics
A. Uniform Acceleration

Example 2.209
𝑚
On an airless planet with gravitational constant 𝑔 = 19 𝑠2 , a space traveler drops a rock from a height of 20m.
Calculate the time for the rock to hit the surface of the planet.

𝑚
𝑎 = 𝑔 = 19
𝑠2
𝑣 = ∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 19 𝑑𝑡 = 19𝑡
19𝑡 2
𝑠 = ∫ 19𝑡 =
2
19𝑡 2 40 40 10
20 = ⇒ 𝑡2 = = 𝑡 = √ = 4√
2 19 19 19
2.13 Economics
A. Elasticity

2.210: Elasticity
𝑑𝑄 𝑃
𝐸= ∙
𝑑𝑃 𝑄

Example 2.211
𝑃 = 400 − 𝑄 2 , 𝑄 = 12

𝑄 = √400 − 𝑃
𝑑𝑄 −1 −1 −1 −1
= = = =
𝑑𝑃 2√400 − 𝑃 2√400 − (400 − 𝑄 ) 2√𝑄
2 2 2𝑄

𝑑𝑄 𝑃 −1 400 − 𝑄 2 𝑄 2 − 400
𝐸= ∙ = ∙ =
𝑑𝑃 𝑄 2𝑄 𝑄 2𝑄 2
Substitute 𝑄 = 12:
144 − 400 256 8
= =− =
2 ∙ 144 288 9

Example 2.212
𝑃 = 100𝑒 −𝑄

Take natural logs both sides:

ln 𝑃 = ln(100𝑒 −𝑄 )
Use the product property
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ln 𝑃 = ln 100 + ln 𝑒 −𝑄
Use the power rule:
ln 𝑃 = ln(100) − 𝑄
𝑄 = ln(100) − ln 𝑃
𝑑𝑄 1
=−
𝑑𝑃 𝑃

𝑑𝑄 𝑃 1 𝑃 1
𝐸=∙ =− ∙ =−
𝑑𝑃 𝑄 𝑃 𝑄 𝑄
1 1
𝑄 = 14 ⇒ 𝐸 = − ⇒ |𝐸| = > 1 ⇒ 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐
14 14
B. Optimization

Example 2.213
1
Quantity sold is given by 𝑄 = 12 − 6 𝑃. Find the elasticity at the maximum revenue.

𝑃 = 72 − 6𝑄
𝑇𝑅 = (72 − 6𝑄)(𝑄) = 72𝑄 − 6𝑄 2

𝑑
𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝐷𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 = 𝑀𝑅 = (𝑇𝑅) = 72 − 12𝑄 = 0 ⇒ 𝑄 = 6
𝑑𝑃

𝑑 𝑑
𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝐷𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 = 𝑀𝑅 = (72 − 12𝑄) = −12 < 0 ⇒ 𝑀𝑎𝑥
𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑃

𝑑𝑄 1
=−
𝑑𝑃 6

𝑑𝑄 𝑃 1 72 − 6𝑄 𝑄 − 12
𝐸= ∙ =− ∙ =
𝑑𝑃 𝑄 6 𝑄 𝑄

Example 2.214
𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 = 𝑃 = 90 − 2𝑄 − 0.1𝑄 2
𝐶 = 100 + 2𝑄 + 8𝑄 2 − 0.1𝑄 3

A. Find the marginal revenue and marginal cost.

B. Find the maximum profit.

𝑇𝑅 = 90𝑄 − 2𝑄 2 − 0.1𝑄 3
Profit = π = TR − C = −100 + 88Q − 10Q2
88
π′ = 88 − 20Q = 0 ⇒ Q = = 4.4
20
𝜋 ′′ = −20 < 0 ⇒ 𝑀𝑎𝑥

Example 2.215
𝑃 = 200 − 5𝑄, 𝐶 = 80𝑄 + 𝑄 2

𝑇𝑅 = 200𝑄 − 5𝑄 2
𝜋 = 𝑇𝑅 − 𝐶 = 120𝑄 − 6𝑄 2
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𝜋 ′ = 120 − 12𝑄 = 0
Profit is maximum when:
120
𝑄= = 10
10

216 Examples