University of Benghazi Faculty of Engineering General Department

Electric Flux and Gauss’s Law

Electric flux
Electric flux is a measure of the “flow” of electric field through a surface. (number of electric
field lines passing through a perpendicular area)
∅=𝑬⃗⃗ . 𝒏
̂ 𝑨 = 𝑬𝒏 𝑨 = 𝑬𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
Where 𝐸𝑛 = 𝐸⃗ . 𝑛̂ is the component of 𝐸⃗ normal to the surface.
SI units of Electric flux is (N . m2/C )

In figure : the electric flux through the surface (1) is ∅ = 𝐸𝐴1

the electric flux through the surface (2 ) is ∅ = 𝐸𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
the electric flux through the surface (3) is ∅=0 (because 𝐸⃗ ⊥ 𝑛̂ )

For a curved surface over which may vary 𝐸⃗ , the surface divided into a large number of small
elements, , area of each element is ∆𝐴𝑖 it can be modeled as a plane and the variation of the
electric field across the element can be neglected.

The flux of the electric field through this element is

∆∅𝑖 = 𝐸⃗𝑖 . 𝑛̂𝑖 ∆𝐴𝑖

where: 𝑛̂𝑖 is the unit vector perpendicular to the surface element

and 𝐸⃗𝑖 is the electric field on the surface element.
the total flux through the surface ∅𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ∑ 𝐸⃗𝑖 . 𝑛̂𝑖 ∆𝐴𝑖
If the area of each element approaches zero, the number of elements approaches infinity and the
sum is replaced by an integral. Therefore, the general definition of electric flux is

∅𝑛𝑒𝑡 = lim∆𝐴𝑖 →0 ∑ 𝐸⃗𝑖 . 𝑛̂𝑖 ∆𝐴𝑖 = ∮𝑠 𝐸⃗ . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝐴

The net flux ∅𝑛𝑒𝑡 through the closed surface is positive or negative, depending on whether 𝐸⃗ is
predominantly outward or inward at the surface.

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Gauss’s Law
Consider a point charge q surrounded by a spherical surface of radius (r) centered on the charge
as in Figure.
The electric field due to charge q is
𝑘𝑞
𝐸⃗ = 𝑟 2 𝑟̂
Note that the electric field is perpendicular to the spherical surface at all

points on the surface. The electric flux through the surface is ∅𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ∮𝑠 𝐸⃗ . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝐴
𝑘𝑞
∅𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ∮𝑠 𝑟̂ . 𝑟̂ 𝑑𝐴
𝑟2
𝑘𝑞 𝑘𝑞 𝑞inside
∅𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ∮ 𝑑𝐴 = (4𝜋𝑟 2 ) =
𝑟2 𝑠 𝑟2 𝜀0

This leads to the following general result, known as Gauss’ law

𝒒
∅𝒏𝒆𝒕 = ∮𝒔 ⃗𝑬
⃗ .𝒏
̂ 𝒅𝑨 = 𝐢𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐝𝐞
𝜺 𝟎

where : 𝒒𝐢𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐝𝐞 is the algebraic sum of all charges enclosed by surface

Gauss’s law is mathematical formula to descript electric field lines.
The net number of lines out of any surface enclosing the charges is proportional to the net
charge enclosed by the surface.
The electric flux ∅𝐧𝐞𝐭 through any closed surface is equal to the net charge inside the surface,
q inside, divided by ε0 .

Figure (a) Figure (b)

In figure (a) dipole is enclosed by closed surface
Number of electric lines entering the surface = Number of electric lines leaving the surface
Thus, the net number of lines through surface = zero
𝒒𝐢𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐝𝐞 = 𝟎 → ∅𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 0
in figure (b) the net number of lines through surface is same as that for a single charge of +q
charge enclosed by the surface.
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Notes:
1. Whether there is a net outward or inward electric flux through a closed surface depends on
the sign of the enclosed charge.
2. Charges outside the surface do not give a net electric flux through the surface.
3. The net electric flux is directly proportional to the algebraic sum of all charges enclosed by
surface.
4. The net electric flux is independent of the size and shape of the closed surface.
5. The net number of electric field lines passing through an imaginary closed surface is
proportional to the amount of net charge enclosed within that surface.
6. Gauss’s law is valid for any distribution of charges and for any closed surface.
7. Gauss’ law can be used to calculate the electric field of a system of charges or a continuous
distribution of charge. It is useful in cases in which there is a high degree of symmetry, such
as spheres, cylinders, or planes.
8. In electrostatic Gauss’s law and Coulomb’s law are equivalent, but in electrodynamics only
Gauss’s law is valid.

Example (1) Flux through a Piecewise-Continuous Closed Surface

An electric field is given by 𝑬 ̂ throughout the region 𝒁 > 𝟎 and by
⃗⃗ = +(𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑵⁄𝑪 ) 𝑲
̂ throughout the region 𝒁 < 𝟎 , cylindrical surface that has a length equal to
⃗𝑬 = −(𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑵⁄𝑪 ) 𝑲
20 cm and a radius equal to has its center at the origin and its axis along the axis, so that one
end is at and the other is at Figure.
(a) What is the net outward flux through the closed surface? (b) What is the net charge inside
the closed surface?
∅𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝐸⃗𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 . 𝑛̂𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐴
= +200 𝐾 ̂. 𝐾 ̂ (𝜋𝑅 2 )
= +200 (3.14 × 5 × 10−2 ) = 1.57 𝑁. 𝑚2 /𝐶
∅𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 = 𝐸⃗𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 . 𝑛̂𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝐴
= −200 𝐾 ̂ . (−𝐾 ̂ )(𝜋𝑅 2 )
= 200 (3.14 × 5 × 10−2 ) = 1.57 𝑁. 𝑚2 /𝐶
∅𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 = 𝐸⃗𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 . 𝑛̂𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝐴
∅𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 = 0 (because 𝐸⃗ ⊥ 𝑛̂ everywhere on the curved piece) 𝐾
̂ . 𝑗̂ = 0

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∅𝒏𝒆𝒕 = ∅𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 + ∅𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 + ∅𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑

∅𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 1.57 + 1.57 + 0 = 3.14 𝑁. 𝑚2 /𝐶
Note: The net flux does not depend on the length of the cylinder. This result is expected for an
electric field that does not vary with distance from the plane.
𝑞inside
(b) ∅𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝜀0
𝑞inside = ∅𝑛𝑒𝑡 × 𝜀0
𝑞inside = 3.14 × 8.85 × 10−12 = 2.78 × 10−11 𝐶
= 27.8 𝑝𝐶

Using symmetry to calculate E with Gauss's law

Calculate 𝐸⃗ of highly symmetrical charge distribution is more easily by using Gauss’ law than
Coulomb’s law
Thera are three classes of symmetry
1. A charge configuration has cylindrical (or line) symmetry if the charge density depends only
on the distance from a line.
The Gaussian surface for this configuration is a cylinder coaxial with the symmetry line
2. plane symmetry if the charge density depends only on the distance from a plane,
the Gaussian surface for this configuration is a cylinder bisected by the symmetry plane and
with its symmetry axis normal to the symmetry plane.
3. spherical (or point) symmetry if the charge density depends only on the distance from a
point. the Gaussian surface for this configuration is a sphere centered on the symmetry point.

Example (2) 𝐄
⃗ Due to a Uniformly Charged Slab
A very large (infinite), uniformly charged slab of plastic of thickness 2a occupies the region
between the z=-a plane and the z=a plane. Find the electric field everywhere due this charge
configuration. The charge per unit volume of the plastic is 𝝆.
Solution:
charge configuration has plane symmetry , so Gaussian surface is chosen to be a cylinder bisected
by the symmetry plane and with its symmetry axis normal to the symmetry plane.

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𝑞
∅𝒏𝒆𝒕 = ∮𝑠 𝐸⃗ . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝐴 = inside
𝜀 0
∅𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ∅𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 + ∅𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 + ∅𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
∅𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = ∅𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = ∫ 𝐸𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸𝑛 𝐴
∅𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 0 (because 𝐸⃗ ⊥ 𝑛̂ everywhere on the curved piece)
∅𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐸𝑛 𝐴 + 𝐸𝑛 𝐴 + 0
𝑞
2𝐸𝑛 𝐴 = inside
𝜀 0
𝑞inside
𝐸𝑛 = 2𝐴𝜀0
𝜌𝐴2𝑧 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧≤𝑎
𝑞inside = 𝜌 𝑉 = { }
𝜌𝐴2𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧≥𝑎
𝜌𝐴2𝑧 𝜌𝑧
= 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧≤𝑎
2𝐴𝜀0 𝜀0
𝑞inside
𝐸𝑛 = =
2𝐴𝜀0
𝜌𝐴2𝑎 𝜌𝑎
{ 2𝐴𝜀0 = 𝜀0
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧≥𝑎

𝐸𝑛 is magnitude of 𝐸⃗ in z direction
𝜌𝑎
− 𝑘̂ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧≤𝑎
𝜀0
𝜌𝑧
𝐸⃗ = 𝑘̂ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 −𝑎 ≤ 𝑧≤𝑎
𝜀0
𝜌𝑎
𝑘̂ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧≥𝑎
{ 𝜀0

Example (3) 𝐄
⃗ Due to a Thin Spherical Shell of Charge
Find the electric field due to a uniformly charged thin spherical shell of radius R and total
charge Q.
Solution:

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charge configuration has spherical symmetry , so Gaussian surface is chosen to be sphere of

radius (r)
𝑞
∅𝒏𝒆𝒕 = ∮𝑠 𝐸⃗ . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝐴 = inside
𝜀 0
𝑞inside
∮𝑠 𝐸𝑟 𝑟̂ . 𝑟̂ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜀0
𝑞inside 𝑞
𝐸𝑟 (4𝜋𝑟 2 ) = →𝐸𝑟 = 4𝜋𝜀
inside
𝜀0 𝑟20
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟<𝑅
𝑞inside ={
𝑄 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟>𝑅
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟<𝑅 (𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙)
𝐸⃗ = 𝐸𝑟 𝑟̂ = { 𝑄
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟>𝑅 (𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
Outside the charged shell, the electric field is the same as that of a point charge Q at the shell’s
center. the electric field is discontinuous at r=R

Example (4) Electric Field Due to a Point Charge and a Charged Spherical Shell
A spherical shell of radius R=3 m has its center at the origin and has a surface charge density
σ=3nC/m2 of A point charge q=250nC is on the y axis at y=2m. Find the electric field on the axis
at (a) x=2m and (b) x=4m
Solution:
Point x=2m is located inside the shell so 𝐸⃗ at this point due to point charge only
𝑞
𝐸⃗1 = 𝑘 𝑟 2 𝑟̂1
1
250×10 −9
𝐸⃗1 = 9 × 109 × (2√2)2 𝑟̂1 = (218𝑁/𝐶 ) 𝑟̂1 q
r1
2m
𝐸⃗1 = (218 cos 𝜃 𝑖̂ − 218 sin 𝜃 𝑗̂ ) 𝑁/𝐶
2 2 2m
= 218 (2√2) 𝑖̂ − 218 (2√2) 𝑗̂ 𝑁/𝐶
𝐸⃗1 = (199 𝑖̂ − 199 𝑗̂ ) 𝑁/𝐶 E1
Point (x=4m) is located outside the shell so 𝐸⃗ at this point due to point charge (𝐸⃗𝑝 ) and charged
shell (𝐸⃗𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 )
𝐸⃗2 = 𝐸⃗𝑝 + 𝐸⃗𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝑞
𝐸⃗𝑃 = 𝑘 2 𝑟̂2 q
𝑟2 r2
250×10−9
𝐸⃗𝑃 = 9 × 109 × 𝑟̂2 = (112 𝑁/𝐶 ) 𝑟̂2 2m Eshell
20
𝐸⃗𝑃 = (112 cos 𝜃 𝑖̂ − 112 sin 𝜃 𝑗̂ ) 𝑁/𝐶 ← 4m →
Epoint charge
4 2
= 112 ( ) 𝑖̂ − 112 ( ) 𝑗̂ 𝑁/𝐶
√20 √20
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𝐸⃗𝑃 = (100 𝑖̂ − 50 𝑗̂ ) 𝑁/𝐶

𝑄
𝐸⃗𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 2
𝑖̂
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
𝜎 (4𝜋𝑅 2 ) 3×10−9 × 32
= 𝑖̂ = 8.85×10−12 ×42 𝑖̂
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

𝐸⃗𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 = (190𝑁/𝐶 )𝑖̂

𝐸⃗2 = (100 𝑖̂ − 50 𝑗̂ ) + (190 )𝑖̂
𝐸⃗2 = (290 𝑖̂ − 50 𝑗̂ ) 𝑁/𝐶

Example (5) 𝐄
⃗ Due to a Uniformly Charged Solid Sphere
Find the electric field everywhere for a uniformly charged solid sphere that has a radius R
and a total charge Q that is uniformly distributed throughout the volume of the sphere
Solution:
The charge configuration has spherical symmetry. We choose a spherical Gaussian surface of
radius (r)
𝑞
∅𝒏𝒆𝒕 = ∮𝑠 𝐸⃗ . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝐴 = inside
𝜀 0
𝑞inside
∮𝑠 𝐸𝑟 𝑟̂ . 𝑟̂ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜀0
𝑞inside 𝑞
𝐸𝑟 (4𝜋𝑟 2 ) = → inside
𝐸𝑟 = 4𝜋𝜀
𝜀0 𝑟2
0

We find 𝑞inside Gaussian surface in case 𝑟 ≤ 𝑅 as following

𝑄 𝑞inside
𝜌=𝑉 =𝑉
𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑎𝑛
4
𝑉𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝜋𝑟 3 𝑟3
𝑞inside = 𝑄 → 𝑞inside = 𝑄 3
4 = 𝑄 𝑅3
𝑉𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝜋𝑅 3
3
𝑟3
𝑄 𝑅3 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟≤𝑅
𝑞inside = {
𝑄 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟≥𝑅
𝑟3
𝑄 3 𝑄𝑟
𝑅
= 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟≤𝑅 (𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙)
𝐸⃗ = 𝐸𝑟 𝑟̂ = { 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 3
𝑄
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟≥𝑅 (𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

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Example (6 ) Electric Field Due to Infinite Line Charge

Use Gauss’s law to find the electric field everywhere due to an infinitely long line charge of
uniform charge density λ.
Solution:
we know the magnitude of the field depends only on the radial distance from the line charge. We
therefore choose a cylindrical Gaussian surface coaxial with the line charge has a length (L) and a
radius (r).
𝑞
∅𝒏𝒆𝒕 = ∮𝑠 𝐸⃗ . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝐴 = inside
𝜀 0
∅𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ∅𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 + ∅𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 + ∅𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
∅𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = ∅𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 0 (because 𝐸⃗ ⊥ 𝑛̂ )

∅𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = ∮𝑠 𝐸𝑟 𝑟̂ . 𝑟̂ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸𝑟 (2𝜋𝑟𝐿)

𝑞inside
𝐸𝑟 (2𝜋𝑟𝐿) = 𝜀0
𝑞inside = 𝜆 𝐿
𝜆𝐿 𝜆
𝐸𝑟 (2𝜋𝑟𝐿) = → 𝐸𝑟 = 2𝜋𝜀
𝜀0 0𝑟

Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium

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1- The electric field is zero inside a charged conductor.

2- Any excess charge on an isolated conductor resides entirely on the surface of the conductor.
3- The electric field at the surface of a charged conductor is perpendicular to the surface and
has a magnitude σ/ε0 .
4- Excess charge tends to accumulate at sharp points, or locations of highest curvature, on
charged conductors. As a result, the electric field is greatest at such locations.
these properties can be prove by using Gauss's law