Survey Field Project Report | Group 5

SURVEY FIELD PROJECT-2081

A Survey Field Project Report submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of

Pokhara University for the degree of the Bachelor of Civil and Rural Engineering

Submitted to:
The Camp Coordinator and
Technical Team of Survey Field Project

Submitted by:

Exam Roll No. Name PU Regd. No.

21510049 Basudev Paudel 2021-1-51-0049
21510053 Bishnu Subedi 2021-1-51-0053
21510058 Divya Thagunna 2021-1-51-0058
21510064 Khemraj Kunwar 2021-1-51-0064
21510066 Kushal Adhikari 2021-1-51-0066
21510070 Prasanna Pahari 2021-1-51-0070
21510081 Santona Baral 2021-1-51-0081

School of Engineering
Faculty of Science and Technology
Pokhara University
Fall 2023

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to acknowledge with appreciation to Survey Field Project Instruction
Team appointed from School of Engineering under Faculty of Science and Technology
of Pokhara University for organizing this survey field project to develop our knowledge
of surveying and its application.

We would like to thank our camp coordinator Er. Saugat Tiwari, technical coordinators
Er. Sanjay Baral and Er. Rajendra Aryal, survey field supervisors Er. Sundar Adhikari,
Er. Badri Adhikari, Er Ananda Dev Bhatt, Er. Indra Prasad Timilsina, Er. Pharam Singh
Thapa, Er. Prakash KC, Er. Mohan Dhakal and Er. Bhawasagar Ranabhat for their
continual technical guidance, contributory supports, suggestions, management of
resources and co-operation throughout the camp.

We would like to thank all the working staffs for their supports, delivery of resources and
co-operation throughout the camp.

We would like to express our deepest thanks to Er. Om Prakash Giri, Director of
School of Engineering, for providing proper official direction for management of the
project.

We would like to thank the management team of Dhampus Resort Private Limited for
lodging and fooding in camp venue.

We would like to thank all our classmates of School of Engineering who helped us
directly or indirectly to carry out this project.

BCRE 6th Semester Group No. 5

Basudev Paudel
Bishnu Subedi
Divya Thagunna
Khemraj Kunwar
Kushal Adhikari
Prasanna Pahari
Santona Baral

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COVER LETTER

Date: 18/05/2024
To,
The Coordinator
Survey Field Project-2081
School of Engineering
Faculty of Science and Technology
Pokhara University
Pokhara-30, Kaski

Dear Sir,

We the students of Civil and Rural Engineering 3 rd Year / 6th Semester, a project group
have prepared a project report of “Survey Field Project”. Our project is for the partial
fulfillment of the requirements of Pokhara University for the degree of the Bachelor of
Civil and Rural Engineering.
This is a survey field project report which has been prepared after the closed camp
conducted for ten days by Survey Field Project Instruction Team appointed from School
of Engineering under Faculty of Science and Technology of Pokhara University in
Machhapuchhre-7, Dhampus, Kaski. The report comprises the contents that represent the
significance of surveying in Civil and Rural Engineering. The report contains the jobs
and task conducted, the methodologies used, observations and calculations with
drawings. The report also contains the field observations and calculations on topographic
surveying, bridge site surveying, road alignment and building layout.
This report provides focus on providing the practical knowledge to the students, readers
and all concerned with regard to the field work of surveying.
Please find the report attached here for your kind approval and necessary arrangements.

Sincerely yours,
Basudev Paudel
Bishnu Subedi
Divya Thagunna
Khemraj Kunwar
Kushal Adhikari
Prasanna Pahari
Santona Baral

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Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Surveying is an art of determining the relative positions of point on above or beneath the surface of the
earth by means of angular and linear measurements. The main objective of surveying is to prepare plans
and maps of areas. Thus, the subject emerges out to be the most important before and during all
engineering works like civil engineering works such as designing and construction of highways, water
supply systems, irrigation projects, buildings etc.

The B.E. Survey Camp 2081, Dhampus organized by the Survey Instruction Committee, SOE, PoU is a
part of the four-year Bachelor's degree in Civil and Rural Engineering course, third year first semester,
carrying a total of 100 marks. The total duration of the survey camp was 10 days, from 20th of Baisakh
th
to 29 Baisakh, 2081.
This is a detailed report of the works performed by group no. 5 during the camp period. It briefly
explains the working procedures and technique along with the observations, calculations, and methods
of adjustment of error. In addition, it also contains the main problem faced during work and their
solution, results of all calculations.

The work done during the camp duration can be categorized into:

1. Topographical survey
2. Bridge site survey
3. Road alignment survey

1.1 Objectives of Survey Camp:

The main objectives of the survey camp are as follows:

 Horizontal control and vertical control survey practices with respect to National grid system and
produces topographic map in coordinate system.
 Linear segment survey practice through Road Alignment Survey.
 Practices of horizontal control and vertical control survey surrounding the cross drainage
through bridge site survey.
 Analytical resection intersection for the transfer of coordinates through National grid system.

1.2 Location Map:

1.1.1 Topographical Survey

 Location: Dhampus Resort, Dhampus, Kaski
 Geographical and Geological Features:
Climate: mild, warm and temperate
Rainfall: More in summer less in winter
 Accessibility of the camp site:

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Source: Google map

Fig 1: Dhampus Resort
1.1.2 Bridge Survey Site
 Location: Ghatte khola, Dhampus, Kaski
 Geographical and Geological Features:
Terrain: Hilly terrain
Climate: mild, warm and temperate
Rainfall: More in summer less in winter
 Accessibility of the Camp Site:
The project site in Ghatte khola is in easy access by foot.

Source: Google map

Fig 2: Ghatte khola

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1.1.3 Road survey site

 Location: Lower Dhampus, Kaski
 Geographical and Geological Features:
Climate: mild, warm and temperate
Rainfall: More in summer less in winter
 Accessibility of the camp site:
Lower Dhampus is 15 miles from center of Pokhara.

Fig 3: Road site Source: Google map

1.4 Location and Accessibility:

Dhampus is about 21km western part from Prithvi Chowk, Pokhara the lovely city of Lakes. Pokhara-
Baglung highway links Dhampus with Pokhara.
Dhampus area is also called the Cherrapunji of Nepal because of heavy rainfall. The area to be surveyed
is nearer to the Australian Base Camp and lies in the lap of Annapurna, Dhaulagiri and Machhapuchhre.
There are fairly buses running to and from Pokhara. Our project area was quite suitable and easily
accessible. The journey from Pokhara to Dhampus takes about 1 hour by bus.
Country: Nepal

Province: Gandaki

District: Kaski

Municipality: Machhapuchhre Rural Municipality 

Ward No.: 7


Location: Dhampus

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1.5 Topography and Geology:

Dhampus has steep topography. The area is a trekking site and has the following geological features;

Latitude: 28° 17‟ 36” N

Longitude: 83° 52‟ 07” E

Dhampus village is located 25 KM north of the central Kaski district. Dhampus is a traditional Gurung
village situated at an altitude of 1650 m above the sea level. The village offers an opportunity to explore
the lifestyle of the ethnic Gurung community. area of Dhampus is about 15.5 Km2.

Geology plays a vital role for the construction maintenance and rehabilitation of any type of structure.
For our concern, the job site falls in “Lesser Himalaya Zone”.

1.6 Temperature, Climate and Vegetation:

According to Central Bureau of Statistics, the annual temperature variation and rainfall was as follows:
Temperature: Max. 24 C to Min.14 C in summer

Max. 15°C to Min.3°C in winter

Rainfall: 102.5 inches in summer and slight drizzle in winter.

Major Crops grown: Maize, wheat, etc.

Types of vegetation found: Herbs, Shrubs and tall trees.

Pine, Oak, Bamboo.

o
The temperature during the camp period was about 25 C. The days were hotter whereas in the
evening, wind blew and rainfall throughout the camp period making the evening pleasant.

1.7 Others:
Dhampus is on the gateway to the Annapurna conservation area and on the route of Annapurna base
camp trek and several other treks. Dhampus village is located 21 KM north of the central Kaski district.
Dhampus is a traditional Gurung village situated at an altitude of 1650m above the MSL. The village
offers an opportunity to explore the lifestyle of the ethnic Gurung Community.

Besides this, one can experience the landscape of the forests, mountains and Himalayas. Annapurna
Mountain range, Machhapuchhre Mountain range and Manaslu Mountain range are the notable
mountain ranges which can be seen from the Dhampus. Sunrise and sunset views from the hilltop would
be an amazing experience. Village life experience is the key thing to see during Dhampus visit and
camping.

Dhampus village is also famous for a short day and overnight hiking from Pokhara valley. The
village is on the gateway to the Annapurna conservation area and on the route of Annapurna base camp
trek and several other treks. There are two hiking routes to reach Dhampus village. People can reach by
the off-road drive to Dhampus.

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Chapter 2
TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEY
Topographical surveying is the process of determining the positions of existing features of the locality
by means of conventional signs on a topographical map. They are carried out to depict the topography
of the mountainous terrain, rivers, water bodies, wooded areas and other cultural details as roads,
railways, townships, etc. Topographic surveys are three-dimensional. They provide the techniques of
plane surveying and other special techniques to establish both horizontal and vertical control.

2.1 Objectives:

 To prepare the topographic map of the given area with horizontal and vertical control at required
accuracy.
 To establish both horizontal and vertical controls.
 To locate the contours.
 To locate the details such as rivers, streams, lakes, roads, houses, and trees etc.

2.2 Brief Description of the Area:

The area through which the major traverse was run was a small portion of the whole Dhampus Village
area. Along with the preparation of the topographical map of the major traverse, detailed topographical
map of the small area with contours was also prepared. The area on which detailed topographical survey
was performed includes: Dhampus Resort, Farm land, Temple and other nearby small buildings.

2.3 Norms (Technical Specifications):

 Conduct reconnaissance survey of the given area.

 Prepare an overall sketch in Ao size paper forming a closed traverse (major and minor) around the
periphery of the area by establishing traverse station.
 While selection of the traverse station maintains the ratio of maximum traverse leg distance to
minimum traverse leg distance less than or equal to 2:1 for major and 3:1 for minor traverse.
Referencing of the traverse stations is utmost necessary and should be shown in sketch. Separate
overall sketch (in A3 size) for detailing area is necessary.
 Marking of station pegs should be done as given in the legend. E.g., G8M1 for major traverse and
g8m1 for minor traverse. The number 5 is camp group number, letter M or m denotes major or
minor traverse and the suffix number 1 denotes the traverse station number. The same notation
should be used in plotting.
 Measure the traverse legs in the forward and reverse directions by means of tape or by total station.
Note that discrepancy between forward and backward measurements should be better than 1:2000.

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 Measure the angle of Major Traverse Stations by Theodolite. The difference between face left and
face right reading is not allowed more than ± (180° + two times least count of the circle reading).
Note that the difference between the mean angles of two sets reading should be within 2*Least
count.
 In the case of minor traverse, measure only one set of angles from the horizontal circle reading by
theodolite or by total station and the difference between face left and face right reading is not
allowed more than ±180° two times least count of the circle reading.
 For vertical control determine the RL of the traverse station by fly Levelling from the given BM
(vertical datum station) and establishing other TBMs. Perform two peg tests before the start of fly
Levelling. Note that the collimation error should be less than 1:10000. The permissible error for fly
levelling is 25k mm.
 Balance the traverse by proper way adjusting angular and linear closing errors. The theoretical sum
of interior angles in a closed traverse should be equal to (2N±4) *90°. The permissible angular error
for the sum of interior angle of the traverse should be less than n *1 minutes for major traverse
(Horizontal angles) and n*1.5 minutes for minor traverse (For Bearing angles), (n=no. of traverse
station). The relative closing error should be less than 1:2000 and 1:1000 respectively for major and
minor traverse.
 Plot the major traverse station by coordinate method in appropriate scale (1:1000)
 Plot the minor traverse station by coordinate method in appropriate scale (1:1000)
 Carry out the detail survey of the given sub-area (minor) by tachometric system by theodolite with
reference to the major and minor traverse stations, which have been already plotted. Detail sketch of
the area is necessary during the detail survey.
 As far as possible station pegs should be driven (flushed) completely on the ground surface to avoid
walking disturbance. Never drive peg at the frequent public walkway.
 All the details are to be plotted in the scale 1:1000 with respect to vertical and horizontal control
from the respective station. Use conventional symbols for plotting the map.

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2.4 Equipment and Accessories:

Total Station
Theodolite
Leveling staffs
(5m) Ranging Rods
Measuring Tape (30m&50m)
Leveling instrument
Hammer
Nails & pegs
Plumb bob
Compass
Prism
Prism holder

2.5 Methodology:
The methodology of surveying is based on the principle of surveying. They are as follows:
i. Working from whole to a part.
ii. Independent check.
iii. Consistency of work.
iv. Accuracy required

The different methodologies were used in surveying to solve the problems arise in the field. These
methodologies are as follows:

2.5.1 Reconnaissance (Recce):

Reconnaissance (Recce) means the preliminary inspection of the area before commencing the actual
detail survey, for the purpose of fixing the survey stations and forming a general plan for the network of
the chain lines. For this purpose, the detailed inspection of the given area Dhampus Resort, Ghatte khola
and Road was carried out by reconnaissance survey.
During reconnaissance the major and minor traverse control points to form a closed traverse around the
perimeter of the area was found out. While selecting the major and minor control points following
points should be considered:

 The adjacent station should be clearly visible.

 The whole area should include the least number of stations possible.
 The traverse station should maintain the ratio of maximum traverse leg to minimum traverse leg less
than 1:2 for major traverse and 1:3 for minor traverse.
 The steep slopes and badly broken ground should be avoided as much as possible.
 The stations should provide minimum level surface required for setting up the instrument.

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 The traverse line of sight should not be near ground level to avoid refraction.

Considering the above points traverse station were allocated followed by two-way taping for each leg.
Finally, permanent fixing of control points completes the recce.

2.5.2 Traversing

For the establishment of topographic map traversing is done. Traversing is the branch of surveying in
which a no. of connected survey lines forms the framework and the direction and lengths of the survey
lines are measured with the help of angle measuring instrument and a tape respectively. The points taken
in the traverse is known as traverse station and the line joining the two traverse station is known as
traverse leg. The angle between two traverse legs is traverse angle. Theodolite or Total station is used to
measure the traverse angle.

There are two types of traverses. They are as follows:

1. Open Traverse
A traverse is said to be open traverse when the traverse starts at one point and terminates at another
point as shown in the figure. Open traverse is also called as unclosed traverse. It is suitable for
surveying of roads, coastal lines, etc.

Fig 4: Open traverse

2. Close Traverse
A traverse is said to be closed traverse when the traverse formed a closed circuit as shown in the figure.
In this case, both starting and terminating points of the traverse coincide with each other. It is suitable
for the survey of boundaries of ponds, sports grounds, forests, etc.

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Fig 5: Closed Traverse

2.5.2 Major traverse:

The traverse which encloses entire area is major traverse. According to the principle of surveying i.e.,
working from whole to part, special attention should be given for the measurement of the length and
angle of the traverse. So, two sets of reading should be taken for the measurement of the angles which is
done by setting the theodolite at 000‟00” for one set and 9000‟00” for the second. The difference
between the mean angles of two sets of readings was within a minute for all the angles. The leg ratio
should be maintained 1:2 and the discrepancy in length between the forward measurements and the
backward measurements of all the traverse legs was within 1:2000.
Computation of Co-ordinates:
The length of the traverse is measured by total station. The traverse angles are measured with a total
station by setting up the instrument at each station. The bearing of the any one of the traverse leg
measured and the entire traverse angle measured, the bearing of all the legs can be calculated by:

Bearing of a line = (bearing of previous line +included angle) (180) or (540)

If is the bearing of line (c.p, A say), and l be the length of the line and provided that co-ordinate of
the control point (c.p) is known then the co-ordinate of the point „A‟ can be calculated as follows:

X-coordinate of A=x-coordinate of control point (c.p) +L*sin

Y-coordinate of A=y-coordinate of control point (c.p) +L*cos

R.L or z-coordinate of A=R.L of point (c.p) +H. I V-Height of signal.

Where, H. I=Height of instrument

V=vertical distance

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2.5.3 Minor traverse:

For the detailed topographical survey, the detail points may not be sufficiently obtained from the control
stations of the major traverse. For this minor traverse need to be laid. Minor traverse is that one which
runs through the area to make detailing easy. Minor Traverse covers only small area. Less precise work
than that of major traverse is acceptable so that single set reading is sufficient. The minor traverse had 9
control stations. The minor traverse enclosed Central Department of Botany, Central Department of
Zoology, Central Department of Microbiology, Central Department of Mathematics and Statistics as
well as the nearby buildings. The stations were named as 4m1, 4m2,…..,4m6. The leg ratio of maximum
Traverse leg to minimum traverse leg was maintained within 3:1. The precision in length between the
forward measurements and the backward measurements of all the traverse legs was within 1:3000.

2.5.2.1 Measurement of Traverse Leg

After completion of recce survey, taping of the major traverse was performed with the help of tapes. The
distances between the adjacent control points were measured accurately as far as possible for the
accuracy of the whole traverse. To attain the accuracy required i.e., 1:2000 ratio, a two-way taping was
done independently so that the length from each measurement was found within specified range.

To measure the horizontal distances accurately on the slopping ground, the short length was measured at
a time so that the tape could be pulled horizontally without sagging. For this ranging was done
accurately to divide the length into shorter length. Finally, all the lengths were added to obtain the whole
length, which is also, called stepping method. For accuracy, traverse legs may be checked by Electronic
Distance Measuring instrument (EDM).

2.5.2.2 Measurement of Angle

At each traverse stations one set, two face horizontal angle (interior) between forward stations were
observed using theodolite. Average of two readings was adopted as horizontal angle between two
traverse legs.
All the traverse angles were summed up. For the closed traverse the sum should be equal to (2n-4) *90 where n
is no. of traverse stations.

 The angular disclosure= sum of interior angle – (2n-4) *90

 This angular disclosure must be within the permissible limit ±√n x 1 minutes.
 Then it was equally distributed to all the angles.

2.5.2.3 Balancing the traverse

We were given the bearing of CP1-CP2 and using corrected horizontal angles and given bearing,
bearing of other traverse legs were calculated. Then using the bearing and traverse legs consecutive
coordinate of each leg were calculated using given coordinate of CP1. For the closed loop, the sum of

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all consecutive coordinates should be equal to zero but there was some error in both the latitude and
departure which was adjusted using Bowditch‟s method. The basis of this method is on the assumption
that the error in the linear measurements is proportional to L and the errors in the angular measurements
are inversely proportional to L, where L is length of line. The Bowditch‟s rule is mostly used to balance
the traverse, where linear and angular measurements are of equal precision. The total error in Latitude
and Departure are distributed in proportion to length of the side. From corrected Latitude and departure
of each traverse leg, corrected bearing and corrected lengths are computed.

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2.5.4 Levelling:
Levelling is an art of determining relative altitudes of points on the surface of the earth or beneath the
surface of the earth. It is used to find the elevation of given points with respect to a given or assumed
datum and to establish points at a given elevation or at different elevations with respect to a given or
assumed datum. Leveling deals with measurements in a vertical plane. Finding out elevation is
necessary to enable the work and establishing points are necessary in the setting out of works.
Simple Levelling:
The operation of levelling for determining the difference in elevation, if not too great, between
two points visible from a single position of the level, is known as simple levelling.
Differential Levelling:
The method of levelling for determining the difference in elevation of two points either too far or
obstructed by an intervening ground, is known as differential levelling. The level is set up at number
of points and the difference in elevation of successive points, is determined in this method.
Check Levelling:
After the completion of fly levelling, level lines are run to check the accuracy of the bench
marks previously fixed which is called check levelling.
Profile Levelling:
The operation of levelling carried out to determine the elevations of the points at known
distances apart, and also salient features, along a given straight line is called profile levelling. It
is also known as longitudinal levelling.
Cross-section levelling:
The operation of levelling which is carried out to provide levels on either side of the main line at
right angles, in order to determine the vertical section of the earth surface on the ground is called
cross section levelling.
Reciprocal levelling:
When the level is not possible to be set up between two points due to an intervening obstruction
as large water bodies, reciprocal levelling is carried out. The two sets of reciprocal levelling is
done to find out the difference in elevation between two points accurately.
Temporary adjustments of Level:
The temporary adjustments for a level consist of the following:
a) Setting up the level: The operation of setting up includes fixing the instrument on the stand and
leveling the instrument approximately.
b) Leveling up: Accurate leveling is done with the help of foot screws and with reference to the
plate levels. The purpose of leveling is to make the vertical axis truly vertical. It is done by adjusting the
screws.
c) Removal of parallax: Parallax is a condition when the image formed by the objective is not in
the plane of the cross hairs. Parallax is eliminated by focusing the eye-piece for distinct vision of the
cross hairs and by focusing the objective to bring the image of the object in the plane of cross hairs.

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Permanent adjustments of Level:

To check for the permanent adjustments of level two-peg test method should be performed. Two staffs
were placed at A and B of known length (about 50 m). First the instrument was setup on the line near B
and both staff readings (Top, Middle, and Bottom) were taken. Then, the instrument was setup at the
middle C on the line and again both staff readings on A and B was taken. Then computation was done
in order to check whether the adjustment was within the required accuracy or not.

Booking of reducing levels:

There are two methods of booking and reducing the elevation of points from the observed staff reading:
1. Height of the Instrument method Arithmetic
Check:

B.S. –F.S. = Last R.L. – First R.L.

2. Rise and Fall method Arithmetic

Check:

B.S. –F.S. =Rise –fall = Last R.L. – First R.L.

Among the two methods, Rise and Fall method was widely used.

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Fly Leveling:

The fly levelling was carried out between TBM 1 and TBM 2 and check levelling was performed to
check the results.

Level transfer to the major and minor traverse stations:

The R. L of the temporary benchmark was then transferred to the control stations of the major and
minor traverse. The closing error was found to be within the permissible limits. The misclosure was
adjusted in each leg of the leveling path by using the following formula:

Permissible error = ±25 k mm.

Where k is the total perimeter in Km

Actual Error (e) = ∑BS – ∑F.S. = Last R.L. – First R.L.

th
Correction i leg=-(e x (L1 + L2 +…. + Li)/P
st nd th
Where L1, L2, Li Length of 1 2 , …. i leg.

P is perimeter

Relative Precision= 1/(p/e)

2.5.5 Detailing:

Detailing means locating and plotting relief in a topographic map. Detailing can be done by either plane
table surveying or tachometric surveying or by total station. We performed detailing by total station,
detailing by tachometry and tangential method while taking details during the camp.
Total Station:

Total station was used to get the horizontal angle, horizontal distance and vertical height of different
points when it was sighted to the prism with poles on those points.

Tacheometry:

It is the branch of surveying in which both the horizontal and vertical distances between stations are
determined by making instrumental observations. Tacheometry is used in the preparation of contour
maps and they also provide a good check on distances measured with tape or chain.

Principle of tacheometry:

In isosceles triangles, the ratio of the perpendiculars from the vertex on their bases is constant.

The formula for the horizontal distance is

2
H=k*sCos
The formula for the vertical distance is

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V = (k*s Sin2)/2

Where, s = staff intercept; = Vertical Angle

Detailing by trigonometric levelling:

In this method we have to take two middle staff reading, with 2 different vert. angle along with
horizontal angle with any traverse leg. We use the formula:

S=difference in staff reading

H=S / (tan(90-θ1)-tan(90-θ2))

V=H tan (90- θ2)

where, θ1 is smaller zenithal angle and

θ2 is bigger zenithal angle.

Contouring:

A contour is defined as an imaginary line passing through the points of equal elevation. Thus contour
lines on a plan illustrates the configuration of the ground. The method of representing the relief of the
ground by the help of contour is called contouring. The vertical distance between two consecutive
th
contours is called contour interval. Every 5 contour which is 5 times of the contour interval is the
index contour which is generally darkened in the contour and is known as Index Contour. The least
horizontal distance between two consecutive contours is called the horizontal equivalent.
Methods of contouring:
There are two ways of contouring. They are namely:
1. The Direct method
2. The Indirect method
1. The direct method:

In this direct method, the equal elevated points are joined. For this, firstly the points with the same
elevations are found out by setting out the instrument at a point and by hit and trial method of searching
the points which gives the same required staff reading.
2. The indirect method:

In this method, some suitable guide points are selected and surveyed, the guide points need not
necessarily be on the contours. There are some of the indirect methods of locating the ground points:
a. By squares
b. By cross-sections
c. By tachometric method

Contour Interpolation:
The process of drawing contours proportionately between the plotted ground points or in between the
plotted contours is called interpolation of the contours. Interpolation of contours between points is done
assuming that the slope of ground between two points is uniform. It may be done by anyone of
following methods:

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* Estimation
* Arithmetic calculation
* Graphical method
Contour Characteristics:
Two contour lines do not intersect each other except in the case of overhanging
cliff. A contour line must close onto itself not necessarily within the limits of a map.
Contours of different elevations do not unite to form one contour except in the case of a vertical
cliff.
Two contour lines do not unite to form a single one except in the case of perpendicular cliff.
Contours drawn closer depict a steep slope and if drawn apart, represent a gentle slope.
Contours equally spaced depict a uniform slope. When contours are parallel, equidistant and
straight, these represent an inclined plane surface.
A set ring contours with higher values inside depict a hill whereas a set of ring contours with lower
values inside depict a pond or a depression without an outlet.
When contours cross a ridge or V-shaped valley, they form sharp V-shapes across them. Contours
represent a ridge line, if the concavity of higher value contour lies towards the next lower value
contour and on the other hand these represent a valley if the concavity of the lower value contour,
lies toward the higher value contours.
The same contour must appear on both the sides of a ridge or a
valley. Contours do not have sharp turnings.

Balancing of Traverse:
There are two methods of balancing of traverse: -
1. Bowditch's method
2. Transit method

1. Bowditch's method:

In this method, the total error in the latitude and departure is distributed in proportion to the lengths
of the sides. It is mostly used to balance a traverse where linear and angular measurements are of
equal precision. This rule says:

Correction to latitude (or departure) of any side

= (Total error in latitude (or departure)*length of that side)

Perimeter of traverse

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2. Transit method:

In this method, the total error in latitude & departure is distributed in proportion to the latitude &
departure of its side. This rule is adopted when angular measurements are precise rather than linear
measurements. This role provides correction to latitude & departure of any side.
Correction in Latitude (or Departure) of any side =

Total error in latitude or departure * latitude (or departure) of that line

Arithmetic sum of latitude (or departure)

2.5.6 Computation and plotting:

For the calculations as well as plotting, we applied the coordinate method (latitude and departure
method). In this method, two terms latitude and departure are used for calculation. Latitude of a survey
line may be defined as its coordinate lengths measured parallel to an assumed meridian direction. The
latitude (L) of a line is positive when measured towards north, and termed Northing and it is negative
when measured towards south, and termed Southing. The departure (D) of a line is positive when
measured towards east, and termed Easting and it is negative when measured towards south, and termed
Westing. The latitude and departures of each control station can be calculated using the relation:

Latitude = L Cosθ

Departure = L Sinθ

Where, L=distance of the traverse legs

θ=Reduced bearing

If a closed traverse is plotted according to the field measurements, the end of the traverse will not
coincide exactly with the starting point. Such and error is known as closing error.

Mathematically,
2 2
Closing error (e) = √ {( L) + ( D) }

The relative error of closure = e / p

The error (e) in a closed traverse due to bearing may be determined by comparing the two bearings of
the last line as observed at the first and last stations of traverse.

Plotting of Major and Minor traverse:

After computing the co-ordinate of each of the control points, they were plotted in A1 size grid paper.
Both major and minor traverses were plotted to 1:500 scales. The plotted traverse was made at the
center of the sheet with the help of least co-ordinates and highest co-ordinates. Minor Traverse was
plotted in similar way to scale 1:500 over which later detailing was done.

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2.6 Resection:

Resection is the process used for determining the position of unknown point with the help of already
defined known coordinated points. The readings are taken from the unknown points. Either two-point
resection or three-point resection can be performed. We performed three-point resection in the field.

2.7 Intersection
A minimum of two control stations is required for this operation, with the unknown point visible
from each of them. It is not essential that the control stations are inter-visible, but it makes it easier if
they are.

A a

P (Unknown Point)

Figure 1. Sightings and angles measured for intersection.

The theodolite is set up at each of the stations (control points) A and B in turn. At station A, the
telescope is first sighted on B and then transited round to P, measuring the angle a. Similarly, at B the
angle b between line BA and line BP.

Surveying points high up on buildings, perhaps for later use as reference

objects measurement of the deflection of large structures (e.g., dams, bridges)
Setting out of curves.
Because we know the co-ordinates of stations A and B, and because we know that the sum of
the internal angles in the triangle must equal 180, we can calculate the following:

2 2
Length of line AB = (E + N )
-1
Bearing of line AB = tan (E / N)
Angle p = 180 - a – b

Further calculation allows us to find the length and bearing of each of the lines AP and BP:

Sine Rule: = =

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Bearing of AP = bearing AB + a

Bearing of BP = bearing BA – b

Note that angle b is anticlockwise from BA to BP, hence the negative sign in the above
equation.

Once we have the bearing and length of lines AP and BP then the co-ordinates of P can be
calculated from each line. These two sets of co-ordinates should correspond within the expected
degree of accuracy.

2.7 Comments and Conclusion:

The site for the survey camp was suitable for us to practice the theoretically acquired
knowledge in the field. Laying control stations, carrying out level works and angular
measurement became difficult while laying stations on jungle side. The obstructions due to
trees created problem. The work was slowed down as some of the instruments provided were
with errors. However, the work was completed within the allocated time.
2.6 Comments and Conclusion

The bridge axis was established due to the river's narrower and more secure location. The
axis span is 37.90 meters according to the triangulation calculation. With HFL at least 5 m
below the proposed bridge, we can decide a suitable position and relatively short span bridge
axis based on our observations and detailed surveying. The site was chosen so that all
geological, socioeconomic, and topographical considerations were taken into account. Since
the river's flow is natural, there is no risk of it shifting course during the bridge's design era.
There were no landslide hazards found at the bridge site during the survey.

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Chapter 3
Bridge Site Survey
3.1 Introduction

Bridge site survey includes the work to carry a survey for the construction of the bridge to
join two banks of the river and allow continuation of the road and provide easy access for the
people and the vehicle. Bridge construction is an important aspect which plays vital role in
the development of the nation and its economy basically in the context of our country.
Surveying is required for topographical mapping, for the longitudinal section of the river and
the cross-section of the upstream and downstream side of river are essential. Also, the river
flow level in the different sections as well as in different seasons should be taken into
consideration before the design process of the bridge.
3.2 Objectives
The primary goal of the bridge site survey is to gather preliminary information for the
identification and preparation of a potential bridge site and axis. The aim of the bridge site
survey is not only to prepare a plan and structure for the bridge site, but also to gather data
about the site, such as normal water levels, high flood levels, geological features of the
ground, and catchment areas, in order to plan and design the bridge based on the surveying
information.
The objectives of the bridge site survey can be summed as follows:
i. To find the average slope of the river and its catchments area.
ii. To exercise the reciprocal Levelling for RL transfer in bridge axis.
iii. To perform triangulation method for measuring the bridge axis and detailing 225 m
upstream and 100 m downstream.
iv. To prepare topographical map of the bridge site and hence prepare longitudinal and
cross-section of the river at the required upstream and downstream of the river.
v. To accumulate the past information about the high flood level, normal flow level, river
cut direction, river shifting pattern etc.

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3.3 Brief Description of the Area

We chose a bridge site that was surrounded by a steep hill covered in shrubs, vines, and trees.
The chosen bridge location is on rocky soil with ample bearing capability for the bridge
foundation's stability. The bridge base, also known as the bridge axis, is chosen such the hard
rock sits under it. The site was accessible only by foot.

3.4 Norms (Technical Specification)

i. The recce of the bridge area should be carried out.
ii. The triangulation stations must be established to determine bridge horizontal control
forming well-conditioned triangle.
iii. The R.L. of the triangulation stations should determine by fly levelling from the given
arbitrary T.B.M.
iv. Reciprocal leveling should use to carry the levels from one bank to another bank of
the arbitrary T.B.M.
v. The topographic map must be prepared by tacheometry
vi. The longitudinal profile of the river should be prepared up to 75m u/s and 50m d/s
from the bridge axis
vii. The cross section should be taken at 25m interval and one at the bridge axis.
viii. Scale of plotting:
 Scale of topographic map: 1:500
 Scale of L-section
a. Horizontal scale: 1:500
b. Vertical scale: 1:500
 Scale of cross section:
a. Horizontal scale: 1:100
b. Vertical scale: 1:100

3.5 Equipment’s
The equipment's used during bridge site survey are listed as follows:
 Theodolite with tripod
 Staffs
 Ranging rod

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 Levelling machine
 Measuring tape
 Pegs
 Arrows
 Marker
 Plumb-bob
 Compass

3.6 Methodologies

During the bridge site assessment, different methods were used, including triangulation,
leveling, tachometry, cross section, and L-section. The following are short descriptions of
these methods:

3.6.1 Site Selection

Site selection is the first and foremost step for the construction of bridge. Several governing
factors are there for the site selection of the bridge. Geological condition, socio-economic and
ecological aspect etc. guides the way of selection of bridge site. Therefore, the site was
chosen such that it is laid on the very stable rocks at the bed of river as far as possible and not
affect the ecological balance of the flora and fauna of the site area. The location of the bridge
was selected in such a way that the heights of the roads joined by the proposed bridge were
almost the same. This prevented a lot of cutting and filling to maintain a gentle gradient. The
bridge site was chosen in such a way that the bridge axis was perpendicular to the flow
direction and was also shorter in span so as to make the construction economical. The starting
point of bridge axis was not laid on the curve of the road.

3.6.2 Triangulation

The process of triangulation is the formation of a number of connecting triangles in order to

control the points. Triangulation entails two steps: measuring the horizontal distances of any
two sides of a triangle shaped on the opposite side of the frame between two control points
with a tape, and measuring all interior angles with a theodolite. All the remaining lengths of
the side of the triangle are computed with the help of any one measured length and all the

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measured angle of the triangle formed. The axial length of the proposed bridge can be
computed sine law of the triangle.
3.3.3 Longitudinal Sectioning
Profile Levelling is the process of determining the elevations of the points at the short-
measured intervals the Centre line of the railway, highway, canal or sewer. The fixed line
may be a single straight line or it may be composed of a succession of straight lines or of a
series of straight lines connected by curves. It is also known as longitudinal sectioning. By
means of such sections the engineer is able to study the relationship between the existing
ground surface and the levels of the proposed construction in the direction of its length.

For the longitudinal section of the river, the staff readings were taken at the interval of 10m.
L – Section was carried out up to 60m downstream and 100 m upstream. While taking
observations on the staffs, it was held on the bed of the river. It must be checked whether the
staff is above the stone or on the river bed. The chainage was measured along the river flow
direction by spreading tape over the water.

3.3.4 Cross-Sectioning

For the lateral outline of the ground surface, cross-sections are run at right angles to the
longitudinal profile and on either side of it. They provide information about the profile of the
land and details for estimating quantities of earth work in the case of road alignment, and
they provide information about the depth of the river, the width of the river, and the high
flood level in the case of bridge survey. Cross-sections are taken every 10 meters in the case
of bridge surveys. The spot heights were taken where the slope of the ground abruptly
changed. Cross-sections must be taken at various flood levels, including regular flood levels,
high flood levels, and river banks, among other things. Theodolite is used as a tachometer for
this reason.

3.3.5 Reciprocal Levelling

This method is applicable when taping is obstructed but not the vision. For transferring the
RL across the bridge reciprocal leveling was performed. This method eliminates the error due
to focusing, collimation, earth‟s curvature and refraction of atmosphere etc.

True difference in elevation between A and B = H = ha- (hb-e)

Also, the true difference in elevation = H = (ha '- e)-hb'
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Taking the average of the two differences we get the difference in elevation between A and
B.

Fig 8: Reciprocal Levelling

3.3.6 Transferring R.L. from B.M. to Control Points

For the determination of the reduced level of all the control points Levelling must be carried
out to transfer reduced level of the nearest possible bench mark to all the control points. The
R.L. of the bench mark was given to be 1140 m which was transferred to all the triangulation
stations within given accuracy. For transferring the reduced level to opposite bank of the river
Reciprocal Levelling was used.

3.3.7 Computation and Plotting

The following tacheometric formulae were used for the calculation of horizontal distance and R.L. of
different points:
i. Horizontal distance of any point from the traverse station.
H=100*S*Cos2Ө
Where, S= staff intercept= Top – Bottom Stadia reading
Ө=Vertical angle

ii. RL of the staff station = RL of the inst. Station + HI ± V- CW

Where, HI = Height of the instrument

CW = Central wire Reading
The topographical map, the longitudinal sections and the cross sections were plotted on the
respective scales after the completion of calculations. By using above formula calculation
was made and plotted in AutoCAD.

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3.3.8 Comments and Conclusion

The bridge axis was established due to the river's narrower and more secure location. The
axis span is 37.90 meters according to the triangulation calculation. With HFL at least 5 m
below the proposed bridge, we can decide a suitable position and relatively short span bridge
axis based on our observations and detailed surveying. The site was chosen so that all
geological, socioeconomic, and topographical considerations were taken into account. Since
the river's flow is natural, there is no risk of it shifting course during the bridge's design era.
There were no landslide hazards found at the bridge site during the survey.

Chapter 4

Road Alignment Survey

4.1 Introduction

A road is an identifiable route, way or path between two or more places. Roads are typically
smoothed, paved, or otherwise prepared to allow easy travel; though they need not be, and
historically many roads were simply recognizable routes without any formal construction or
maintenance. The road needs to pass through positive obligatory points. Positive obligatory
points include cities, schools, markets and negative obligatory points include temples,
national parks and wild life conservation areas. Road must not pass through such negative
obligatory points. Before the construction of the road, preliminary survey is done. Road
alignment is the preliminary stage of road construction. Selection of Intersection Points (IP)
is the foundation of construction of the road. After that cross section, longitudinal section and
formation level are required.

4.2 Objectives

Road alignment survey was done to accomplish the following objectives:

i. To determine the best possible route for proposed road.
ii. To take sufficient data of the details for L-section, X-section to determine the amount of
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earthwork.
iii. To design the geometry of road like smooth horizontal and vertical curves.
iv. To prepare the plan of road showing carriage way, shoulder, drain etc.

4.3 Brief Description of the Area

 Location: Lower Dhampus, Kaski

 Geographical and Geological Features:
Climate: mild, warm and temperate
Rainfall: More in summer less in winter

 Accessibility of the camp site:

Lower Dhampus is 15 miles from center of Pokhara.

4.4 Norms (Technical Specification)

 The recce and alignment selection of the road corridor considering permissible gradient,
obligatory points, bridge site and geometry of tentative horizontal and vertical curves
should be carried out.
 The horizontal curve should set where the road changes its direction, determining and
pegging three points on the curve (i.e., BC, MC, EC) along the centerline of the road.
 The radius of the curve should be chosen such that it is equal to or greater than 15m.
 L-Section of the road should be plotted on a scale of 1:1000 horizontally and 1:100
vertically.
 Plan of the road should be prepared on a scale of 1:500
 The cross section of the road has to be plotted on a scale of 1:100 (both vertical and
horizontal).
 Cross sections must be taken at 20 m intervals and at the beginning, middle and end of
the curve, along the centerline of the road observations being taken 6m either side of the
centerline.
 If the external deflection angle at the I.P. of the road is less than 3°, curves need not be
fitted.

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4.4 Equipment’s
 Theodolite
 Staffs
 Ranging rods
 Tapes
 Levelling instrument
 Compass
 Pegs
 Marker

4.5 Methodologies

The alignment of road includes several ways and procedures that need to be carried out.
Following is the listed methodology:

4.6.1 Reconnaissance

The reconnaissance survey was performed along the given route. Tentative estimation was
done for the intersection points, where the direction had to be changed. While returning back
the route, the IPs was fixed. For this the inter-visibility of the stations was checked and
gradient between the two IPs was adjusted such that it does not exceed 12%, using the abney
level. Meanwhile the pegs with IP no. were driven at these points

4.6.2 Horizontal Alignment

Horizontal alignment is done for fixing the road direction in horizontal plane. For this, the
bearing of initial line connecting two initial stations was measured using compass. The
deflection angles were observed using Total station at each IP.

If +ve, the survey line deflects right (clockwise) with the prolongation of preceding line and
deflects left if –ve (anti-clockwise). The radius was assumed according to the deflection
angle. Then the tangent length, EC, BC, apex distance along with their chainage were found
by using following formulae,

Tangent length (T L) = R x tan (/2)

Length of curve (L.C) = 3.142 x R x /180

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Apex distance = R x (1/ (Cos (/2)-1))

Chainage of BC = Chainage of IP – TL

Chainage of MC = Chainage of BC +LC/2

Chainage of EC =Chainage of MC + LC/2

The BC and EC points were located along the line by measuring the tangent length from the
apex and the points were marked distinctly. The radius was chosen such that the tangent does
not overlap. The apex was fixed at the length of apex distance from IP along the line
bisecting the interior angle.

4.6.3 Vertical Alignment

Vertical profile of the Road alignment is known by the vertical alignment. In the L-section of
the Road alignment, vertical alignment was plotted with maximum gradient of 12 %.
According to Nepal Road Standard, Gradient of the Road cannot be taken more than 12 %. In
the vertical alignment, we set the vertical curve with proper design. Vertical curve may be
either summit curve or valley curve. While setting the vertical alignment, it should keep in
mind whether cutting and filling were balanced or not.

4.6.4 Longitudinal Section

Nature of the ground, the variation in the elevations of the different points along the length of
road need to be known for the construction of the road. For this L-Section of the road is
required. In order to obtain the data for L-Section, staff readings were taken at points at 20m
intervals along the centerline of the road. Thus, after performing the necessary calculations,
the level was transferred to all those points with respect to the R.L. of the given B.M. Then
finally the L-Section of the road was plotted on a graph paper on a vertical scale of 1:100 and
a horizontal scale of 1:1000. The staff readings at BC, EC and apex were also taken. The RL
of each point was calculated

4.6.5 Cross-Section

Cross sections at different points are drawn perpendicular to the longitudinal section of the
road on either side of its centerline in order to present the lateral outline of the ground. Cross
sections are also equally useful in determining the amount of cut and fill required for the road
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construction. Cross sections were taken at 20m intervals along the centerline of the road and
at points where there was a sharp change in the elevation. While doing so, the horizontal
distances of the different points from the centerline were measured with the help of a tape and
the vertical heights with a measuring staff. The R.L. was transferred to all the points by
performing the necessary calculations and finally, the cross sections at different sections were
plotted on a graph paper on a scale of 1:100 for both vertical and horizontal.

4.6.6 Comments and Conclusion

A road alignment survey is conducted in order to create a road that is safe, convenient, short,
and cost-effective. Geological and soil stability are also taken into consideration. For comfort
and other considerations, vertical and horizontal curves are set according to Road Design
Standards. From a practical standpoint, road alignment surveying has proven to be very
useful. Apart from setting the road according to the Road Design Standard, it assisted us in
becoming acquainted with the conditions that which occur as a result of road construction and
how to deal with them.

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