CE 1102

FUNDAMENTALS OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING

Dr. Nadeeka S. Miguntanna,

Senior Lecturer (Gr I),
Department of Civil Engineering,
General Sir John Kotelawala Defence University,
[email protected] 1
CE 1102 - Fundamentals of Civil Engineering

 Scope of Civil Engineering

 Fluid mechanics, Hydrostatics
 Hydrodynamics Week 1-6
 Flow classification

 Introduction to structural engineering

 Building construction & materials
 Highway Engineering
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 Learning Outcomes

LO2: Estimate the stability of floating

bodies and energy associated in moving
fluids

This LO will be covered from Chapter 2, Chapter 3

and Chapter 4

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Chapter 2: Fluid mechanics, Hydrostatics
Chapter 2-Part 1- Introduction to Fluid Mechanics and Hydrostatics,
Chapter 2-Part 2- Properties of Fluid
Chapter 2-Part 3-Buoyancy – Stability of Floating Bodies, Metacentre

Chapter 3: Hydrodynamics: Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation

Momentum Equation

Chapter 4: Flow classification: Laminar and turbulent flow

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Chapter 2: Part 2- Properties of Fluid

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 Introduction
Any characteristic of a system is called a property. Fluid system
properties include:
 Familiar: pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and mass m.
 Less familiar: viscosity, thermal conductivity, modulus of
elasticity, thermal expansion coefficient, vapor pressure,
surface tension.

Intensive properties are independent of the mass of the system.

Examples: temperature, pressure, and density

Extensive properties are those whose value depends on the size

of the system. Examples: total mass, total volume, and total
momentum

Extensive properties per unit mass are called specific properties.

Examples include –
specific volume, v = V/m
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specific total energy, e=E/m 6
 Continuum

• Atoms are widely spaced in the gas phase.

• We can disregard the atomic nature of a
substance
• We can view it as continuous, homogeneous
matter with no holes, that is, a continuum.
• This allows us to treat properties as smoothly
varying quantities.
• Continuum is valid as long as the size of the
system is large compared to the distance
between molecules.

In this subject we limit our consideration to substances that can be modelled

as a continuum.
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Density and Specific Gravity
Density is defined as the mass per unit volume
ρ= m/V and has units of kg/m3

 Specific volume is defined as ʋ = 1/ ρ = V/m.

For a gas, density depends on temperature and pressure.

Specific gravity (or relative density) is defined as the ratio of the

density of a substance to the density of some standard substance at
a specified temperature (usually water at 4°C),

i.e. SG = ρ / ρ H20. SG is dimensionless.

The specific weight is defined as the weight per unit volume, i.e.,
𝞬s = ρg where g is the gravitational acceleration. 𝞬s has units of N/m3.

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 FURTHER READINGS AT HOME

Density of Ideal Gases

Vapour Pressure and Cavitation

Section 2.2/2.3/2.4/2.5

Energy and Specific Heats

Coefficient of Compressibility

Coefficient of Volume Expansion

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 Viscosity
Viscosity is a property that The force a flowing fluid exerts on a
represents the internal resistance of a body in the flow direction is called the
drag force, and the magnitude of this
fluid to motion.
force depends, in part, on viscosity.

Units are stokes or m2/s

1 stoke = 0.0001 m2/s 11 11
Viscosity
To obtain a relation for viscosity, consider a fluid layer between
two very large parallel plates separated by distance ℓ

A parallel force F is applied to the top plate

Definition of shear stress is

(on upper fluid layer)

Using the no‐slip condition,

u(0) = 0 and u(ℓ) = V
the velocity profile and gradient
are u(y)= yV/ℓ
and du/dy=V/ℓ

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Viscosity
• Shear stress for Newtonian fluid:

•µis the dynamic viscosity and has

units of kg/(m∙s), Pa∙s, or poise.

• The shear force:

•The force needed to move

the top plate at constant
velocity, V, is
THIS IS THE BEHAVIOUR OF LAMINAR
FLOW
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Viscosity
Newtonian fluid ‐ where the rate of
deformation is proportional to the
shear stress,
eg. water, air, gasoline, oil

Non‐Newtonian fluid – above

condition is not met, relationship is
not linear
eg. blood, liquid plastics

the slope of a curve at a point is the

apparent viscosity of the fluid at that
point
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 FURTHER READINGS AT HOME

Surface tension
Section 2.7
Capillary effect

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 Pressure

Pressure- Chapter 3-3.1- Cengel and Cimbala

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 Pressure
Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area
Units of pressure are N/m2, called a pascal (Pa)
Other units include bar, atm, psi
The actual pressure at a given point is called absolute pressure

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Pressure Measurement
Pressure measurement at a point within a fluid mass is
generally indicated as either absolute or gauge pressure.

Gauge pressure
• Measured relative to the local atmospheric pressure
• Can be positive or negative.
• A negative gauge pressure is also known as vacuum
pressure.
• a gage pressure of zero corresponds to a pressure that is
equal to the local atmospheric pressure.

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Pressure Measurement
Absolute pressure
• Measured relative to a perfect vacuum (absolute zero
pressure), which is the lowest possible pressure.
• Therefore, an absolute pressure will always be positive.
• A simple equation relating the two pressure measuring
system can be written as:

Pabs = Pgauge + Patm

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Pressure Measurement
Atmospheric pressure
• Refers to the prevailing pressure in the air around us.
• It varies somewhat with changing weather conditions, and it decreases
with increasing altitude.
• At sea level, average atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kPa (abs), 14.7 psi
(abs), or 1 atmosphere (1 bar = 1x105 Pa).
• This is commonly referred to as ‘standard atmospheric pressure’.

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Pressure at a Point
Pressure at any point in a fluid is the same in all directions
Pressure has a magnitude, but not a specific direction, thus it is a
scalar Quantity.

Now, let’s
consider the
wedge.

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Pressure at a point
1st year Static problem

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Variation of Pressure with Depth

For a constant density fluid, the pressure difference between two

points is proportional to the vertical distance between the points

Pressure in a fluid increases linearly with depth

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Variation of Pressure with Depth

 Pressure in a fluid at rest is independent of the shape of the container

 Pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane in a given fluid

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 Variation of Pressure with Depth
In the presence of a gravitational field, pressure
increases with depth because more fluid rests on
deeper layers

To obtain a relation for the variation of pressure

with depth, consider the rectangular element
shown below.

– Force balance in the z‐direction gives

Dividing by ∆x and rearranging gives

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Note
Pressure p at any depth h below the free surface is given by the equation:
p = h + p0

Where p0= patm

p1 = h + patm (abs)

or in terms of gauge pressure (Patm= 0),:

p1 = h = gh

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Pressure at a Point

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The pressure in a homogeneous,
incompressible fluid at rest depends on the
depth of the fluid relative to some reference
plane, and it is not influenced by the size or shape
of the tank or container in which the fluid is held.

The pressure is the same

at all points along the line
AB even though the
containers may have the
very irregular shapes.

The actual value of the

pressure along AB depends
only on the depth, h, the
surface pressure, p0 and the
specific weight,  , of the liquid
Fluid pressure in containers of arbitrary shape. in the container. 2828
The required equality of pressures at equal elevations
throughout a system is important for the operation of
hydraulic jacks (see Figure), lifts, and presses, as well as
hydraulic controls on aircraft and other types of heavy
machinery.

F2=PA2 F1=PA1

Figure (a) Hydraulic jack, (b)

Transmission of fluid pressure.

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As shown in Fig (b) a piston located at one end of a closed system filled
with a liquid, such as oil, can be used to change the pressure throughout the
system, and thus transmit an applied force F1 to a second piston where the
resulting force is F2 .
Since the pressure p acting on the faces of both pistons is the same

F2   A2 / A1 F1

The piston area A2 can be made much larger than A1 and therefore a large
mechanical advantage can be developed; that is, a small force applied at the
smaller piston can be used to develop a large force at the larger piston.

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 Hydraulic Pressure

• The intensity of pressure at a depth ℎ in a liquid of density ρ is given by:

𝑃 =ρ𝑔ℎ
• S.I unit of pressure has the unit of pascal Pa (as special name for N/m2)
• Hydraulics pressure is exerted equally in all directions.

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 Pressure head

• Pressures are sometimes expressed in term of ‘head’ ℎ.

• This is the height of a column of a named liquid that would

cause an equal pressure to that being measured.

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 Hydrostatic Force

• The hydrostatic force 𝐹 acting on the surface is the average intensity of

pressure 𝑃 times the surface area 𝐴:
• Hydrostatic force on immersed surface:

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 Measurement of Pressure

Piezometer U-Tube Manometers

Please read 3.2: Cengel and Cimbala 34 34
TUTORIAL QUESTIONS

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 Example 1
Freshwater in a tank 5 m deep has a density of 1000 kg/m3.
What pressure does this exert on the base of the tank?

Solution:

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 Example 2
From Example 1 on freshwater in a tank what is the pressure head
on the base of the tank:

(a) In terms of metres of seawater (saltwater), if the

density of seawater is 1025 kg/m3?
(b) In terms of metres of mercury, if the density of

mercury is 13 600 kg/m3?

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Solution:

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 Example 3
An open tank contains water upto a depth of 2m and above it an oil of
specific gravity 0.9 for a depth of 1n. Find the pressure intensity i) at
the interface of the two liquids and ii) at the bottom of the tank.

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 Example 4
A force , P of 800 N is applied to the smaller cylinder of a
hydraulic jack. The area, a of a small piston is 20 cm2 while the
area, A of larger piston is 200 cm2. What mass can be lifted on
the larger piston?

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 Example 5

 Express a pressure of 155 kPa (gauge) as an absolute pressure.

 Express a pressure of –31 kPa (gauge) as an absolute pressure.
Consider the local atmospheric pressure as 101 kPa (abs).

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 Example 6
What will be the gauge pressure and absolute pressure of
water at a depth 12m below the surface?
Take ρwater = 1000 kg/m3 and Patm = 101 kN/m2

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 Example 7
A cylinder contains a fluid at a gauge pressure of 200 kN/m2. Express this
pressure in terms of
I. head of water ( =1000 kg/m3)
II. head of mercury (SG=13.6)
III. What would be the absolute pressure if the atmospheric pressure is,
Patm = 101.3 kN/m2.

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 Example 8
Figure below shows a tank with one side open to the
atmosphere and the other side sealed with air above the oil
(SG=0.90). Calculate the gauge pressure at points
A,B,C,D,E.

E
1m
A

3m Oil (SG =
0.90)
B D
2m
C 44 44
Summary

Covered Chapter 2-Part 2

Continuum, density/specific
gravity/Viscosity
Pressure/Measurement of Pressure
Hydraulic pressure/Pressure head
Hydrostatic force
Problem solving (VERY IMPORTANT)

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Thank You

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THANK YOU !!!!!

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