Chapter 1 Fiber-Optic Technologies........................................................

- 3 -
1.1 A Brief History of Fiber-Optic Communications.......................- 5 -
1.2 Fiber-Optic Applications..........................................................- 7 -
1.3 The Physical Basis for Fiber Optics..........................................- 7 -
1.3.1 Performance Considerations.........................................- 9 -
1.3.2 Optical Power Measurement.........................................- 9 -
1.4 Propagation Modes.................................................................- 10 -
1.4.1 Multimode Step Index................................................- 10 -
1.4.2 Single-Mode Step Index.............................................- 11 -
1.4.3 Single-Mode Dual-Step Index.....................................- 12 -
1.4.4 Multimode Graded Index............................................- 13 -
1.5 Fiber-Optic Characteristics.....................................................- 14 -
1.5.1 Interference.................................................................- 14 -
1.5.2 Linear Characteristics.................................................- 14 -
1.5.3 Nonlinear Characteristics............................................- 16 -
1.6 Fiber Types.............................................................................- 17 -
1.7 Fiber-Optic Cable Termination...............................................- 19 -
1.8 Splicing..................................................................................- 19 -
1.9 Physical-Design Considerations.............................................- 19 -
1.10 Fiber-Optic Communications System...................................- 20 -
1.11 Fiber Span Analysis..............................................................- 25 -
Chapter 2 X over DWDM.....................................................................- 32 -
2.1 Gigabit Ethernet/10 Gigabit Ethernet (Optical Ethernet).........- 32 -
2.1.1 Ethernet Frame...........................................................- 33 -
2.1.2 Gigabit Ethernet (GE).................................................- 33 -
2.1.3 Gigabit Physical Layer................................................- 34 -
2.1.4 10 Gigabit Ethernet....................................................- 35 -
2.2 Ethernet Passive Optical Networks (EPON)...........................- 36 -
2.2.1 PON Topologies..................................................................- 36 -
2.2.2 Ethernet Passive Optical Network........................................- 37 -
2.3 SONET/SDH..........................................................................- 38 -
2.3.1 SONET/SDH Date Rate......................................................- 38 -
2.3.2 Basic SDH Building Block..................................................- 38 -
2.3.3 SONET/SDH Layers...........................................................- 40 -
2.3.4 SONET/SDH Multiplexing Structure.........................- 41 -
2.3.5 SONET and SDH Architectures..................................- 42 -
2.3.6 Packet over SONET/SDH (POS)................................- 43 -
2.4 Dynamic Packet Transport (DPT)/Resilient Packet Ring (RPR)- 44
-
2.4.1 SRP Generic Frame Header........................................- 45 -
2.4.2 Generic Data and Control Packet................................- 45 -
2.4.4 Packet Processing and Ring (Packet) Flow.................- 46 -
2.4.5 SRP Bandwidth Fairness (SRP-fa)..............................- 46 -
Chapter 3 Optical Networking...............................................................- 47 -

1
3.1 Dense wavelength division multiplexing................................- 47 -
3.2 Optical Transport Network Elements......................................- 49 -
Optical Amplifiers...............................................................- 49 -
Wavelength Converters.......................................................- 49 -
Optical Add Drop Multiplexer.............................................- 49 -
Optical Cross-Connect........................................................- 49 -
Optical Gateways................................................................- 50 -

2
 Chapter 1 Fiber-Optic Technologies

This chapter includes the following sections:

1.1 A Brief History of Fiber-Optic Communications—from the optical semaphore
telegraph to the invention of the first clad glass fiber invented by Abraham Van Heel.
1.2 Fiber-Optic Applications—ranging from global networks to desktop computers.
1.3 The Physics Behind Fiber Optics
1.4 Propagation Modes—multimode and single mode. These two modes perform differently
with respect to both attenuation and chromatic dispersion.
1.5 Fiber-Optic Characteristics—include linear and nonlinear characteristics. Linear
characteristics include attenuation and interference. Nonlinear characteristics include single-
phase modulation (SPM), cross-phase modulation (XPM), four-wave mixing (FWM), stimulated
Raman scattering (SRS), and stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS).
1.6 Fiber Types— This section discusses various multimode and single-mode fiber types .
1.7 Fiber-Optic Cable Termination
1.8 Splicing—Seamless permanent or semipermanent optical connections require fiber to be
spliced.
1.9 Physical-Design Considerations— When designing a fiber - optic cable plant, you must
consider many factors. First and foremost, the designer must determine whether the cable is to
be installed for an inside-plant (ISP) or outside-plant (OSP) application.
Fiber-Optic Communications System— This section discusses the end-to-end fiber - optic
system.
1.10 Fiber Span Analysis—Optical loss, or total attenuation, Loss-budget analysis
1.11 Summary

3
1.1 A Brief History of Fiber-Optic Communications

In 1790s, the optical semaphore telegraph invented by French inventor Claude Chappe.
In 1880, Alexander Graham Bell patented an optical telephone system, which he called
the Photophone. During the 1920s, John Logie Baird in England and Clarence W. Hansell
in the United States patented the idea of using arrays of hollow pipes or transparent rods
to transmit images for television or facsimile systems.
In 1954, Dutch scientist Abraham Van Heel and British scientist Harold H. Hopkins
separately wrote papers on imaging bundles. All earlier fibers developed were bare and
lacked any form of cladding, with total internal reflection occurring at a glass-air
interface.
Abraham Van Heel covered a bare fiber or glass or plastic with a transparent cladding of
lower refractive index. By 1960, glass-clad fibers had attenuation of about 1 decibel (dB)
per meter, fine for medical imaging, but much too high for communications. In 1961,
Elias Snitzer of American optical published a theoretical description of a fiber with a core
so small it could carry light with only one waveguide mode.
By 1964, a critical and theoretical specification was identified by Dr. Charles K. Kao for
long-range communication devices, the 10 or 20 dB of light loss per kilometer standard.
Dr. Kao also illustrated the need for a purer form of glass to help reduce light loss.
Corning Glass researchers Robert Maurer, Donald Keck, and Peter Schultz invented
fiber-optic wire or “optical waveguide fibers” (patent no. 3,711,262), which was capable
of carrying 65,000 times more information than copper wire, through which information
carried by a pattern of light waves could be decoded at a destination even a thousand
miles away. By 1973, John MacChesney developed a modified chemical vapor-
deposition process for fiber manufacture at Bell Labs.
In April 1977, General Telephone and Electronics tested and deployed the world's first
live telephone traffic through a fiber - optic system running at 6 Mbps, in Long Beach,
California. They were soon followed by Bell in May 1977, with an optical telephone
communication system installed in the downtown Chicago area, covering a distance of
1.5 miles (2.4 kilometers). Each optical-fiber pair carried the equivalent of 672 voice
channels and was equivalent to a DS3 circuit. Today more than 80 percent of the world's
long-distance voice and data traffic is carried over optical-fiber cables.

4
Figure 1-a Increase in bit rate–distance product BL during the period 1850–2000. The
emergence of a new technology is marked by a solid circle.

Figure 1-b Increase in the BL product over the period 1975 to 1980 through several
generations of lightwave systems. Different symbols are used for successive generations.
(After Ref. [12]; ©2000 IEEE; reprinted with permission.)

Figure 1-c: International undersea network of fiber-optic communication systems around

5
2000. (After Ref. [22]; © 2000 Academic; reprinted with permission.)

1.2 Fiber-Optic Applications

The use and demand for optical fiber has grown tremendously and optical-fiber
applications are numerous. Telecommunication applications are widespread, ranging from
global networks to desktop computers. These involve the transmission of voice, data, or
video over distances of less than a meter to hundreds of kilometers, using one of a few
standard fiber designs in one of several cable designs.
Carriers use optical fiber to carry plain old telephone service (POTS) across their
nationwide networks. Local exchange carriers (LECs) use fiber to carry this same service
between central office switches at local levels, and sometimes as far as the neighborhood
or individual home (fiber to the home, FTTH).
Optical fiber is also used extensively for transmission of data. Multinational firms need
secure, reliable systems to transfer data and financial information between buildings to
the desktop terminals or computers and to transfer data around the world. Cable television
companies also use fiber for delivery of digital video and data services. The high
bandwidth provided by fiber makes it the perfect choice for transmitting broadband
signals, such as high-definition television (HDTV) telecasts.
Intelligent transportation systems, such as smart highways with intelligent traffic lights,
automated tollbooths, and changeable message signs, also use fiber-optic-based telemetry
systems.
Another important application for optical fiber is the biomedical industry. Fiber-optic
systems are used in most modern telemedicine devices for transmission of digital
diagnostic images. Other applications for optical fiber include space, military, automotive,
and the industrial sector.

1.3 The Physical Basis for Fiber Optics

A fiber-optic cable is composed of two concentric layers, called the core and the
cladding, as illustrated in Figure 1.1. The core and cladding have different refractive
indices.

6
 Figure 1.1 Cross Section of a Fiber-Optic Cable

Refractive

Figure 1.2 shows the propagation of light down the fiber-optic cable using the principle
of total internal reflection.

Figure 1.2 Total Internal Reflection

As illustrated, a light ray is injected into the fiber-optic cable on the left. If the light ray
is injected and strikes the core-to-cladding interface at an angle greater than the critical
angle with respect to the normal axis, it is reflected back into the core.
The critical angle is fixed by the indices of refraction of the core and cladding and is
computed using the following formula:

7
 Light must enter the core from the air at an angle less than an entity known as the
acceptance angle (θa):

In the formula, na is the refractive index of air and is equal to one.

The optical fiber also has a numerical aperture (NA). The NA is given by the following
formula:

From a three-dimensional perspective, to ensure that the signals reflect and travel
correctly through the core, the light must enter the core through an acceptance cone
derived by rotating the acceptance angle about the cylindrical fiber axis.
As illustrated in Figure 1.3, the size of the acceptance cone is a function of the
refractive index difference between the core and the cladding.

Figure 1.3 Acceptance Cone

1.3.1 Performance Considerations

The attenuation a light ray experiences in propagating down the core is inversely
proportional to the efficiency of the optical cable because the lower the attenuation in
propagating down the core, the lower the BER. This is because more light reaches the
receiver. Also, the less chromatic dispersion realized in propagating down the core, the
faster the signaling rate and the higher the end-to-end data rate from source to destination.

1.3.2 Optical Power Measurement

A logarithmic scale known as decibel (dB) is used to express power in optical

communications.

8
 The gain of an amplifier or attenuation in fiber is expressed in decibels. The decibel does
not give a magnitude of power, but it is a ratio of the output power to the input power.
Loss or gain = 10log10(Poutput/Pinput)
The decibel milliWatt (dBm) is the power level related to 1 milliWatt (mW).
Transmitter power and receiver dynamic ranges are measured in dBm. A 1 mW signal
has a level of 0 dBm.
Signals weaker than 1 mW have negative dBm values, whereas signals stronger than 1
mW have positive dBm values.
dBm = 10log10(Power (mW)/1 mW)

1.4 Propagation Modes

Fiber-optic cable has two propagation modes: multimode and single mode. They
perform differently with respect to both attenuation and time dispersion.
Light has a dual nature and can be viewed as either a wave phenomenon or a particle
phenomenon that includes photons and solitons. Solitons are special localized waves that
exhibit particle-like behavior. For this discussion, let’s consider the wave mechanics of
light. When the light wave is guided down a fiber-optic cable, it exhibits certain modes.
These modes are actually numbered from lowest to highest. In a very simple sense, each
of these modes can be thought of as a ray of light. For a given fiber-optic cable, the
number of modes that exist depends on the dimensions of the cable and the variation of
the indices of refraction of both core and cladding across the cross section. The various
modes include multimode step index, single-mode step index, single-mode dual-step
index, and multimode graded index.

1.4.1 Multimode Step Index

Consider the illustration in Figure 1.8. This diagram corresponds to multimode

propagation with a refractive index profile that is called step index. As you can see, the
diameter of the core is fairly large relative to the cladding. There is also a sharp
discontinuity in the index of refraction as you go from core to cladding. As a result, when
light enters the fiber-optic cable on the left, it propagates down toward the right in
multiple rays or multiple modes. This yields the designation multimode. As indicated, the
lowest-order mode travels straight down the center. It travels along the cylindrical axis of
the core. The higher modes, represented by rays, bounce back and forth, going down the
cable to the left. The higher the mode, the more bounces per unit distance down to the

9
right.

Figure 1.8 Multimode Step Index

The illustration also shows the input pulse and the resulting output pulse. Note that the
output pulse is significantly attenuated relative to the input pulse. It also suffers
significant time dispersion. The reasons for this are as follows. The higher-order modes,
the bouncing rays, tend to leak into the cladding as they propagate down the fiber-optic
cable. They lose some of their energy into heat. This results in an attenuated output signal.
The input pulse is split among the different rays that travel down the fiber-optic cable.
The bouncing rays and the lowest-order mode, traveling down the center axis, are all
traversing paths of different lengths from input to output. Consequently, they do not all
reach the right end of the fiber-optic cable at the same time. When the output pulse is
constructed from these separate ray components, the result is chromatic dispersion.
Fiber-optic cable that exhibits multimode propagation with a step index profile is
thereby characterized as having higher attenuation and more time dispersion than the
other propagation candidates. However, it is also the least costly and is widely used in the
premises environment. It is especially attractive for link lengths up to 5 kilometers. It can
be fabricated either from glass, plastic, or PCS. Usually, MMF core diameters are 50 or
62.5 μm. The standard cladding diameter is 125 microns.Typically, 50 μm MMF
propagates only 300 modes as compared to 1100 modes for 62.5 μm fiber. The 50 μm
MMF supports 1 Gbps at 850 nm.

1.4.2 Single-Mode Step Index

Single-mode propagation is illustrated in Figure 1.9. This diagram corresponds to single-

mode propagation with a refractive index profile that is called step index. As the figure

10
shows, the diameter of the core is fairly small relative to the cladding. Because of this,
when light enters the fiber-optic cable on the left, it propagates down toward the right in
just a single ray, a single mode, which is the lowest-order mode. In extremely simple
terms, this lowest-order mode is confined to a thin cylinder around the axis of the core.
The higher-order modes are absent.

Figure 1.9 Single-Mode Step Index

All energy is confined to this single, lowest-order mode. Because the higher-order mode
energy is not lost, attenuation is not significant. Also, because the input signal is confined
to a single ray path, that of the lowest-order mode, very little chromatic dispersion occurs.
Single-mode propagation exists only above a certain specific wavelength called the cutoff
wavelength.
Single-mode fiber-optic cable has also been getting increased attention as local-area
networks have been extended to greater distances over corporate campuses. The core
diameter for this type of fiber-optic cable is exceedingly small, ranging from 8 microns to
10 microns. The standard cladding diameter is 125 microns.

1.4.3 Single-Mode Dual-Step Index

Figure 1.10 corresponds to single-mode propagation with a refractive index profile that
is called dual-step index. A depressed-clad fiber has the advantage of very low
macrobending losses. It also has two zero-dispersion points and low dispersion over a
much wider wavelength range than a singly clad fiber. Each cladding has a refractive
index that is lower than that of the core. The inner cladding has a lower refractive index
than the outer cladding.

11
 Figure 1.10 Single-Mode Dual-Step Index

1.4.4 Multimode Graded Index

Multimode graded index fiber has a higher refractive index in the core that gradually
reduces as it extends from the cylindrical axis outward. Consider the illustration in Figure
1.11. This corresponds to multimode propagation with a refractive index profile that is
called graded index. The core here is much larger than in the single-mode step index case
previously discussed. Multimode propagation exists with a graded index. As illustrated,
however, the paths of the higher-order modes are somewhat confined. They appear to
follow a series of ellipses. Because the higher-mode paths are confined, the attenuation
through them due to leakage is more limited than with a step index. The time dispersion is
more limited than with a step index; therefore, attenuation and time dispersion are
present, but limited.

Figure 1.11 Multimode Graded Index

In Figure 1.11, the input pulse is shown on the left, and the resulting output pulse is

12
shown on the right. When comparing the output pulse and the input pulse, note that there
is some attenuation and time dispersion, but not nearly as much as with multimode step
index fiber-optic cable.
This type of fiber-optic cable is extremely popular in premise data communications
applications. In particular, the 62.5/125 fiber-optic cable is the most popular and most
widely used in these applications. Glass is generally used to fabricate multimode graded
index fiber-optic cable.

1.5 Fiber-Optic Characteristics

Optical-fiber systems have many advantages over metallic-based communication

systems. These advantages include interference, attenuation, and bandwidth
characteristics. Fiber-optic characteristics can be classified as linear and nonlinear.
Nonlinear characteristics are influenced by parameters, such as bit rates, and power
levels.

1.5.1 Interference

Light signals traveling via a fiber-optic cable are immune from electromagnetic
interference (EMI) and radio-frequency interference (RFI). This desirable property of
fiber-optic cable makes it the medium of choice in industrial and biomedical networks. It
is also possible to place fiber cable into natural-gas pipelines and use the pipelines as the
conduit.

1.5.2 Linear Characteristics

Linear characteristics include attenuation, chromatic dispersion, polarization mode

dispersion, and optical signal-to-noise ratio.
Intrinsic attenuation is caused by substances inherently present in the fiber, whereas
extrinsic attenuation is caused by external forces such as bending. The attenuation
coefficient α is expressed in decibels per kilometer and represents the loss in decibels per
kilometer of fiber.
(1) Intrinsic Attenuation
Intrinsic attenuation is caused by impurities in the glass during the manufacturing
process. There is no way to eliminate all impurities. It scatters or it is absorbed. Intrinsic
loss can be further characterized by two components: Material absorption and Rayleigh

13
scattering.
 Material Absorption
Material absorption occurs as a result of the imperfection and impurities in the fiber. The
most common impurity is the hydroxyl (OH-) molecule, which remains as a residue
despite stringent manufacturing techniques. Figure 1.12 shows the variation of attenuation
with wavelength measured over a group of fiber-optic cable material types. The three
principal windows of operation include the 850-nm, 1310-nm, and 1550-nm wavelength
bands. These correspond to wavelength regions in which attenuation is low and matched
to the capability of a transmitter to generate light efficiently and a receiver to carry out
detection.

Figure 1.12 Attenuation versus Wavelength

 Rayleigh Scattering
As light travels in the core, it interacts with the silica molecules in the core. Rayleigh
scattering is the result of these elastic collisions between the light wave and the silica
molecules in the fiber. Rayleigh scattering accounts for about 96 percent of attenuation in
fiber-optic. If the scattered light maintains an angle that supports forward travel within the
core, no attenuation occurs. If the light is scattered at an angle that does not support
continued forward travel, however, the light is diverted out of the core and attenuation
occurs.
(2) Extrinsic Attenuation
Extrinsic attenuation can be caused by two external mechanisms: macrobending or
microbending. Both cause a reduction of optical power. If a bend is imposed on an optical
fiber, strain is placed on the fiber along the region that is bent. The bending strain affects
the refractive index and the critical angle of the light ray in that specific area. As a result,
light traveling in the core can refract out, and loss occurs.
The second extrinsic cause of attenuation is a microbend. Microbending is caused by
imperfections in the cylindrical geometry of fiber during the manufacturing process.

14
Microbending might be related to temperature, tensile stress, or crushing force. With bare
fiber, microbending can be reversible.
 Chromatic Dispersion
Light has a dual nature and can be considered from an electromagnetic wave as well as
quantum perspective. During the propagation of light, all of its spectral components
propagate accordingly. These spectral components travel at different group velocities that
lead to dispersion called group velocity dispersion (GVD). Dispersion resulting from
GVD is termed chromatic dispersion due to its wavelength dependence. The effect of
chromatic dispersion is pulse spread.
As the pulses spread, or broaden, they tend to overlap and are no longer distinguishable
by the receiver as 0s and 1s. Light pulses launched close together (high data rates) that
spread too much (high dispersion) result in errors and loss of information. Modal
dispersion is significant in multimode applications, in which the various modes of light
traveling down the fiber arrive at the receiver at different times, causing a spreading
effect. Chromatic dispersion can be compensated for or mitigated through the use of
dispersion-compensated fiber (DCF). DCF is fiber doped with impurities that have
negative dispersion characteristics. Chromatic dispersion is measured in ps/(nm×km). A 1
dB power margin is typically reserved to account for the effects of chromatic dispersion.
 Polarization Mode Dispersion
Polarization mode dispersion (PMD) is caused by asymmetric distortions to the fiber
from a perfect cylindrical geometry. The fiber is not truly a cylindrical waveguide, but it
can be best described as an imperfect cylinder with physical dimensions that are not
perfectly constant. The mechanical stress exerted upon the fiber due to extrinsically
induced bends and stresses caused during cabling, deployment, and splicing as well as the
imperfections resulting from the manufacturing process are the reasons for the variations
in the cylindrical geometry.

Figure 1-d State of polarization in a birefringent fiber over one beat length. Input beam is
linearly polarized at 45◦ with respect to the slow and fast axes.

15
1.5.3 Nonlinear Characteristics

Nonlinear characteristics include self-phase modulation (SPM), cross-phase

modulation (XPM), four-wave mixing (FWM), stimulated Raman scattering (SRS), and
stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS).
(1) Self-Phase Modulation
Phase modulation of an optical signal by itself is known as self-phase modulation
(SPM). SPM is primarily due to the self-modulation of the pulses.
(2) Cross-Phase Modulation
Cross-phase modulation (XPM) is a nonlinear effect that limits system performance in
wavelength-division multiplexed (WDM) systems. XPM is the phase modulation of a
signal caused by an adjacent signal within the same fiber. As a result, the slower pulse
sees the walkover and induces a phase shift. The total phase shift depends on the net
power of all the channels and on the bit output of the channels. Maximum phase shift is
produced when bits belonging to high-powered adjacent channels walk across each other.
(3) Four-Wave Mixing
FWM can be compared to the intermodulation distortion in standard electrical systems.
When three wavelengths (λ1, λ2, and λ3) interact in a nonlinear medium, they give rise to
a fourth wavelength (λ4), which is formed by the scattering of the three incident photons,
producing the fourth photon.
(4) Stimulated Raman Scattering
SRS refers to lower wavelengths pumping up the amplitude of higher wavelengths,
which results in the higher wavelengths suppressing signals from the lower.
(5) Stimulated Brillouin Scattering
Stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) is due to the acoustic properties of photon
interaction with the medium. When light propagates through a medium, the photons
interact with silica molecules during propagation. The photons also interact with
themselves and cause scattering effects such as SBS in the reverse direction of
propagation along the fiber.

1.6 Fiber Types

This section discusses various MMF and SMF types currently used for premise, metro,
aerial, submarine, and long-haul applications. The International Telecommunication
Union (ITU-T), which is a global standardization body for telecommunication systems
and vendors, has standardized various fiber types. These include the 50/125-mm graded

16
index fiber (G.651), Nondispersion-shifted fiber (G.652), Dispersion-shifted fiber
(G.653), 1550-nm loss-minimized fiber (G.654), and NZDSF (G.655).
(1) Multimode Fiber with a 50-Micron Core (ITU-T G.651)
The ITU-T G.651 is an MMF with a 50-mm nominal core diameter and a 125-mm
nominal cladding diameter with a graded refractive index. The attenuation parameter for
G.651 fiber is typically 0.8 dB/km at 1310 nm. The main application for ITU-T G.651
fiber is for short-reach optical transmission systems. This fiber is optimized for use in the
1300-nm band. It can also operate in the 850-nm band.
(2) No dispersion-Shifted Fiber (ITU-T G.652)
The ITU-T G.652 fiber has a simple step-index structure and is optimized for operation
in the 1310-nm band. It has a zero-dispersion wavelength at 1310 nm and can also
operate in the 1550-nm band, but it is not optimized for this region. The typical chromatic
dispersion at 1550 nm is high at 17 ps/nm-km. Dispersion compensation must be
employed for high-bit-rate applications. The attenuation parameter for G.652 fiber is
typically 0.2 dB/km at 1550 nm, and the PMD parameter is less than 0.1 ps/(km)0.5. An
example of this type of fiber is Corning SMF-28.
(3) Low Water Peak Nondispersion-Shifted Fiber (ITU-T G.652.C)
ITU G.652.C-compliant fibers offer extremely low attenuation around the OH peaks.
The G.652.C fiber is optimized for networks where transmission occurs across a broad
range of wavelengths from 1285 nm to 1625 nm. Although G.652.C-compliant fibers
offer excellent capabilities for shorter, unamplified metro and access networks, they do
not fully address the needs for 1550-nm transmission. The attenuation parameter for
G.652 fiber is typically 0.2 dB/km at 1550 nm, and the PMD parameter is less than 0.1
ps/(km)0.5. An example of this type of fiber is Corning SMF-28e.
(4) Dispersion-Shifter Fiber (ITU-T G.653)
The trend of shifting the operating transmission wavelength from 1310 nm to 1550 nm
initiated the development of a fiber type called dispersion-shifted fiber (DSF). DSF
exhibits a zero-dispersion value around the 1550-nm wavelength where the attenuation is
minimum. The DSFs are optimized for operating in the region between 1500 to 1600 nm.
(5) 1550-nm Loss-Minimized Fiber (ITU-T G.654)
The ITU-T G.654 fiber is optimized for operation in the 1500-nm to 1600-nm region.
This fiber has a low loss in the 1550-nm band. Low loss is achieved by using a pure silica
core. ITU-T G.654 fibers can handle higher power levels and have a larger core area.
These fibers have a high chromatic dispersion at 1550 nm. The ITU G.654 fiber has been
designed for extended long-haul undersea applications.
(6) Nonzero Dispersion Shifted Fiber (ITU-T G.655)
The practical effect of this is to have a small but finite amount of chromatic dispersion at

17
1550 nm, which minimizes nonlinear effects, such as FWM, SPM, and XPM, which are
seen in the dense wavelength-division multiplexed (DWDM) systems without the need
for costly dispersion compensation.

1.7 Fiber-Optic Cable Termination

There are many types of optical connectors. The one you use depends on the equipment
you are using it with and the application you are using it on. The connector is a
mechanical device mounted on the end of a fiber-optic cable, light source, receiver, or
housing. The connector allows the fiber-optic cable, light source, receiver, or housing to
be mated to a similar device. The connector must direct light and collect light and must be
easily attached and detached from equipment. A connector marks a place in the premises
fiber-optic data link where signal power can be lost and the BER can be affected by a
mechanical connection. Of the many different connector types, those for glass fiber-optic
cable and plastic fiber-optic cable are discussed in this chapter.

1.8 Splicing

The network installer might have in his inventory several fiber-optic cables, but none
long enough to satisfy the required link length. Situations such as this often arise because
cable manufacturers offer cables in limited lengths—usually 1 to 6 km. A link of 10 km
can be installed by splicing several fiber-optic cables together. Splices might be required
at building entrances, wiring closets, couplers, and literally any intermediate point
between a transmitter and receiver.

1.9 Physical-Design Considerations

When designing a fiber-optic cable plant, you must consider many factors. First and
foremost, the designer must determine whether the cable is to be installed for an inside-
plant (ISP) or outside-plant (OSP) application.
(1) Tight Buffer versus Loose Buffer Cable Plants
Tight buffer or tight tube cable designs are typically used for ISP applications. Each fiber
is coated with a buffer coating, usually with an outside diameter of 900 um.
Loose buffer designs are used for OSP applications such as underground installations,

18
lashed or self-supporting aerial installations, and other OSP applications.

Figure 1-e Typical designs for light-duty fiber cables.

(2) Bend Radius and Tensile Loading

An important consideration in fiber-optic cable installation is the cable's minimum bend
radius. Bending the cable farther than its minimum bend radius might result in increased
attenuation or even broken fibers.

1.10 Fiber-Optic Communications System

As depicted in Figure 1.16, information (voice, data, and video) from the source is
encoded into electrical signals that can drive the transmitter. The fiber acts as an optical
waveguide for the photons as they travel down the optical path toward the receiver. At the
detector, the signals undergo an optical-to-electrical (OE) conversion, are decoded, and
are sent to their destination.

19
 Figure 1-f Fiber-Optic Communication System

(1) Transmitter
The transmitter component of Figure 1.16 serves two functions. First, it must be a source
of the light launched into the fiber-optic cable. Second, it must modulate this light to
represent the binary data that it receives from the source. LEDs are simpler and generate
incoherent, lower-power light. LEDs are used to drive MMF. LDs generate coherent,
higher-power light and are used to drive SMF.
Figure 1.17 shows the optical power output, P, from each of these devices as a function
of the electrical current input, I, from the modulation circuitry. As the figure indicates, the
LED has a relatively linear P-I characteristic, whereas the LD has a strong nonlinearity or
threshold effect. The LD can also be prone to kinks when the power actually decreases
with increasing input current.

Figure 1.17 LED and LD P-I Characteristics

Figure 1-g Three fundamental processes occurring between the two energy states of an
atom: (a) absorption; (b) spontaneous emission; and (c) stimulated emission.

20
Figure 1-h: Structure of a semiconductor laser and the Fabry–Perot cavity associated
with it. The cleaved facets act as partially reflecting mirrors.

Figure 1-i: DFB and DBR laser structures. The shaded area shows the active region and
the wavy line indicates the presence of a Bragg gratin.

Figure 1-j Power-current relationship for an LED.

21
 Figure 1-k Digital modulation of an LED.

Figure 1-l Analog modulation of an LED.

A key difference between the optical output of an LED and a LD is the wavelength
spread over which the optical power is distributed. The spectral width, s, is the 3-dB
optical power width. The specific value of the spectral width depends on the details of the
diode structure and the semiconductor material. However, typical values for an LED are
around 40 nm for operation at 850 nm and 80 nm at 1310 nm. Typical values for an LD
are 1 nm for operation at 850 nm and 3 nm at 1310 nm.

22
 Figure 1.18 LED and LD spectral Widths

With either an LED or LD, the transmitter package must have a transparent window to
transmit light into the fiber-optic cable. It can be packaged with either a fiber-optic cable
pigtail or with a transparent plastic or glass window.
Passing current through them operates devices. The amount of power that they radiate
is proportional to this current. In this way, the optical power takes the shape of the input
current. This is also known as direct modulation of the LED or LD.
(2) Receiver
The receiver serves two functions: It must sense or detect the light coupled out of the
fiber-optic cable and convert the light into an electrical signal, and it must demodulate this
light to determine the identity of the binary data that it represents.

Figure 1.19 Schematic of an Optical Receiver

The light detection is carried out by a photodiode (PD), which senses light and converts

23
it into an electrical current. The photodiode circuitry must be followed by one or more
amplification stages. There might even be filters and equalizers to shape and improve the
information-bearing electrical signal.
The receiver schematic in Figure 1.19 shows a photodiode, bias resistor circuit, and a
low-noise pre-amp. The output of the pre-amp is an electrical waveform version of the
original information from the source. To the right of this pre-amp is an additional
amplification, filters, and equalizers. All of these components can be on a single
integrated circuit, a hybrid, or discretely mounted on a printed circuit board.
The receiver can incorporate a number of other functions, such as clock recovery for
synchronous signaling, decoding circuitry, and error detection and recovery. The receiver
must have high sensitivity so that it can detect low-level optical signals coming out of the
fiber-optic cable. It must have low noise so that it does not significantly impact the BER
of the link and counter the interference resistance of the fiber-optic cable transmission
medium.
There are two types of photodiode structures: positive intrinsic negative (P IN) and the
avalanche photodiode (APD). In most premise applications, the P IN is the preferred
element in the receiver. This is mainly due to fact that it can be operated from a standard
power supply, typically between 5 and 15V. APD devices have much better sensitivity. In
fact, APD devices have 5 to 10 dB more sensitivity.
The demodulation performance of the receiver is characterized by the BER that it
delivers to the user.

1.11 Fiber Span Analysis

Span analysis is the calculation and verification of a fiber-optic system's operating

characteristics. Before implementing or designing a fiber-optic circuit, a span analysis is
recommended to make certain the system will work over the proposed link. Both the
passive and active components of the circuit have to be included in the loss-budget
calculation. Passive loss is made up of fiber loss, connector loss, splice loss, and losses
involved with couplers or splitters in the link. Active components are system gain,
wavelength, transmitter power, receiver sensitivity, and dynamic range.
The overall span loss, or link budget as it is sometimes called, can be determined by
using an optical meter to measure true loss or by computing the loss of system
components.
(1) Transmitter Launch Power
Power measured in dBm at a particular wavelength generated by the transmitter LED or

24
LD used to launch the signal is known as the transmitter launch power. High launch
powers can offset attenuation, but they can cause nonlinear effects in the fiber and
degrade system performance, especially at high bit rates.
(2) Receiver Sensitivity and Dynamic Range
Receiver sensitivity and dynamic range are the minimum acceptable value of received
power needed to achieve an acceptable BER or performance Receivers have to cope with
optical inputs as high as –5 dBm and as low as –30 dBm. Or stated differently, the
receiver needs an optical dynamic range of 25 dB.
(3) Power Budget and Margin Calculations
Power budget (PB) = Minimum transmitter power (PTMIN) – Minimum receiver
sensitivity (PRMIN)
Factors that can cause span or link loss include fiber attenuation, splice attenuation,
connector attenuation, chromatic dispersion, and other linear and nonlinear losses. Table
1.1 provides typical attenuation characteristics of various kinds of fiber-optic cables.
Table 1.2 provides typical insertion losses for various connectors and splices. Table 1.3
provides the margin requirement for nonlinear losses along with their usage criteria. For
information about the actual amount of signal loss caused by equipment and other factors,
refer to vendor documentation.
Span loss (PS) = (Fiber attenuation × km) + (Splice attenuation × Number of splices)
+ (Connector attenuation × Number of connectors) + (In-line device losses) + (Nonlinear
losses) + (Safety margin)

Table 1.1 Typical Fiber-Attenuation Characteristics

Refractive
Material λ (nm) Diameter Attenuation
Mode index profile (μm) (dB/km)

Multimode Glass Graded 800 62.5/125 5.0

Multimode Glass Step 850 62.5/125 4.0

Multimode Glass Step 850 62.5/125 3.3

Multimode Glass Step 850 50/125 2.7

25
Multimode Glass Step 1310 62.5/125 0.9

Multimode Glass Step 1310 50/125 0.7

Multimode Glass Step 850 85/125 2.8

Multimode Glass Step 1310 85/125 0.7

Multimode Glass Step 1550 85/125 0.4

Multimode Glass Step 850 100/140 3.5

Multimode Glass Graded 1310 100/140 1.5

Multimode Glass Step 1550 100/140 0.9

Multimode Glass Step 650 485/500 240

Multimode Glass Graded 650 735/750 230

Multimode Glass Graded 650 980/1000 220

Multimode Glass Graded 790 200/350 10

Multimode Glass Graded 650 3.7/80 or 125 10

Multimode Glass Graded 850 5/80 or 125 2.3

Multimode Glass Graded 1310 9.3/125 0.5

Multimode Glass Graded 1550 8.1/125 0.2

Multimode Glass Dual Step 1550 8.1/125 0.2

26
 Table 1.2 Component Loss Values

Component Insertion Loss

Connector Type

SC 0.5 dB

ST 0.5 dB

FC 0.5 dB

LC 0.5 dB

MT-RJ 0.5 dB

MTP/MPO 0.5 dB

Splice

Mechanical 0.5 dB

Fusion 0.02 dB

Fiber patch panel 2.0 dB

Table 1.3 Reference Margin Values

Characteristic Loss Margin Bit Rate Signal Power

Dispersion margin 1 dB Both Both

SPM margin 0.5 dB High High

27
 XPM margin (WDM) 0.5 dB High High

FWM margin (WDM) 0.5 dB Both High

SRS/SBS margin 0.5 dB High High

PMD margin 0.5 dB High Both

 Power margin (PM) = Power budget (PB)–Span loss (PS)
 Input power (PIN) = Maximum transmitter power (PTMAX) – Span loss (PS)
 Input power (PIN) <= Maximum receiver sensitivity (PRMAX)
Case 1: MMF Span Analysis
Consider the fiber-optic system shown in Figure 1.21 operating at OC-3 (155 Mbps).
The minimum optical transmitter launch power is –12.5 dBm, and the maximum optical
transmitter launch power is –2 dBm at 1310 nm. The minimum receiver sensitivity is –30
dBm, and the maximum receiver sensitivity is –3 dBm at 1310 nm. The example assumes
inclusion of two patch panels in the path, two mechanical splices, with the system
operating over 2 km of graded index 50/125-mm multimode fiber-optic cable.

Figure 1.21 MMF Span Analysis

The system operates at 155 Mbps or approximately 155 MHz. At such bit rates, there is
no need to consider SPM, PMD, or SRS/SBS margin requirements. Because the link is a
single-wavelength system, there is no need to include XPM or FWM margins. However,
it is safe to consider the potential for a degree of chromatic dispersion, because chromatic
dispersion occurs at all bit rates. The span analysis and viability calculations over the link
are computed as follows.
Component dB Loss
Minimum transmitter launch power (PTMIN) –12.5 dBm
Minimum receiver sensitivity (PRMIN) –30 dBm
Power Budget (PB) = (PTMIN – PRMIN) 17.5 dB

28
 Component dB Loss
MMF graded index 50/125-μm cable at 1310 nm (2 1.4 dB
km×0.7 dB/km)
ST connectors (2×0.5 dB/connector) 1 dB
Mechanical splice (2×0.5 dB/splice) 1 dB
Patch panels (2×2 dB/panel) 4 dB
Dispersion margin 1dB
Optical safety and repair margin 3 dB
Total Span Loss (PS) 11.4 dB

Power margin (PM) = Power budget (PB) – Span loss (PS)

PM = 17.5 dB – 11.4 dB
PM = 6.1 dB > 0 dB
Input power (PIN) = Maximum transmitter power (PTMAX) – Span loss (PS)
PIN = –2 – 11.4
PIN = –13.4 dBm
–13.4 dBm (PIN) <= –3 dBm
This satisfies the receiver sensitivity design equation and ensures viability of the optical
system at an OC-3 rate over 2 km without the need for amplification or attenuation.
Case 2: SMF Span Analysis
Consider the fiber-optic system in Figure 1-22 operating at OC-192 (9.953 Gbps). The
minimum optical transmitter launch power is –7.5 dBm, and the maximum optical
transmitter launch power is 0 dBm at 1550 nm. The minimum receiver sensitivity is –30
dBm, and the maximum receiver sensitivity is –3 dBm at 1550 nm. The example assumes
inclusion of two patch panels in the path, four fusion splices, with the system operating
over 25 km of step index 8.1/125-mm SMF cable. Refer to Tables 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3 for
appropriate attenuation, component, and nonlinear loss values.

Figure 1.22 SMF Link-Budget Example

29
 The system is operating at 9.953 Gbps or approximately 10 GHz. At such high bit
rates, SPM, PMD, and SRS/SBS margin requirements must be taken into consideration.
Also consider the potential for a degree of chromatic dispersion.

Power margin (PM) = Power budget (PB) – Span loss (PS)

 PM = 22.5 dB – 20.66 dB
 PM = 1.84 dB > 0 dB
To prevent receiver saturation, the input power received by the receiver, after the signal
has undergone span loss, must not exceed the maximum receiver sensitivity specification
(PRMAX).
Input power (PIN) = Maximum transmitter power (PTMAX) – Span loss (PS)
 PIN = 0 – 20.66 dBm
 PIN = –20.66 dBm
 –20.66 dBm (PIN) <= –3 dBm (PRMAX)
Note, however, that this example has not considered dispersion calculations or
dispersion compensation. Dispersion compensation units insert their own loss component
into the overall span.

30
 Chapter 2 X over DWDM

Traditionally, the open standards interface (OSI) model assumes seven layers of
hierarchy for data communication. The WDM layer can be viewed as the bottom-most
layer in this hierarchical model. This layer is quite transparent to data formats or
protocols; it just transports simple raw bits. Layers 2, 3, and 4 perform the function of
data link control, network layer, and transport layer, respectively. They guide
communication sessions between two or more points in a network.
In this chapter, we shall briefly view some of the protocols over WDM as they facilitate
transport of information through a network. Although there is a great deal of literature on
each of the individual protocols, there still is minimum detail about the use of these
protocols directly over the WDM layer. It is our desire to throw some light on these issues
and accustom the reader to the intricacies of these protocols.

2.1 Gigabit Ethernet/10 Gigabit Ethernet (Optical Ethernet)

Ethernet fits in layer 2 of the OSI model. By 1985, IEEE adopted the Ethernet standard
and released the 802.3 standard. Since then, Ethernet has proven to be flexible.
In the past 20 years, Ethernet has evolved from 10 Mbps half duplex to 10 Gbps full
duplex, serving applications from local area networks (LANs), metropolitan area
networks (MANs), and wide area networks (WAN). Figure 2.1 shows the evolution of
Ethernet.

Figure 2.1 Evolution of Ethernet from 10 Mbps→100 Mbps→1 GE →10 GE

31
 The next step in the evolution of Ethernet technology is Gigabit Ethernet (GE). The
standard supports gigabit Ethernet frames to be transmitted on both copper and fiber
medium. GE technology was soon adopted by enterprise networks, campus networks, and
even by service provider networks very rapidly due to its low cost and good reliability.
The following Ethernet standards have been established and defined by IEEE. Some of
the relevant Ethernet-related standards are given here for reference: 802.3—10BASE-T,
10BASE-5, and 10BASE-2:
 802.3u— Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps)
 802.3z— Gigabit Ethernet (1000BASE-SX/LX/CX)
 802.3ab— Gigabit Ethernet (1000BASE-T)
 802.3ae— 10 GE
 802.3af— Power over LAN (for example, VOIP applications)
 802.3ah— Ethernet Passive Optical Network (EPON)

2.1.1 Ethernet Frame

A typical Ethernet 802.3 frame is shown in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2 IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Frame

Preamble is an alternating pattern of ones and zeros that is 7 bytes long. It informs the
receiver that a frame is coming. Start of frame (SOF) serves to synchronize the frame; it is
1 byte long. The next 6 bytes are the destination address, and the following 6 bytes are the
source address. The length field is 2 bytes, and it indicates the number of bytes of data
that is in the data field. Frame check sequence (FCS) is a 4-byte field that the sending
device creates. The receiver recalculates the FCS to verify whether the frame arrived has
an error.

2.1.2 Gigabit Ethernet (GE)

Gigabit Ethernet (802.3z) is an extension of the 802.3 standard, and is built on the same
Ethernet protocol and frame structure but the speed is increased ten times compared to
100 Mbps Ethernet (Fast Ethernet). The physical interface needs to be modified to move
from 100 Mbps to 1 Gbps. Gigabit Ethernet has to look like Ethernet from the data link

32
layer and up (it has to keep the basic Ethernet framing structure), and at the same time, it
should be able to interface with high-speed optical interfaces. The merging of the IEEE
802.3 Ethernet frame format and the ANSI X3T11 Fiber channel high-speed physical
interface technologies alleviates the challenges involved in architecting gigabit Ethernet
in a timely manner. A Gigabit Ethernet stack structure is shown in Figure 2.3.

Figure 2.3 Gigabit Protocol Stack (Source: Internetworking Technologies Handbook,

Second Edition)

2.1.3 Gigabit Physical Layer

The gigabit Ethernet specification addresses three forms of transmission media:

 Long wave (LW) laser on SM/MM (single mode/multi mode) fiber known
as LX
 Short wave (SW) laser on SM/MM (single mode/multi mode) fiber known
as SX
 Transmission over copper known as CX

33
 Figure 2.4 GE over WDM (Hub-and-Spoke Architecture)

A typical gigabit Ethernet metro ring over DWDM is shown in Figure 2.4. This is a
gigabit Ethernet GE hub-and-spoke architecture, where four gigabit Ethernet switches are
hubbed into a master node. At the hub-end usually a high end GE switch like Cisco 7600
or Cisco 6500 resides, while at the satellite nodes a medium or low-end switch like Cisco
3550 or Cisco 4000 resides. The traffic is all hubbed at the center location and may be
switched or routed depending upon the need.

2.1.4 10 Gigabit Ethernet

The main purpose of 10 gigabit Ethernet is to extend the Ethernet application into WAN
and long-haul applications.
 Broad market application, with multiple vendors supporting it along with
multiple classes of services
 Compatibility with IEEE 802.3 standards and opens system interconnection
(OSI) model
 Identity (do not want alternative problems; should be a solution for a
problem)
 Technical possibility (should be able to technically demonstrate the
technology)
 Economic feasibility (should justify cost)
The 802.3ae specification defines two PHY types: LAN PHY and WAN PHY:
 LAN PHY—This is a serial interface that uses 64/66B encoding, with a data

34
 stream of 10 Gbps and a clock rate of 10.3 Gbps.
 WAN PHY— This is also a serial interface that uses 64/66B encoding, and
it is compatible with SONET OC-192 steams with date streams of 9.953
Gbps. The architectural layer of WAN and LAN PHY is shown in Figure
2.5.
Between the MAC and the PHY is the 10 Gigabit Media Independent Interface
(XGMII) or the 10 Gigabit Attachment Unit Interface (XAUI). The XGMII provides full
duplex operation at a rate of 10 Gbps between the MAC and PHY. Each path (direction)
is independent and contains a 32-bit data path and clock/control signals (74 bits wide in
total). The separate transmission of clocking and data along with the timing requirements
make the architecture challenging and limit the number of 10 GE ports on a line card.
Applications 10 GE can be used in the following:
● Metro— The Internet service providers (ISPs) use 10 GE for low-cost transport of
IP traffic across the metro networks.
● LANs— Enterprise backbone upgrade to alleviate traffic demand and connect
between different sites.
● Storage— Disaster recovery, data backup, and video servers use 10 GE.
● WANs— 10 GE between central offices and long-haul networks using WAN PHY.
This also ensures the interoperability with existing OC-192/STM-64 networks.
A typical wide area application is shown in Figure 2.7 (10 GE over DWDM).

Figure 2.7 GE over DWDM Network Connecting Multiple Central Offices (COs)

2.2 Ethernet Passive Optical Networks (EPON)

Optical fiber is an ideal technology that is capable of delivering bandwidth to high-end

35
applications at greater distances (>20 km) and at higher speeds.
Passive optical networks (PONs) are one choice for connecting both residential and
business access networks. A PON (passive optical network) is a point-to-multipoint
optical network with passive elements in the signal path from source to destination.
The advantage of using PON for subscriber loop (access network) makes it
accommodate a larger coverage area, a higher bandwidth, reduced fiber deployment,
multicast and broadcast support, ease of upgrade, and low cost of operation.

2.2.1 PON Topologies

Several multipoint topologies are defined for the first mile (access network), which
includes bus topology, ring topology, tree topology, and tree-and-branch topology. PON
can be deployed in any of these topologies by using optical splitters and optical
combiners (see Fig. 2.8). We can add redundancy to a part of the network or to the
network as a whole. PON defines two types of network elements. One element resides at
the central office and is known as optical line terminal (OLT). The other element is the
customer location or the curb, which is known as the optical network unit (ONU). In the
downstream (OLT to ONU), the PON is a multipoint solution; in the upstream (ONU to
OLT), PON is a multiple point-to-point solution.

Figure 2.8 PON Topologies4

36
2.2.2 Ethernet Passive Optical Network

The property of EPON is such that it cannot be considered either a shared medium or a
point-to-point network. EPON can be expressed as a mixture of both of these; in a
downstream direction, it is point-to-multipoint. The passive splitters with splitting ratio 1:
R are used (where R can be anywhere from 4–64 depending on the requirement), which
splits the main fiber into 'R' arms. The signal that is passed into the main fiber shows up
in all the arms due to splitter technology. This broadcast nature of Ethernet fits well with
the downstream flow. For downstream transmission, an Ethernet packet is broadcasted
and the packet is accepted by targeted ONUs by comparing the MAC address, much like
in the Ethernet shared media approach. The flow of downstream traffic is shown in Fig.
2.9.

Figure 2.9 Downstream Traffic Flow in EPON

The upstream is much like a multiple point-to-point solution. The combiner combines
all the optical signals into one fiber. Due to the nature of the combiner (passive coupler),
an ONU can see only the OLT; ONUs cannot see other ONUs. This makes it hard to use
Ethernet broadcast as an upstream technique because CSMA/CD works only in a shared
media.
We can also overcome the upstream communication issue by using WDM, where each
ONU has its own upstream channel. The solution is simple and straightforward, but it
requires tunable lasers and multiple ONU types, which increase the cost of the equipment
and operation.
Another way to solve the upstream communication issue is by time-sharing the optical
channel (TDMA like), where each ONU is synchronized to a common time reference.
Here, each ONU is allocated a time slot. The ONU stores all the frames until the time slot
arrives and sends all the packets at full-line speed. During idle times (in which there is no
packet to send), ONU sends an idle packet. Other schemes are available, but at present,
there is no standardized way to multiplex packets (frames) efficiently.

37
2.3 SONET/SDH

Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) and Synchronous Digital hierarchy (SDH)

Network are two closely allied standards that define interface rates, formats, multiplexing
methods, operations, administrations, maintenance, and provisioning (OAM&P) for
transmission systems. SONET is a set of standards for North America, whereas SDH
standards are used in Europe and Asia. In this chapter, we briefly describe the technology
and discuss how SONET/SDH is used to transport signals over WDM networks
(SONET/SDH over WDM).

2.3.1 SONET/SDH Date Rate

2.3.2 Basic SDH Building Block

The basic building block of an SDH signal is called Synchronous Transport Module
Level -1 (STM-1), and it has a bit rate of 155.52 Mbps (and uses 125us frame length).
Each frame is made up of 270 columns and 9 rows of octet per frame. The lower-rate
payloads are mapped into an STM-1, and higher-rate signals are obtained by multiplexing
N STM-1 signals to form an STM-N signal, where N = 1, 4, 16, and 64 (defined by
G.707).

Figure 2.12 Basic SDH Building Block

38
 (Equation 2.3)

Line Rate of STM-N is line rate of STM-1×N, for example line rate of STM-4 = 155.52
× 4 = 622.08 Mbps.
Out of 2430 (9 rows and 270 columns) octets per frame, the first 9 columns are set
aside for section overhead (SOH), and the section overhead is further divided into 3 areas.
Of the first nine columns, the first three rows are known as regeneration section overhead
(RSOH), the next row contains pointers (H1, H2, and H3 bytes), and rows 5 through 9 are
identified as multiplexing section overhead (MSOH). The remaining 261 columns carry
the payload, which is identified by the virtual container (VC), and a column of path
overhead lies along with the VC payload. The VC combined with row four (H1, H2, and
H3 pointers) forms the administrative unit (AU). Like STS frames, the STM frame is
transmitted row by row in a byte serial fashion.
Transmission capacity is the capacity of SDH STM-1 payload; it is calculated as shown
in Eq. 2.4. For further details, refer to Tab. 2.2.
Transmission capacity = 9rows×(270-9)Columns/125 us×8(bits/byte) = 150.336
Mbps Equation 2.4

Tab. 2.2 SONET/SDH Digital Hierarchy

Optical SONET SDH Line Rate Payload SONET SDH
Level (Electrical) (Mbps) Capacity Capacity Capacity
(Line
Rate –
Overhead
(Mbps)
OC-1 STS-1 51.840 50.112 28 DS- 21 E1
--- 1s /1 DS-
3
OC-3 STS-3 STM-1 155.520 150.336 84 DS- 63 E1s /1
1s /3 DS- E4
3s
OC-12 STS-12 STM-4 622.080 601.344 336DS-1s 252E1/
/12 DS-3s 4 E4

39
 OC-48 STS-48 STM-16 2488.320 2405.376 1,344 DS-1,008E1s
1s / /16 E4s
192 DS-
3s
OC-192 STS-192 STM-64 9953.280 9621.504 5,376 DS-4,032
1s / E1s /
192 DS- 64 E4s
3s

2.3.3 SONET/SDH Layers

Four layers are defined in the protocol stack and are hierarchical in nature. Tab. 2.3
explains the function of each layer briefly.

Tab. 2.3 Some Generic Definitions of SONET/SDH

SONET SDH Definition

Path Path Map signals into an STS

(SONET)/STM (SDH) frame
Line Multiplex Section Synchronization and multiplexing
function for the path layer
Section Regenerator Section Transport of STS/STM frames across
the physical medium

Photonic Photonic Conversion between electrical

(STS/STM) optical signal (OC)

The primary responsibility of the path layer is to map the signals into the required
format that is specified by the line layer (SONET)/Multiplex Section (SDH). This layer
also defines the different transport services between the path-terminating equipment
(PTE). At this layer, the path overheads are read, modified, and interpreted for
performance and for automatic protection switching features. The line layer in SONET or
the multiplex section in SDH provides multiplexing and synchronization for the path
layer. It also deals with the transport of the overhead and payload of the path layer, in
addition to performing error monitoring and protection switching at the line level. Fig.
2.13 shows a generic SDH end-to-end connection.

40
 Figure 2.13 SDH End-to-End Connection
The section layer (SONET/Regeneration Section, or SDH) is responsible for transport
of STS-N /STM-N frames across the network media.

2.3.4 SONET/SDH Multiplexing Structure

The principle of multiplexing SONET and SDH are the same, but the mapping schemes
for SONET and SDH are different.
The SDH multiplexing scheme is shown in Fig. 2.16. The lower-speed signals are first
mapped into one of the five containers (Cs) according to the bandwidth needs. Path Over
Head (POH) is added to the Cs to get VCs. Two types of VCs are defined: higher-order
and lower-order VCs. The higher-order VCs (VC-3 and VC-4) are mapped either to
Administrative Unit – 3 (AU-3) or Administrative Unit –4 (AU-4). Lower-order VCs
(VC-3, VC-2, VC-11, and VC-12) are mapped to VC-3/VC-4 along with tributary unit
(TU) pointers, which are used to locate the VCs. One TU-2, three TU-12, or four TU-11
forms are mapped into a tributary unit group (TUG). One AU-4 or three AU-3s are
mapped to an administrative unit group (AUG), which is the “SDH payload envelope” of
the STM-1. N STM-1 signals are byte-interleaved multiplexed to create STM-N.

Figure 2.16 SDH Multiplexing Structure

41
 Figure 2.17 STM-1 Signal Is Derived by Adding Overheads

2.3.5 SONET and SDH Architectures

SONET and SDH support linear add/drop and ring architectures.

Service traffic can originate and terminate between any nodes in this cascaded chain. The
end nodes in this configuration are called terminal nodes, and intermediate nodes are
called add/drop nodes (ADM).

Figure 2.18 SONET/SDH Linear Architecture over DWDM

Ring Architectures
As the requirements for reliability increased, ring architectures were introduced to
support various survivable network topologies. Ring architectures are differentiated by
the direction of the routing and protection mechanism. A unidirectional ring carries
service traffic in only one direction (clockwise). In contrast, a bidirectional ring carries
service traffic in both a clockwise (CW) and a counterclockwise (CCW) direction.

42
2.3.6 Packet over SONET/SDH (POS)

POS technology provides efficient transport of data over SONET/SDH networks, and it
can be used in a variety of applications. POS places the IP layer (layer 3) on top of the
SONET/SDH layer (layer 2) in the OSI model. POS can offer IP service and is used
primarily in Internet backbones, data aggregation, and metro applications.
POS uses Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) encapsulation in high-level data link control
(HDLC)-like framing to encapsulate data at layer 2.

Figure 2.19 PPP in HDLC-Like Framing

The process of mapping IP into SONET/SDH using PPP is shown in Fig. 2.20.

Figure 2.20 Mapping of IP into SONET/SDH

Figure 2.21 POS over DWDM

43
2.4 Dynamic Packet Transport (DPT)/Resilient Packet Ring

(RPR)

DPT/RPR is a dual-counter rotating ring. (These rings are referred to as inner ring and
outer ring). Both of these rings can be used to pass data and control traffic. If data is sent
in a clockwise direction, a control packet is sent in a counter-clockwise direction.

Figure 2.22 SRP Ring Showing Spatial Reuse. While A is talking to B, A is also talking to
C, and D is talking to C.
A typical SRP frame is shown in Fig. 2.23. Each SRP interface has a unique 48-bit
IEEE MAC address (Ethernet-like MAC address).

Figure 2.23 SRP Packet in SONET/SDH Frame

The SRP/DPT defines a bit interface to the physical layer (SONET/SDH), and the bit
streams are mapped into the SONET/SDH payload (see Fig. 2.24).

Figure 2.24

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2.4.1 SRP Generic Frame Header

A generic packet header is 16 bits long and is shown in Fig. 2.25.

Figure 2.25 SRP Frame Generic Header

2.4.2 Generic Data and Control Packet

A generic SRP data pack is shown in Fig. 2.26. The data pack contains the header, the
destination MAC address, the source MAC address, the protocol type, and the payload.
The protocol type field is 16 bits long and indicates what type of data is in the payload
(IPv4, ARP, or SRP protocol).

Figure 2.26 Generic Data Pack for SRP Implementation

Control packet is similar to data packet with extra fields (see Fig. 2.26b) like control
version, control type checksum, and control TTL. The control version field indicates the
version number that is associated with the control type. The control type field defines the
control message type: 0x01 - Topology discovery, 0x02 - IPS message, and 0x03 - 0xFF -
Reserved.

2.4.4 Packet Processing and Ring (Packet) Flow

At each SRP node, the incoming packets are either accepted or processed or transmitted

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to the next node without layer 3 processing. The MAC (logic) layer consists of a transit
buffer, a receiver queue (Rx), and a transmitter queue (Tx). This layer is responsible for
implementing fairness and scheduling traffic. The control packets are point-to-point
(dropped at every node) and processed. The control packet information is extracted and
forwarded to the upper layers for processing.

2.4.5 SRP Bandwidth Fairness (SRP-fa)

SRP rings implement the fairness algorithm to regulate bandwidth. Because the ring
bandwidth is a shared resource, it is possible that a single node or user in the ring can take
over the whole bandwidth. The SRP fairness algorithm is the underlining mechanism that
ensures fairness.

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 Chapter 3 Optical Networking

Figure 3.1 Elimination of Layers

Packet-over-SONET/SDH is an example of a technology where IP can be directly

encapsulated in a SONET/SDH frame and can run over a SONET/SDH infrastructure
without the need for ATM. An example of this elimination of layers is shown in Fig. 3.1.
Optical internetworking as defined by the Optical Internetworking Forum (OIF) is a
data-optimized network infrastructure in which switches and routers have integrated
optical interfaces and are directly connected by fiber or optical network elements, such as
dense wavelength division multiplexers (DWDMs).

3.1 Dense wavelength division multiplexing

DWDM is the process of multiplexing signals of different wavelengths onto a single

fiber. This operation creates many virtual fibers, each capable of carrying a different
signal. A schematic of a DWDM system is shown in Figure 3.3.

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 Figure 3.3 DWDM Schematic
Each signal can be carried at a different rate (such as OC-3/12/48) and in a different
format (SONET, ATM, data, and so on). This can increase the capacity of existing
networks without the need for expensive recabling and can tremendously reduce the cost
of network infrastructure upgrades. DWDM supports point-to-point, ring, and mesh
topologies. Existing fiber in a SONET fiber plant can be easily migrated to DWDM.
A schematic of the DWDM system with transmission elements is illustrated in Fig.
3.4.

Figure 3.4 DWDM System

Main Functions of DWDM:
Generating the signal— The source, a solid-state laser, must provide stable light
within a specific, narrow bandwidth that carries the digital data, modulated as an analog
signal. Stability of a light source is a measure of how constant its intensity and
wavelength are.
Combining the signals— DWDM systems employ multiplexers to combine the
signals.
Transmitting the signals— The effects of crosstalk and optical signal degradation or
loss must be reckoned with in fiber-optic transmission. Amplifier
Separating the received signals— At the receiving end, the multiplexed signals must

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 be separated or demultiplexed
Receiving the signals— The demultiplexed signal is received by a photodetector.

3.2 Optical Transport Network Elements

The Optical Transport Network (OTN) system is comprised of network elements such
as optical amplifiers, wavelength converters, Optical Add Drop Multiplexers (OADMs),
and optical cross-connect switches.

Optical Amplifiers

Optical amplifiers are doped fiber strands used to amplify attenuated optical signals with
the aim of generating a good signal. They operate in the optical domain without
converting the signal into electrical pulses.
They are usually found in long-haul networks, where the cumulative loss is huge.
Doping a small strand of fiber with an earth metal such as Erbium gives the fiber strand
its amplification properties

Wavelength Converters

Wavelength converters convert data on an input wavelength onto a different output

wavelength within the system's operation bandwidth. This component is used in the
routing devices when the wavelength that marks the route to be followed is to be
changed.

Optical Add Drop Multiplexer

The OADM is the optical subsystem that facilitates the add and drop of wavelengths
into the physical fiber without having to regenerate all the WDM channels.

Optical Cross-Connect

The Optical Cross-Connect (OXC) is a DWDM system component that provides cross-
connect switching functionality between n input ports and n output ports, each handling a
bundle of multiplexed single-wavelength signals.

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Optical Gateways

The optical gateway is the device that performs an interface function between
electrically encoded protocols and the optical layer.

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