Edu 412 Summary

Principles and Practice of Instruction

Concept of teaching

 There is no universally accepted definition.

 Teaching is a process of facilitating learning.
 Teaching is the actions undertaken with the intention of bringing about learning in students
 Teaching is a system of actions intended to induce learning.
 Teaching consists of series of tasks undertaken by the teacher aimed at facilitating learning of
specific contents by the learners

Characteristics of teaching

 Teaching is a professional activity that helps to bring about learning and harmonious
development of students.
 Teaching is an interaction between teacher and students aim at bring about learning by the
students
 Teaching is observable , analyzable and evaluable
 Teaching is a series of specialized tasks and component skills for achieving instructional
objectives
 Teaching is suggesting and not dictating

Teaching task
There are, at least, six types of tasks that teachers often undertake
Planning – lesson plan
Record keeping –attendance, exam ,scheme of work
Class management-class interactions, rules, discipline
Instructional delivery- facilitating learning
Evaluation –assessment tests/examinations
Others- meetings, field trip, club ,PTA

Characteristics for effective teaching

o Clearly state the objectives of lessons
o Use varied modes of instruction
o Provide frequent feedback to students
o Provide concrete real life & practical illustrations
o Accord student deserved respect
o Emphasize the significance/real life applications of the topic of a lesson.
o Create conducive learning environment
o Practice reflective teaching
 Concept of learning
o Learning is a permanent change in behaviour as a result of experience or training.
o Knowledge /skills acquired through instruction/study- merrian-webster.com
o Learning is a quantitative increase in knowledge : learning is acquisition of information -
infed.com
o Learning is memorization/ storing information that can be reproduce- infed.com
o Learning is a process of conceptual change through which individuals construct idiosyncratic
knowledge

Characteristics of learning

 Learning involve changes, activities, interactions, problem solving, and critical thinking. It is a
life-long process that requires experience and information acquisition.

 Learning is more complex than thinking, it involves the use of senses, feelings, intuition, beliefs,
values, and will-

 Learning is a conscious /purposive action.

 Learning is not directly observable, but measurable & transferable.

 Learning involves reconstruction of experiences

Meaningful learning

Meaningful learning implies relating/integrating newly acquired knowledge to existing ones in the
cognitive structure. It implies understanding

 Meaningful learning is active, constructive, and durable.

 It is Active -Manipulative/Observant
 It is intentional -Goal directed& Regulatory
 It is authentic - conceptualized / complex
 It is constructive – reflective / articulative
 It is cooperative –collaborative/ conversational-

Rote learning

 It is the most fundamental form of learning.

 It's the memorization of new knowledge without attempt to actively relate the knowledge with
existing ones in the cognitive structure .
 Memorized information may be easily forgotten.
 It does not require understanding.
 It provides ability to quickly recall basic facts and develop foundational knowledge.
Relationship between teaching and learning
 Teaching is a parasitic concept, it depends on learning to derive its meaning.
 Learning is independent of teaching.
 Teaching is intended to bring about learning.
 Teaching and learning require skills, creativity, and intelligence.
 Teaching and learning are both conscious actions.
 Teaching strategies, and environment are carefully selected to bring about learning.

Concept related to teaching

Training is concern with skill acquisition
Indoctrination focuses on impacting of belief systems such religion doctrines, and socio-political
ideologies.
Conditioning, refers to a systematic form of training .- a re-enforcer depends upon the occurrence of a
response

HISTORICAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVE OF TEACHING

Definition of Teaching

Teaching is an act of disseminating knowledge, skills and attitude to learners, pupils, students or
trainee on in order to be able to perform a given task to expectations.

Stages/ Phases of effective teaching are three in number, these are

 the planning stage;

 the implementation stage; and
 the evaluation stage.

For teaching to be successful, the under-listed conditions must be met:

1. Knowledge gradient- A situation in which teachers are expected to know more than their
students, pupils, learner or trainee.
2. The zeal / willingness/ readiness on the part of whom to teach.
3. Structuring of the knowledge, skills and attitude to meant for learning.
4. The instruction / information to be presented to learner must followed logical and psychological
order to attain utmost effective arrangement.
5. A functional system of rewards and non- corporal punishment must be incorporated into the
instruction to tally with the nature of human beings

Teaching History

The history of teaching shall be discuss in phases itemised below

 Teaching in Traditional Society

  Teaching in Roman Era.
 Teaching in Middle Ages.
 Teaching in Pre- colonial Era
 Teaching in Colonial Era
 Teaching in Independent Nigeria

Teaching History in Traditional Societies

Teaching in the traditional settings is mainly the role of the family. Father, mother, and even
grandfather taught their children about their culture, social activities, survival skills and work informally.
Learning by the children from their elders is unconscious as the elders also teach without mindful of
being teachers. The situation is similar in ancient Egypt and other early civilizations, tradition education
here took place in home and later in schools located in the temples with scribes as teachers.

Teaching in the Roman Era

Roman teaching just like others originated from family. The education were at the primary level;
rhetoric and the grammar school. The primary school highlights the 3Rs. The rhetoric and the grammar
school stressed the training for the oratory. Rhetoric school also studied Greek and Latin literature. They
mounted severe corporal punishment. Teaching methods were lecture, note taking, memorization and
recitation. Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (Quintilian) was the first publicly paid teacher of rhetoric in the
Roman emperor Vespasian. Reverend Fathers of the early Christian Churches also serve as teachers. It is
important to also note that Confucius (561B.C.) one of the greatest learned men was the first private
teacher of history in China.

Teaching in the Middle Ages

Parish priests were the teachers that provide the basic education for all. The ultimate aim of
primary education was to enable people to read bible by themselves. The university education in this ages
were controlled by students owing to the fact that they hired the teachers, students determine what to learn;
whom to teach and how to learn. There is the possibility that student attention attract to knowledgeable
and erudite teachers. This is followed by the establishment of grammar school in which classical language
that is required for university education are taught. This level of education later spread from England to
Europe America and some other parts of the world.

Teaching History in Pre- colonial Nigeria

Educational pattern at this time is similar to the above, also included in the traditional education
in Nigeria is the craftsmen apprenticeship. Traditional education at that time was without any formal
institution. Don’t forget that there were no teachers then but parents, grandparent and community took the
sole responsibility of training the child. Adult in the community take charge of nurturing children to
become responsible citizens of the community; directing rewards or punishment as the case may be, with
the understanding of the biological parents. The educational scope cater for intellect, morals, skills and
character.

At age eight or there about, children became specialized in the skills of interest depending on the
sex of the students. The girls began to learn expertise that would produce them to be good wives while the
boys goes for either hunting, farming, drumming, and carving and so on. The traditional system of
education produces an all-round education to Nigeria people till the coming of Islam and Christianity.

Teaching in Colonial Nigeria

Education was introduced into Nigeria in the 1840s. It began in Lagos, Calabar and other coastal
cities. In a few decades schooling in English language gradually took roots in the Nigeria. Nigeria formal
education had passed through three phases, these are the earliest phase (19th Century) when teachers’
college had not been established; second phase, a time when teachers college was well-known and
teachers started receiving formal training for certain level of education; and the stage after independent
(third stage) when teachers were train for all levels of education.

In the earliest phase, schools were within the mission compound; the missionaries were the
teachers and the teaching was mainly for Christianity propagation, especially in the southern Nigeria. In
the north, Islamic education followed a similar pattern. The Almagiris lived with their Mallams. The
curriculum centered around reading, writing and recitation of chapters of the Holy books and related
materials. During the Colonial years, Great Britain did not promote education. The schools were set up
and operated by Christian Missionaries. The British colonial government only funded a few schools.

A clear indication of this is the founding and funding of training institution at Abeokuta by
Church Missionary Society (CMS) in 1859. The institution was later moved to Lagos in 1867 to become
an arm of CMS Grammar School. It later moved to Oyo in 1896 to produce church worker for Yoruba
mission; and later rename Saint Andrew’s Oyo. This later transits to Saint Andrew’s College of Education
Oyo, Oyo State.

In the northern part of Nigeria, which was predominantly Muslim populated, Western-style
education was prohibited. The religious leaders did not want the missionaries interfering with Islam. This
gave way to establishing Islamic school that focused primarily on the Islamic education. Prior to Nigeria's
independence, Nigeria had only two established Post-secondary Institution. Yaba Higher college (founded
in 1934, Now Yaba College of Technology) and the University College Ibadan (UCI) was founded in
1948.During which 21 out of the 104 students that resumed were for teacher training. The University later
become the major source of Secondary School teachers. The then Government often sponsored for
University education; and such teachers were bonded for five years after graduation. The UCI also created
Institute of Education in 1957, where teachers that wanted to bome trained teachrs enrolled for a year of
Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE).

Teaching in Independent Nigeria

Several efforts were put in place by Government of various region to ensure quality education.
The Western region Government in collaboration with US bodies, put in place Advanced Teachers
College in 1960 to produce Grade 1 Teachers. Immediately after independence, there was the introduction
of B. A (Education) and B. Sc. (Education) combined honour degree.
 More prominent universities which include University of Nigeria, Obafemi Awolowo University
(formerly University of Ife), Ahmadu Bello University and University of Lagos were founded in the years
that followed the Independence. In 1962, Ransom-Kuti and Olunloyo Colleges of Education were
established to prepare Nigeria Certificate in Education teachers for teachers training college and junior
section of secondary schools. In 1964, Adeyemi College of Education was created and merged with the
two colleges of education in Ibadan to produced Adeyemi College of Education in 1968 with the under-
listed aims:

1. Prepare a well-qualified non graduate teachers

2. Provide in-service training for secondary school teachers
3. Carry out research and experiments in methods at all level of education

In 1970s more universities were founded which include University of Benin (founded in 1970), and
new university opened in Calabar, Ilorin, Jos, Port Harcourt, Sokoto and Maiduguri. In the 1980s,
more universities were opened as well as institute specializing in Agriculture and Technology. A
number of Polytechnics were also opened, which includes the Yaba College of Technology in Lagos
and Kaduna Polytechnic. These measures were put in place to ensure successful teaching exercise

Philosophical Perspectives of Teaching

Philosophy is an act of knowing; it is often described as the knowledge of how to live or deal
with a particular situations. Philosophy on the other hand implies man curiosity to understand his origin,
aims and relationship with things around him/ his destiny. It could also be defined as an attempt to unfold
life mysteries. John Dewey defined philosophy as a theory of education in its most general aspects. He
holds that “education is the laboratory in which philosophic truth become concrete and are tested.”

Philosophy and education are interrelated, interdependent, identical and inseparable from each
other. Every philosopher has an educational outlook and every educator has a philosophy of life. No
system of education is completely divorced from philosophy. Philosophy provides the aim of life and
thereby the aim of education, and education provides the vehicle for carrying out that philosophic aim in
practical life.

Philosophical Perspective of Education

There are four philosophical perspectives currently used in educational settings:

1. Essentialism
2. Perennialism
3. Progressivism, and
4. Social reconstructionism/critical pedagogy.

Unlike the more abstract ontology and axiology, these four perspectives focus primarily on what should
be taught and how it should be taught, i.e. the curriculum.
S/N Philosophy Features Focus

1 Essentialism Tend to privilege traditional Essentialist classrooms tend to be teacher-

academic disciplines that will centered in instructional delivery with an
develop prescribed skills and emphasis on lecture and teacher
objectives in different content areas demonstrations.
as well as develop a common culture.

2 Perennialism Utilizes student-centered Students should take classes in English

instructional activities like Socratic Language Arts, foreign languages,
Seminar, which values and mathematics, natural sciences, fine arts,
encourages students to think, and philosophy
rationalize, and develop their own
ideas on topics. As well as teachered-
centered

3 Progressivism/ Emphasises on experiential learning Students learn by doing rather than being
Experientalism with a focus on developing the whole lectured . learner focuses on solving real-
child. world problems through real experiences.

4 Social Issues involving social, Students- centered

Reconstructionism/ environmental, or economic justice
critical pedagogy cannot be separated from the
curriculum.

 Teaching and philosophy are two related concepts that are inseparable from one another. This
must be reflected on everything that happen in the course of schooling ranging from classroom
activities curriculum, textbook

PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF TEACHING

What is psychology

• Psychology is the science of mind and behavior. Psychology includes the study of conscious and
unconscious phenomena, including feelings and thoughts. It is an academic discipline of immense
scope, crossing the boundaries between the natural and social sciences..
 • Psychology is the scientific study of the human mind, how it functions and how it dictates and
influences our behaviour, from communication and memory to thought and emotion.

What is sociology

• Sociology is the study of social life, social change, and the social causes and consequences of
human behavior. Sociologists investigate the structure of groups, organizations, and societies
and how people interact within these contexts.

• Sociology is the study of human social relationships and institutions.

• Sociology’s subject matter is diverse, ranging from crime to religion, from the family to the state,
from the divisions of race and social class to the shared beliefs of a common culture, and from
social stability to radical change in whole societies.

• Unifying the study of these diverse subjects of study is sociology’s purpose of understanding how
human action and consciousness both shape and are shaped by surrounding cultural and social
structures

What is instruction in teaching

• Instruction is frequently associated with the term 'curriculum' and generally refers to the teaching
methods and learning activities that a teacher uses to deliver the curriculum in the
classroom.

• The terms 'teaching' and 'instruction' are often used interchangeably.

• The creation and implementation of purposefully developed plans for guiding the process by
which learners gain knowledge and understanding, and develop skills, attitudes, appreciations and
values.

• Instruction is frequently associated with the term ‘curriculum’ and generally refers to the
teaching methods and learning activities that a teacher uses to deliver the curriculum in the
classroom.

Five psychological foundation of Instruction

• Behaviourism
• Cognitivism
• Constructivism
• Experientialism
• Social and contextual theories

Behaviourism

Key Theorists: Edward Thorndike, Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, and B.F. Skinner
Definition: Behaviorism defines learning as observable behavioral change that occurs in response to
environmental stimuli. Positive stimuli — or "rewards" — create positive associations between the
reward and a given behavior; these associations prompt one to repeat that behavior. Meanwhile, negative
stimuli — or "punishments" — discourage the behaviors associated with those stimuli. Through this
process of conditioning, people learn to either repeat or avoid behaviors.

Key principles: Behaviorism relies on the prediction or analysis of behavior based on causal stimuli,
while education uses the process of positive and negative reinforcement to encourage or discourage
behaviors. This school of thought emphasizes behavior's learned causes over its biological one; therefore,
behaviorism deeply values the ability of education to shape individuals.

• Application: Behaviorism also influences the sequence and methods used during the teaching
and learning process. Teachers work toward their desired objectives by using external stimuli,
explaining and demonstrating a skill or behavior, and then inviting student practice and providing
feedback that reinforces the behaviors or skills they wish students to learn or unlearn.

Cognitivism

Key Theorists: Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner, Robert Mills Gagne, Marriner David Merill, Charles
Reigeluth, and Roger Schank.

• Definition and Background:

• Cognitive psychology emerged in the 1950s and became dominant in the 1960s. Departing from
the comparative emphasis of behaviorists, cognitivists see human beings as rational creatures
quite different from animals. Consequently, cognitive theory explores the complexities of the
human mind as it processes information. It views behavior as a result of one's thoughts.

• Using the computer as a metaphor for the human mind, cognitivists see learning as a product of
mental faculties and activities, including thought, knowledge, memory, motivation, reflection,
and problem-solving. Recasting learning as the acquisition of knowledge and the development of
understanding, this approach emphasizes reading and lecture as learning modalities.

• Rather than measuring learning based on observable behaviors, cognitivists evaluate

learning based on a learner's demonstration of knowledge and understanding.

Key Principles

• Human behavior reflects internal processing of the human mind, rather than simply a conditioned
response to external stimuli.

• Learning involves the integration of information into a stored and usable body of knowledge.

• Cognitive psychology derives, in part, from Piaget's stages of development, which depend on
biological factors such as age. Learning capacity and activity change over time as a person moves
 through life. For example, although older people have accumulated more knowledge, they do not
always remain as teachable due to their tendency to adopt a more fixed outlook over time.

• Cognitivism emphasizes the importance of an expert in transmitting accurate information, yet

sees a learner's success or failure in absorbing this information as largely dependent upon the
learner's mental capacity, motivation, beliefs, and effort.

Application

• Although many contemporary educational psychologists see cognitivist approaches as outdated,

teachers often deliver lectures in front of a classroom and expect students to demonstrate their
retention of content through information-oriented tests.

• However, teachers' efforts to balance lectures with activities that encourage mental processing
also reflect cognitivist influence. Self-reflection — a widely used cognitivist technique — helps
students think about and transform their understanding of the subject at hand.

Constructivism

Key Theorists: John Dewey, Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, and Jerome Bruner

Definition and Background

• Constructivism gained notoriety in the 1930s-40s and enjoyed a resurgence in the 1970s-80s. This
view challenges both the behaviorist notion of the learner as a blank slate and the cognitivist
notion of learning as the acquisition of objective information from an expert.

• Rather, this school of thought suggests that learners create their own subjective information by
interpreting their world and restructuring their thinking. Constructivist theories take a learner-
centered approach, in which the teacher serves as a guide — rather than the source of — the
student's learning.

• Constructivism views knowledge acquisition as a process of building upon a learner's previous

knowledge.

Key Principle(s)

• Constructivists agree that learners create knowledge rather than passively receiving it, and that
pre-existing knowledge plays a crucial role in their learning. However, two differing strands of
constructivism bear mentioning.

• Social constructivism — associated with Vygotsky's emphasis on social context — posits that
students learn naturally through a process of discovery. While late 20th century cognitivist
theories tend to reduce a learner to a passive receptacle, social constructivism believes learners
actively hypothesize about their environment and test these hypotheses through social
negotiations.
 • Cognitive constructivism agrees that learners construct rather than receive information, but it is
interested in the cognitive processing involved in knowledge construction.

Application

• Constructivism influences the lesson plan methodologies employed by many teachers today. For
example, constructivist influence shapes the common teaching practice of posing questions or
problems and then inviting students to answer and solve them in their own ways.

• Constructivism is also evident in popular classroom practices, such as having students create their
own questions, welcoming multiple points of view and intelligence styles, and using group work
as a collaborative learning tool.

Experientialism

Key Theorists: David A. Kolb and Carl Rogers

Definition and Background

• This school of thought emerged in the 1970s out of the influence of the learner-centered and
interactive foci of constructivism and social learning theories. Experiential learning theories
identify meaningful everyday experience as the most central factor in increasing a learner's
knowledge and understanding, as well as transforming their behavior.

• Experientialist theorist Carl Rogers prioritizes experiential approaches to education because they
work with humans' natural desire to learn. Rogers posits that humans are more likely to learn and
retain information when they participate actively in the learning process.

Experientialist David A. Kolb identifies four stages in this learning process: experiencing, absorbing and
reflecting on experience, conceptualizing experience, and testing concepts in other situations. These are
cyclical stages that function as an ongoing feedback loop, which in turn allows learners to improve skills
and apply new or recent knowledge.

Key Principle(s)

• Rejecting all didactic approaches, experientialism argues that one person cannot effectively
impart knowledge directly to another person; people must learn for themselves. A teacher can
facilitate the learning process by engaging students through an experience, but they cannot
control exactly what students learn from that experience.

• Experientialists argue that learners become less flexible and receptive when they are afraid; as a
result, this view encourages teachers to create non-threatening learning environments in which
learners can experience and experiment freely.

• Contemporary experientialists are interested in how a learner's engagement and testing of new
skills or concepts influences their learning environment, which creates a larger feedback loop that
shapes the world in which we live.
Application

• The experientialist understanding of the learning process as a dynamic feedback loop often
shapes how educators plan their lessons.

• By placing an emphasis on activities that prompt effective perception and processing, educators
can activate the learner's prior experience, demonstrate a new skill for the learner, ask the learner
to practice the skill, and then invite application of those skills in practical scenarios.

• Many schools incorporate experiential education as a formal component in their programs and
curricula. In secondary schools, these experiences often take the form of field trips or projects.

Social and Contextual learning

Key Theorists: Lev Vygotsky, Albert Bandura, Jean Lave, Rogoff, Etienne Wenger, and Thomas
Sergiovanni

• Definition and Background

• First emerging in the late 20th century, social and contextual learning theories challenge the
individual-focused approaches evident in both constructivism and cognitivism. Social and
contextual theories are influenced by anthropological and ethnographic research and emphasize
the ways environment and social contexts shape one's learning.

• In this view, cognition and learning are understood as interactions between the individual and a
situation; knowledge is situated in — and a product of — the activity, context, and culture in
which it is developed and used. This led to new metaphors for learning as a "participation" and
"social negotiation."

Key principles:

• The situated, relational nature of knowledge and the social, engaged nature of effective learning
are the foundational principles of social and contextual learning theories.

• Some social contextual theorists believe that view the diversity in knowledge levels as the best
asset to a community of practice. They believe that learning depends on a group's effective use of
cooperation, trust, understanding, and problem-solving to produce beneficial learning outcomes
for the community.

Application

• Many teachers try to incorporate multifaceted, experiential learning environments that assist
students in forging meaningful connections between abstract and practical concepts. A teacher's
effort to explicitly address the importance of lesson material reflects the impact of social and
contextual learning theory. Explanations and illustrations of reasons for a lesson typically
improve student motivation, helping students visualize or actually practice using this knowledge
in practical contexts.
Meaning of educational sociology

• Educational sociology is a new branch of sociology. It studies the relationship between education
and society and deals with the problem of relationship between education and society.
Educational sociology means Education through sociological point of view.

• Educational sociology is said to be the study of principles of sociology as applied to the theory
and practice of Education.

• It is new science which applies sociological principles to the whole process of education.
Educational sociology utilizes total educational interaction which helps in the personality
development of the individual so that he becomes a better social being. T

Nature of Educational Sociology

• The nature of educational sociology is both theoretical and practical.

• It is the scientific study of how people live in social groups, especially study of the education that
is obtained by living in social groups and the education that is needed by the member to live
efficiently in social groups.

• It helps in understanding the cultural, economic ,social and political trends in relation to formal
and informal agencies of education.

• Educational sociology aims to develop a curriculum that will adequately socialize each individual
student.

• It tries to find out what would best contribute towards the child's personality development and
control the educative process to achieve personality development of each single child.

Educational sociology studies the various types of social relationships and their impact on individual
development

Relationship between sociology and education

The relationship of education and sociology can be cleared through following points:

• Sociology is the science of society and education in an implicit aspect of any social system.

• Sociology studies the structure and functions of social system, while education is one of the
important function of any social system.

• The prime concern of sociology is socialized individuals. Education is the means for achieving
the goals of sociology.

• Education is the laboratory and workshop of sociology .

 • Sociology attempts to ascertain the functions performed by the educational system while
education adopts the principles of sociology to improve its functioning.

• In the modern society ,sociology generates the data base which is consumed by educational
system to realize the goal of social life. sociology develops the law and principles which are
adopted by the educational system for its improvement.

• Education preserves the social and cultural heritage which is owned by sociology.

• Society is the prime factor in determining the educational patterns so that its sociocultural needs
may be satisfied and continues to grow.

Educational Sociology and method of teaching

• Educational sociologist advocate the use of project method , socialized techniques, Group
discussion and techniques of group dynamics. they also encourages co-operative learning,
problem solving and democratic method of teaching.

• Those educational methods are good which gives knowledge to the individual, which will enable
the students to adapt and adjust to different social situations.

• Sociology gives importance to group methods of teaching. Methods which are able to develop
democratic attitude among children should be the good method of teaching.

According to sociological point of view:

• The method of instruction is effective only when the skill and knowledge acquired in the
classroom are actually use by the individual in the adjustment to social situation

• An individual should be able to achieve social correlation by use of knowledge and skill received
in the school.

• The method of teaching should be stressed on the social behaviuor outside the class while
teaching.

• The method of teaching should make use of all possible social resources and social operative
force in the social life in order to develop the capacity in every individual for social adjustment.

• The social powers currents in the society should be used in teaching system for increasing the
social co-relationship.

• Sociologist suggest that teaching should be done through cultural and social programs.

• In teaching teacher will develop problem solving and constructive thinking. For this socialized
techniques, project and group methods fulfill most of the conditions.

• Students react better to co-operative learning in which there is sharing in the teaching learning
process.
Educational Sociology and the teacher

• The teacher should be committed to society.

• He Should know the main institution and powers that mainly influence a student.

• He should know the instruments of social development, available in extramural environment.

• He should have capacity to use this knowledge in school education.

• A teacher should know about the process of socialization among students, the method of
interaction and programs for social development

Meaning of Curriculum

Curriculum is the general body of learning experience tat is exposed to the learner in and outside the
classroom under the close supervision f the teacher. Curriculum is the engine that drives the the system of
education

Curriculum is also defined as the part of the school academic programme specifically designed to provide
and guided learning experiences

Components of curriculum

 Objectives
 Content (subject matter)
 Organization of content methodology
 Evaluation

Factors that influence curriculum development

 Changes in the society

 New development in the academic discipline
 Needs of the pupils
 General purpose of education
 Learning theories

Who decide what the curriculum should be

There are many bodies that influence the curriculum. Some of the bodies are

 The federal and state ministry of education

 Nigeria educational research and development council (NERDC)
 Joint consultative committee (JCC)
 JAMB, WAEC and NECO
Programmes under curriculum
1. Programmes of instruction
2. Programme of guidance and counselling
3. Programme of extra-curricular activities

Meaning of syllabus

Syllabus is the collection of all the courses or subjects which a school offer. Syllabus is a guide to the
academic work designed for a particular level of student in a given period of time, usually one academic
year

Types of syllabus

1. Examination syllabus: it indicates topic to be covered without arranging the content in any
order. This is supplied by national examination bodies. e.g JAMB syllabus, NECO syllabus
2. Teaching syllabus: this is an outline of the work planned to be done i a course for a term, a year
or 3 years

Scheme of work

The scheme of work involves a detailed breakdown of syllabus into constructional units and this is in
accordance to the lesson given in that topic. It contains topics that should be taught on a subject for a
period of time

Time table

This shows the distribution of subjects to be taught during the different days of the week and when such
subject should be taught. It involves the time and duration of activities such as short break, long break,
sport and closing time

Lesson note: this is the content and subject that will be exposed to a learner during classroom instruction

Lesson Plan: The is the structural guideline on how a teacher will carry out the instruction in a lesson
note

Course of study: It is the content area which the learner will be exposed to while dealing with a
particular subject. It could be an educational programme designed for a specific purpose and to run for a
specific period of time e.g a course study can be any programme e.g Primary Education Studies

Formulation of aims, goals and objectives

They are educational intention, purposes and desires. These force term occupies a crucial point in
education as well as in curriculum. They serve as reference point of education at a given level but varies i
level at which it is used, they also vary in coinage, level of relevance, time frame of achievement and
degree of specificy. Educational intentions are usually stated as aims, goal and objectives
Aim: Aims are broad or general statement of education intentions that a give society sets for its
educational system and they are usually visionary, idealistic and philosophical in outlook. They are
formulated by the nation

Goals: Are less broad statement which are derived from aim, it is designed by the curriculum expert

Objectives: they are specific statement. this refer to the intended learning outcomes or the specific
changes expected in learners especially within a lesson or a group of related lesson. They are set by the
teacher. The two types of objectives are instructional objectives and behavioural objectives.

Approach

An approach is a “particular way of thinking”. In this case, an instructional approach is a set of beliefs
and assumptions about the teaching and learning of a particular subject area.

A teacher’s instructional/teaching [method, techniques, and strategies] will depend on the teaching
approach s/he takes.

If an approach is a “way of thinking” or “personal philosophy”, a teacher’s teaching approach is very

likely to change or be patterned according to his/her experiences. This means that a teaching approach is
intended to be dynamic, and can be a positive thing.

Where it is positive, it indicates the teacher’s growth, and the fact that s/he is willing to change or adapt to
a new situations.

Types of Approaches to instruction

Teacher centered approach: the teacher dominates the teaching and learning approach without
considering the need, interest and ability of the learner. The teacher dishes out knowledge and the student
learn unquestionable. E.g lecture method

Learner centered approach: this constitute the approach whereby learner choose what they want to
learn and act as an active agent in the teaching and learning process. The teacher only serves as a guide
and facilitator. E.g project, discovery method

Midway Approach: is the combination of teacher and learner centered approach e.g discussion method

How does a teacher’s beliefs affect his/her teaching?

o Knowledge acquisition and interpretation
o defining and selecting instructional tasks
o interpreting course content choices of assessment (Key & Bryan, 2001)
o “construct new knowledge” based on “what they already know and believe” (Putnam & Borko,
1997)

Definition of belief
 • The term ‘‘beliefs’’ has been defined in the literature in a variety of ways. Pajares (1992): belief
is an ‘‘individual’s judgment of the truth or falsity of a proposition, a judgment that can only be
inferred from a collective understanding of what human beings say, intend, and do’’ (p. 316).

The following definition of beliefs—‘‘one’s convictions, philosophy, tenets, or opinions about teaching
and learning’’—(Haney et al. 2003, p. 367) is associated with a teacher’s philosophy or opinion about
behaviourism/constructivism and subsequent implications for the science classroom

Teachers belief

According to Pajeres (1992), “beliefs teachers hold influence their perceptions and judgements, which in
turn affect their behaviour in the classroom.”

Heath (2002) maintained that teachers “espoused theories of action impacts their theories-in-use” (p. 188).

Beliefs: A Morass of Undefined Concept

• Belief(s) have been described as the most valuable psychological construct to teacher education.
However, they are also one of the most difficult to define since a belief “does not lend itself to
empirical investigations” (Pajares, 1992, p. 308).

• Teachers’ belief systems is one of the problematic field of research, mainly because teachers’
beliefs cannot be measured directly.

Origins

From experiences both formal and informal education (Adams & Krockover, 1997). Early experiences
outside of formal education may have greater impact (Smith, 2003).

Teachers epistemological belief

Epistemologies are sets of beliefs about knowing and learning that play a mediating role in the processing
of new information.

Epistemology and Instructional Practice

o In US, behaviourist tradition, adoption of constructivism does not affect (Czerniak &
Lumpe,1996).
o teachers who held constructivist beliefs had a larger repertoire of teaching strategies (Hashwel,
1985).
o teachers' view about how construct knowledge were consistent with how they believed students
should learn science (Brickhouse, 1990).
o constructivist teachers more likely recognize student's alternative conceptions (Hashweh, 1996).
o affect evaluation type (Zipf & Harrison, 2003).
Change

o teacher' epistemological beliefs are stable and resistant to change (Pajares, 1992)
o pre-service and newly induction teacher's beliefs are more malleable (Salish I Research Project,
1997)
 o pre-service teachers' beliefs remain unchanged (Cronin-Jones & Shaw, 1992)
o because of socio-cultural context (Stofflett, 1994)
o practice should be teacher-centered (Simmons et al., 1999).

Instructional method

A teaching method is a systematic plan for the presentation of a particular, which is based in the approach
that has been chosen. A teaching method´s design includes objectives, syllabus, activities, teachers´ roles,
students´ roles, and materials.

A teaching method will have his implementation phase in the classroom. Basically, a teaching method is
a procedure or way of materializing a teaching approach through a systematic plan.

Instructional Method
o Lecture
o Discussion
o Discovery
o Project
o Role Play
o Field Study and so on
Instructional teaching technique

Teaching techniques refer to any strategy or trick that teachers use in order to accomplish an immediate
objective. Therefore, teaching techniques are the different teaching practices that are observable in the
classroom.

They involve skills and specific classroom activities. For example, “drills” and “group problem solving”.
The techniques that a teacher uses will depend on his/her teaching method and approach.

While method is the overall procedure used to teach a particular lesson, technique is the art or skill of
performance.

You may wish to use discussion method but the way you will ask question to trigger off/kickstart
participation is your own technique.

You may use the method of discovery but the way you make your students apply or practice what they
have learned is your own technique. Technique is, therefore, the way you handle the different aspects or
phases of your instructional method.

Examples of techniques are: Drill and Practice,Review, Questioning, Assignment, etc

Classroom Communication

The word communication is derived from the Latin word ‘communis’, which means ‘common’, i.e., to
share, exchange, send, transmit, write, relate and communicate. The other etymological source mentions
that ‘communication’ is derived from the Latin term ‘communicare’, which means to impart or participate.
This word often denotes and means different things to different people.

Scholarly positions on classroom communication relay that student talk accounts for an average of less
than 30 per cent of talk in ‘teacher-fronted’ classrooms. Yet studies on language and learning have shown
that children not only learn to talk but they also talk to learn. This can be seen from the fact that children
are persistent questioners; it is by asking questions that they explore and learn about the world around
them. However, studies have also shown that the number of questions asked by children drops
significantly as soon as they enter school.

Successful teaching is generally considered to require 50% knowledge and 50% communication skills.
As a result, a teacher should be proficient in all four modes/components of communication –

 Listening,
 Speaking,
 Reading,
 Writing
Being able to utilize this has been proven to impact success in students academic lives, as well as the
teacher’s own career success.

In a classroom, the meaning of communication is related to the messages and counter-messages, which
constitute the teaching-learning process. This involves initiation, reception and response that serve as
feedback.
Communication process

In any communication process, (8) eight elements must be identified. These are:

 The Stimulus
 The Source
 The Message
 The Medium
 The Channel
 The Receiver
 The Feedback and
 The Noise.

Forms of classroom interaction

Participants

 Teacher - class
 Teacher - student
 Student - student
 Others, including members of the target language speaking community

Resources

 Teacher – students & ..

 Text book, texts, technologies, tasks

Considering interaction in practice

Types of interaction
 Interactions between language and discipline prior learning and new concepts
 Interactions for communication learning

Goals of classroom interaction

 Promote meaningful communication

 Provide a metalanguage for talking about discipline/subject area
 Engage learners with concepts and processes for learning
 Probe learners’ prior learning and interpretations of new concepts about discipline or subject area
 Engage learners with texts and resources that reflect the discipline in context
 Engage learners in tasks that deepen their experience and understanding of the discipline
 Promote reflection on subject area/discipline learning and use
Use in classroom interaction

Classroom communication

o need to consider the nature, timing and frequency of target classroom

o use of English/first language provides a basis for deeper cognitive engagement at times
hybrid forms can support target language use

o use of first and additional languages will depend on the context, learners, teacher capability and
judgement

Examining the role of the teacher in classroom interaction

Teacher’s roles

o Creating a learning culture

o Eliciting learners’ interpretations
o Building on learners’ contributions
o Negotiating meaning
o Providing feedback and promoting reflection

…teachers must be mindful of their instructional goals and prepare questions with the objectives
in mind. Adequate preparation ahead of time ensures that the purposes for asking questions are likely to
be well matched to the instructional task. Preparing ahead will also reduce the amount of in-class ‘trial
and error’ time. That is to say, the less time teachers take in class, trying to figure out what they are doing
as they are doing it, the more time there will be for teachers and students to be engaged in actual learning
Hall 2001:90

Effective classroom interaction

You should do the following:

 Create a safe learning environment with supportive relationships
 Encourage team work
 Appreciate the uniqueness of individuals
 Mind your body language
 Indulge active listening (Students & Teacher)
 Give opportunities for students to negotiate meaning with each other and the teacher
 Give students choices as to what they want to say, to whom they want to say it, and how they
want to say it
 Get your feedback in real time
 Improve your sense of humour
 Acquire adequate technical skill
 Avoid ambiguity- be clear
Types of Communication Based on Purpose and Style

Based on style and purpose, there are two main categories of communication and they both bears their
own characteristics. Communication types based on style and purpose are:

 Formal Communication

 Informal Communication

 Formal Communication

Organization and Management of Teaching and Learning Process

Concept of Classroom Organization and Management

Several definitions of Classroom management have been provided by authorities on the subjects.
For instance, Ezeocha (1990) defines classroom management as the organizing, controlling, directing of
the different variables in the class in order to achieve the objectives of the child in the school. To him, this
variables include the students, tutorial and some non-tutorial staff, and materials resource (the seats, desks,
tables, teaching aids) the Curriculum, time-table, pieces of chalk, chalkboard, wash-hand basins and cups.
Ogbonnaya (2007) similarly defines the classroom management as the organization, utilization and
control of the resources and activities in the classroom for the achievement of the objectives of teaching
and learning. Also, Arikewuyo (2001) defines classroom management as the process of efficiently and
effectively organizing the classroom so that the teacher could achieve his teaching objective.
From the above definitions, one can deduce that classroom management is the management of
classroom life so as to achieve the objective of teaching and learning. In fact, classroom organization and
management according to Akubue (1991) involve all the following activities:
1. Planning curriculum
2. Organizing procedures and resources
3. Setting the tone of the class environment to maximize learning
4. Monitoring student progress
5. Anticipating potential problems.
Classroom management borders a large number of activities namely:
1. Arrangement of students desks and chairs
 2. Placing of instructional materials of appropriate places and corners
3. Clerical duties
4. Distribution of classroom materials like textbooks, chalk, biros, pens and teaching aids
5. Management or care of students’ behaviour.

One of the teacher’s basic responsibilities in the classroom is keeping a discipline and orderly
classroom. The reason is because many misbehaviours take place in the classroom. These
misbehaviours include fighting, noise-making, inattentiveness, truancy, aggressiveness, failing to do
assignment and lateness to class. For a teacher to be successful, he should ensure that these
misbehaviours are wiped out of the classroom. The students should be made to know what is expected
of them, what to do in specific situations and when to seek help.

Types of Seating Arrangements for Classrooms

1. Pairs
Pair up students and let them work individual or together. It’s more fun with two but still gives you a nice
overview. In this way, students can get their heads together when needed. If they have to work
individually, let’s say they have a test, you can place a binding folder between the students. Here, you can
also easily divide your classroom into three columns of pairs. Ask, for example, the first column to
answer question A, the second column to answer question B and the last column to answer question C.
Go over the answers when they’ve finished. That way, you can speed up the classical work.

2. Groups of Four
Use small groups of four when you want your students to put their heads together. You can let them work
on an assignment. You can also let them think about a question individually and ask them to deliberate
with the other students in the group. Of course, just individual work is also possible. This seating
arrangement just makes it a bit more social. When working with “groups of four” students get to sit with
others all the time. They get to know each other better and make friends. This seating arrangement is a
good idea to start the year.

3. Corner Work
When you’re working on a big project or teaching a comprehensive topic with different aspects or themes,
this seating arrangement will do just fine. Assign different tasks to each corner. For example, a (digital)
crossword riddle, a quiz, a video with questions, a whiteboard exercise All the assignments complete each
other. Let your students shuffle so they’ve been to every corner and did every assignment. You can also
use it to split up students with the same learning level. One corner where students get more instructions,
the other has expansion exercises, one corner has noise-canceling headphones so students can concentrate,
etc.

4. Conference Small Classroom

Are you teaching a small group of students? In that case, the conference classroom arrangement is a
possibility. The “conference classroom” gives your students an “equal voice” and a snapshot of a business
meeting room. Use the conference seating arrangement when making classroom rules, planning an event,
for an intervention, a class discussion, etc. You can also practice speech (foreign language) by letting the
students facing each other talk to each other. Let them switch places and move on to the next student in
line and talk about another topic.

5. Conference Large Classroom

Don’t worry though, there’s a conference classroom layout for many students and a large classroom as
well. Use this just like mentioned above. The only thing that’s not possible is letting students face each
other and talk directly to them. Don’t use it for group work either.
Others include Grid, Presentation, U-shape, Double U-shape, U-shape Large Classroom,
Herringbone, Rows, Computer Combination, Butterfly, Eye, Circle, Large groups, Horseshoes and
Banquet

Characteristics of Effective Classroom Organization and Management

The characteristics of effective classrooms are the ones where;
1. Teachers combine knowledge of the learners, various methodologies and subject matter to ensure
effective teaching and learning
2. There is abundant evidence that teachers planned their subjects well.
3. Teachers create conducive conditions that facilitate teaching and learning and prevent behaviours
that will negatively affect teaching and learning.
4. Material resources are provided and are effectively managed. These include preparing the time-
table, bringing in instructional materials and preparing the chalk board.
5. There is opportunity or forum for students to share experiences together.
6. Students learn to accommodate likes and dislikes.
7. The class is disciplined. In other words, there is absence of absenteeism, noise-making, fighting,
chaos and truancy.
 8. The teacher exhibits characteristics of good and successful facilitators of learning. There is
friendliness, sympathy and obviously students are actively interested in classroom activities.

Need for Classroom Management

The purpose of organizing and managing classroom effectively and appropriately include; To
1. Realize the objectives of the school:
2. Prevent wastage of available resources;
3. Ensure that students uses available resources in the classroom;
4. Enable the students to realize their potentials
5. Avoid wasting of time;
6. Coordinate classroom activities in the best possible manner;
7. Guide against disruptive behaviours in the classroom;
8. Encourage hard work among students;
9. Inculcate and encourage good relationship among students;
10. Develop in students the need to take responsibility for their action

Factors Associated with Effective Classroom Management

Successful teaching requires a degree of classroom order and control before effective instruction
can be achieved. The extent to which this can be achieved depends greatly on the teacher. Thus, achieving
order and control are skills that all teachers must learn to achieve classroom management.
Tones & Jones (1989) listed five major factors or skill areas associated with effective classroom
management.
1. Classroom management should be based in a solid understanding of current research and theory
about classroom management and on student’s personal and psychological needs.
2. Classroom management depends on establishing positive teacher-student and peer relationship
that help meet students’ basic psychological needs.
3. Classroom management involves using methods that enhance optimal learning by responding to
the academic needs of individual students and the classroom group.
4. Classroom management involves using organizational and group management methods that
maximize on-task students’ behaviours.
5. Classroom management involves the ability to use a wide range of counseling and behavioural
methods that involve students in examining and correcting their inappropriate behaviour.
A well managed classroom therefore, is a pre-requisite to learning. Effective manager should use all the
skills and methods at his disposal to organize and conduct their classroom to prevent management
problems from occurring in the classroom.

Effective Teacher
Effective teacher possesses a cheerful disposition, friendliness, emotional, security, good mental
health and a high degree of personal adjustment. According to Brophy& Putnam (1979) effective teachers
are those who are able to:
1. Remain calm in crises;
2. Listen actively without becoming defensive or authoritarian;
3. Avoid win-lose conflicts;
4. Maintain a problem-solving orientation rather than resorting to withdrawal, blaming, or other
emotional over reaction;
5. Respect each child as an individual
6. Impose firm but flexible limits and change these as needed (child’s development and situation
permit and require;
7. Emphasize positive rather than negative expectation;
8. Explain the rationale behind rulers;
9. Being consistent in stating and enforcing demands;
10. Being consistent in modeling ideal attributes

Classroom Discipline and Students/Learners’ Control

Discipline
The word ‘discipline can be a verb or noun. As a verb, discipline means to train, to punish
someone, to teach someone to behave in a controlled way, to control oneself or someone, even in difficult
situation. To maintain classroom discipline means to control students. It is the first task of every teacher.
As a noun, discipline can be a particular area of study, especially in a subject studied in a college
or university (Cambridge online Dictionary). It is behaviour produced by training. Discipline is training
that make people more willing to obey or more able to control themselves, often in the rules. Punishment
ensures if the rules are broken. Discipline is the practice of training people to obey rules or code of
behaviour. It also involves using punishment to correct misbehaviour. Discipline is developed through
practice. According to Adeshina (1981), discipline is a situation whereby students are taught to respect
the school authorities, to observe the school laws and registrations and to adhere to the ethical standards.
School Discipline
Education of learners occurs in schools and classrooms specifically, and so discipline is enforced
in the school as well as in the classroom. School discipline refers to the procedures of regulating the
learners’ behaviours through laid down rules, punishments and behavioural strategies. It involves
maintenance of order in the school. School discipline helps to create a conducive and safe school
environment. Teaching and learning are haphazardly implemented in a school which lacks discipline. It is
through school discipline that students are trained to be respectful, obedient, of good conduct, orderly,
and of good behaviour. Both intellectual and moral behaviours are involved

Class Discipline
Class discipline is the training of the child in the class to obey the rules and regulations, through
orderly behaviour so as to attain the goals of education. Classroom discipline refers to the strategies a
teacher uses to manage student behaviours and attitudes during instructional time. A teacher who uses
consistent discipline exhibits more effective classroom management than an inconsistent teacher.
Classroom Discipline is the business of enforcing classroom standards and building patterns of
cooperation in order to minimize disruptions and maximize learning

A disciplined student adheres to rules and acceptable behaviours in the school. The rules are
made to define the acceptable standards that must be respected and obeyed by the students to maintain
discipline. Each school operates rules regarding dressing, time keeping, social behaviour and work ethics.
The essence of discipline in schools is to inculcate in the learners the right knowledge, skills, attitudes and
values, which they internalize to form their character. The teacher is at the centre of character formation
of the learners, and so must provide some stimuli to the learners for positive response. Inculcation of
discipline follows the stages of development of the effective behaviour which include: receiving,
responding, valuing, organization and characterization. These terminologies have been explained in
chapter four of this book.

Types of Discipline
There are six types of discipline:
1. Intrinsic (Self-imposed)
2. Societal-imposed
3. Teacher-imposed
 4. Group-imposed
5. Task-imposed
6. Punishment
Intrinsic discipline is self-imposed. The student is motivated to do something without being forced, or
manipulated, because he/she wants to achieve certain goals within a specific period. If the student values
the behaviour, he/she is motivated to imbibe the behaviour. Self-imposed discipline promotes academic
excellence.

Societal-imposed discipline is the discipline that comes from the societal rules and regulations aimed at
maintaining peace and order. This type of discipline is useful in training children in the norms of the
society, which when imbibed enhances respect and learning.

Teacher-imposed discipline is used by the teacher to ensure conductive classroom environment. The
teacher must know the content, use appropriate teaching and learning methods, respect the individual
differences of the learners, and create a good rapport with the students. The teacher must be fair and firm
in dealing with the students.

Group-imposed discipline relates to the influence of peer behaviours on the group. It is said that bird of
the same feather flock together. Thos applies peer influence. Peer groups have their norms and each
member obeys the rules. This is why peer influence is one of the sources of data collection for effective
curriculum planning.

Task-imposed discipline is the discipline derived from the type of tasks students undertake. Such tasks
keep the students busy and prevent them from unwholesome behaviour. A leaner who deviates from there
led-down rules is punished.

Punishment is removal of pleasure from an individual. It is a corrective as well as deterrent behaviour.

Punishment is given to a student who does not conform to the rules and regulations of the school, or
whose behaviour is unacceptable by the school.
There are two major reasons for punishing a student: to correct and reform the student; to deter
others from repeating a similar behaviour. Details on punishment are discussed in chapter nine of this
book.

Conditions for Punishment in the School

 The following are the three conditions for punishing students. There must be evidence that the
offender committed the offence. Punishment must be given by someone in authority. Punishment given
must be commensurate to the offence committed.

Forms of Punishment
Punishment comes in different forms and it is given according to the magnitude of the offence.
Examples of punishment are:
 Corporal punishment
 Detention after school
 Threats
 Issuing of written or verbal warning
 Grass cutting
 Fines
 Suspension
 Expulsion or dismissal
School administrators suggest that the teacher’s mild expression of displeasure when an offence
is committed by a student is preferred to punishment, because it helps to maintain order in the classroom;
check bad behaviour; serve as deterrent to others.
The following precautions must be taken when deciding to punish a student:
 It must be legal, the teacher has the right to punish a student who deserve punishment.
 Punishment should not be regular, otherwise, it will be abused. The teacher may lose the class respect.
 It must be prompt, appropriate, impersonal, just and fair, and mild.

Causes of Indiscipline in School

Indiscipline in school has been categorized into six by Adesina (1980). These classes or sources of
indiscipline are: School management, School administration, Staff, Students, Society and Parents.

School Management
Indiscipline emanates from the school management as a result of the following:
1. Lack of or inadequate school facilities and equipment
2. Lack of or inadequate motivated quality staff
3. Lack of or inadequate motivation of teachers
4. Admission of students who are academically of poor quality
5. Automatic promotion of learners
6. Lack of insufficient moral and religious instruction
7. Restricted powers of principals.

School Administration
The following are causes of indiscipline from the school administration.
1. Principal’s failure to create a good rapport with the staff
2. Existence of communication gap among the principal, teachers and students
3. A laissez-faire principal,(who does not have integrity, and who is not firm and fair).

Staff
Staff can be source of indiscipline when:
1. They are disobedient to the principal
2. They are insincere and not dedicated and committed to duty
3. They are morally weak
4. They are incompetent
5. They are unduly familiar with the students.

Students
Students can be a source of indiscipline in school by their:
1. Negative or poor attitude to learning.
2. Lack of good home training.
3. Setting unachievable goals.
4. Unwholesome behaviour.
5. Misuse of powers of seniority or of a prefect.

Principles for Effective Classroom Management

 Begin your lesson well (set induce the learners, and sustain their attention and motivation in the
class)
 Know the school policies (learn the school policies, the norms and the school climate)
 Establish rules (Let the students know the rules, paste them at a strategic position in the class where
the students will always see them; adhere to the rules)
 Plan your lessons (show the students that you are organized and focused)
 Know the students’ names (Students feel that they belong to the class if the teacher calls them by
their names. Students are happy that the teacher knows them by name)
 Be consistent (The teacher should be fair and consistent in dealing with the students)

Summary
Success in school is mainly dependent on the school tone or climate, which is developed through
the combined efforts of the school administration, principal, teachers, students and parents. Teachers must
bear in mind that they are character moulders and have a greater share in the success or failure of the
students. It should be noted that architect’s mistakes are covered with flowers, medical doctors’ mistakes
are buried six feet in the ground; but teachers’ mistakes live with generations.

Recommendations
From our discussions, we have learnt that the teacher’s task is multi-faceted. This calls for
adequate training of the teacher to empower him/her to effectively implement the school programmes.
The teacher is the implementer of the curriculum, but he/she needs the support of other stake holders to
succeed.
Therefore, the following recommendations are proffered:
1. School administrators must ensure adequate record keeping of all the transactions in the school.
2. Teachers must be knowledgeable, dedicated and committed to their responsibilities.
3. Teachers must prepare their lessons very well before teaching.
4. School administrators must motivate the teachers to promote their optimum performance.
5. Examination procedures must be strictly followed to ensure that valid and reliable data are supplied to
the system.
6. Teachers must evaluate their daily class activities as immediate feedback is a source of motivation.

System Approaches to Instruction

Introduction

• A system can be defined as a set of component which each perform its own unique task but all work in
synergy to achieve a common objective or goal/mission

A system is an organized set of doctrines, ideas, or principles usually intended to explain the arrangement
of a whole.

Types of Systems
• A system can either be open or closed system

An open system is one which can interact with its environment

• An open system demonstrates a phenomenon called principal of equifinality which states that an open
system can reach its final state in a number of different ways because it can interact with its surroundings
by receiving ideas and inputs from the environment (society) and gives back to the same environment

• A closed system is one, which operates in isolation from its environment. It does not get any input from
it surroundings. Its final state is dependent on its initial state.

• A systems approach is applied in everyday life situations consciously or unconsciously. In a system

approach, certain steps are followed in a logical way, with certain steps being essential and therefore
indispensable

What is an APPROACH?

An approach is systemic way of taking preliminary steps toward accomplishing a task

What is INSTRUCTION?

An instruction is an outline or manual of technical procedure for achieving a target task.

What is a PROCESS?

A process is a phenomenon marked by gradual changes that lead to a particular result.

A Sub-system & A Supra System

Supra-System (Environment)
Instructional sub-system entails Educational system which specifically subsets the Curriculum. Every
Educational system i.e. primary/secondary/tertiary have several curricula e.g. University of Ilorin has
several Faculties and in each Faculty, there are Departments and subsequently programmes.

What is a curriculum

 A curriculum refers to the knowledge areas, skills, and attitudes that are taught directly or
indirectly in a school system.

 It is the totality of the syllabuses on educational programmes.

 A curriculum may be viewed as a system.

System Approaches to Instruction

Systems approach to instruction embodies the teaching-learning as an event/process consisting of several

elements (teacher, learner, media, methods, evaluation) which are all co-operatively interacting to
promote efficiency and effectiveness of the management of human and non-human resources.

General Characteristics of a system

a) Goals and mission – each system works towards a specified goal or the accomplishment of a given
mission.

b) A system exists in a hierarchy of relationships. Each functional unit forms sub-systems with elements
that cannot work independently, otherwise, such a system is a supra system. A supra system is one that
has subsystems each of which has a measure of performance but is independent on other sub systems.

c) A system has boundaries which distinguish such part from the other parts of the system thus ensuring
that a specific task is performed at a particular point, yet both parts depend on each other.

d) Each system has environment. This consists in a set conditions that are relevant but not directly under
the influence of the system usually environment of a system contains the resources and constrains.

e) Systems are likened to livings things because they receive input and act on them to produce output and
are capable of growth.

f) Feedback – this is specific input into the system that gives information about the achievement (output)
for purposes of re-examining the system.

g) Growth – a system grows through either transformation or diversification or multiplication.

h) Dynamic stability – each system is dynamically in harmony with the environment and exhibit levels
of balance among its elements or sub-systems based on common expectations.

i) Equifinality –The same final point or system outputs can be reached from various starting or original
points or initial conditions.

• Generally a system is distinguished by the following components:-

a) Goals – Every system has a goal which is the target to be achieved. All members work towards the
achievement of the goal

b) Elements - there are more than one elements in a system. The elements in a system are interrelated and
interacting subjects. System

c) Harmony – there is coherent interaction for achieving the common goal – elements work in synergy.
The elements work in harmony, but each has its own function which it contributes in achieving the goal
of the system.

d) Feedback - a provision for assessing the quality of the success level in the interaction leading to the
attainment of the intended goal.

Instructional process

 Instructional Process is an integral aspect of pedagogy which explores, develops and implements
varieties of strategies based on empirically–tested principles of teaching and learning drawn from
several fields such as management, psychology, communication technology, teacher education
amongst others.

 Instructional process by its very nature is a conglomeration of several ideas which are aptly
described as ‘eclectic’.

Steps in Systematic Approaches to Instruction

– Needs Assessment
 – Determination of constraints
– General Objectives
– Specific Objectives
– Entry Behaviour or Pre-text
– Selection of learning experiences
– Selection of Media and Methods
– Implementation and Evaluation

Needs Assessment

As an instructor, you need to determine the needs of your students. These can be taking care of by
considering the:
– Societal needs
– Departmental Syllabus specifications
– Needs of learners (Prescriptive or Remedial) and areas of the syllabus

Determination of Constraint
– Classroom
– Electricity
– internet connectivity
– cooperation from support personnel

Objectives:

There is need to clearly state specific objectives describing what a learner will be able to do/accomplish at
the completion of any prescribed unit of instruction. These are derived from General objectives.

Specific Objectives

This is the map of the journey through teaching-learning process. The journey includes the acquisition of
knowledge, skills, beliefs and values in the curricula content. Simply put, an instructor breaks down a
topic/concept into learnable and teachable sub-concepts. This concept/content analysis enables an
instructor to develop sub-objectives.

Sequencing of Delivery

One can sequence concepts and sub-concepts as follows:

– Simple concept to complex concept

– Known concept to unknown concept
– Concrete to abstract
– Super-ordinate concept to Subordinate
– Co-ordinate concept to Co-ordinate concept
 – Rules to Examples concept and Examples to Rules concept

Differences between General and Specific Objectives

– Specific objectives are measureable, observable/behavioural, Non-ambiguous.

– Specific objectives use action verbs (e.g. listing, identifying, draw, count, label- low level
objectives or explain, discus, interpret- high level objectives)

On the other hand General objectives are non-quantifiable, not observable and ambiguous. For instance,
how would a teacher know when a learner understands or is lost in the teaching process?

Measuring Lesson Objectives

– At this planning phase, it is important to determine, construct or develop measures by which you
would be assured that your objectives have been achieved. Sometimes tests, quizzes, puzzles
could be developed as measures of objectives.

– These measures will be useful before, and as you guide the learners through the training. In
addition these same measures could be used at the end of the training.

Pre Knowledge or entry behavior of the learner

An instructor is expected to administers a pre-test to determine the entry behaviour or pre-knowledge of

the students. By so doing, the Systems approach to instruction will guide the instructor both the learner
and task/content analyses.

Design and development

An instructor is expected to administers a pre-test to determine the entry behaviour or pre-knowledge of

the students. By so doing, the Systems approach to instruction will guide the instructor both the learner
and task/content analyses.

– The internet provides varieties of open educational resources which are free for limited classroom
or usable for instruction only if permissions are sought.

– The choice of learning experiences, appropriate media and modes of delivery should be
determined by the nature of the topic being taught.

– More detailed information on these aspects of the instructional design could be further sought by
consultation with the directorate of the Centre for Open Distance Learning.

Implementation

Learners are at the centre of teaching and learning process in any instructional system. The instructor is
the director/manager who orchestrates the teaching-learning process. The instructor’s ability to harmonize
all the elements or sub-systems of the instruction and motivate the learner will determine efficiency and
effectiveness of the instruction.

The instructor determines what aspect of the presentation could best be delivered face to face by the
instructors to the class.

The instructor also determines which aspect of the presentation the learners would benefit most by direct
interaction with the instructional resources such as Video streams, CD, objects etc.

Skills in lesson design and delivery

 Variation skills
 Questioning skills
 Responding skills
 Explanation skills
 Reinforcement skills

Evaluation

Evaluation is an integral aspect of an instructional process and should be done to;

– measure the objectives achieved in a teaching-learning process.
– Measure tools e.g. tests, puzzles, quizzes, inventories, check-list etc.
– guides and monitors the performance of instructors and learners using a feedback of data.
– Multiple measures using a variety of evaluation tools are more reliable than one or two.
– Use of formative (continuous assessment) facilitates development while the summative
evaluation facilitates decision making on selection of media/modes or any resources after a period
of time.

Formal Instruction

Instructional Method

They are techniques or approaches that the teacher uses to bring the learner in contact with the content to
be learned

Instructional methods could be through:

Informal: Learning that occurs in daily life, in the family, in the workplace, in communities and through
interest or activities of an individual

Non-formal: Learning that has been acquired in addition or alternatively to formal learning

Formal: Learning that is been acquired through verbal exposition by the teacher. The teacher presents
explanation

Formal Methods are:

 • Lecture methods
• Discussion
• Recitation
• Role-play
• Demonstration
• Inquiry

Lecture Method

Is an instructional method in which the teacher transmits information directly to groups of learners for the
purpose of education. It is highly structured

Discussion

• Discussion method of teaching is a group activity involving the teacher and the student to define
the problem and seek its solution.

• is also described as a constructive process involving listening, thinking, as well as the speaking
ability of the student
Recitation Method
Role play Method

Is a method of teaching in which the participant will be assume a role and act out the role

Demonstration Method

Is an instructional method in which the learner is shown by the teacher how to perform a particular task

Instructional Evaluation Meaning, Importance & Objective

Meaning of Instructional evaluation

• Evaluation essentially is the provision of information for the sake of facilitating decision making
at various stages of curriculum development. This information may pertain to the program as a
complete entity or only to some of its components. It includes obtaining information for use in
judging the worth of a programme and procedure. It is a comprehensive term and transcends
standardized tests covering all means of ascertaining the results of construction.

• Evaluation of instruction is an integral and essential part of the whole process of curriculum
development. It is a continuous activity and not a “tail-end-process”. Evaluation and planning are
 complementary processes which occur almost simultaneously and continuously. Planning is made
on the basis of evaluation and vice versa. However, as a separate state evaluation has its own
entity.

The importance of Instructional evaluation

• Instructional evaluation is meant to determine the value of the instruction itself, is the
appropriate for the particular group of students with whom it is being used?

• Are the instructional methods selected, the best choices in the light of the objectives sought? Is
the content the best that could be selected?

• Are the materials recommended for instructional purpose appropriate and the best available for
the purpose envisaged?

Objectives of Instruction Evaluation

• To determine the outcomes of a programme.

• To help in deciding whether to accept or reject a programme.

• To ascertain the need for the revision of the course content.

• To help in future development of the curriculum material for continuous improvement.

• To improve methods of teaching and instructional techniques.

Types of Instructional Evaluation

• Precursive (pre-course) evaluation. This type of evaluation is the initial evaluation that is
conducted before the commencement of the implementation of the curriculum. It seeks to
ascertain that all that is required in implementing the curriculum has been put in place. This
evaluation goes a long way in forecasting the success of the curriculum. It reveals the
inadequacies in the preparation for implementing the curriculum so that these lapses could be
corrected before it is too late.

• Formative (in-course evaluation. It occurs during the course of curriculum development. Its
purpose is to contribute to the improvement of the educational programme. The merits of a
programme are evaluated during the process of its development. The evaluation results provide
information to the programme developers and enable them to correct flaws detected in the
programme.

• Summative evaluation. In summative evaluation, the final effects of a curriculum are evaluated
on the basis of its stated objectives. It takes place after the curriculum has been fully developed
and put into operations.
 • Diagnostic evaluation. Diagnostic evaluation is directed towards two purposes either for
placement of students properly at the outset of an instructional level (such as secondary school),or
to discover the underlying cause of deviancies in student learning in any field of study.

• Direct evaluation. Any form of evaluation that scrutinizes the educational programme itself is
referred to as direct evaluation. It seeks to determine whether the programme is serving its
purpose. The evaluation focuses on everything about the programme excluding the students.

• Indirect evaluation. This evaluation is targeted at finding out the performance of the students in
an education programme. It involved determining students learning outcomes in terms of
knowledge, skills, attitude and character.

General Procedure for Curriculum Evaluation

According to Yusuf (2014), the following steps are to be followed in evaluating a curriculum:

• Determine and clarify what is to be determined

• Select suitable tools and materials to be used for the process

• Conduct measurement using the tools you have selected

• Compare the result of the measurement with what is to be expected

• Pass judgement on the basis of the information collected to show the difference between the
expected and the actual outcome. (P.216)

Innovations in Teaching and learning

Innovation in teaching and learning is thus new ways of teaching. It involve infusing new ideas to
teaching and learning process. Subsequently, a new way of teaching or learning may be seen as a
departure from the old ways of teaching or traditional ways of learning. E,g chalk and duster to the use of
ICT, use of moodle, proceeding from programmed instruction to individualized learning e.t.c innovation
in teaching involves infusing new ideas, techniques or approach to the way instruction will be carried out
rather than using the established teaching method.

Innovation in learning involves the new ways teacher use in facilitating effective understanding of lesson
by the learners rather than the old way of listening and writing note.

Concept of Micro teaching

• This is an innovative tool used in teacher training programs.

 • It is a teaching technique that involves the development of pedagogical skills among teachers in
training (pre-service teachers).

• It requires that pre-service teachers teach a group of their colleagues within a period of 5 to 10
minutes in a recorded session. Feedbacks from the recorded class is reviewed and pre-service
teachers listen to comments and make adjustments in a subsequent lesson presentation

• micro teaching can be defined as a sort of specialized training technique that provides appropriate
opportunities to the pupil teachers for the practice and development of some specific teaching
skills by organizing teaching it its micro form- miniature.

• It is a device of imparting training to the inexperienced or experienced teachers for learning the
art of teaching by practicing specific skills through a “scaled down teaching encounters”

• The use of micro-teaching technique in reference to the teacher education program

Characteristics of micro teaching

• Microteaching is a teacher training technique and not a teaching method
• Microteaching is real teaching, though the teaching situation is simulated
• In microteaching the teacher trainee practices one specific teaching skill at a time, till he/she
attains mastery over the skill
• Microteaching is scaled down teaching encounter in class size(5-7 students),content(one
concept),and class time(5-7 minutes).

Advantages of Micro Teaching

• This helps teacher trainees to gain more confidence in real teaching.
• Micro teaching helps in reducing the complexities.
• Micro teaching create among the teacher-trainees an awareness of the various skills of which
teaching is composed of.
• Microteaching helps in systematic and objective analysis of the pattern of classroom
communication through specific observation schedule.
• Microteaching simulates the classroom scene and gives the teacher trainee an experience of real
teaching.

Disadvantages of Micro Teaching

• It may not work in actual classrooms
• It requires teaching laboratory or small classes for re-teaching which are not available in our
schools
• It is very time consuming device for developing teaching skill
• A large number of trainees cannot be given such opportunities of re-teaching and re-planning
• It employs more controlled situation with a limited practice teaching to specific teaching skills
Concept of Peer Teaching

• This is another concept in teaching that requires students to teach their peers in a classroom
usually under the supervision of the teacher.

• A student who is assumed to be more knowledgeable assumes the role of the teacher while others
assume the role of learners. It is sometimes referred to as peer tutoring

Advantages of Peer Teaching

• Students receive more time for individualized learning.
• Direct interaction between students promotes active learning.
• Peer teachers reinforce their own learning by instructing others.
• Students feel more comfortable and open when interacting with a peer.
• Peers and students share a similar discourse, allowing for greater understanding.
• Peer teaching is a financially efficient alternative to hiring more staff members.
• Teachers receive more time to focus on the next lesson.

Disadvantages of Peer teaching

• Some peers might decide not to listen to what their peer mate is saying
• Peer may lack classroom control
• Peer may lack good communication skills
• Peer educators require support and access to advice
• Peer education requires an initial core group to get things started

This Summary is subjected to future criticism

Wishing you all the best

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