LAB 4

FAKULTI TEKNOLOGI DAN

KEJURUTERAAN
INDUSTRI DAN PEMBUATAN
UNIVERSITI TEKNIKAL MALAYSIA MELAKA
DAN WELDING DESIGN ANALYSIS

LAB SHEET 1

FORCES IN TRUSSES

Learning LO1 Describe basic concepts and fundamental principles of

Outcome (LO): mechanical applications

Program PO1 Apply knowledge of technology fundamentals to broadly-defined

Outcome: procedures processes, systems and methodologies in welding
technology.
Synopsis: This lab activity will enrich students’ knowledge on forces in trusses. Students
are exposed to the concept of determining the internal forces and normal or axial
strains in Idealized Warren Grider truss members subjected to a given loading.

Related Lecture’s 1. Introduction welding design analysis. Static: general principle, Force vector
Topic: and equilibrium of particle (Topic 1)
2. Principal of Stress and strain (Topic 2)

Prepared by: Ts Dr Mohd Basri bin Ali Date: 2 Nov 2021

Approved by PM. Ir. Dr. Mohd Hadzley b Abu Bakar Date

LM/SLM/HOD

QMS : REVISION RECORDS

Revision Date Approved by
Description Prepared by :
No (DD/MM/YY) LM/SLM/HOD:
1.0 THEORY

A truss is a structure composed of slender members joined together at their end joints. The members
commonly used in construction consist of wooden or metal struts or bars. The end connections are
usually formed by bolting or welding the ends of the members to a common plate called a gusset
plate, as shown in Figure 1-b, or by simply passing a large bolt or pin through each of the members,
Figure
1-b.

Figure 1 Internal forces

truss

To design both the members and the connections of a truss, it is necessary to determine the force
developed in each truss member when the truss system is subjected to a given loading. In this
regard two important assumptions will be made:
a. All loadings are applied at the joints.
b. The truss members are joined together by smooth pins.
Because of the two assumptions, each truss member acts as a two-force member and therefore
the forces at the ends of the member must be directed along the axis of the

Figure 2 Tensile and compressive force in a bar

member. If the force tends to elongate the member, it is a tensile force (T), Figure 2(a), and if it
tends to shorten the member, it is a compressive force (C), Figure 2(b).
In static equilibrium the truss members will satisfy the following conditions:
Fx = 0 (1)
Fy = 0 (2)
M = 0 (3)
When material properties are used to determine force in truss member the following equation will
be needed.
From Hooke’s law : = E (4)
where
= Stress in the member (N/m2) E
= Young’s modulus (N/m2)
= Displayed axial strain produced in truss member
and = F/A (5)
where
F = Force in member (N)
A = Cross-sectional area of member (m2)
From equations (4) and (5),
F = AE (6)
2.0 EQUIPMENTS/ EXPERIMENT APPARATUS/ CONSUMABLE MATERIALS

Layout of the apparatus and its schematic diagram are shown in Figure 4.

Steel bar
with sensor
Roller
Fixed Load
controlle

Dial

1. Fixed base
2. Roller base
3. Steel bars with strain sensor (strain gauges)
4. Load controller
3.0 PROCEDURES/ METHODOLOGY

Figure 4: Idealized Warren Grider

Warren girders are common structures. They are usually used for simple bridges and in
cantilevered form for crane booms.
1. Make sure the equipment is set up properly.
2. Apply loads until 500 N in the increment of 100 N and record the strain readings in table.
3. Subtract the initial reading (be careful with your signs) and complete Table 5. Record all
the readings.
4. Assume that Esteel = 210 GPa for all truss members. Rod diameter = 5.98 mm:.
4.0 RESULTS
EXPERIMENTAL DATA

Table 1 True strain reading for each truss

True strain reading ()
Load (N)
AB BC AC BD CD CE DE
0 3 3 3 1 5 1 1
100 -8 13 18 -8 14 6 -9
200 -17 22 23 -16 23 11 -18
300 -26 32 28 -25 33 16 -28
400 -37 42 33 -35 43 21 -38
500 -46 51 51 -43 52 26 -46

Table 2 Experimental and theoretical forces at 500N

Experimental Theoretical force

Member force (N) (N) Error (%)

AB -271 -288.68 -6.12

BC 301 288.68 4.27

AC 301 144.34 109

BD -253 -288.68 -12.36

CD 306 288.68 6

CE 153 144.34 6

DE -271 -288.68 -6.12

EXPERIMENTAL RESULT
1. From the measured data, plot graph Load (N) against True Strain () for all members on the same
axis.
2. Theoretically, calculate internal force in each member with a load of 500 N. Assume that Esteel = 210
GPa for all truss members
3. By using the measured data, calculate internal force (experimental force) in each member with a
load 500 N. (Esteel = 210 GPa)

4. Determine the percentage of error between experimental and theoretical force. Complete Table 2.
5.0 DISCUSSION

For discussion, you should answer all questions as follows:

- Analyze or interpret and comment on the tabulated and graphical results obtained for both
experiments. Explain the relationship exists between the variables involve in this work.

From what has been analyzed in the experiment, the relationship between variables involved
in this experiment is governed by the principles of static equilibrium and the behavior of
materials under stress and deformation. Each member of the structure is straight and
connected at their ends by pins. In fact, the fundamental assumptions for truss analysis are
that all members are only subjected to axial forces. The deformation of members under loads
is trivial and of insignificant magnitude and results in significant changes in the structure's
geometry. In addition, loads and reactions will only be transmitted at the joints, either directly
or indirectly. Therefore, members are only varying linearly.

- Discuss and explain the differences between the experimental and theoretical results.

There are few differences between the experimental and theoretical results of this experiment.
To keep it simple, the experimental results are based on the experiments that have been done
in the laboratory, while the theoretical results are based on knowledge and mathematical
equations. This is because theoretical models often make simplifying assumptions, such as
idealized pin or hinge joints, perfectly straight members, and homogeneous materials. For the
experimental, truss joints may exhibit some stiffness, members may have imperfections, and
material properties may vary. Also, theoretical models assume a specific load distribution and
pattern of forces within the truss. In experimental setups, achieving precisely the assumed load
distribution and perfectly replicating theoretical conditions can be challenging.

- Identify which truss members are in compression and tension for both experiments. Give the
reason to this behavior / observation and explain which members will be of the more critical to
be known its behavior in order to avoid structural failure / collapse.

According to the table 2, the critical member is AC with the highest error percentage value
(109%). To understand the principle, the member is in compression when the force in it is
directed towards the connected joint. While the member is in tension if the force is directed
away from the joint to which it is connected. Determining between members that are in tension
 and those that are in compression is tricky. Some members will be tense at CD or BC, while
others will be compressed at BD or AB.

- State the factor of errors or discrepancies for both experiments. Justify your argument and
suggest how these errors may be eliminated or minimized.

There would always be an error or discrepancy in this type of experiment. The most highlighted
factor is measurement errors. Errors in force measurements can occur due to imprecise
instrumentation, calibration issues, or the sensitivity of measurement devices. To avoid this
happening, users should calibrate measurement instruments regularly, use high-precision
devices, and implement redundant measurements to cross-verify results. Next, imperfections in
truss structure or geometry. This is due to deviations from the idealized geometry assumed in
theoretical models, such as manufacturing tolerances or construction inaccuracies. Using
advanced fabrication techniques to minimize geometric imperfections on the truss structure is
the best way to minimize the problem. Last but not least, human errors. This is because of the
mistakes made by experimenters during setup, data collection, or analysis. This can be solved
by following the standard procedures and implementing quality control measures. Double-
check experimental setups and data entries to catch and rectify human errors.
6.0 CONCLUSION

Give your conclusion of this experiment work / report. Summarize its main findings.

To summarise, we successfully achieved the objective of the experiment. We are able to

investigate the behaviour of a truss structure under various loading conditions. Besides, we
analysed the force distribution throughout the truss members under the load applied. The
internal forces, including tension and compression, were identified for each truss member.
Also, we identified the critical members of the structure. This is because the analysis identified
specific truss members that were more critical in terms of load-carrying capacity and potential
failure. These members were found to be near supports, longer in length, or subjected to
higher axial forces. Furthermore, we found a comparison of theoretical and experimental
outcomes in this experiment. A few inaccuracies resulted in an error between the experimental
and theoretical results. Based on the observed discrepancies between experimental and
theoretical results, recommendations for improving the accuracy of future experiments were
formulated. These may include refining theoretical models, enhancing material
characterization, and optimising experimental setups. In addition, we observed the sensitivity to
geometry and support conditions of the truss structure. This is because the experiment
highlighted the sensitivity of the truss structure to geometric variations and support conditions.
Deviations from idealised conditions were found to influence the distribution of forces within the
truss.
So, by doing this experiment, we understand that the force in the truss experiment provided
valuable insights into the behaviour of the truss structure under applied loads.
ASSESSMENT CRITERIA:
Your response to each task will be graded separately based on the checklist attached. To
obtain maximum marks, ensure that your response addresses each of the tasks in the question
accordingly.
Assessment checklist for Lab Activity 1

Assessment tasks Mark LO PO C/P/A level

allocation

Procedure (Ability to choose lab 10 LO1 PO1

for Idealized Warren Grider truss P1 - Perception
and use equipment)

Work Process (Ability to construct 10 LO1 PO1 P2 - Set

and understanding of Idealized
Warren Grider truss activity)

Work Process (Ability to show 15 LO1 PO1 P4 – Mechanism

data – Fotography skills)

Outcome (Results - strain data in 25 LO1 PO1 P4 – Mechanism

each truss member)

Outcome (Explanation of the 15 LO1 PO1 P5 - Complex

results) Overt Response

Outcome (Discussion) 15 LO1 PO1 P5 - Complex

Overt Response

Discipline (Ability to perform lab 10 LO1 PO1 P2 - Set

and safety regulations)

TOTAL 100

SPECIFIC INSTRUCTION

1. Answer in ENGLISH .
2. Must include list of references .
3. Submit your assignment ONLINE.
.