LEARNING

LEARNING
BY
DR. BIRONGA
SEPTEMBER, 2020
Definition of Learning

• Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior

as a result of experience and practice
Characteristics of Learning
• Learning involves a change in behavior
• Learning occurs through practice
• Learning should result into a relatively permanent change.
The changes should last a considerable length of time and
not disappear after a few hours or days.
• Learning is a continuous process.
• Learning is transferable.
Principles of Learning
• The principle of readiness
The individuals will learn best when they are ready to learn. Readiness
may be mental, physical or emotional.
• The principle of Practice
This means people get better as they repeat what has been learnt. The
more often people are able to do what they have learnt, the better
they become in doing it.
Principles of Learning Cont’
• The principle of meaningfulness
We learn best and retain for long what is meaningful.
• The principle of known to known
Learning occurs best if it is started from the known to unknown.
• The principle of step to step
Learning should be done on steps. Divide whatever is being learnt into
smaller steps, starting from the simple one to more complex. The
steps should be logical.
Theories of Learning
Classical Conditioning

• Ivan Pavlov developed the theory of classical conditioning. Classical

conditioning is a form of learning in which a neutral stimulus brings
about a response after being associated with a stimulus that already
elicits that response.
Principles/Concepts of Classical Conditioning
• Extinction
This is the disappearance of a learnt response. It occurs when
reinforcement is withdrawn e.g ringing the bell without giving the
dog food. If this is repeated many times the dog will stop salivating
because it will learn that the bell is no longer accompanied by food.
• Spontaneous recovery
This is a temporary increase in the strength of a conditioned response
which is likely to occur during extinction after the passage of time.
Principles /Concepts of Classical Conditioning
Cont’
• Generalization
This involves the dog responding to another similar stimulus in the
same way it responded to the conditioning stimulus. Eg the dog can
indiscriminately salivate to any type of bell.
• Discrimination
This is when there is the ability to discriminate
Differences between different stimuli and only respond to a specific
stimulus.
Making use of Classical Conditioning in
Classical situations
• Create an atmosphere that attracts children to school by being warm,
loving, kind etc
• The same principle of association can be used to make children like
subjects or topics which they fear by using interesting methods.
• Teachers should avoid beating and abusing the children as after
sometimes they develop fear.
• Let every child experience success in something.
Elements of Respondents
• The Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
This produces a response automatically e.g. food provides salivation.
• The Unconditioned Response (UR)
The response that comes automatically e.g. salivation.
• The Neutral Stimulus (NS)
Has no effect on the organism during the initial stages of the process e.g. bell sound
• The Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Initially had no effect on the organism but which has acquired the ability to purchase a
response in the organism after the conditioning process e.g. feeling hungry at the sight of
the cook at lunchtime.
• Conditioned Response (CR)
This is the response that results due to the effect of the conditioned stimulus e.g.
salivation at the sound of the bell.
Operant or Instrumental Conditioning
• It was developed by B.F.Skinner & L.Thorndike Operant Conditioning
theory deals with the relationships between behaviours and their
consequences. Skinner noted the following after his experiment on
the rat.
• The organism has an active role
• The outcome of behaviour becomes central
• Positive outcome led to repeated or increased behaviour.
• Negative outcomes led to reduced behaviour
• Thorndike also did an experiment with cats in puzzle boxes. He noted
the following;
• Initial successes were purely by chance .
• The cat had taken longer before the first successful attempt.
• The time taken gradually reduced with each successful attempt e.g.
1st attempt took 4 minutes while the 7th attempt took only 30
seconds.
• Successful behaviour is mastered while non successful behaviour is
stamped out.
• Both Skinner & Thorndike concluded that behaviour followed by
success is more likely to recur in similar situations.
• They referred to this success as reinforcement.
• In kinds of reinforcement we have;
i. Positive reinforcement- This is where a response is followed with
something pleasant.
ii. Negative reinforcement- This is when a response is followed with
something unpleasant.
Classes of reinforcers
• Primary reinforcers
These are biological and unlearned e.g. food, oxygen,
water and sleep.
• Secondary Reinforcers,
These are learned and become reinforcers by associating
with primary reinforcers e.g. praise, money and success
Types of reinforcement;
• Continuous reinforcement- This refers to a situation
where every single response by the organism is followed
by a reinforcer.
• Partial reinforcement- This refers to when only some
responses lead to a reinforcer. It is effective in
maintaining a desired response for a longer period of
time.
Schedules of reinforcement
• Fixed interval schedule – Interval time
• Fixed ratio schedule- Responses
• Variable interval schedule – Different time
• Variable ratio schedule- Different responses
Cognitive theory of learning;
This approach lays emphasis on mental processes
other than the behavioural events of conditioning.
This theory is Gestalt theory of learning and it was
proposed by a group of psychologists. They say
people learn and solve problems by reorganizing the
elements in the problem situation. Some of the
Gestalts include Kohler and Piaget.
Social Learning Theory
• Social learning is also referred to as observational or modelling or
imitation learning. Bandura and Walters are known for this theory.
Implications of Social Learning Theory
• Children learn many other things other than the specified topics,
information, skills or attitudes.
• Children learn many things by only observing the behavior of parents,
other caregivers, teachers, peers etc. All those living with children
should try to be good role models.
• A good parent or teacher is more likely to be modelled than those
that are harsh and cruel.
• Social learning theory can be used to stop bad behavior e.g. through
reprimands or encourage good behavior through approval.
Application of learning theory in
learning situations
• Teachers and parents need to be good role models in
all areas for the children.
• Teachers should invite good role models to come to
school so that the children have a wide range of good
role models to choose from.
• Parents and teachers should be loving and caring so
that the children can copy them.
• People can control and manipulate others by use of
reinforcement.
• Give correct feedback immediately and make use of
the principle of reinforcement to maintain desired
behavior.
THE END
MEMORY AND RETENTION

• Definition of Terms
1. Memory- This is the process by which information is aquired,
stored in the brain and later retrieved.
2. Forgetting – This refers to the inability to retrieve previously stored
information.
3. Remembering- Refers to the ability to have in memory something
that was said and done.
 Types of Memory

• Sensory term memory

• Short term memory
• Long term memory
Reasons why learners Forget
• Encoding Failure (Learner Didn't Pay Attention to Content)
This is the most common cause of forgetting. Basically, the information never
actually made it to the person's memory bank. This happens when a
student fails to focus on what is being taught.
• Interference
It is known that recent things we learn are more easily remembered than
older information. If both sets of information on the same subject, the
newer memories may make it harder, if not impossible, to remember the
older ones on the same subject. This is called retroactive interference. If
the original information is so strong that it makes learning new information
on the subject difficult, it is referred to as proactive interference.
• Shallow Processing
Deep processing occurs when meaning is placed on the material being
learned. If the material can't be connected to a sense or a feeling, the
processing is shallow and it does not stay in the brain for any length
of time because the brain considers it unimportant and will make
room for things it considers more relevant.
• Decay or Disuse
The brain tends to take information that isn't used regularly and
replace it with material it knows a person needs. The more ways
something is gone over, the more it stays in memory.
• Lack of rewards
• Repression- Unpleasant material is pushed out of memory.
• Organization of information- well organized information is easily
retrieved from memory compared to disorganised one.
Reducing Forgetting
• Nature of what is being learned- eg Meaningful things are easier to
remember than meaningless things.
• Avoid disuse, use repetition and review.
• Organize your teaching in a logical sequence and encourage students
to be organized.
• For repression-Learning should be made pleasant and enjoyable.
• Minimize interference
• Make use of the principle of reinforcement.
Factors that Influence Memory
• Age- memory declines with age
• Health and emotional status
• Lack of attention
• Practice improves memory
• Lack of proper study and rehearsal skills.
• Intelligence- the higher the intelligence the better one’s memory is.
 THE END.

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