196

AGRIVITA Journal of Agricultural Science. 2024. 46(1): 196-210

AGRIVITA
Journal of Agricultural Science
www.agrivita.ub.ac.id

Utilization of Yeasts in Promoting Plant Growth in Acidic Soil – A Review

Darshini Rawichandran1), Susilawati Kasim1*), Ali Tan Kee Zuan1), Mohd Izuan Effendi1) and
Sriharan Raguraj1,2)
1)
Department of Land Management, Faculty of Agriculture, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang,
Malaysia
2)
Soils and Plant Nutrition Division, Tea Research Institute of Sri Lanka, Talawakelle 22100, Sri Lanka

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: The ecosystem’s biodiversity and soil microorganisms are impacted
Crop production by the increasing use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, which
Growth promoter causes soil acidity and limits the sustainability of agricultural output.
Problematic soil The majority of microbial functions in acidic soil are inhibited because
Sustainability of decreasing nutrient cycling and organic matter decomposition as well
Yeasts as diminishing bacterial and fungal growth and reproduction. In light of
these growing concerns, the use of microorganisms as bio fertilizers
Article History: is a recommended as alternative agricultural practice. Recent times
Received: July 11, 2023 have brought about a change in the paucity of study on yeasts and
Accepted: January 24, 2024 their ability to safely boost plant growth. Numerous works on bacteria
have been made available. The primary objective of the study is to
*) Corresponding author:
highlight the widespread application of yeasts in sustainable agricultural
E-mail: [email protected]
practices to promote plant growth in acidic soils. All of the advantages
that yeasts provide may contribute to the growth of plants. Therefore, a
thorough investigation into yeasts may be fruitful and offer a sustainable
means of boosting agricultural yields that are necessary in acidic soil.

INTRODUCTION of phosphate rock, a key component of fertilizers,

may be depleted within a few decades. The energy-
Promoting high-yield crop production is
intensive Haber-Bosch method, which produces
depended on the use of fertilizers, as crops typically
fertilizer mostly from fossil fuels, aggravates
require significant amounts of essential nutrients
for optimal growth. These nutrients include nitrogen environmental effects such as resource depletion
(absorbed as NH4+ or NO3-), phosphorus (absorbed and global warming.
as H2PO4), calcium (absorbed as Ca2+), sulphur Exploring substituted techniques to maintain
(absorbed as SO42), magnesium (absorbed as plant nutrition in acidic soil while lowering reliance on
Mg2+), potassium (absorbed as K+), iron (absorbed mineral fertilizers is a crucial topic of concentration
as Fe2+ or Fe3+), and zinc (absorbed as Zn2+ or for agricultural science research (Dawson & Hilton,
Zn(OH)2) (White & Brown, 2010). Mineral fertilizers 2011; Jwaideh et al., 2022). Using microorganisms
are commonly used to deliver these macro that can depolymerize and mineralize organic
nutrients in modern agricultural systems, often in nutrients connected to plant material is one method
the form of processed natural minerals or artificial of substituting organic inputs for mineral fertilizers.
compounds. However, unsustainable fertilizer This tactic takes use of the large amount of nutrient-
practices are causing detrimental effects on Earth’s rich “waste” that may be composted and utilized
biogeochemical cycles, contributing to issues such as organic fertilizers, coming from a variety of
as soil erosion, waterway eutrophication, and operations, including agricultural, municipal, and
greenhouse gas emissions (Syed et al., 2021). industrial ones (Jacoby et al., 2017). Since organic
Additionally, there is a concern that known reserves inputs are more stable in the soil and less prone

ISSN: 0126-0537

Cite this as: Rawichandran, D., Kasim, S., Kee Zuan, A. T., Effendi, M. I., & Raguraj, S. (2024). Utilization of yeasts in
promoting plant growth in acidic soil – a review. AGRIVITA Journal of Agricultural Science, 46(1), 196-210. http://doi.
org/10.17503/agrivita.v46i1.4241
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Darshini Rawichandran et al.: Yeast promotes plant growth in acidic soil...................................................................

to leaching and volatilization than mineral fertilizers, fission. Yeast identification and taxonomy are
especially those related to biological processes, accomplished through a variety of molecular
they may provide more environmentally friendly biology techniques, such as amplified fragment
options. length polymorphism of D1/D2 domain, DNA
Although farming systems currently use bio- reassociation, hybridization, karyotyping, random
fertilizers, such as microorganisms, the interaction amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), ribosomal
between plant cultivars and microbial inoculations DNA phylogeny, and physiological testing (Zhang
is not well understood mechanistically. This lack of et al., 2020). While other yeast genera, including
accuracy is caused by two main insights gaps: the Candida and Brettanomyces (Deuteromycete) and
question of whether plants can use helpful microbes Cryptococcus and Rhodotorula (Basidiomycota),
to their fullest potential and the lack of genetic are categorized differently, the well-known “baker’s
variety needed to produce desirable features. yeast” is classified within the Ascomycota subclass
Significantly, there is still a dearth of study on some (Botha, 2011).
microorganisms, including yeasts, which are the Yeasts are found in a variety of habitats,
subject of many patents for improving plant nutrition including soil, water, plants, animals, and insects,
from organic sources of phosphorus, sulphur, and although being less common than bacteria.
nitrogen (Alkharabsheh et al., 2021; Ndoung et al., Certain yeasts may live in the tissues of plants
2021). and form commensal or parasitic partnerships with
A key player in this situation is yeast, a mammals. Notably, opportunistic human infections
kind of fungal cell that has the capacity to absorb are caused by Candida albicans. Certain conditions
large quantities of nitrogen and carbon. Some with low oxygen, temperature, or water potential
yeasts are facultatively anaerobic and can ferment are conducive to yeast adaptation. They support
carbohydrates. They thrive in conditions are favored insects like Drosophila spp. and have an impact on
by perennial plants, low-disturbance soils, stable Drosophila physiology and reproduction, therefore
organic residues with high carbon-to-nitrogen (C:N) adding to the food chain (Fenner et al., 2022;
ratios, slower recycling rates, and slightly acidic Ljunggren et al., 2019; Naranjo-Ortiz & Gabaldón,
pH. Yeasts reproduce mainly through asexual 2019). Marine filter feeders also eat yeast.
cell fission and budding, adapting to various In the biogeochemical cycle, filamentous
environments, including liquid suspension, biofilms, fungus and bacteria are more important in microbial
and soil, including sand grains. Extensive research ecology than yeasts (Table 1). But yeasts, which use
on yeast development has revealed its potential a variety of carbon sources to transform plant waste
to support plant growth in acidic soil and its high into carbon dioxide, are essential saprophytes in
proliferation capacity in endophytic environments, the carbon cycle (Frey-Klett et al., 2011; Gupta et
making it a valuable candidate for applications like al., 2017). While most yeasts absorb ammonium
soil bioremediation (Lynd et al., 2002; Schlegel & ions or amino acids as organic nitrogen, others
Jannasch, 2006). contribute to the nitrogen cycle by decreasing nitrate
or ammonia nitrite. Furthermore, certain yeasts are
MATERIALS AND METHODS sulfur auxotrophs, meaning they may decrease
sulfate (Frey-Klett et al., 2011; Gupta et al., 2017;
The study addressed the use of yeasts to
Naranjo-Ortiz & Gabaldón, 2019).
enhance plant development in acidic soil by reviewing
over around 85 published scientific publications Importance of Yeast
(2001–2022) from a variety of backgrounds and For thousands of years, yeast has been used
archives. The papers that highlighted the role of traditionally to manufacture bread, wine, and beer.
yeasts in soil acidity, the interaction between plants The products of modern yeast biotechnologies
and soil, and the Green Revolution in improving soil have an influence on many economically significant
quality were incorporated. industries, including as food and beverages,
chemicals, industrial enzymes, medications,
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION agriculture, and the environment (Table 2) (Sicard
& Legras, 2011). The most widely used bacterium,
Yeast and Ecology
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, is the primary yeast
Yeasts, classed as unicellular fungus,
cell factory in biotechnology and produces the
create spores externally during their reproductive
world’s most valuable biotechnological product,
phases, mostly by budding, occasionally utilizing
industrial and drinking ethanol (Parapouli et al.,
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2020). However, the production of industrial Environmental and Agriculture

goods is employing an increasing number of non- Several yeast species are known to pose
Saccharomyces species (Faria-Oliveira et al., 2015; threats to plants, such as Ophiostoma novo-
Maicas, 2020). ulmi causing Dutch Elm disease and certain
For example, certain industrial yeasts are Eremothecium species causing issues like cotton
harmed by spoilage yeasts used in the production ball ailments (McLeod et al., 2005). Conversely,
of food and drink. Food spoilage yeasts have a some yeasts play a beneficial role in plant health
detrimental effect on food’s nutritional value and are by preventing fungal diseases. Yeasts like
thus economically significant for food producers, Cryptococcus laurentii, Metschnikowia pulcherrima,
even though they do not infect or intoxicate humans Pichia anomala, and Pichia guilliermondii have
(Fleet, 2011). Apart from their conventional uses demonstrated potential in biocontrolling fungal
in the food and fermentation industries, yeasts fruit and grain spoilage, particularly in mitigating
have an increasing number of vital roles in the post-harvest fungal deterioration (Ferraz et al.,
environment and the biotechnology industry of 2019; Muccilli & Restuccia, 2015). For example, S.
healthcare. Furthermore, fundamental biology and cerevisiae shows promise as a phytoalexin elicitor,
medical studies greatly benefit from the use of yeast stimulating the defence mechanisms of cereal
as a model eukaryotic cell (Faria-Oliveira et al., plants against fungal pathogens (Ahuja et al., 2012;
2015; Maicas, 2020). Kaur et al., 2022; Raasch-Fernandes et al., 2019).

Table 1. Natural yeasts’ habitat

Habitat Explanation Examples yeasts References

Soil Many yeasts may not be able to thrive in soil; rather, they • Lipomyces (Johnson, 2013)
may just serve as a reservoir for their long-term survival. • Schwanniomyces
Nevertheless, yeasts are only present in the top, aerobic
soil layers (10–15 cm) and are common in farmed soils
(approximately 10,000 yeast cells per gram of soil). Some
genera are separated only from soil.
Water Yeasts predominate in surface layers of fresh and salt • Rhodotorula (Butinar et al.,
waters but are not present in great numbers (about 1000 2005; Gadanho
cells per litre). Many aquatic yeast isolates belong to red- et al., 2003)
pigmented genera.
Halotolerant yeast that can grow in nearly saturated brine • Debaryomyces
solutions hansenii
Atmosphere Per cubic metre of air, a few viable yeast cells may be • Cryptococcus, (Faniyi et al.,
anticipated. Air currents spread yeast from layers above • Rhodotorula, 2019)
soil surfaces. • Sporobolomyces,
• Debaryomyces
Plants Insects contribute in the spread of yeasts on the • Drosophila spp. (Hernández-
phyllosphere, and certain yeasts cause plant diseases. Fernández et al.,
The border between soluble plant nutrients (sugars) and 2021).
the septic environment is a frequent habitat for yeasts
(the surface of grapes). Conditions are favourable for
the growth of many yeasts due to the abundance of
organic substances in decaying areas and on the surface
(exudates, flowers, fruits, phyllosphere, rhizosphere, and
necrotic zones).
Animals Warm-blooded animals’ skin and digestive tracts are home • Candida albicans (Malassigné et
to a variety of non-pathogenic yeasts, some of which are al., 2021; Suh et
opportunistically harmful to humans and other animals. al., 2008)
Insects, which play a key role as vectors in the natural
dispersion of yeasts, are commensally linked with a variety
of yeasts.
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Additionally, yeasts contribute to environmental to enhance nutrient availability and regulate the
benefits by reducing pollutants. Certain yeasts, rumen environment in domestic livestock, such as
including Candida utilis, efficiently detoxify chemical cattle, promoting animal growth or milk production
contaminants from industrial effluents and act as bio- (Elghandour et al., 2020). Yeasts may scavenge
sorbents for heavy metals. Yeasts like Candida utilis oxygen to protect rumen bacteria from oxidative
can also effectively remove nitrogen and carbon from stress or provide dicarboxylic acids to stimulate
organic wastes (Ferraz et al., 2019). In agriculture, rumen bacterial growth (Elghandour et al., 2020;
living cultures of S. cerevisiae have been shown Wang et al., 2022).

Table 2. The importance of yeast on industrial, agriculture and medical sectors

Uses Yeast References

1. Many uses in foods, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and xylose • Candida shehatae (Voidarou et al., 2020)
fermentation.
2. Some species are used in the production of microbial biomass • Candida utilis,
protein, vitamins, and citric acid. Candida
3. Some species are food spoilers in frozen poultry. guilliermondii
• Candida zeylanoides
1. Lactose, inulin-fermented, and high in enzyme sources • Kluyveromyces spp. (Aitzhanova et
(lactase, lipase, pectinase, and recombinant chymosin). al., 2021; Erten et
2. Cheese whey is fermented with lactose-fermenting yeasts to al.,2014)
create alcoholic beverages.
3. The fermentation of cocoa is a source of the dietary enzyme’s
pectinase, microbial rennet, and lipase.
4. Dairy products that include mouldy yeast (fermented milk and
yoghurt).
1. Methylotrophic yeasts used in cloning technology. • Hansenula (Mack et al., 2009;
2. Production of microbial biomass protein, riboflavin. and Pichia (H. Rozanov et al., 2020)
3. An important surface film spoiler of wine and beer. polymorpha and P.
pastoris)
• P. pastoris
• P. membranefaciens
1. Amylolytic yeasts (starch-degrading). • Saccharomycopsis (Bruner & Fox, 2020;
2. Traditional food and beverage fermentations (baking, and Elghandour et al.,
brewing, winemaking, source of savoury food extracts, and Schwanniomyces 2020; Johnson, 2013)
food enzymes. • S. cerevisiae
3. Used as fodder yeast (livestock growth factor).
4. Sparkling wine fermentations. • S. diastaticus
5. Wild yeast spoiler of beer. • S. boulardii
6. Used as a probiotic yeast.
1. Some strains are used as biocontrol agents to combat the • Cryptococcus spp. (Carmona-Hernandez
fungal spoilage of post-harvest fruits. et al., 2019; Freimoser
2. Food spoilage yeast (poultry). • C. laurentii et al., 2019)
1. Source of food enzymes such as lipases. • Rhodotorula spp. (Geronikou et al.,
2. Some species are food spoilers of dairy products. 2022)
1. Biocontrol of fungal fruit diseases (post-harvest). • Metschnikowia spp. (Di Canito et al., 2021;
2. Osmotolerant yeasts. Freimoser et al., 2019;
Steglińska et al.,
2022)
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While most yeasts contribute positively to million acres. According to Von Uexküll & Mutert
human existence, some can be opportunistically (1995), Oxisols and Ultisols make up the majority
harmful. Candida albicans, causing candidiasis, is of tropical acid soil worldwide, making up around
a common opportunistic yeast infection, particularly 21.87% and 18.4% of all tropical soil, respectively
affecting immunocompromised individuals (Pappas (Fig. 1).
et al., 2018). In certain cases, C. albicans infections Acidic soils are characterized by elevated
in AIDS patients can be fatal. Yeast recombinant levels of toxic elements such as aluminum (Al),
DNA technology has enabled the production of manganese (Mn), and iron (Fe), along with
novel human medicinal molecules, showcasing deficiencies in calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg),
the beneficial medical properties of yeasts (Mayer potassium (K), and nitrogen (N). A significant
et al., 2013). Yeasts also play a crucial role as portion of global acid soils exhibits chemical
experimental models in biomedical research, imbalances, insufficient cation retention capacity,
particularly in cancer, pharmacology, toxicology, nutrient losses, and suboptimal crop performance.
virology, and human genetics. Soil pH serves as an indicator of acidity, providing
insights into nutrient availability, the presence of
Extent And World Distribution Of Acid Soil
free lime (calcium carbonate), and the abundance
About 3.95 billion hectares of the world’s
of specific ions like sodium, hydrogen, aluminum,
free Iceland are covered in acid soil. Ultisols make
and manganese (Fageria et al., 2008).
up 9.3% of the world’s land area, or about 12,347

Fig. 1. Dominant type of soils (Source: Sumner & Noble, 2003)

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Darshini Rawichandran et al.: Yeast promotes plant growth in acidic soil...................................................................

Soil acidity formation serves as an indicator of component that is mostly composed of kaolinite and
weathering and leaching within the soil (Fageria et sesquioxides, which leads to a very low CEC and
al., 2008). Widespread soil acidity poses challenges leaching losses of nutrients (Castellini et al., 2021;
to agricultural productivity globally. The soil’s acidic Murphy, 2014).
nature results from substantial percolation, leading to
Types of Soil Acidity
leaching and the generation of biological acids. Plant
The active acidity in the soil solution is
roots and the dissolution of CO2 in water release H+
quantified based on the concentration of H+ ions,
ions, contributing to soil acidification (Danh et al.,
influenced by carbonic acid (H2CO3), water-
2009). Acidification occurs when leaching causes soil
soluble organic acids, and chemically acidic salts.
solution acidity, replacing negatively charged acidic
The immediate impact of active acidity on plant
cations with H+ ions and Al(OH)3. Reduced yields
development and soil microbes is determined by the
and nutrient utilization were followed as a result of
presence of H+ and Al3+ ions, which precipitate on
the displaced cations being leached deeper into the
soil surfaces, indicating exchange acidity. Adsorbed
soil profile and causing soil acidity dominance in the
and dissolved organic ions maintain a dynamic
exchange complex (Chintala et al., 2012).
equilibrium, allowing a swift transition between
Higher Al3+ concentrations are seen in lower
forms. The exchangeable H+ and Al3+ ions contribute
pH soil solutions and cation exchange sites. Both
to soil acidity, readily exchangeable in a basic saline
natural and man-made processes, such as land
solution like KCl (Agegnehu et al., 2021).
clearance and contemporary agricultural methods
Buffer pH, measured as the proportion of
that include overuse of chemical fertilizers like urea
H+ ions associated with clay and organic matter in
and ammonium nitrate, or cation loss from crop
a buffer solution, reflects the soil’s buffer potential.
harvesting, can cause soil acidification. In some
Adsorbed H+ and Al3+ ions migrate into the soil solution,
tropical soils, pollution and acid rain increase the
representing potential, accumulated, or reserve
acidity of the soil by introducing H+ ions and making
acidity. The bulk of H+ ions in acidic soil is absorbed by
the acidity worse (Chintala et al., 2012; Danh et al.,
the soil (reserve acidity) (Thomas, 2018; Elita et al.,
2009; Mijangos et al., 2010; Zubrzycki et al., 2014).
2022). The relationship between active and reserve
The main causes of acidity in soil are a mix
acidity is influenced by soil properties, including clay
of human and natural activities. High-yielding crop
type and quantity, organic matter content, and free
cultivation, acidic parent material, organic matter
lime in the soil. The reserve-to-active acidity ratio
decomposition, ammonium nitrification, and a lack
indicates the soil’s buffer potential, with sandy soil
of buffer capacity from insufficient clay and organic
having lower buffer capacity compared to clay-rich
matter are some of the factors that cause acidification
soil like silt loam. The calculation of pH buffer helps
(Bünemann et al., 2018; Cai et al., 2015; Yan et al.,
determine the lime required to neutralize a significant
2020; Zhang et al., 2019). When there are more
portion of the reserve acidity when the soil pH is 6.3
acidic cations, such as hydrogen (H+) and aluminum
or below (Zibilske, 1998).
(Al3+), than alkaline cations, such as calcium (Ca2+),
Acidity in the soil adversely affects plant
magnesium (Mg2+), potassium (K+), and sodium
growth and productivity, leading to increased weed
(Na+), the soil is considered acidic (Bedigian, 2005).
growth, reduced soil cover, and the potential for soil
A number characteristics of the soil may be used
erosion (Barth et al., 2018). Aluminum toxicity in the
to determine its acidity, and Ultisols and Oxisols can
subsurface soil is a major concern associated with
be categorized using soil taxonomy. An argillic horizon
soil acidity (Laekemariam et al., 2016). Low pH in
in the subsoil and subsurface clay accumulation in
topsoil affects nutrient availability, hinders nodulation
the B horizon as a result of leaching in a tropical,
of legumes, and reduces nitrogen fixation in pastures.
humid climate are characteristics of Ultisols. To be
The impact of aluminum and manganese toxicity
classified as high-weather soil, a mineralogical study
on root development and soil biota is significant.
must demonstrate that kaolanoitite and sesquioxides
Elevated levels of Al and Mn released into the soil
are dominant. Tropical soils are rich in kaolinite, a
solution contribute to reduced soil cover, increased
non-expansive 1:1 phyllosilicate with a low surface
runoff, water contamination, and deposition in
area and cation exchange capacity (Shamshuddin &
streams (Barth et al., 2018).
Anda, 2008). In comparison to Ultisols, Oxisols have
Soluble aluminum concentrations exceeding 2
undergone greater weathering and have an oxic
mg/kg or exchangeable aluminum levels exceeding
horizon in the subsurface. They also include a clay
5% can be toxic to plant roots. Topsoil with sufficient
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organic matter typically prevents Al toxicity to plant Soil Microbial Acidity

roots, even though laboratory studies may remove In soils with moderate to strong acidity,
it. Excessive Al in the soil solution disrupts root cell microbial activity, particularly among microbes
division and elongation, resulting in poor crop and involved in nitrogen fixation or organic matter
pasture development, reduced yields, and smaller decomposition, is diminished. The growth and
grain sizes. The negative effects of Al poisoning are reproduction of soil microbes, primarily bacteria and
particularly evident during dry-finish seasons, where fungi, are hampered in acidic conditions, leading to
roots struggle to penetrate acidic subsurface soil, a reduction in the breakdown of organic matter and
limiting access to stored subsurface water (Gazey & nutrient cycling. The microbial processes responsible
Andrew, 2009). for mineralizing nutrients into forms accessible to
The nutrient loss in acidic soils, including plants occur at a slower rate, potentially limiting
potassium (K), calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg), plant nutrient uptake. Under favorable conditions,
through leaching or removal in harvested products nitrogen-fixing rhizobia bacteria form a symbiotic
like hay and grain, results in soil impoverishment. relationship with legumes in root nodules, yet their
Insufficient calcium can also contribute to structural populations are significantly reduced in acidic soils,
issues in the soil. As soil acidity increases, nutrient tie- impacting the successful establishment of this
up occurs, rendering nutrients such as phosphorus symbiosis (Laekemariam et al., 2016).
(P) and manganese (Mn) unavailable (Stuart Chapin Different species of rhizobia bacteria vary
III et al., 2009). Soil pH significantly influences in their resistance to soil acidity, with some, like
nutrient availability to plants, with acidic soils medicinal rhizobia, being highly susceptible and
reducing the availability of major nutrients and trace unable to persist (Howieson & Ewing, 1986). The
elements, including nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), inability of pasture legumes to thrive in acidic soil can
potassium (K), sulfur (S), calcium (Ca), manganese lead to grass-dominated pastures. Low pH levels
(Mn), and molybdenum (Mo) (Fig. 2). Liming to raise in top soils can negatively affect microbial activity,
the pH of acidic soil enhances the availability of these notably decreasing legume nodulation. Signs of
nutrients. Conversely, acidic soils exhibit increased resulting nitrogen deficiency in plants, such as
concentrations of iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), copper reddening of stems and petioles in pasture legumes
(Cu), zinc (Zn), and aluminum (Al). Leaching in or yellowing and death of the oldest leaves in grain
acidic soils contributes to groundwater and surface legumes, may occur. Reduced rhizobia populations
water pollution through the release of nitrate, other in acidic soils can impede successful nodulation
nutrients, and heavy metals from the soil profile and the establishment of a functional symbiosis,
(Ngoune Tandzi et al., 2018). causing certain pasture legumes to struggle or fail
to survive (Yazie et al., 2021; Ngoune Tandzi et al.,
2018).
Soil ecosystems host a diverse range of
microflora and microfauna, including protozoa,
nematodes, earthworms, moles, and ants. The
density of living organisms in soil is exceptionally
high, with billions of creatures per gram of soil.
Cultivated soil typically has a lower organism density
than uncultivated land, and population density
tends to decrease with increasing soil acidity.
Soil ecosystems comprise both autotrophic and
heterotrophic species, with heterotrophs utilizing
organic carbon for decomposition or consumption
and autotrophs serving as primary producers
using organic carbon derived from carbon dioxide
(Christel et al., 2021).
In their natural environment, plants exist
Fig. 2. Relationship between soil pH and nutrient within a diverse ecosystem alongside numerous
availability, in acidic soils (Source: Ngoune Tandzi microorganisms. While the influence of certain
et al., 2018) microorganisms, like nitrogen-fixing symbiotic
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Darshini Rawichandran et al.: Yeast promotes plant growth in acidic soil...................................................................

bacteria or mycorrhizal fungi, on plant nutrition is one of the main goals of this field of study. This
has long been recognized, recent research information may then be used to create microbial
has unveiled the broader spectrum of plant- communities that are ideal for carrying out particular
associated microorganisms and their potential to tasks.
replace artificial agricultural inputs. Advances in
Microbial Traits and Bioavailability of Nutrients
understanding the composition and dynamics of
for Plants
rhizosphere microbiomes reveal that plants exert
As Jacoby et al. (2017) discuss, three main
an influence on the microbiome, likely through root
mechanisms are frequently proposed to explain
exudates, and bacteria have adapted to thrive in
how microbial activity contributes to plant growth:
the rhizosphere niche. However, the mechanisms
controlling plant hormone signaling, warding off
underlying these interactions and the activities
or outcompeting pathogenic microbial strains,
driving changes in the microbiome remain largely
and boosting the bioavailability of nutrients borne
unknown (Kuzyakov & Xu, 2013; Liu et al., 2022).
from the soil. Much of the nutrients in natural
Interconnection of Plants with Soil Microbes ecosystems—such as N, P, and S—are bound in
While soil is often viewed solely as a source organic molecules and thus only partially available
of nutrients for plants, it functions as a dynamic to plants. In order for plants to get organic forms of
ecosystem that houses a diverse community of N, P, and S, soil microorganisms like bacteria and
bacteria, fungi, protists, and animals. The interactions fungus must be able to metabolically break down
between plants and soil-dwelling organisms span and mineralize these forms. Essential nutrients
a wide range of ecological possibilities, including including ammonium, nitrate, phosphate, and
competitive, exploitative, neutral, commensal, and sulfate are released into the soil as inorganic forms
mutualistic relationships. In contemporary plant as a result of microbial cell turnover, cell lysis, or
science, the majority of research has focused on protozoic predation (Adomako et al., 2022; Grzyb et
mitigating pathogenic impacts, such as herbivore al., 2021; Jacoby et al., 2017).
and infection, or alleviating abiotic stress conditions Microorganisms are essential for controlling
(Liu et al., 2022; Lynd et al., 2002). However, the nitrogen recycling and carbon cycle, among
there has also been a longstanding interest in other soil activities. Plants’ capacity to absorb vital
understanding the beneficial ecological interactions nutrients like N, P, and micronutrients is determined
that support plant development. For instance, in by the variety and total number of microbial species
the latter half of the 19th century, mycorrhizal fungi present in the soil. Plant variety and abundance
and bacteria in nodulated legumes were recognized have the power to affect the whole soil ecology
as root symbionts. In the 1950s, crop seeds by generating exudates from their roots that may
were coated with bacterial cultures (Azotobacter either promote or inhibit the growth of particular
chroococcum or Bacillus megaterium) to enhance microbial species. Less than 10% to 20% of a
yield and growth. Since the 2000s, research focus plant’s total carbon output is released into the soil
has shifted from identifying specific bacterial strains by plants, which also enriches the soil by providing
to utilizing metagenomics to map the diversity and microorganisms with food and energy (Hattori et
abundance of the root microbiome (Larimer et al., al., 2019; Verbruggen et al., 2017). As a reciprocal
2014; Meng et al., 2015). relationship, bacteria feed plant roots nutrients
According to sequencing studies, a wide and encourage the growth of particular microbial
variety of microbial species are present in the species, mainly yeast, to protect plants from
roots of plants, making the rhizosphere niche a dangerous diseases (Hayat et al., 2010; Jacoby et
hotspot for biological diversity. In an attempt to al., 2017; Xiang et al., 2022).
replicate beneficial microbial activities in controlled A variety of plants depend on the fungus-
experimental settings, recent studies have focused to-bacterium ratio (F:B), with different ratios being
on building synthetic communities (SynComs) from desired for different crops. Plant preferences are
strains of common rhizosphere species (Jacoby influenced by the F:B ratio; for some vegetables
et al., 2017; Singh et al., 2022; Yamamoto et al., (carrots, lettuce, broccoli, cole crops), values
2018). Gaining a mechanistic knowledge of how soil between 0.3 and 0.8 are excellent; for other
bacteria improve plant development and defense vegetables (wheat, maize, and tomatoes), values
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Darshini Rawichandran et al.: Yeast promotes plant growth in acidic soil...................................................................

between 0.8 and 1.1 are preferred. In wooded soils, key to a potential solution. Microbial inoculants,
trees grow best at a F:B ratio of 10:1, whereas historically applied in agriculture, have proven
lawns do best at a ratio of 0.5 to 1.1 (Gondal et al., effectiveness in broad-scale inoculation. More
2021; Hayat et al., 2010). recently, it has been shown that using yeasts such
Yeast is beneficial to most plants because it Metschnikowia, Pichia, Candid, Saccharomycopsis,
helps to prevent infections, improve plant health, and Schwanniomyces, and Rhodotorula can enhance
stimulate growth by producing enzymes. Beneficial soil quality and plant development (Freimoser et al.,
yeast inhibits the growth of infections and illnesses 2019; Wang et al., 2022).
by competing with harmful bacteria. According to Every aspect of the soil environment in the
studies, pathogenic fungi that cause plant mortality natural world have changed as a result of human
or substantial crop output impacts include Pythium, activity, especially the use of chemical plant
Rhizoctonia, and Verticillium. Competition for protection and the intensification of agriculture.
nutrients and accessible space is thought to be the The ability of the ecosystem to survive and operate
main cause of yeast response in acidic soils, and properly may be impacted by this change (Nunes et
yeasts with a variety of antagonistic traits have a al., 2020). Plant variety and productivity are impacted
better chance of avoiding disease (Ferraz et al., by changes in soil quality, and human activity aims
2019; Hernández-Fernández et al., 2021; Kowalska to maximize the productive attributes of soil. The
et al., 2022). physiochemical and microbiological characteristics
Furthermore, in exchange for the plant’s of the soil must be taken into account for appropriate
carbon, mycorrhizal fungi develop symbiotic agricultural management (Hernández-Fernández et
partnerships with plant roots, helping to solubilize al., 2021). The sensitivity of soil quality, as shown
phosphorus and transfer soil nutrients to the plant. by the activity and variety of microorganisms, is a
Endomycorrhizal fungi, which are typically found subject of inquiry for various experts. It has been
with grasses, row crops, vegetables, and shrubs, discovered that anthropogenic factors—particularly
grow inside root cells, whereas ectomycorrhizal agricultural practices—have a major influence on
fungi, which are connected to trees, develop on the the quantity and quality of organisms that live in soil
surface layers of roots. It has been demonstrated that environments (Frey-Klett et al., 2011).
the presence of baker’s yeast benefits arbuscular
mycorrhizal (AM) fungi, a kind of endomycorrhizal CONCLUSION
fungi and their hyphal development enables
In the upcoming years, the large expansion
colonizing cucumber roots (Freimoser et al., 2019;
in the world population is predicted to drive up
Zhang et al., 2020).
demand for agricultural methods, including the use
Agricultural Context: A “Fresh” Green of conventional fertilizers. This growth produces
Revolution in the Face of Soil Quality and accumulates residues in addition to the
Through the development of improved crop depletion of organic matter in soils. The levels of
plants through targeted breeding and sophisticated microbial populations are impacted by changes
genetic manipulations, as well as advances in in physicochemical qualities, underscoring the
chemical inputs such as pesticides, insecticides, necessity for creative and long-term agricultural
and chemical fertilizers, the Green Revolution—a solutions. In lieu of synthetic fertilizers, especially
pivotal movement in the 20th century—markedly in acidic soils, this paper suggests using yeasts
increased global food production. To meet the as plant promoters to increase agricultural output
needs of a growing global population for food, fuel, both directly and indirectly. Yeasts are a useful
and fiber while addressing changing soil quality microorganism for agriculture because of their
over the course of the century would require a natural qualities and practical applications. They
new agricultural revolution due to the significant are the perfect platform for evolutionary study
environmental costs involved with fertilizer inputs applicable in field studies because of their variety
(John & Babu, 2021). of species, simplicity of laboratory cultivation, and
A new agricultural revolution—often called fast adaptation for experimental testing, including
a “bio-revolution”—that stresses biological inputs reverse genetics approaches. Future biofertilizers
like improved crops and the microbiome holds the may be based on the discovery, creation, and
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Darshini Rawichandran et al.: Yeast promotes plant growth in acidic soil...................................................................

refinement of efficient yeast inoculant consortia Barth, V. P., Reardon, C. L., Coffey, T., Klein, A. M.,
that are tolerant of different plant species and McFarland, C., Huggins, D. R., & Sullivan, T.
environmental conditions. These biofertilizers have S. (2018). Stratification of soil chemical and
the ability to provide a steady supply of food, help microbial properties under no-till after liming.
Applied Soil Ecology, 130, 169–177. https://doi.
save the environment, and provide a workable
org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2018.06.001
solution since they are affordable, useful, and
socially acceptable. Bedigian, D. (2005). Sustainable soils. The place of organic
matter in sustaining soils and their productivity.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Economic Botany, 59(4), 410–410. https://doi.
org/10.1663/0013-0001(2005)059[0410:DFABR
The authors acknowledge the Universiti E]2.0.CO;2
Putra Malaysia (UPM) supported my candidature by Botha, A. (2011). The importance and ecology of yeasts in
providing support for this study. The author thanked soil. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 43(1), 1–8.
to friends, colleagues, and staff of the Department https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2010.10.001
of Land Management, UPM for their moral support,
Bruner, J., & Fox, G. (2020). Novel non-cerevisiae
technical assistance, and contribution in various
saccharomyces yeast species used in beer
aspects. and alcoholic beverage fermentations.
Fermentation, 6(4), 116. https://doi.org/10.3390/
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