JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE ENERGY VOL. 9, NO.

1, 2018

RELIABILITY INDICATORS AND CONDITION MONITORING

OF POWER TRANSFORMERS – CASE STUDY
REXHEPI V., NAKOV P.
*Technical University of Sofia, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Boulevard “Sveti Kliment Ohridski”,
8, 1000, Sofia, Bulgaria,
[email protected], [email protected]

Abstract – Transformers are sophisticated equipment the failures of specific equipment and their related
in the power system compared to other elements, and features needed for the proper operation of the equipment
as such, they require a continuous monitoring and [3].
diagnosis for safe and reliable operation. Their Condition monitoring focuses mainly on the
importance in the functionality of the power system is detection of incipient faults inside the transformer that
multiple. Monitoring techniques are used to follow are caused by the gradual deterioration. Some of these
their operational work and consistency. There should incipient faults may be detected during routine
be listed monitoring and testing methods, collection maintenance; however other faults may cause numerous
data, parameters, failures and outage statistics, problems before the regular maintenance cycle.
electrical and thermal parameter status, and Operating conditions and continuous monitoring of the
diagnosis for determining their operating status of electrical, thermal and mechanical parameters is
performance. Based on case analysis according to one of the fundamental elements for determining the
loads of the power system, a load of transformers and operational continuity safer transformers [4].
network topology are discussed regarding the results. The faults which can appear in power transformers
In this case, are taken into account the network can interrupt the distribution of electricity leading to
topology of the Kosovo Transmission System, failure important losses [5].
statistics, failure effects and reliability indices. The The issue of sustainability and safety in operation of
model and simulation cases are performed with the electrical insulating fluids is of a great theoretical
NEPLAN software. These models also illustrate the complexity and practical importance [6].
cost of a failure modes in the power transformers in The Management of maintenance, testing on-line
the different scenarios. and off-line, as well as the proper functioning of
measures and protection, is among the most important
Keywords: reliability indicators, power transformer, factors that define the safety and prevention of power
monitoring and diagnosis, failure modes. transformers of possible defects. Modern and smart
devices also significantly increase security and facilitate
the control and diagnosis of transformers.
1. INTRODUCTION

One of the first and significant questions is the 2. SECURITY CRITERIA ASSESSMENT OF
definition of the reliability of the power system itself [1]. THE POWER TRANSFORMERS
The importance of this definition is so high mainly
because the reliability is a technical field, which is Transformers except that they are on consumer
relatively new and which is used in many technical areas. supply services have an effect on the electrical power
Experts are not of a unique opinion about the definition system configuration and topology his influence. Having
of reliability and application of its definition in a in mind the placement of their respective nodes starting
common way. In some cases, the term reliability can be from the node where generators are located, and busbars
related to a product or a process. Also, in the power for the transformation of network transmission levels
systems, where the term of reliability is divided into 400/220/110 kV. Well, except for the effect of
adequacy and security. The adequacy is related to the transformer power system security is also reflected in the
existence of sufficient generation of the electric power optimization of the electrical network [7].
system to satisfy the consumer demand. The security is Transmission limits – for each of the transmission
related to the ability of the electric power system to components (lines and transformers), power transfer
respond to transients and disturbances that occur in the should not violate its rating during both normal and
system [2]. contingency (N-1), so:
A system is a group of components, which are
associated or connected to perform a specific function or
more functions. A failure is an inability of a part or
equipment to carry out its specified function. A fault is
an event of broader meaning than the failure and includes

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voltage such that when load admittance is increased, load

bk (θi −θ j ) ≤ P Nok ∀k ∈(Lc + Lt + Le )
power will increase so that both power and voltage are
controllable. Voltage stability problems are manifested
b mk (θ mi −θ m j ) ≤ PCok (1)
by several distinguishing features: low system voltage
∀k ∈(Lc + Lt + Le ) ∩ m profiles, heavy reactive line flows, inadequate reactive
support, and heavily loaded power systems. The voltage
Where P No k , P Co k are the element k ratings during collapse typically occurs abruptly, after a symptomatic
period that may last in the time frames of a few seconds
normal and contingency conditions, respectively: θ i , θ j to several minutes, sometimes hours [11].
are the voltage phase angles of the line k during normal Load shedding – load shedding is a process
conditions: θ m i , θ m j are the voltage phase angles of the that applied in the case of system violations after a
contingency, overloading or before collapse system.
line k , following contingency m ; C is the set of As known, this is a process more complex mechanism
contingencies, and L c , Lt , Le are as defined earlier [8]. that results in load curtailment.
Contingencies and N-1 criteria – the total number of Based on policy and principle as illustrated in
N − 1 security constraints is very large and equals the ENTSO-e, transmission operators are obligated to
n( n − 1) for the system with n transmission and make load shedding during severe outage events.
transformer branches. In the practical sense, power It should be applied to load points in some of the
transmission systems are usually designed well within substations. During severe outage or risk of the power
the capacity of the system load and generation. Only a system, one method is to adopt optimal power flow
small proportion of lines and transformers may be techniques to minimize the load shedding after severe
overloaded, even if a single branch outage occurs. To outages. In this context, transformers should be part of
detect all the possible over constrained cases, which must the action by tap changer or optimization techniques
be considered, a fast contingency analysis for a single [12].
line and transformer outage must be performed [9]. Failure Effect Analysis – this technique is a powerful
The most accurate method is to rebuild the bus reliability assessment and use of electrical and
admittance matrix and resolve the load flow equations for mechanical equipment. It is powerful design tool to
each line outage state. The additional power analyze engineering systems and analyse each failure
modes on the network. By the analysis of individual
∆Pi + j∆Qi and ∆P j + j∆Q j are injected at buses i
failure modes, the effect of each failure can be
and j , respectively, in the pre-outage state. If the determined by the operational functionality of the
additional power injections can produce power flow relevant system hierarchy level. So, failure analysis can
increments so that power flows on the rest of the system be performed in seven steps based on the key concepts of
are the same as those in the post-outage state. In the post- systems hierarchy, operations, functions, failure mode,
outage state, we have: effects, potential failure and prevention.

′ + jQia
Pi + jQi = Pia ′
(2)
P j + jQ j = P ′jβ + jQ ′jβ

In the equivalent power injection case;

(Pi + ∆Pi ) + j(Qi + ∆Qi ) =

′ + Pij + ∆Pij ) + j(Qia
(Pia ′ + Qij + ∆Qij )
(3)
(Pj + ∆Pj ) + j(Q j + ∆Q j ) =
(P′jβ + Pji + ∆Pji (+ j(Q′jβ + Q ji + ∆Q ji )
Fig.1. Availability and unavailability of power
Where Pij + jQ ij the P ji + jQ ji are the power flows transformers in the power transmission system of
Kosovo
on-line i − j in the pre-outage state and ∆Pij + j∆Qij ,
In Fig. 1 is shown the probability of outages of the power
∆P ji + j∆Q ji are power increments on-line i − j due to
transformers during the year of 2016 in KOSTT based on
additional power injections to the pre-outage state. So, statistical data. In this picture are expressed the two
we have equations [10]: components of probability such as availability,
unavailability and impact on interruption of the load at
∆Pi + j∆Qi = (Pij + ∆Pij ) + j(Qij + j∆Qij ) buses 35/10/6 kV voltage levels.
(4)
∆Pj + j∆Q j = (Pji + ∆Pji ) + j(Q ji + ∆Q ji )

Voltage stability and under voltage – voltage stability is

stability as being the ability of a system to maintain

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250 40 assessing and setting the operating conditions. The

35
combination of methods and techniques to identify and
200 finding the incipient and hidden failures that impact to
Base case value and violation % 30

Number and zone violations

the work transformers during their operation is the main
150 25 objective. Based on this, it has been shown the ranking of
20 factors and primary elements for monitoring and
100 15
diagnosis. However, the techniques of monitoring and
evaluation of operating conditions of the parameters for
10
50 the development of procedures that diagnose the
5 performance of transformers and assist in their
0 0 management in working conditions should be considered.
0 20 40 60 80 100 Therefore, the evaluation of transformer parameters
Contingency element model (ltnsformers)
Violation % Base case value Zone of violation element Number of violations
and their prioritization, comparison and assessment of the
probability of risk and possible disruption constitutes a
Fig.2. Violated and contingency elements necessary approach to achieving the objectives for an
(transformers) in the power system of Kosovo adequate modeling of transformer parameters [15].
In Fig.2 is presented the violated elements, zone, and
Power Transformers Outages
contingency analysis of the power transformers in power
system of Kosovo – KOSTT, simulated by NEPLAN
software.
Failures Forced outages Unplanned outages

3. CONDITION ASSESSMENT MODEL FOR

POWER TRANSFORMERS ANALYSIS

For detailed analysis concerning the functionality of Number of Type of Classification

Interruption time
failures failures failures
the power system, it is essential to discuss and present
concrete models that facilitate and clarify the work of key
components. A variant of Failure Mode, effects and
critically analysis which include a critical evaluation
based on critically numbers taking into account the Assesment of transformer Effect in Power
Risk of failures
failure effect probability, the failure mode ratio, the status System
components failure rate and the operating time for each Fig.3. Factors for security and reliability assessment
item failure mode [13]. and transformer operation
Reliability centered maintenance of a power
transformers is a relatively new trend in research with Fig.3 summarizes the main factors for handling power
important economic implications [14]. transformer condition such as failure numbers, outages,
Model includes components such as transformers, failure classification, interruptions and types, unplanned
generators, lines, loads, the topology of the network, outages during operation. In other words, the diagram
focusing on transformer status. Also, taken into provides a more detailed overview of problem-solving,
consideration outage cases, contingencies and classification, and helps in searching methods for
unscheduled maintenance. analysis and maintenance as well as a more efficient
The case study presents the modeling of the power approach to discussing transformer functionality issues.
system from 110 kV to 400 kV voltage level, with power These factors are used as a model related to discuss
system components, such as; generators, lines, and analyze the situation in Kosovo's transmission
transformers, busbars, loads, circuit breakers, which are system. A good classified model helps to achieve results
summarized in table 1. as well as increase the reliability and safety of
transformers by enabling measures to prevent possible
Table1. Implemented components on model of defects and consequences they may have on the security
transmission system operator of Kosovo of the power system as a whole. Previously, knowledge
Nominal voltage kV 400 220 110 35 10 6 of the problems and the classification of the occurrences
Number of generator units 2 3 3
Number of transmission 8 10 55
encountered by the transformers is an aid for taking
lines remedial measures as well.
Number power 9 13 57
transformers
3.1Reliabiity modeling of the power transformer
Number of buses 3 6 32 17 21 1
Number of load points 16 21 1 parameters

Estimation of transformer status due to failures, Models that evaluate the operational status of the
planned and unplanned outages, ageing, voltage levels transformers include some parameters that are primary in
and maintenance are illustrated in Fig. 3. The flow chart assessing their work. Among others, the performance of
that is in the discussion for analysis describes the factors transformers' work is entered in several time periods. The
involved and should be considered into account in model in Fig.4 shows the estimation of the level of

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reliability and status of transformer parameters. • Determine severe risk and their impact,
Regarding functionality and reliability, cases are dealt • Identify available detection methods,
with according to the maximum and minimum loads
• Identify recommended actions for reducing the
scenario regimes of operation of the power system. Thus,
the evaluation of transformer parameters and their severity of each failure [18].
prioritization, comparison and assessment of the
probability of risk and possible disruption constitutes a The analyzing includes causes and types of failures
necessary approach to achieving the objectives for an of the power transformers in the Kosovo Power System,
adequate modeling of transformer parameters. for a period of nine years from 110 kV, 220 kV to 400
kV voltage levels with 20 MVA - 400 MVA power
rating. Failures are calculated according to the following
• Failure types expression:
• Outages • Results
• Failure models
• Guidelines and rules from
• Comparison results n1 + n2 + ........+ ni
• Fault location
• IEC and IEEE procedures.
• Probabilities λ = 100% (5)
• Contingencies
• Calculations and using
• Risk and severity N1 T1 + N2 T2 + .....+ Ni Ti
algorithms and comparison of
• Topology of network • Interruptions index
transformer condition
• •
•
Loading
Over voltages
• Calculations inputs
•
Cost of interruptions
Average availability
λ - the failure rate expressed in failures per unit of time
• Set points alarm
• Load shedding [failure/time], ni -the number of failures by i-th
Fig.4. Flowchart design of assessment the power population (failure/year), Ti -is the reference period of i-
transformer parameters and failures th population (in year), and N i -the number of the
Fig. 4 includes the structuring of detailed data that transformers of i-th population [19].
describes the status of transformers in achieving results Historical data, collection and processing constitute
related to operational performance and analysis of their an essential condition for each power system to increase
functioning. All parameters are included in the template efficiency in preventing defects in power transformers. It
foreseen by configuration and different load and is known that the ENTSO-e normative and obligations
topology scenarios. Such models are simulated and require this. Therefore, among other things, this is a
modeled through the NEPLAN software package. future objective for data focusing and processing for
The technical diagnosis of the energy-technology different analysis and diagnosis.
processes has been developed in recent years, the
consequence being the appearance of some diagnosis 20 - 63 MVA 150 MVA
350 317
method accepted in practice, the starting point of there is
the approach the model [16] 300
242
In the model are populated data regarding the types 250 210
222
of outages, failures, maintenance, the time to repair, and
Outage numbers

200 175
finally the cost calculations. Such parameters are
150
processed and compared to IEC and IEEE standards, as
well as other statistical methods. Whereas based on the 100
32 36
diagnosis of each transformer, the results compared to 50
4 11 23
0 0 0 0 0
different periods, loads, trends, alarms and events are 0
explained. 0-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 >41
Transformer ages

4. FAILURE ANALYSIS OF THE POWER Fig.5. Power transformers outages in the

TRANSFORMERS Transmission Power System of Kosovo

The reliability of transformers is a prime concern for Based on Fig. 5 summarized from the years 2007-
power systems. The analysis will predict the transformer 2016 at the 110 kV to 400 kV voltage levels, the number
reliability and costs based on relevant degradation of outages and failures is particularly highlighted in
mechanism. There are several ways in which transformer distributive transformers. Whereas, related to the
can fail. This failure can usually be attributed to the consequences and causes is summarized the data from
failure of a component, such as; a tap changer bushings, 2013 to 2016, the highest outages are at the level of
windings, core, tank and dielectric fluid [17]. distribution transformers, respectively 110 kV voltage
Moreover, the analysis of failure method is most level. According to the statistics, the short circuit’s fault
important to evaluate potential failure and their effects on (external short circuit) is the main issue due to
power transformers. The purpose of the failure distribution power system. Then another phenomenon is
assessment is to give ideas and ways to reduce and reveal the oil degradation that is reflected by the activation of
hidden failures. It takes into consideration some basic the relay protections (Buchholtz relay), due to the
steps: internal short circuit, bushing, VT / CT, bus bar, tap
changer and wrong operation (Table3).
• Identify failure modes associated with systems Regarding the failures occurred in the power
failures, transformers, statistics are also given according to their
• Identify potential effects of failure modes, age. Such data are shown in Table 2.

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As shown in Table 2, outage/failure, are more and status of the operation to their parameters. It
pronounced to power transformers over 41 years old, by indicates that the respective standards are not appropriate
17.45%, from 31 to 40 MVA power capacity is 19.02%. towards the monitoring and diagnosis aspects, problems
While in transformers from 0 – 10 MVA power capacity and causes of the failures. Based on the statistical
is 16.5%, as well as the failures in transformers aged analysis, are analyzed transformers from 20 to 400 MVA
from the year 21 to 30, is 24.92%. (table 3). Based on table 3 it can be noted that the
number of outages is 541. From this number, it should be
Table 2. Failure occurred in the power transformer in concluded that the external short circuit from distribution
Transmission Operator System of Kosovo operator with 329 outages, are very high, with the
Forced outages of power transformers 2007 – 2016 consequences of interruptions also should be mentioned
Power Number of
Age – years
installation transformers
Outages Percent of outages the outages in the VT/CT/BB, with a significant effect on
20 – 63 MVA 26 210 16.5 the interruption of the power transformers’ work, three of
150 MVA 3 32 2.51 them having a high effect on damage and significant
0 – 10
300 MVA 2 0 0 economic costs.
400 MVA 1 4 0.314 In addition to the occurrences that have a negative
20 – 63 MVA 6 175 13.75
impact, a significant number of them have not been
identified, with a total number of 68 cases. This indicates
150 MVA 2 11 0.86
11 – 20 a deficiency that promotes research into finding the most
300 MVA 0 0 0
appropriate monitoring and diagnostic methods.
400 MVA 0 0 0
20 – 63 MVA 15 317 24.92
Table 3. Forced outage sources and probability of
150 MVA 0 0 0
21 -30
power transformers (2013-2016)
300 MVA 0 0 0 Outage Outage Outage Condition Condition Condition Condition
400 MVA 0 0 0 number sources probability 1 2 3 4

20 – 63 MVA 8 242 19.02 Over

37/541 current 0.06 x
150 MVA 4 36 2.83 protection
31 – 40
300 MVA 0 0 0 Differential
22/541 0.04 x
400 MVA 2 23 1.8 protection
Buchholz
20 – 63 MVA 7 222 17.45 7/541 0.01 x
protection
150 MVA 0 0 0 Ground
>41 13/541 0.02 x
300 MVA 0 0 0 S.C.F
Unbalance
400 MVA 0 0 0 1/541 phase 0.001 x
protection
Total 76 1272 4/541 Temperature 0.007 x
13/541 Oil leakage 0.02 x
Tap
The classification of defects and consequences is a 3/541
changer
0.005 x
key factor in finding and diagnosing problems of the 2/541 Bushing 0.003 x
power transformers in continuity. According to IEEE 5/541 Reactance 0.009 x
Pump/
standards and procedures, the causes are defined by the 1/541
Coolers
0.001 x
codes (Table 3), as well as the reasons related to them. 8/541
Lightning/
0.01 x
Moreover, maintenance according to the condition Weather
External
evaluation has a considerable weight in the proper 329/541
S.C.
0.6 x
management of electrical, thermal and mechanical 11/541
Breaker/
0.02 x
Disconector
aspects (Fig.6). VT/CT/
11/541 0.02 x
Bus bar
Wrong
6/541 0.01 x
operation

68/541 Unidentified 0.12 x

Number of intervention/maintenance

128
20 - 63 MVA
150 MVA
300 MVA
78 400 MVA The analysis of Kosovo Operator System is essential
55
to diagnose the power transformers. Hence, this study
50
34 38 36 uses the data for monitoring of the power transformers
28
17 17 14 16 15 21 status in many cases in normal operation, N-1 criterion
9 4 10 8 2 724
0 06 1 0 14 01 16 401 and emergency operation according to the loading
0
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 conditions. In this case is described reliability analysis
Years
based on network model such as; System Average
Fig.6. Number of interventions and maintenance of Interruption Duration Index(SAIDI), System Average
power transformers per year Interruption Frequency Index (SAIFI), Customer
Average Interruption Duration Index (CAIDI), System
The number of interventions is considerable; from this, it Load Interruption Frequency (F), System Load
can be observed that there is a lack of proper Interruption Mean Duration (T), System Load
management of transformers according to the conditions Interruption Probability (Q), Total Interrupted Load

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Power (P), Total Load Energy Not Supplied (W), Total 60

Load Interruption Coasts (C) are calculated using Failure index-1090 MW
53.3
50 Failure index 650 MW
NEPLAN [20]. There are three main categories of 49.4
reliability indices that are estimated for every model and 40
42.4
40.3
usage of indicators such as; 1. Average Failure (F), 2.
Average Outage Time (T), 3. Average Annual Outage 30
23.5
Time (Q). Other categories are system indices, calculated 20
23.2
for groups of loads, areas, zones and whole distribution
12.6
system: SAIFI, SAIDI, and CAIDI. 10 12.6
The third category is power and energy-oriented 0
indices, calculated for both single loads and groups of 2013 2014 2015 2016
loads; 1. Energy Not Supplied (ENS), 2. Peak Power Not
Fig.7. Failure index of power transformers
Supplied (P) [21].
According to the analysis, the number of failures is
higher during the autumn of 2016. The Fig.8 and Fig.9
5. FAILURE INDEX ASSESSMENT OF show the parameters and performance of indicators for
POWER TRANSFORMERS the power transformers.
Monitoring the transformers' work and their status
140
by assessing events and modeling different load 124.893
conditions and regimes is an essential component. The 120
case study describes the aspects of security and 100
reliability. It is also discussed the cost concerning the
78.275
load. Transformer status monitoring includes cases 80 SAIFI
according to; 60
SAIDI
CAIDI
1. Peak load, 40 34.167 37.924

2. Number of power transformers, 20

0.241 2.366 0.936 2.224 0.473 1.335 0.977 1.335
3. Transformer status (outages, failures, planned 0
outages, maintenance and network topology). 2013 2014 2015 2016

For the status analysis of the power transformer Fig.8. Monitoring of power transformer reliability
operation related to failures and reliability evaluation, indicators for peak load 1090 MW based on outages
NEPLAN software packages is utilized. The model with single mode failures
includes cases for the peak loads during the winter and
summer. 160
The study includes the cases; with load up to 1090 135.388
140
MW and 650 MW. In the model are included substations 120
(37), interconnection lines (4), 400 kV lines (4), 220 kV 100
lines (10), power transformers (76), power generation 74.324
SAIFI
80
units in TPP Kosovo B (2), (B1 = 265MW, B2 = 265 SAIDI
60
MW), TC Kosovo A (4), (A1 = 80 MW, A3 = 140 MW, 35.384
CAIDI
40 34.167
A4 = 140 MW, A5 = 140 MW), units in TC Ujmani (2),
(U1 = 16 MW, U2 = 16 MW) and TC Lumbardhi (L = 35 20
0.241 2.366 0.932 2.421 0.459 1.284 0.791 1.566
MW). The cases are discussed for analyzing of power 0
transformers impact on the power, distribution and 2013 2014 2015 2016

generation systems, as well as to consumers. Fig.9. Monitoring of power transformer reliability

According to the results, as shown in Fig. 7, the indicators for peak load 650 MW based on outages
failure index varies by year to year, is important to say with single mode failures
that the index changes by load and interruption time.
According to the Fig.7, the index of failures is more It can be concluded that the evaluation of parameters
pronounced in peak loads. That means the short circuits such as; SAIFI, SAIDI and CAIDI is significant and
form distribution systems due to loads at low voltage necessary to know the performance of power
levels, as well as various overloads from distribution transformers and their status operation.
systems have an impact on it. The most important factor is availability index
(Fig.10) to identify the status operation of the power
transformers. Regarding the analysis based on simulation
are presented the state of parameters condition and their
availability index over the years. Results are compared to
statistical and simulation method. This factor should be
taken into consideration to make analysis and to be
efficiently related to parameter condition and so on.

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However, Average Availability Index (ASAI), is usefully Statistical and simulation methods are compiled, to
related to topology and security margin. describe the power transformer availability index during
the year 2013-2016.
∑Ni × 8760− ∑Ui Ni In Fig. 10 is presented ASAI as calculated by two
ASAI = 100% (6) methods (statistical and simulated) for the power
∑Ni ×8760 transformers from the years 203 up to 2016 that should
be concluded, both results are approximated, except of
Also, ASAI can be represented in relation to SAIDI as the year 2015. This means all statistical data and
below; simulated method are approximately each other.
Therefore, statistical data must be processed as precisely
SAIDI as possible, so that analysis will result as more accurate.
ASAI = 1 − (7)
8760
5.1. Parameter indices assessment
Ui - is the annual outage time (in hours) for substation-i
The evaluation of the indicative parameters
and Ni -is the number of customers [21]. regarding the status of transformers during their
From statistics analysis, it can be concluded that the operation is essential regarding continuity of operation
performance of indicators regarding values is more for different cases and loading regimes. These indications
pronounced in 2014 compared to other years. This of the mode operation are determined for a specified
implies that the level of reliability should be evaluated period. The monitoring and assessment of such
according to the time of interruption, unplanned outages, components like; P, Q, F, W, T and C are essential to
topology and customer supply. achieving better reliability of the power transformers.
By implementing correct methods and operational
99.5 99.995 strategies can be controlled and extended their lifespan
99.32
99.99 99.99 99.99 operation. Also, the performance of the power
99
99.985 transformer depends on the reliability indicators and their
98.5 98.43 99.98 99.98
management by condition assessment of parameters.
In Fig.11 is depicted the performance of reliability
98 99.975
97.85 97.91 indicators. Data recording and processing include
99.97 99.97
97.5
methods to evaluate the power transformer parameters in
99.965 the different conditions and occurrences.
97 99.96
2013 2014 2015 2016
ASAI-statistical ASAI-simulated

Fig.10. Availability index for the power transformers

in the power transmission of Kosovo (2013-2016)

100%

90%
Percentage of indicators performance

80%

70%

60% 3360
34560
74110 2880 1200
4800 3600 C
50% 1920 4000 1920 5250 5250 960 4410
W
40% P
Q
30% T
F
20% 59.52
1418.6 1212.48 33.6 24.96 23.472
10% 48 19.2 21.36 2.688 3.456 5.439
731.5 345.6 669.6 5.6 18.83 25.97 1.632 13.2
6447.72 5052 140.4 264.06 36 19.2 40 19.2 52.5 52.5 9.6 12 44.1
1.222 16.8 32.28 44.52
2.016 3.508 1.771 0.52 106.8 16.8 21.6 10.2 66 6.66
0% 53.3 24 6.3 4.5 3.6 0.593
3 0.14
2 0.14
2 0.18
2 0.359
1.5 0.495
1.5 0.17
1 1.1
1 0.123
0.9

Failed elemets - power transformers (T) to Substations (SS)

Fig.11. The performance indicators of power transformers

According to the simulations, Fig.11 shows the time shown in the interruption of the load with the
performance indicators, unloaded P in (MW / yr), the indices Q [min/yr], the time in hour T (h), the maximum
W load (MWh /yr), and the cost of failures for each

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transformer. It can be concluded that the cost of outages calculation of the cost of interruptions is also a good
for one year is 74110 €/yr. The higher cost is displayed in opportunity for economic evaluation.
SS Lypjani, about 34560 €/yr. It can be assumed that due
to non-fulfillment of the N-1 criterion, as well as load 6. FAILURE MODES AND EFFECTS
capacity is main factors that affect the risk of power ANALYSIS OF THE POWER
system operation. Also, the number of failures is very TRANSFORMERS AND ECONOMIC COST
high as a consequence mainly of the impact of the lines
at the distribution network side. Thus, the estimation of The assessment of the status of transformers during
the indicators for each transformer gives a more realistic their operation in the different failure mode plays a
picture of the power transformer operation, and the significant role in determining the security situation and
supplying of several nodes of the power systems.

Failure Effect Analysis of Power

Transformers

Number of transformators = 76

Failure mode = 2

Single failure Multiple failures

Events/Outages

Outage Failed Protection Load Influenced

Failures Overloads
combination elements tripping shedding loads

No = 47 No = 11 No = 13 No = 13 No = 7 No = 5 No = 15

No = 5
No = 10
Generation Transmission Distribution
System System System/Load

Fig.12. Failure effect analyses of the power transformers in KOSTT during the year 2016, simulated by
NEPLAN
Table 4. Reliability indicators of power transformers
by NEPLAN
Total number of The assessing of the failures is useful and their
N - - 403 403
customers served impact on the respective nodes, as well as in the power
System average quality. However, the impact has also an effect on energy
SAIFI 1/yr interruption 1/yr 0.977 0.797
frequency index
balances.
System average The effect of transformers failure is shown through
SAIDI min/yr interruption min/yr 77.69 43.02 two cases-modes (single and multiple failures). Also, are
duration index
Customer described the number of power transformer outages, the
CAIDI h
average
h 1.326 0.9
number of outage combinations, failures, failed elements,
interruption
duration index
protection tripping, load shedding, overloads, influenced
loads, as shown in the Fig.12.
Average service
ASAI %
availability index
% 99.98 99.992 The Table 4 includes reliability indicators and
System load economic costs of electric power system due to
F 1/yr interruption 1/yr 53.3 44 transformer outages and their failures. In the first case are
frequency
System load
included all failures that occur in the power transformer,
T h interruption h 2.012 1.431 and in the other case are included single failures
mean duration (bushing, Buchholz relays, leakage oil and VT/CT/BB
System load
Q min/yr interruption min/yr 6435.4 3777.0 (Voltage transformer (VT), Current Transformer (CT)
probability and BusBar (BB).
P MW/yr
Total interrupted
MW/yr 731.5 614.5
Moreover, in Fig.13 are depicted results regarding
load power the foremost indicators such as; SAIFI, SAIDI and
MWh/ Total load energy CAIDI. The analyses are simulated by NEPLAN
W MWh/yr 1411.4 820.7
yr not supplied package, based on modeling of the power system, with
Total load
focus on the power transformers status.
C €/yr €/yr 74110 6217
interruption costs
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 JOURNAL OF SUSTAINABLE ENERGY VOL. 9, NO. 1, 2018

80 77.698 and timely monitoring, then supposed failures will be

75 considerably smaller.
70 Single failure Multiple failure
65 Assessing the failures except in the aspect of security,
60
Failure classification
55 reliability and customer supply, it is also necessary to
50 43.028 economically evaluate. Then, the analysis is also
45
40 discussed considering the ratio of outages to two peak
35
30 loads (winter and summer). Fig. 14 shows the economic
25 cost trend for the reported failures. As compared to the
20
15 years, the diagram shows that the cost of the failure is
10 higher in the year 2016.
5 0.797 0.977 0.9 1.326
0 Based on the economic analysis that is supported
SAIFI SAIDI CAIDI and dealt with load ratios for two cases, 1090 MW, and
Reliability indicators
650 MW, it can be concluded that the continuous
Fig.13. Monitoring transformer reliability monitoring and diagnosis approach should be carried out
indicators by modeling failure mode (single and in the configuration of the relay protection and mitigation
multiple) of the short circuits.
Moreover, in the diagram (Fig.14) is shown the
Such cases can be practiced for any combination and performance of the cost of the failures, according to the
configuration of power transformers, and it is most modeling power transformers, loads, failures, duration
helpful for topology and optimization. The results can be time of the failures and their cost interruption.
used to indicate the effectiveness of the technique and
accuracy in estimating power transformer strength and
weakness in the power system. The simulation results 7. CONCLUSION
can be adapted to power transformers operation and
created the algorithm related to their performance. One of the most significant techniques and methods
Hence, evaluation of the reliability indicators in the operational and functional performance of power
describes the components which are out of service at the transformers are the measurements carried out by the on-
same time and to others as result of maintenance activity. line and off-line method. To get acquainted with the
Thus, processing of failure combination determines the working conditions of the transformer and its
reliability characteristics of the power transformers. The performance of electrical parameters such as power,
contribution of the failure combination is a picture to active and reactive, currents, voltages, dissolved gas,
obtain the interruptions occurring at each loading node moisture in oil, oil temperature, winding temperature and
and overall busbars in the power system. However, the other parameters such as electrical ones, thermal and
way of assessing supply reliability is to estimate it in mechanical is needed the practice of smart techniques.
money. The costs are determined as a result of the power The collection of data showing the performance of
transformers interruptions and unplanned outages. electrical, thermal and mechanical parameters of the
power transformer plays a primary role in assessing the
working conditions and status of electrical and
Cost/1090MW Cost/650 MW mechanical parts. The statement of the gases,
80000 temperatures in the winding and oil, as well as the
73570 74110
70000 ambient, is indicative of how the transformer works in
60000 the power system.
50000 By IEC and IEEE standards, the reliability indicators
Coast

40000 through monitoring techniques are performed by

32490 33300
30000 analyzing the trend of failures, mode cases and cost of
25245
20000 17685 the power transformers’ outage/failure during different
16080
10000 9045 loading regimes.
0
2013 2014 2015 2016
Based on the analysis of the outages in power system
Years under consideration and impact on customer supply as well as economic
Fig.14. Cost simulated power transformers failure for costs, more efficient management and continuous or
the years 2013 and 2016 partial monitoring of transformer parameters should be
considered, taking into account the importance of
According to the Fig.14, economic cost varies from one transformers in the overall electrical network regarding
or other case, so when taking into consideration all the security and supply of customers.
failures the financial cost is 74110 €, while in the second
case the cost is lower 33300€.
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