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FAO PLANT PRODUCTION AND PROTECTION PAPER 217

Good Agricultural Practices for Greenhouse Vegetable Crops - Principles for Mediterranean Climate Areas
This publication capitalizes on the experience of scientists from the
Good Agricultural Practices
North Africa and Near East countries, in collaboration with experts from
around the world, specialized in the different aspects of greenhouse crop
production. It provides a comprehensive description and assessment of
for greenhouse vegetable crops
the greenhouse production practices in use in Mediterranean climate areas
that have helped diversify vegetable production and increase productivity. Principles for Mediterranean climate areas
$ Guidance is provided on potential areas for improvement of greenhouse
.
cultivation. More specifically the document aims at strengthening technical
capacity in the use of Good Agriculture Practices (GAP) as a means to
:
improve product quality and safety, and achieve sustainable production
$.
intensification of greenhouse vegetables in countries in Mediterranean
.: climate areas. The publication is also meant to be used as a
$:
reference and tool for trainers and growers as well as other
actors in the greenhouse vegetables value chain
$.:
in this region.
,

ISBN 978-92-5-107649-1

Ministry of Agriculture
9 7 8 9 2 5 1 0 7 6 4 9 1
FAO

I3284E/1/04.13

NCARE
 +'EQRGTVKPCſPCNRFH

217

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Produced with a contribution

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 FAO PLANT PRODUCTION AND PROTECTION PAPER 217

Good Agricultural Practices

for greenhouse vegetable crops
Principles for Mediterranean climate areas

Editorial board:
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Plant Production and Protection Division
Wilfried Baudoin, Remi Nono-Womdim, NeBambi Lutaladio, Alison Hodder

International Society for Horticultural Science

Commission Protected Cultivation
Nicolás Castilla, Cherubino Leonardi, Stefania De Pascale

National Center for Agricultural Research and Extension, Jordan

Horticulture Department
Muien Qaryouti

Editorial support and layout:

Ruth Duffy, English Language Editor

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Rome, 2013
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 271

11. Growing media

Nazim Gruda,a Muien M. Qaryouti b and Cherubino Leonardi c

a University of Bonn, Institute of Plant Sciences and Resource

Conservation, Germany
b National Center for Agricultural Research and Extension, Amman,

Jordan
c Department of Agrarian and Food Production Science,

University of Catania, Italy

INTRODUCTION
In Mediterranean countries, most protected cultivation growers use soil – often
associated with soil pests, salinity problems and excessive application of pesticides
(nematocides, fungicides, insecticides and herbicides). Residues can be a danger to
human health (for both consumers and producers) and often lead to environmental
pollution. Several techniques have been introduced to the region to overcome such
problems with minimum negative impact on the environment and human health:
soil fumigation using solar energy, use of grafted seedlings and soilless culture.

This chapter examines growing media used in soilless culture; they represent
one of the main solutions for soil problems, have positive effects on the
environment and improve fertilizer and water-use efficiency. This is especially
the case in Mediterranean countries where shortage of good quality water is a
major constraint in protected cultivation. At present, a relatively small proportion
(approximately 10%) of growing media – which are very important for a good start
to plant cultivation – can be used for the production of seedlings and transplants.

The cultivation of plants in systems without soil in situ is defined in literature

as “soilless culture” (Gruda, 2009). Many such systems are based on the use
of solid rooting media for growing plants. They are usually called “growing
media” or “substrates”; however, sometimes terms like “aggregate systems”,
“supporting media” or “potting soil” are used. With reference to plant cultivation
and propagation, “growing media” or “substrates” are defined as all those
solid materials, other than soil, which alone or in mixtures can guarantee better
conditions than agricultural soil (for one or more aspects). Hence, media of
different origin take on the role of soil and provide anchorage for the root system,
supply water and nutrients for the plant, and guarantee adequate aeration in the
root area (Gruda et al., 2006).
272 GAPs for greenhouse vegetable crops: Principles for Mediterranean climate areas

Growing media are used in containers (organic substrates, perlite etc.).

However, sometimes they are used in the form of prepared cubes (rockwool cubes
for seedling and transplant production), bags and slabs (peat-based substrates and
rockwool, respectively), mats (polyurethane foam) and troughs (rockwool); these
last three are also used for vegetable production in soilless culture systems.

While development is very country related, from a historical point of view the
development of growing media can be expressed in distinct steps (Gruda, 2012a):
r
Until the 1950s, horticulturists used gardening soil – mixtures of own
composted organic waste and mineral soil, used both for plants with bare
roots and for plants with root balls.
r
In the 1950s, peat culture substrates, mixed with clay or alone, were
developed. These substrates became established in the 1960s and peat became
the main component of growing media.
r
In the mid- to late 1970s, rockwool substrate spread throughout Western
Europe and became important for vegetable cultivation. Tomatoes, cucumbers
and bell peppers were grown in rockwool slabs, wrapped in plastic film.
Rockwool is still one of the most popular growing media in vegetable soilless
culture.
r
In the 1980s and 1990s, specific mixtures for specific plants were produced
from peat – the ease of rockwool cubes and slabs was combined with good
growing properties.

The development and refinement of growing media in horticulture in the

1980s and 1990s coincided with increased ecological awareness. In recent years,
many innovative cultivation procedures using new growing media methods have
been developed, including systems without a solid medium, as well as aggregate
systems in which inorganic or organic substrates are used (Gruda, 2009). Different
materials can be used as growing media offering numerous advantages:

Compared with water culture and aeroponics:

r
reservoir for water and plant nutrients
r
adequate oxygen exchange
r
anchorage or support for plant
r
lower rhizosphere temperature excursion

Compared with natural soil culture:

r
standardization
r
light weight
r
virtual absence of pests
r
cultivation without soil
11. Growing media 273

There are also disadvantages compared with on-soil cultivation:

r
volume limitation
r
balanced fertilizer ratios requirement
r
potential expense
r
rapid development of deficiency symptoms

CHARACTERISTICS OF GROWING MEDIA

When choosing a growing medium, knowledge of its characteristics (physical,
chemical and biological) is very important, because they affect plant response
and production cost. Absence of pests and pathogens is essential; biostability and
biological inertia are other parameters to be taken into consideration, particularly
when long cycles are carried out or the growing medium is reused during
successive growing cycles. There are different national and international standard
methods used for the investigation of substrates. In order to simplify international
information exchange, the ISHS (International Society for Horticultural Science)
method is suggested as a standard.

Physical properties
The physical properties of substrates give important information concerning
numerous parameters, for example: water/air ratio (required for proper regulation
of irrigation); and volume weight or bulk density. On the basis of such parameters,
it is possible to make further calculations of the substrate’s mineral content (Gruda
and Schnitzler, 1999a; Gruda and Schnitzler, 2004a). Furthermore, it is important
to know water distribution and movement at root level.

The fact that growers cannot affect a target change of the physical characteristics
of substrates or substrate mixtures within a culture means that it is essential to
select the correct substrate before cultivation starts (Verdonck and Demeyer,
2004). Given that the volume of growing media in the containers is relatively
small, the requirements regarding a substrate’s physical properties and their
standardization are very high.

Besides the standard ISHS method, the negative or positive pressure method
(mostly used for the investigation of water content in mineral soils) can also
be used for the investigation of a substrate’s physical properties. Gruda and
Schnitzler (1999a) found close relationships between the modified ISHS method
and the two other methods at pF = 1.0, 1.7 and 2.0. Other methods are used as
industrial standards in certain countries, for example, CEN (European Committee
for Standardization) in the EU region.

Volume weight or bulk density (g/cc)

Dry mass per unit volume is related to discrete mineral particles and to amorphous
compounds, the latter represented by organic matter. As some media are composed
274 GAPs for greenhouse vegetable crops: Principles for Mediterranean climate areas

of more than one ingredient, the characteristics of each ingredient contribute to

the total of volume weight of the medium (Raviv et al., 2002). Moreover, the
quantity of organic substrate in a container (in some degree inorganic as well)
can be affected by substrate compression. Different volume weight can lead to
different physical properties as well as to diverse nutrient levels in the substrate.
Therefore it is recommended to determine the volume weight on the basis of real
container/pot conditions (Gruda and Schnitzler, 1999a).

Although it depends on origin and grain size, the average volume weight of
peat materials is 0.09–0.20 g cm-3 (RAL, 1999). However, the requirements in
relation to volume weight and substrates for containerized horticultural plants,
e.g. for transplant production, depend on the production system and technology
adopted. Volume weight affects the choice of substrates in various ways. For
example, to prevent container instability in windy conditions, high volume weight
media are required, while for frequently irrigated high intensity greenhouse crops,
media of low volume weight are required (Raviv et al., 2002; Wallach, 2008). Low
volume weight is also important when transporting growing media.

Particle size
The array of particles can be divided into groups according to size, and the medium
solid phase as a whole can be characterized in terms of the relative proportions of
its particle size groups. The size and shape of particle size distribution are useful
for estimating the hydraulic properties of the media, such as water retention and
hydraulic conductivity (Wallach, 2008).

Gruda and Schnitzler (2006) observed a close relationship between the amount
of solid particles < 1 mm and the water-holding capacity of substrates. For
example, for a fine wood fibre substrate used as a component for production of
press pots for vegetable seedlings, the maximum water capacity with 100 percent
of particles < 1 mm was about 95 percent, while a complete absence of these
particle sizes resulted in maximum water capacity of 70 percent. Therefore, it is
possible to control the maximum water capacity by the quantity of fine particles.

Porosity
A growing medium, like soil, consists of three phases: solid, aqueous and gaseous.
The pores are filled with air or water according to pore dimension and water
content in the substrate. Although the porosity or total pore space (TPS) does
not account for pore size distribution or water and air content in the pores, it
is often used when characterizing substrates. The TPS of substrates is higher
than in soils, where it is approximately 50 percent of the volume. De Boodt and
Verdonck (1972) and Fonteno et al. (1981) point out that an ideal substrate should
have a TPS of over 85 percent. In general, depending on shape, arrangement and
particle size, organic substrate TPS is about 85–95 percent (Michiels et al., 1993),
while other growing media contain 60–90 percent (Raviv at al., 2002). Analyses
11. Growing media 275

generally result in negative correlation of

porosity and volume weight of growing
media. However, the volume weight cannot
accurately determine TPS if components
with closed pores, such as perlite, pumice
or expanded clay, are used (Bunt, 1976;
Wallach, 2008). Plate 1 shows the closed
porosity of an expanded clay granule after
breakage.

Water and air ratio and pore size

distribution
Water and air volume are the most important
physical parameters for substrates (Bunt,
1976). Water must be available in the Plate 1
substrate at the lowest possible energy status Expanded clay closed porosity
while maintaining sufficient air supply in
the root zone. The two parameters are
antagonistic: if the pores are filled with water, air is missing and vice versa (De
Boodt et al., 1974). The volume of water that saturates a given volume of substrate
is defined as its effective pore space (EPS) or air volume. The difference between
TPS and EPS constitutes the volume of closed pores that are not accessible by
water (Raviv et al., 2002).

Container capacity (also known as “water-holding capacity”) is the amount of

water remaining in the container after water stops draining following saturation.
The water content for growing media is usually defined at water suction of 1 kPa
or at pF = 1.0. Water-holding capacity is one of the most important aspects to
consider in irrigation frequency and volume management. However, within the
same growing media, a given volume can hold a different amount of water when
gravitational water stops draining. While “container capacity” and “water-holding
capacity” are sometimes used as synonyms, container capacity is the total volume
of water in the container, and water-holding capacity is the water content at
pF = 1.0 (Gruda, 2005). Higher containers signify a higher water column (Fonteno
et al., 1981; Karlovich and Fonteno, 1986; Martinez et al., 1991; Milks et al., 1989;
Gruda and Schnitzler, 2004a). Therefore, relatively less water is held by capillarity
and adhesive forces and more water is drained by gravity (Gruda and Schnitzler,
2006). The upper layers of the substrate hold a lower amount of water, while
potential water availability is much higher at the container bottom (Figure 1).

Gravitational force is higher in the upper part of the substrate; consequently,

the water-holding capacity is lower in taller containers. Taller cells or containers
have a larger percentage of TPS space, even if the same growing media or substrate
mix is used.
276 GAPs for greenhouse vegetable crops: Principles for Mediterranean climate areas

FIGURE 1
Relation between growing media water content and its tension

Volume (%)
100
SOLID
90

80 1
70
Total porosity

AIR
60 1: gravitational water
50 2: easily available water
2
3: water-buffer capacity
40 4: hygroscopic water

30
3
20

10 4
WATER
0

-1 -5 (KPa) -10
1 1.7 Tension (pF) 2
Perelli and Pimpini, 2004

Therefore, when considering a different water-holding capacity in relation to

container shape and height, it is generally better to speak of container capacity
rather than field capacity. To this end, the container zoning concept (accounting
for moisture characteristics and container geometry) is introduced to quantify the
water-holding capacity.

One criterion for substrate classification is the quantity of free water that can
be delivered to the plant roots at different water potential levels. However, not all
the water in the growing media is available to the plant. According to Figure 1, the
following types of water can be found in the substrate:
r
Gravitational water (number 1 in Figure 1) – not held in the substrate and
moves in response to gravity (the amount of free water in the pF range
1.0–2.0 [-1–-10 kPa] is an important parameter for substrate cultures).
r
Easily available water (EAW) (number 2) – directly available to plants (the
amount of free water when pF increases from 1.0 to 1.7 [-1–-5 kPa], it fills
pores of 60–300 µm).
r
Water-buffering capacity (WBC) (number 3) – serves as a reserve, when the
plants transpire intensively (De Boodt and Verdonck, 1972) (the amount of
free water when pF increases from 1.7 to 2.0 [-5–-10 kPa], it fills pores of
30–60 µm).
11. Growing media 277

r
Less readily available water – the amount of free water calculated when water
tension increases from pF = 2.0 to 4.2.
r
Unavailable water – water held by media at tensions of pF > 4.2 and the plant
cannot remove it.

Large pores generally favour rapid drainage and adequate aeration for plants,
while water is mainly held in small pores. Therefore, adequate pore size and
distribution are critical for a good medium. However, other factors also have an
impact. In wood fibre substrates, the pore size distribution of a growing medium
is not only influenced by substrate type, but also by particle size, substrate
compression (and consequently real volume weight), container size and height,
volume loss during a growth cycle, and plant growth and root development
(Gruda and Schnitzler, 2004a).

Hydraulic conductivity (cc/min)

The saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat) of a substrate is an indicator of drainage
behaviour, also referred to as permeability, permeability factor, flowing rate and
filter rate. Drainage behaviour is mainly defined by the percentage of macropores.
Higher Ksat implies a higher percentage of macropores, while destruction of these
pores leads to decreased Ksat (Gruda and Schnitzler, 2004a). According to Raviv et
al. (2002) particles of smaller-sized individual grains have a larger specific surface
area, increasing the drag on water molecules that flow through the medium.
Therefore water flows off fastest in coarse growing media, followed by substrates
and mixtures with smaller-sized particles.

What is more, in growing media with higher hydraulic conductivity, the water/
nutrient solution passes more through the
central part of the substrate near to the
FIGURE 2
irrigation dripper and progressively less
Nutrient solution distribution in perlite
through the part of the substrate located (% referred to the total) in relation to the
closer to the container walls (Figure 2). This distance from dripper projection
uneven distribution of nutrient solution
20
in the substrate, apart from affecting the
uptake of nutrients and water, can determine
variations in electrical conductivity and pH 15

in different parts of the rhizosphere.

(% )

10
Furthermore, as micropores increase,
so does pore continuity. This can be 5
documented through the pore tortuosity.
Pore tortuosity represents a fitting factor 0
and is linked to the fact that some of
< -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 > 6
the pores are clogged up and that the
Distance from dripper (cm)
real pathway for waterflow is longer than Leonardi et al., 2001
278 GAPs for greenhouse vegetable crops: Principles for Mediterranean climate areas

the apparent one (Caron and Nkongolo, 2004). For peat substrate, the pore
tortuosity was found to be closely correlated with the plant growth of Prunus ×
cistena sp. (Allaire et al., 1996). Changes in tortuosity can also result from sample
disturbances.

Thermal characteristics are mainly related to thermal conductivity and thermal

diffusivity. It is important to know the possible effects of these characteristics on
growing media and consequently on root temperature; they should be considered
in relation to the water-holding capacity of the substrate, which in turn affects the
apparent specific heat (cal C-1 cm-3).

Chemical properties
For the evaluation of the chemical properties of a growing medium, the most
important criteria are pH value, cation exchange capacity (CEC), salt concentration
and nutrient content (macro- and microelements).

TABLE 1 pH value
pH value of different substrates
pH plays an important role in plant
Substrate pH value substrates, determining the availability
Expanded clay 4.5–9.0 of various nutrients. Although plant pH
Peat 3.0–7.3 requirements differ, for most plants optimal
Perlite 6.5–7.5 nutrient availability occurs when the pH
Pumice 6.7–9.3 value of a nutrient solution is between 5.5
Sand 6.4–7.9 and 6.5. Higher values, even pH > 6.0, nearly
Vermiculite 6.0–7.2 always reduce the solubility of phosphates,
Volcanic tuff 7.0–8.0 iron and most micronutrients. Moreover,
Gianquinto and Pimpini, 2001
high pH values (> 7.5) in the irrigation
water are undesirable, given the probable
precipitation of Ca and Mg carbonates, as
FIGURE 3
well as orthophosphates, which can clog
pH variations of peat one week after adding the drippers.
different amounts of calcium carbonate to
the substrate The pH value of the nutrient solution
pH Light peat can also be important for the interaction
Dark peat
7 between orthophosphate ions and solid
constituents. Thus, low P availability may
6
restrict crop productivity even shortly after
5 P application (Raviv et al., 2002). Significant
variations in pH can occur for some
4 substrates, depending on their provenance
(Table 1). Therefore, correction may be
3
advisable, taking into account the different
0 3 6 9 12 g/l reactions of the considered substrates
Fisher, 1985 (Figure 3).
11. Growing media 279

In general, lower pH value and lower nutrient and salt content are better for
substrate preparation and production. Initial materials with such characteristics
(e.g. peat moss) permit substrate manufacture where:
r
the pH value can be increased easily by lime addition;
r
it is possible to regulate and balance the relatively high pH value of other
component materials; and
r
the demands or requirements of different cultures can be accurately taken
into account, produced and controlled (Gruda, 2005).

Furthermore, it should be considered that pH values for some organic growing

media (e.g. pine tree substrates) change during the storage process (Jackson et al.,
2009). It is therefore recommended to analyse the substrates immediately before
plant cultivation and if necessary to adjust the pH value for optimal plant growth.

Cation exchange capacity (CEC)

CEC gives information about the sorption force and buffering ability of a
substrate for nutrients. Substrates with high CEC can store more nutrients and
plants are fertilized more intensively. In addition, such substrates buffer the
fertilizer or mineral materials better when hard water is used (Gruda, 2005).
CEC is considered an important substrate characteristic when nutrient solution
is not continuously offered and solid fertilizers are used. The growing media
composition is important; continuous fertigation of on-substrate-grown crops
enables the use of different substrates with different CEC. For example, the CEC
of growing media can be very low (CEC ~1.5–3.5 meq/100 g, e.g. perlite) or high
(CEC ~100–180 meq/100 g, e.g. sphagnum peat). However, even inert substrate
accumulates organic compounds (e.g. plant roots or decomposed materials during
the growth process) which can build up surface charge.

From a practical point of view, considering the small volumes of growing

media used for vegetable production, high CEC growing media also lead to
limited nutrient-buffering capacity; however, frequent fertigation can mitigate the
negative effects.

Salt concentration
Growing media can sometimes have a relatively high salt concentration, for
example, when the organic or mineral materials used as a substrate are collected
from an area with significant salt sources (e.g. close to the sea). In these cases,
excess salt leaching is required prior to substrate use.

Excess salt concentration can also be observed in organic substrates when high
rate organic matter decomposition occurs. In most situations, the rate of release of
mineral salts is about the same as the rate of uptake by the plants. Therefore, there
is no excessive build-up (Handreck and Black, 2005). However, when materials
280 GAPs for greenhouse vegetable crops: Principles for Mediterranean climate areas

that decompose easily are adopted, problems can be observed. In vegetable

production the risk is not so frequent because the seedling production period is
too short to determine such an effect, and in soilless cultivation it is not advisable
to adopt unstable organic substrates, because decomposition would correspond to
outstanding variation of substrate physical characteristics.

Biological properties
A good growing media must be free from pests and pathogens, biologically stable
and not toxic.

Phytotoxicity
The use of forestry products (bark, sawdust, woodchips) as well as compost
container substrates can involve problems of phytotoxicity. Phytotoxicity depends
on the chemical composition of the substrate, which in turn can cause salinity,
nutritional disorders and enzymatic or hormonal metabolic alterations (Ortega et
al., 1996). High potassium and manganese content (Maher and Thomson, 1991)
and the presence of phenolic compounds (Ortega et al., 1996), terpenes, organic
acids and fatty acids (Morel and Guillemain, 2004) can be the cause of such
problems (Gruda et al., 2009).

Gruda and Schnitzler (2004b) report no plant growth inhibition when bark
content in fresh pine or spruce wood fibre substrate is approximately 5 percent.
On the contrary, a higher amount of fresh bark negatively affects plant growth.
Using hardwood sawdust as a growing medium, it was found that the wood
contained phytotoxins, which in return affected plant growth (Maas and
Adamson, 1982). Indeed, these compounds have a protection effect and defend
woods against insects or infections; therefore, they are toxic to other organisms,
such as greenhouse plants cultivated in substrates originating from those materials
(Gruda et al., 2009).

Methods such as composting, ageing, leaching, washing, mixing and fertilization

have been used to reduce or eliminate phytotoxicity properties (Ortega et al.,
1996; Gruda et al., 2000). Gruda et al. (2009) reported that extracts from pine tree
substrates produced by grinding loblolly pine tree (Pinus taeda L.) reduced the
germination rate and radicle growth of tomato and lettuce; however, after washing,
an improvement was recorded for radicle length of both species. Pre-treatments
(e.g. substrate washing) can be recommended for use in the manufacturing process
for pine tree substrates or by growers before planting.

Several authors have reported that the growth of fungi on woody tissues in
solid-state fermentations on pine chip fermentations decreased toxicity (Dorado
et al., 2000; Linares et al., 2003).
11. Growing media 281

N-immobilization
The transfer of inorganic N-compounds into micro-organism bodies through
nitrogen consumption and their reservation is known as N-immobilization. Net
N-immobilization occurs in organic materials because of the wide range of C/N
ratio, for example: in waste paper 135 : 1, in straw 50–100 : 1, in crusts 75–117 : 1,
and in wood fibre substrates 100–272 : 1 (Gruda et al., 2000).

Optimal plant growth is ensured only if sufficient nitrogen is available for

both micro-organisms and plants (Handreck, 1992); different solutions have
been developed for reducing N-immobilization. Composting makes it possible
to use waste bark or wood as a substrate; while this process stabilizes the organic
substances, it takes a long time and can lead to loss of raw material (Handreck,
1992; Prasad, 1997b).

Other methods involve adding supplemental substances to substrates to

eliminate the “weaknesses” of natural wooden materials: for example, hydrolysis
of woodchips under pressure in the presence of acids (Lemaire et al., 1989). Using
this method, the lignin-cellulose ratio in wood changes from 1 : 2–3 to 1 : 1–2.
The supply of nitrogen and other mineral additives prior to manufacturing fibre
substrates under high pressure and heat in the presence of water vapour, in order
to improve substrate properties, is called “impregnation” (Penningsfeld, 1992).

GROWING MEDIA CLASSIFICATION AND CHOICE

Numerous plant substrates are used in various types of soilless culture systems.
Moreover, new materials have been introduced worldwide. The international
trend for substrate development tends towards the use of natural resources and
renewable raw materials (Gruda, 2005).

Given their diversity, the classification of growing media helps growers make
the right choice. Growing media are generally classified into organic and inorganic
materials. Inorganic substrates can come from natural sources as well as processed
materials; organic growing media can be synthetic (e.g. polyurethane) or natural
organic matter (e.g. peat, wood-based substrates). Growing media can also be
classified as fibrous (e.g. coir) and granular (e.g. perlite). Bearing in mind that
important properties of growing media include their chemical characteristics, they
can also be classified as active (e.g. peat) or inert (e.g. rockwool and sand). Herein
is described the classification into organic and inorganic materials.

The choice of a substrate for soilless cultivation has technical and financial
implications. There is no univocal scheme for the choice of growing media. In
several areas where on-substrate cultivation is exploited, growers try to adopt local
factory-manufactured products, or locally available cheap substrates, even when
there is insufficient information about their physical and chemical characteristics
and, consequently, their management.
282 GAPs for greenhouse vegetable crops: Principles for Mediterranean climate areas

Choosing a substrate

Desirable properties: Aspects to be considered:

r
Low volume weight r
Availability of information on chemical

r
Good reserve of easily available water and physical characteristics
and good aeration r
Type of soilless system adopted
r
Good rehydration properties after drying r
Shape and volume of the container
r
Stable structure r
Reusability
r
Good buffering capacity for an optimal r
Costs
pH
r
Appropriate pH properties for the crop
r
Uniform from batch to batch
r
Free of phytotoxic compounds
r
Low micro-organism activity
r
Pest- and pathogen-free

The choice of a given growing medium without standardization does not

guarantee correct nutrient solution management, given the more or less notable
differences in substrate typology, provenance and batch. For a correct choice of
growing media, some desirable properties should be considered, but it is rare to
find growing media with all these properties, and in some cases pH correction,
disinfection or substrate mixing is advisable to achieve the desired properties.
Growing media mixtures are generally used in vegetable soilless greenhouses and
in the seedling and transplant industry; they consist of growing media constituents
and additives. Growing media constituents include a range of raw materials;
general combinations include peat and other organic or inorganic materials and
are formulated on a percentage volume basis. Growing media additives include
fertilizers, liming materials, biocontrol or wetting agents, and are formulated on a
weight basis. It is recommended to use finished products, not to experiment with
self-produced mixtures.

Furthermore, the above properties assume importance according to the

growing system adopted. Continuously fertigated crops do not necessarily require
growing media with a high cation exchange capacity, compared with potted plants
and containerized crops. For closed systems (comparison with open systems), a
11. Growing media 283

low water-holding capacity does not represent a problem, as it is possible to adopt

frequent irrigation without loss of leached nutrient solution which is recycled.
Moreover, for subirrigated crops, the suitability of the substrate in allowing
capillary rise is very important for an appropriate distribution of nutrient solution
in the growing media. In addition, other aspects related to the availability of water
and electric power should also be taken into consideration; for example a blackout
of a few hours (frequent in country areas) may prove particularly dangerous when
a substrate with a low holding capacity is used.

Inorganic growing media

Besides rockwool, various inorganic substrates, such as perlite, tuff (a volcanic
porous rock), expanded clay granules and vermiculite, as well as synthetic
materials, have been used as growing media (Gruda et al., 2006).

While in older installations, mainly gravel and sand were applied to improve
aeration, nowadays lighter materials (e.g. rockwool, originally produced for
thermal and acoustic insulation in the construction industry) are widely used
(Raviv et al., 2002; Gruda et al., 2006).

Rockwool
Polythene-wrapped rockwool, thanks to its light weight and ease of handling, has
become the dominant soilless culture system in Europe and is used throughout
the world for both flowers and vegetables, e.g. tomatoes (Plate 2) (Gruda et
al., 2006). In addition, cubes or blocks
of different sizes are used for seedling
and transplant propagation and granulated
GRUDA, 2010
rockwool is used as a component of potting
mixtures. Rockwool is manufactured by
melting basaltic rock with limestone and
coke at high temperatures and spinning
the melt into fibres. Afterwards the fibres
are bound together by heating them with
additives. Rockwool has a low volume
weight of approximately 0.07–0.1 g cm-3 and
a TPS of 92–97 percent. The main chemical
characteristic of rockwool is that it is totally
inert, except for some minor effects on pH.
The initial pH of the material is rather high
(7.0–8.0) and a pH adjustment is therefore
required (Smith, 1987). Generally, the setup
of a rockwool growing system is simple:
rockwool slabs are placed in the rows, holes
Plate 2
for plants are cut in the plastic surrounding
Greenhouse tomato plants, cultivated in
the slabs, and the slabs are filled with rockwool slabs
284 GAPs for greenhouse vegetable crops: Principles for Mediterranean climate areas

solution. After soaking for about 24 hours, the transplants are placed on the slabs
with drainage slits cut at the bottom. A complete nutrient solution is supplied to
the rockwool cubes through the irrigation system. The key factor in managing
the system is the management of the pH and EC (electrical conductivity) in the
slab. Therefore samples of the nutrient solution from the slabs should be analysed
periodically; at least once a month the nutrient solution should be analysed and,
if necessary, the nutrient solution and frequency and time of irrigation adjusted.

Perlite
The use of perlite provides improved aeration and drainage and optimum moisture
retention and nutrient availability. Perlite is not a trade name but the term used
for naturally occurring siliceous volcanic mineral sieved and heated to 1000 °C.
At these temperatures perlite expands to 4–20 times its original volume, due
to the presence of 2–6 percent combined water in the perlite rock, producing a
lightweight material with high porosity. Perlite can be used alone or mixed with
other substrates for greenhouse plant production. It is a well-established substrate
in Europe. The Mediterranean region has seen a rapid expansion of perlite soilless
culture systems (growbags), pioneered by Spain, where they are used extensively,
mainly for vegetable productions in the Almería and Murcia regions (Grillas et
al., 2001). There is a similar growth pattern (albeit on a smaller scale) observed
in other parts of the Mediterranean, for example in Greece and North African
countries. The high porosity helps to control the water-holding capacity and
aeration of the substrate (Grillas et al., 2001).

Vermiculite
Similarly to perlite, vermiculite is produced by heating the ground and sieved
material to 700–1 000 °C. Vermiculite is sterile, light in weight and has a high
TPS. Its volume weight is 0.1 g cm-3. Vermiculite is used as a sowing medium,
covering germinating seeds, and as a component of potting soil mixtures. Media
containing vermiculite should be mixed dry; when mixed wet, the desirable
physical properties deteriorate because particles tend to collapse flat (Handreck
and Black, 2005). While perlite is mainly used to improve the drainage properties
in a mix, vermiculite is used to increase the water-holding capacity of a growing
medium. It can hold 3–4 times its weight of water. Furthermore, vermiculite can
hold positive-charged nutrients such as K, Mg and Ca.

Zeolite
Zeolites are silicate mineral with extremely high exchange capacities. The many
different zeolites found around the world vary considerably in hardness and in
the proportions of cations they contain (Handreck and Black, 2005). Zeolites
possess a relatively high volume weight (1.9–2.3 g cm-3) and are therefore used
in substrate mixtures; however, they are also used as single growing media. In a
study with tomatoes, Savvas et al. (2004) reported highest yields when plants were
grown in zeolite, followed by treatment involving zeolite in a substrate mixture.
11. Growing media 285

GRUDA ET AL., 2006

Plate 3
Materials used as growing media
From left to right and top to bottom: rockwool, polyurethane foam, expanded shale, volcanic
material, open porous clay granulate, expanded clay, perlite, black peat, coarse wood fibre, fine
wood fibre, vermiculite, and light peat

The good performance of the plants grown in zeolite was due to the considerable
cation exchange capacity, enabling a more efficient buffering of excess ammonium
and Mg concentrations in the root environment. Moreover, zeolite was capable of
absorbing part of the excess Mg, resulting in more balanced macronutrient cation
ratios in the root environment. On the other hand, during the initial wetting of
the substrates with nutrient solution, most of the K was absorbed on the surface
of the zeolite; as a result, the K concentration was sharply reduced in the solutions
drained from substrates with constituents comprising zeolite. Using zeolite in
sand mixtures offers potential in countries where sand is abundant (Al-Ajmi et al.,
2009). Zeolite has also been reported to protect plants against toxicity (e.g. from
ammonium – Handreck and Black, 2005) or from heavy metals (Kapetanios and
Loizidou, 1992).

Pumice
Pumice is a natural product, a light silicate mineral of volcanic origin. It is used as
substrate for fruit vegetables (tomato, cucumber, pepper) and for cut flowers. There
is increased interest in growing plants in pumice, because it requires relatively low
286 GAPs for greenhouse vegetable crops: Principles for Mediterranean climate areas

investments and is easily applicable in existing growing systems. Pumice can be

used for many years, so it produces relatively little substrate waste. In addition,
pumice is friendly to the environment, because no harmful production processes
are involved (Boertje, 1995). Pumice is common in areas rich in volcanic activity,
such as the Portuguese Azores, the Greek islands, Iceland, Japan, New Zealand,
Russia, Sicily, Turkey and the United States (Raviv et al., 2002). High transport
costs limit its use in areas that do not have local deposits. Pumice has a low volume
weight of 0.4–0.8 g cm-3 and a TPS of 70–85 percent (Boertje, 1995). Pumice has
a neutral pH; it contributes little to plant nutrition, but does not decrease the
availability of fertilizer nutrients (Handreck and Black, 2005).

Sand
Many grades of sand are available and can be used as a growing medium or as
a component of various substrate mixtures in order to improve the drainage
properties. Pure sand is widely used in deserts and coastal plains, because it is
a cheap, local, natural source. The volume weight of sand is 1.48–1.80 g cm-3
and the TPS is relatively low at 0.30–0.45 (Raviv et al., 2002). In Almería, beach
sand is used as mulch on a stratified, artificial soil profile: manure is placed in
strips, about 1 m wide and 2 cm deep, between the sand and the 20 cm of loam
or clay soil placed on top of the original, rocky, sandy loam soil (Castilla et al.,
1986). According to the author, the use of sandy mulch soil in greenhouse crop
production reduces loss through evaporation and allows the use of more saline
water without reducing the harvest.

Tuff
Tuff is the common name for volcanic material used as a growing medium for
greenhouse crops in several countries around the world. It has a TPS of 60–80%
and a high surface area. The volume weight of tuff is 0.8–1.5 g cm-3. Rapid
cooling of magma during eruption prevents the formation of primary minerals
and, therefore, pyroclastic materials contain mainly vesicular, volcanic glass. The
physical and chemical properties of tuff are determined mainly by its mineralogical
composition and weathering stages, as well as the grinding and sieving processes
(Raviv et al., 2002). Tuffs possess a buffering capacity and may absorb or release
nutrients, especially P, during the growth period (Raviv et al., 2002).

Expanded clay granules

Expanded clay is a granular product with a cellular structure. It is produced by
heating dry, heavy clay to 1100 °C: water is released, causing the clay to expand.
The raw material must have a low content of soluble salts to avoid having to add
substances, such as lime, during the process. Expanded clays are light with a low
volume weight of 0.28–0.63 g cm-3; chemically, they are neutral, with a pH of
about 7.0 (Raviv et al., 2002). While expanded clays are used primarily for indoor
plants in offices, they are also used for different greenhouse hydroponic cultures
(Cervelli and Farina, 1994; Schnitzler et al., 1994; Dobricevic et al., 2008).
11. Growing media 287

Organic growing media

The organic materials most available and applicable are peat, composts, bark and
wood residues. However, availability alone is not sufficient: a substrate should
be a standardized and growth-promoting product (Gruda, 2005). The organic
substrates most used are described below.

Peat
Peat is the most widely used growing media and substrate component in
horticulture, currently accounting for 77–80 percent of the growing media
used annually in Europe’s horticultural industry (Gruda, 2012a). Seedlings and
transplants are grown predominantly in organic substrates based on peat (Plate 4); it
is also used in horticulture as a raw material for substrates in which container plants
are grown (Gruda, 2005). Peat has long been used as a component of standardized
growing media; however, research in the
1960s showed that it could be used as a
growing medium in its own right both for Advantages of peat as a growing medium
container plants and for vegetable and cut
flower production (Puustjarvi, 1973). Peat r
Relative consistency
substrates offer numerous advantages and r
Low nutrient content
their nutrient content and pH are easy to r
Low pH
control because both are initially low. r
Light weight
r
High volume of pores
Peat is formed as a result of the partial r
Good air capacity
decomposition of sphagnum, other mosses r
High water-holding capacity
and sedges. Under cool waterlogged r
High CEC
conditions, sugar and celluloses decompose, r
General freedom from pollutants,
leaving behind the lignified cell walls and pathogens and seeds of weeds
humus. Different types of peat vary in r
Stable structure
their degree of decomposition (Handreck r
Ease of storage
and Black, 2005). Plant species, climate r
Possibilities for reuse or recycling
and water quality all affect the distinct Gruda, 2005; Gruda et al., 2006
characteristics of peat (Raviv et al., 2002).
GRUDA., 2006

Plate 4
Peat-based growing media, used in press pot industry for production of lettuce seedlings
288 GAPs for greenhouse vegetable crops: Principles for Mediterranean climate areas

TABLE 2
Characteristics of different peats

Characteristics Light peat Dark peat Black peat

Organic matter (% d.m.) 94–99 94–99 55–75

Ash (% d.m.) 1–6 1–6 23–30
Total porosity (% vol.) 84–97 88–93 55–83
Water-holding capacity (% vol.) 52–82 74–88 65–75
Volume weight (g/cc) 0.06–0.12 0.14–0.20 0.32–0.40
Cation exchange capacity (meq/100 g) 100–150 120–170 80–150
Total nitrogen (% d.m.) 0.5–2.5 0.5–2.5 1.5–3.5
C/N ratio 30–80 20–75 10–35
pH in water 3.0–4.0 3.0–5.0 5.5–7.3
Degree of decompositiona H1–H3 H4–H6 H7–H10
a According to Von Post (1937).
Gianquinto and Pimpini, 2001

Von Post (1937) suggested a classification of peat types, based on their degree of
decomposition: light peat, dark peat and black peat (Table 2). The higher the degree
of composition, the higher the pH value of the peat. For example, sphagnum peat
has a very low degree of composition and an acidic pH of 3–4: it may be directly
applied to acid-loving plants; alternatively,
the pH may be adjusted using dolomite
lime. Peat is a very porous substrate with
an excellent water-holding capacity; it is
therefore used together with other growing
media to increase the water mixture
properties and reduce the weight of the mix
for long distance transportation. Potential
GRUDA, 2012

constraints are the instability, slumping and

shrinkage of peat that can occur in container
culture (Plate 5). Nevertheless, finding
Plate 5 a replacement for peat as a horticultural
Shrinkage of peat substrate in container
substrate is an increasingly pressing issue.

Peat-substitute growing media or alternatives to peat

The increased environmental awareness of consumers, the constant dismantling of
ecologically important peat bog areas, and the pervasive waste problem all force
the horticulture industry to re-examine its practices (Gruda, 2005; Gruda, 2012b).
Numerous plant substrates have been introduced worldwide as peat substitutes
or as peat-alternative growing media. Herein, only the most important substrates
are presented, together with local materials used or suggested for use as growing
media, such as composts of agro-industrial, animal and aquatic plant waste (Bragg,
1998), rice hulls (Evans and Gachukia, 2004 and 2008; Robbins and Evans, 2010)
and peanut hulls (Bilderback et al., 1982). Recently, biochar, a form of charcoal
11. Growing media 289

manufactured from organic matter by heating in an anoxic situation (pyrolysis),

has been used in agriculture and introduced into horticulture as a growing
medium. Different materials, including coir, sawdust and woodchips, as well as
cheap locally available sources, such as straw and organic waste can be used for
its production.

Converting organic waste into biochar by heating organic material produces a

standardized medium, with high stability, less volume weight, and good aeration
and water-holding characteristics. Biochar can absorb phytotoxic compounds,
is not easily available for micro-organisms, and has the advantage of being
carbon neutral (Nichols and Savidov, 2010). Different experiments with different
vegetables have been conducted, but to the authors’ knowledge, biochar has not
been commercially used in soilless Mediterranean greenhouses to date. Alternatives
to peat used as growing media in the horticultural industry are described below.

Coir (coconut fibre)

Coir is used mainly in the greenhouse industry. The raw material, which looks
like sphagnum peat but coarser, is derived from the husk of the coconut fruit
commercially grown in, for example, Sri Lanka, India, the Philippines and Latin
America.

Coir has good aeration and water-holding characteristics. Coir dust has a TPS
(total pore space) of 86–94% and an AFP (air-filled pore space) of 9–14%, while
coir fibre has a TPS of 98% and an AFP of around 70% (Raviv et al., 2002).
According to Prasad (1997a), coir dust is characterized by a relatively high EAW
(easily available water) of around 35%. However, the water-buffering capacity is
lower in coir than in peat, and the level of air space varies considerably depending
on the origin of the material.

Leaching of nitrogen is marginally higher in coir than in peat when comparing

materials of similar particle size. On the other hand, CO2 evolution and stability
indicate that coir is less stable than Irish peat (Prasad, 1997a) and the total
water-holding capacity in coir waste is lower than in peat (Noguera et al., 2000).
Sometimes higher total soluble salts, sodium and chloride levels are found in coir:
Noguera et al. (2000) investigated 13 coconut coir wastes commercially produced
in six countries in Africa, America and Asia and found salinity varied between 0.4
and 6.0 dS m-1. To be of good practical quality as a soilless culture substrate, coir
has to be washed during production.

The typical pH range for coir is 5.5–6.8; it contains significant amounts of

phosphorus (6–60 ppm) and potassium (170–600 ppm) (Robbins and Evans,
2010). A major advantage of coir is its relatively high elasticity and that it can
be compressed in so-called coir briquets (Salvador et al., 2005) which facilitate
transportation from the country of origin. Since coir contains more lignin and less
290 GAPs for greenhouse vegetable crops: Principles for Mediterranean climate areas

cellulose than peat, it is more resistant to microbial breakdown and may shrink
less; it is also easier to re-wet after drying than peat moss (Robbins and Evans,
2010).

Bark
Bark is a by-product of the wood and paper industry. It is usually stripped from
trees, milled and screened into various sizes. As bark can be produced in different
particle sizes, it is possible to make different mixes with different physical
properties. Furthermore, according to Prasad and Chualáin (2004), the air- and
water-holding capacity of bark can be adjusted by varying the percentage of fine
material (< 1–2 mm). Bark is described as fresh, aged or composted (Robbins
and Evans, 2010). Aged or composted bark is used for plant cultivation (Plate 6).
Composting is recommended to eliminate phytotoxins. N may be added during
composting to overcome N immobilization (Solbraa, 1979).

Bark is a lightweight material with a volume weight of 0.1–0.3 g cm-3 (Raviv et

al. 2002). Pine-bark-based substrates provide very good aeration and a moderate
amount of available water; however, they have little water-buffering capacity and
frequent irrigation is required. Owen et al. (2008) suggested, therefore, amending
bark substrate with industrial mineral aggregate following studies showing
reduced water application needs and increased plant stomatal conductance and
carbon assimilation when plants are grown in such substrates compared with in
pine bark alone. Some fresh bark types contain toxins, including high levels of
monoterpenes and phenols, which may prove harmful to plants. Tree species, age,
harvest time, soil type and geographical region are factors affecting phytotoxicity
(Raviv et al., 2002). High manganese content, especially at low pH could also be
a source of potential phytotoxicity (Maher and Thomson, 1991). As mentioned
earlier, composting or ageing are good measures against phytotoxicity.

A positive property of bark is its relatively low cost. Shaw et al. (2007)
performed a sensitivity analysis using five years of market data on ‘Galia’
muskmelons to show potential losses and profits using bags or pots filled with
GRUDA, 2004

Plate 6
Aged pine bark used as a container substrate for bell pepper cultivation
11. Growing media 291

either perlite or pine bark. An economic analysis determined that pine bark was
nearly one-eighth the cost of perlite and could be reused for several consecutive
crops, resulting in reduced production costs and greater profits. However, bark
could become a limited resource due to the changing timber industry and the fact
that it is an effective energy source (Owen et al., 2008).

Sawdust
The volume weight of sawdust is slightly less than sphagnum peat moss; it has
similar water retention to pine bark but greater air space after drainage (Bilderback,
1982). As with hardwood bark, plant growth is restricted in uncomposted
sawdust. However, the carbon to nitrogen ratio is much higher in sawdust than
in bark and N must be added: an estimated 2–3 percent N by weight is required
to compost sawdust. On the other hand, hardwood sawdust decays more rapidly
than softwood sawdust and requires about 1 percent more N by weight to achieve
decomposition (Worrall, 1985). Moreover, old sawdust has a lower N requirement
than fresh sawdust. Handreck and Black (2005) reported rapid decomposition of
whitewood sawdust in pots, with volume loss of up to 50 percent in one year,
causing slumping and sometimes an enormous loss of air porosity. The microbes
causing this decomposition have a high soluble nitrogen requirement, necessitating
heavy applications of nitrogen fertilizer (Handreck and Black, 2005). Starck et al.
(1991) found the lowest content of total and soluble nitrogen in leaves of carnation
plants grown in sawdust in comparison to peat or mixtures of peat and sawdust.
Higher doses of nitrogen increased the inflorescence diameter of plants grown in
sawdust and in a mixture of 25 percent peat and 75 percent sawdust. In addition,
using hardwood sawdust as a growing medium, it was found that wood contained
phytotoxins negatively affecting plant growth (Maas and Adamson, 1982).

Woodchips and wood fibre substrates

Woodchips are readily available materials from the wood and paper industry. Pure
untreated spruce and pine woodchippings with little bark from the woodworking
industry can be shredded under frictional pressure and a wood fibre substrate
(WFS) produced. The TPS of wood fibre substrates is similar to that of peat
substrates and is over 90 percent, while the volume weight is generally 0.083–1.50,
depending on the particle size and substrate compaction. The diminution of
particle size leads to an increase in the volume weight (Gruda and Schnitzler,
2004a). Wood fibre substrates are characterized by low water retention with less
easily available water and water-buffering capacity compared with peat-based
substrates, good air content and high saturated hydraulic conductivity (Gruda and
Schnitzler, 2004a; Gruda, 2005). Therefore, frequent irrigation is very important
when wood fibres are used as growing media; optimal plant growth requires high
moisture levels. Gruda and Schnitzler (2000) recommend irrigation set points
at -30 hPa for optimal morphological leaf and root development of tomato
transplants in an ebb/flood system; the irrigation frequency must be higher than
in a peat-based substrate.
292 GAPs for greenhouse vegetable crops: Principles for Mediterranean climate areas

As with sawdust, the carbon to nitrogen ratio of woodchips and wood fibres is
extremely high, requiring adequate amounts of nitrogen and composting to avoid
negative effects on plant growth. In strongly fibrous and relatively loose wood
substrates, micro-organism activity is sturdily promoted. The micro-organisms
need mineral nitrogen for the synthesis of their own protein components. The
immobilized N is no longer available for plants. N-immobilization in wood
substrates can cause substantial nourishment problems for cultivated plants and
thus become one of the most important factors leading to possible yield losses
(Gruda and Schnitzler, 1997 and 1999b; Gruda et al., 2000).

However, nowadays specially produced N-impregnated wood fibres can

be used to reduce subsequent N-deficiency during the growing period. Gruda
et al. (2000) studied the mechanism of N-immobilization for white peat and
for WFSs with and without additional impregnation. Three levels of nitrogen
fertilizer were tested. N-immobilization was calculated on the basis of N-balance
including N-uptake by plants and residual mineral N in the substrates. Strong
net N-immobilization was revealed in non-impregnated wood fibre substrates.
In white peat and WFS Toresa spezial, N-immobilization was low with little
variation in the values. N-immobilization for pots with and without plants was
approximately 100 mg per litre for all three N-levels. The authors, therefore,
recommended the use of N-impregnated wood fibre substrates with additional
N-fertilization. However, general recommendations about additional fertilizer are
difficult, given the strongly varying mineral nutrient content of different substrate
loads.

Worldwide competition in the wood products industry also influences the

prices of wood-based substrate; in recent years, the energy crisis has made the
situation even more critical as wood is used as renewable fuel material. While the
use of wood as an energy source is not a new phenomenon, the impact of its use
as a biomass energy source has increased significantly in recent years.

Compost
The term compost is used to describe all organic matter that has undergone long,
thermophilic, aerobic decomposition. Composts can vary according to the raw
material used and the exact nature of the process (Raviv et al., 2002). A wide range
of organic waste can be composted for use as growing media: municipal solid
waste, sewage sludge, poultry litter, chicken manure and other animal excreta,
poppy straw, cotton gin trash, and waste from the food and processing industry.
The latter includes apple pomace (Chong, 1992), corn cobs (Kianirad et al., 2009),
cotton gin waste (Krewer et al., 2002), grape marc (Reis et al., 2003), grape stalks
(Tattini et al., 1992), olive marc (Pages et al., 1985), olive-mill waste (Papafotiou et
al., 2004 and 2005), sugarcane fibre or bagasse (Cintra et al., 2004) and vegetable
residues (Vallini et al., 1992).
11. Growing media 293

Prasad and Maher (2001) recommend using composted materials such as green
waste and biowaste as a component of a growing medium (up to 50 percent) but
not on their own. Constraints to the use of composted green waste are: high EC,
high concentration of potassium, nitrogen and ammonium, and high shrinkage
(Handreck and Black, 2005). Plant pathogens and weed contamination could also
be potential problems if the temperatures and time exposure are insufficient and
the composting process is not properly conducted (Gruda et al., 2006). However,
through a good composting process, compost generally possesses a suppressive
effect against pathogens. Using compost provides alternatives in sustainable
horticulture.

The physical and biochemical properties of compost used as growing media

vary greatly, depending on the materials used, the method adopted and the stage
of maturity. The most beneficial effect of compost inclusion in a growth medium
is its nutritional contribution. Non-mature compost can immobilize a significant
amount of N, but once stabilized, compost acts, to a large extent, as a slow-release
fertilizer (Raviv et al., 2002).

GROWING MEDIA REUSE

In soilless crops, the substrate is not renewed each year, but reused for successive
growth cycles. Each time a soilless growing system is replanted, roots are left in
the substrate and organic matter may be partially decomposed, increasing water-
holding capacity and in some cases CEC.

Possible consequences of reuse are: variation in structure and composition,

variation in the air-filled porosity and water-holding capacity ratio, and
contamination by soil-borne diseases.

The international trend for substrate

TABLE 3
development tends towards the use Volume weight, air at pF = 1 (% apparent
of natural resources and renewable raw volume), and easily available water (% apparent
materials. When growing media companies, volume) for some new and reused substrates
even peat producers, in the medium Reuse Volume Air EAW
and long term actively participate in the weight (%) (%)
(g/cm3)
search for peat alternatives and invest in
No 0.07 35.0 27.4
new innovative technology, they will be Coir
Yes 0.09 24.4 30.3
investing in their future (Gruda, 2012a).
No 0.13 44.8 24.1
Peat
Yes 0.15 35.2 26.0
A high value in the future will be given to
substrate development, assurance of quality No 1.15 30.7 19.2
Sand
of the final product, and the suitability Yes 1.16 13.4 34.4

for plant cultivation by simultaneously Giuffrida et al., 2001

respecting environmental aspects and

sustainability (Gruda, 2005).
294 GAPs for greenhouse vegetable crops: Principles for Mediterranean climate areas

GAP recommendations

r
The wide range of substrates available means it is difficult to make a correct choice. For
appropriate management of nutrient solution and fertigation, information concerning their
chemical and physical characteristics is required; even within the same substrate, significant
variations can occur:
- Determine the substrate’s physical and chemical characteristics and, if necessary, make
adjustments to meet plant requirements.
r
Shape and volume of the container affect water-holding capacity:
- Consider the container when choosing a substrate.
r
Choice of substrate depends on the grower’s capability to handle growing media with
characteristics that can greatly differ from those of agricultural soil:
- Acquire the necessary information and know-how.
r
Adapt the irrigation strategy to the physical properties of the substrate.
r
The agro-economic suitability of a given substrate is not the sole consideration. The direct
(i.e. substrate disposal) and indirect (i.e. leaching requirement) environmental impact must
be taken into account in order to improve the efficiency lato sensu of the adopted soilless
growing systems. Growing media companies and vegetable producers are no longer evaluated
only according to their financial success:
- Consider sustainability and environmental protection.
- Adopt green technologies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Al-Ajmi, A., Al-Karaki, G. & Othman, Y. 2009. Effect of different substrates on fruit
yield and quality of cherry tomato grown in a closed soilless system. Acta Hort.,
807: 491–494

Allaire, S.E., Caron, J., Duchesne, I., Parent, L.E. & Rioux, J.A. 1996. Air-filled
porosity, gas relative diffusivity and tortuosity: indices of Prunus × cistena sp.
growth in peat substrates. J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci., 121(2): 236–242. Corrigenda: J. Am.
Soc. Hort. Sci., 121(3): 592.

Bilderback, T.E. 1982. Container soils and soilless media. In: Nursery crops production
manual. North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC.

Bilderback, T.E., Fonteno, W.C. & Johnson, D.R. 1982. Physical properties of media
composed of peanut hulls, pine bark, and peatmoss and their effects on azalea
growth. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci., 107: 522–525.

Boertje, G.A. 1995. Chemical and physical characteristics of pumice as a growing

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