LINGUISTIC SURVEY OF INDIA

LINGUISTIC SURVEY OF INDIA

 CONTENTS

Pages
Foreword ii-iii

Preface iv-v

Acknowledgement vi

Abbreviations and Phonetic Symbols vii-xiii

List of Maps xiv

Chapter 1 Introduction R. Nakkeerar 1-54

Chapter 2 Dravidian Family
Language
Tamil P. Edward Vedamanickam 55-100

Mother Tongues

1. Badaga R. Nakkeerar & Jhuma Ghosh 101-178

2 Chetti Bhasha Jhuma Ghosh 179-254

3. Irula/Iruliga Aparajita Sen 255-325

4. Kathodi N. Gopalakrishnan 326-410

5. Kota Soumi Banerjee 411-457

6. Maliyad Pritha Banerjee 458-505

7. Paniya Aparajita Sen 506-584

8. Solaga/Soliga P.Edward Vedamanickam 585-635

9. Toda Soumi Banerjee 636-714

10. Urali R. Nakkeerar 715-783

Chapter 3 Indo Aryan Family

Mother Tongue

Saurashtra/Saurashtri P. Edward Vedamanickam 784-849

Chapter 4 Comparative Lexicon 850-893

 FOREWORD

The Linguistic Survey of India (LSI) carried out by the Office of the Registrar
General, Language Division has been a crucial undertaking with several notable benefits.
Firstly, it serves as a comprehensive documentation of the vast linguistic diversity present
within India. The survey provides a systematic analysis of numerous Languages and
Mother Tongues capturing the richness and complexity of India's linguistic landscape.
This documentation contributes to preserving and safeguarding India's linguistic heritage
for future generations. Secondly, this helps in understanding the social and cultural
dynamics associated with language. It sheds light on the interconnectedness of language
identity and community fostering a deeper appreciation and respect for linguistic diversity.
Moreover, the survey acts as a valuable resource for linguistic research, aiding scholars
and linguists in studying language evolution, language families and the interplay between
languages. It also facilitates language planning and policy-making, assisting in the
development of inclusive language policies that recognise and promote linguistic rights.
Overall, the Linguistic Survey of India plays a vital role in preserving, studying and
celebrating the linguistic mosaic of India, fostering cultural understanding and linguistic
scholarship.
I am honoured to present this foreword for the Linguistic Survey of India
specifically dedicated to Tamil Nadu State, a treasure trove of literature, art and cultural
heritage. Tamil, one of the oldest languages in the world, holds a unique place not just
within India but across the global linguistic landscape. In 2004, Tamil was declared a
classical language of India, meaning that it met three criteria: its origins are ancient; it has
an independent tradition; and it possesses a considerable body of ancient literature.
Tamil holds a unique position as one Language with 11 distinct Mother Tongues.
This linguistic variation within Tamil Nadu showcases the intricate tapestry of the
languages and the significance it holds in different communities across the region. The
Linguistic Survey of India endeavours to capture the essence of Tamil and the 11 Mother
Tongues through extensive research, documentation, and interactions with communities
across Tamil Nadu. By doing so, it not only preserves the linguistic heritage but also
provides insights into the evolution, influences, and cultural significance of Language and
Mother Tongues in the larger context of India's linguistic mosaic.
I commend the dedicated team of linguists, researchers, and scholars involved in
this endeavour. I would like to congratulate and thank Shri. Kaushick Saha, IAS,
Controlling officer & Director, DCO West Bengal, Language Division for his leadership
and offering valuable insights, and meticulously reviewing the content, and playing a
crucial role in achieving the document's excellence.
I would also like to thank the following for the seamless coordination, unwavering
dedication, tireless efforts and attention to detail that we have achieved such a remarkable
document: Sri. Mritunjay Kumar Narayan, Registrar General, India, New Delhi (Head of
the Institution), Sri Manoj Kumar, Deputy Director General, Office of the Registrar

ii
General, India, New Delhi (Liasoning Language Division), and Dr R. Nakkeerar, Senior
Research Officer (L) and Head of Office, Language Division coordinating LSI Tamil Nadu
volume.
Their meticulous efforts to document and study Tamil and 11 Mother Tongues will
undoubtedly contribute to the understanding, appreciation and Tamil Nadu's rich cultural
heritage. I extend my heartfelt gratitude to all those involved in the Linguistic Survey of
India for Tamil Nadu, as this work will benefit academics and linguists worldwide.
I encourage readers to immerse themselves in this linguistic journey, exploring the
diverse linguistic tapestry that Tamil Nadu unfolds. May the Linguistic Survey of India
for Tamil Nadu serve as a guiding light, nurturing the love for language and inspiring
future generations to continue cherishing and preserving this extraordinary linguistic
heritage.

(Dr. K. Ramasamy)
Former Professor Cum Deputy Director
Central Institute of Indian Languages, Mysore
Former Officer In-Charge
Central Institute of Classical Tamil. Chennai

iii
 PREFACE

The “Linguistic Survey of India” project of the Office of the Registrar General, India is
operational across states since 1984 with the sole purpose of presenting an updated
linguistic survey taking cognisance of sociolinguistic changes, territorial boundaries and
changes in language resources. “Linguistic Survey of India-Tamil Nadu” is a work in
descriptive linguistics comprising of descriptions of one Language and eleven Mother
Tongues surveyed from December, 2021 to January, 2022. The project is in all respects, a
supplementation and complementation of the monumental survey entitled, ‘Linguistic
Survey of India’ by Sir George Abraham Grierson (1903-1928) in pre-Independent India
when the state was named as Madras Presidency, covering the bulk of Southern India.
In the past, this Division had successfully produced volumes on Survey Reports of the states
of Orissa (present Odisha), Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Sikkim (Part I & II), Rajasthan (Part I),
West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand and Himachal Pradesh.
The present volume entitled “Linguistic Survey of India-Tamil Nadu” consists of four
chapters as follows:
In Chapter 1 on Introduction, the state's history, geography, present administrative divisions,
district-wise population with rural-urban break-up, linguistic history and composition, status
of Multilingualism in Tamil Nadu and a brief introduction of the surveyed Language and
Mother Tongues.
Chapter 2 consists of the linguistic description of Language and Mother Tongues of
Dravidian family. Language covered is Tamil and Mother tongues covered are ten (10).
They are as follows: 1. Badaga, 2. Chetti Bhasha, 3. Irula/Iruliga, 4. Kathodi, 5. Kota, 6.
Maliyad, 7. Pania, 8. Toda, 9. Solaga and 10. Urali. Chapter 3 contains linguistic description
of 11th Mother Tongue Saurashtra/ Saurashtri, which belongs to the Indo-Aryan family. At
the end of the grammatical description of one Language and 11 Mother Tongues, 500
Common Comparative Lexical items have been appended considering the limitation of the
pages of the Volume in Chapter 4.
One common questionnaire containing the exhaustive word list, sentence list and one short
story developed by Language Division, Office of the Registrar General, India was used to
elicit data from informants.
I extend my thanks to the contributors for undertaking paintaking efforts in data collection
and report writing.
The Volume could not achieve its present shape without the monitoring and encouragement
of Shri Manoj Kumar, Deputy Director General for his constant follow up, overall
supervision in finalization and publication of the Volume. I would like to express my sincere
appreciation to Shri Kaushick Saha, IAS, DCO-West Bengal and Controlling Officer,
Language Division, for his inspiration, help and cooperation. Dr. Vishwanath, IAS (Former
iv
Director, DCO-West Bengal & Controlling Officer, Language Division, Kolkata) also
deserves due acknowledgement. Dr. Nakkeerar, Senior Research Officer (L) & Head of
Office worked for finalisation and submission of the Volume. During his period, he
submitted the proposal for preparation of Maps for the Volume to be drawn by the Map
Division of Office of the Registrar General, India. The contributors of the Map Division
under the guidance of Dr. V.V.L.N. Sarma, DRG (Map) and special efforts by Dr Kandhai
Singh, Consultant (Map) deserve a special acknowledgement for the imagination and
creativity in developing the Maps for this volume.
The collection of data on Tamil Language/Mother Tongues surveyed in Tamil Nadu under
Linguistic survey of India, Tamil Nadu would not have been possible without the
cooperation and help of the Directorate of Census Operations, Tamil Nadu and the various
District Magistrates as well as other officials of the State of Tamil Nadu. Their sincere help
and cooperation are duly acknowledged.
The informants extended their cooperation in providing copious data. The informants,
without whose dedication and deliberation, the Volume could not be compiled. They are
acknowledged with sincere gratitude.
I hope this Volume will serve the needs of different sectors of populace in respect to various
purposes in socio-linguistic and socio-educational planning.

NEW DELHI MRITUNJAY KUMAR NARAYAN

June, 2023 REGISTRAR GENERAL & CENSUS
COMMMISSIONER, INDIA

v
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Office of the Registrar General, India

LANGUAGE DIVISION

R. Nakkeerar Senior Research Officer (Language)

Sibasis Mukherjee Ex-Research Officer (Language)

P. Edward Vedamanickam Research Officer (Language)

N. Gopalakrishnan Research Officer (Language)

Nishant Lohagun Research Officer (Language)

Sucharita Chakraborty Research Officer (Language)

Sarita Panda Research Officer (Language)

Pritha Banerjee Investigator (Language)

Aparajita Sen Investigator (Language)

Dipshikha Bose Investigator (Language)

Soumi Banerjee Investigator (Language)

Jhuma Ghosh Investigator (Language)

Deepak Kumar Investigator (Language)

Amit Majumder Statistical Investigator, Grade-II

Tanmay Dey Junior Consultant

Navil Sanjar Junior Consultant

Chayanika Mukherjee Junior Consultant

Soumi Mitra Junior Consultant

MAP DIVISION, ORGI

V.V.L.N. Sarma Deputy Registrar General (Map)

Kandhai Singh Consultant (Map)

&

WEB CELL of ORGI

vi
 ABBREVIATIONS

Sg-/SG./sg/Sing. Singular

pl./Pl. Plural

e.g. For Example

Masc./m./M Masculine

Fem./f. /F/fem. Feminine

trans. Transitive

V Verb

NP Noun Phrase

LSI Linguistic Survey of India

Vol. Volume

MT/mt Mother Tongue

P Person

PP/p Pages

T Total

R Rural

U Urban

i.e. That is

ed. Edited

ABL./abl. Ablative Case

ACC./acc. Accusative Case

ADJ./adj. Adjective

ADV. Adverb
ART. Article
ASSOC. Associative
AUX./aux./Aux. Auxiliary

ben Benefactive

vii
CAUS Causative
Cl Clause

C/Con/con/c Consonant

Cont. Continuous

caus./cau Causative

CL Classifier
COMP Complementizer
COMP MKR Comparative Marker
CONJ Conjunction
DAT Dative Case

DECL Declarative
DET Determiner

Emp. Emphatic

e.g. Example

etc. Etcetera

Fin./ft./f. Finite

Fut./FUT. Future

gen./gen/Gen./geni. Genitive Case

HAB Habitual Aspect

Hon. Honorific

Imp. /IMP. Imperative

Imperf. Imperfect

INF Infinite

INS Instrumental Case

incl. Inclusive

INT Intensifier
LOC Locative Case

man.adv Manner Adverbial

Mar. Marker

viii
N Noun

NEG./neg. Negative

Neu Neuter

NOM./nom. Nominative
NOMNLZR Nominalizer
NUM Number
Nf Non-Finite

OPT Optative
pass. Passive

Pt. Part

pcpl./PTCP. Participle

PREP/pre. Preposition

pred. Predicate

Pt./PST./Past ten Past Tense

PRS.cont./PROG./pr.cont. Present Continuous Tense

PERF Perfective
PL Plural
PP./POSTP. Post Position
PRES./PRS./pr./pre.ten. Present Tense
PROG Progressive (continuous)
PROHIB Prohibitive mood
prt Particle
QMKR Question Marker
QUO Quotative
Relat Relative

reflex Reflexive

REV Reversal
SOV Subject+Object+Verb

SBJV Subjunctive
suf Suffix

ix
SUBJ./sub./s. Subject

OBJ./obj./o./ob. Object

vb./v Verb

V.CL. Vowel Cluster

V/v Vowel

viz. Namely

Vol/vol Volume

1Sg first person singular pronominal prefix

2Sg second person singular pronominal prefix

3Sg third person singular pronominal prefix

1Pl first person plural pronominal prefix

2Pl second person plural pronominal prefix

3Pl third person plural pronominal prefix

x
 PHONETIC SYMBOLS

Asp. Aspirated

Alv. Alveolar

approx. Approximate

Al Alveolar

Bi/BL Bilabial

GL Glottal

PL. Palatal

RT/Ret Retroflex

Vel. Velar

VL Voiceless

VD Voiced

/i/ High Front Unrounded Vowel

Close Front Vowel

/e/ Mid Front Unrounded Vowel

Close Mid Front Vowel

/ɨ/ High Central Unrounded Vowel

/ə/ Mid Central Vowel

/a/ Low Central Unrounded Vowel (long vowel)

Low back vowel

/u/ High Back Rounded Vowel

Close Back Vowel
/o/ Mid-back rounded Vowel
/æ/ Mid front Vowel

/ɛ/ Open Mid front Vowel

/ɔ/ Open Mid Back Vowel

xi
/ɯ/ Close Back unrounded Vowel
/p/ Voiceless Bilabial Stop
/t/ High Back Central Unrounded Vowel

/ph//pʰ/ Voiceless Bilabial Aspirated Stop

/b/ Voiced Bilabial Stop
/bh/ /bʰ/ Voiced Bilabial Aspirated Stop
/t/ Voiceless Dental Stop
/th//tʰ/ Voiceless Dental Aspirated Stop
/d/ Voiced Dental Stop
/dh/ /dʰ/ Voiced Dental Aspirated Stop
/ʈ/ Voiceless Unaspirated Retroflex stop

/ʈʰ/ Voiceless Aspirated Retroflex stop

/ɖ/ Voiced Unaspirated Retroflex stop

/ɖʰ/ Voiced aspirated Retroflex stop

/k/ Voiceless Unaspirated Velar stop

/kʰ/ Voiceless Aspirated Velar stop
/g/ Voiced Unaspirated Velar stop

/ gʰ/ Voiced Aspirated Velar stop

/c/ Voiceless Palatal Affricate
/ch/, /cʰ/ Voiceless Palatal Aspirated Affricate
/ S’/ Palatal Voiceless Fricative
/ɟ/ Voiceless palatal plosive
/ ɟh/ Voiced palatal plosive
/m/ Voiced Bilabial Nasal
/N/ Uvular Nasal
/n/ Dental Nasal
/ ɲ/, /M’/ Palatal Nasal
/ɳ/ Retroflex Nasal

xii
/ŋ/, /M/ Velar Nasal
/r/ Dental Trill
/ɽ/ Retroflex Flap
/ɾ/ Voiced Alveolar Tap
/l/ Voiced Alveolar Lateral
/ɭ/ Retroflex Lateral
/f/ Voiceless Labio-Dental Fricative
/s/ Voiceless Alveolar Fricative
/z/ Voiced Alveolar Fricative
/ʃ/ Voiceless Palatal fricative
/ts/ Voiceless Dental Affricate
/tsʰ/ Voiceless Dental Aspirated Affricate
/ʧ/ Voiceless post-alveolar Affricate
/dʒ/ Voiced Dental Affricate
/ʂ/ Voiceless Retroflex fricative
/h/ Voiceless Glottal Fricative
/ʋ/ Labio-Dental Approximant
/y//j/ Palatal Approximant

xiii
 LIST OF MAPS

Map 1: Administrative Divisions of Tamil Nadu 2011

Map 2: Rural-Urban Distribution of Languages in Tamil Nadu 2011

Map 3: Rural-Urban Distribution of Mother Tongues in Tamil Nadu 2011

Map 4: District-wise distribution of surveyed Languages– Tamil Nadu 2011

Map 5: District-wise distribution of surveyed Mother Tongues in Tamil Nadu 2011

Map 6: Bilingualism and Trilingualism of surveyed Language in Tamil Nadu 2011

Map 7: Major Scheduled tribes’ population in Tamil Nadu 2011

Map 8: Family-wise Distribution of surveyed Language in Tamil Nadu 2011

xiv
INTRODUCTION
 1. INTRODUCTION
R. Nakkeerar

1. Tamil Nadu as a State

Tamil Nadu is one of the twenty-eight states in India. As of 2011 census the population
of Tamil Nadu is 7, 21, 38,958 and making which makes it the sixth most populous state in
India. It is bordered by the Bay of Bengal in the East, the Indian Ocean in the South, Kerala in
the West and Karnataka in the Northwest. The capital city of Tamil Nadu is Chennai, which is
the largest city of the state.

Brief History Of The State

The ancient Tamil land was ruled by three royal dynasties namely, The Chera’s, the
Chola’s and the Pandiya’s. The terrestrial parts ruled by them was Chera Nadu which is the
Chera country, Chola Nadu referred as the Chola country and Pandiya Nadu referred as the
Pandiya country respectively. The mainland of the contemporaneous Kerala State formed
forms a major part of Chera Nadu. The Central and Northern parts of present Tamil Nadu were
the then forms a part of the Chola Nadu and the Southern is the Pandiya Nadu.

There were significant diplomatic contacts between them and kingdoms to the North.
They were mentioned on the pillars of Ashoka. These rulers were the pioneers of some of the
earliest Tamil literature like Tolkappiyam, a book on Tamil grammar. The period of the Cholas,
Cheras and Pandyas is called the Sangam Period. Most literature of this time dealt with the
themes of love and war.

The Tamil language reflects the cultural traditions of Tamil Nadu. This southern state is
situated at the South Eastern tip of the Indian peninsula. Tamil Nadu is referred as “The Land of
Temples” in India because temples form one of the cultural heritages of the state. The architecture
of the temple and the sculptures that embellish the walls are rich in spiritual and as well as historical
significance. The culture is very unique and rich in Tamil Nadu. Tamil Nadu is also known for its
art, dance, music and linguistic enrichment.

The Kalabhra dynasty displaced and overtook the three kingdoms of Chera, Chola and
Pandya during the 3rd century resulting in the decline in Sangam literature. Literacy was
widespread during this time. Epics such as the Cilappatikaram were written during the same
period. Most prominent of these works is the Tirukkuṟaḷ written by Thiruvalluvar. The work is
a collection of couplets covering all aspects of life from ethics to love.

The Pallavas overthrew the Kalabhras during the 7th century. They ruled Tamil Nadu
under the kings Mahendravarman - I and his son Mamalla Narasimhavarman - I. The Pallavas
ruled parts of South India with Kancheepuram as their capital. Tamil architecture reached its
peak during this time. Narasimhavarman- II built the Shore Temple which is a UNESCO
World Heritage Site.

1
 The Chola dynasty overthrew the Pallavas in the 9th century. The Cholas were prolific
temple builders. There is early specimen of Dravidian temples under the Cholas. They also
renovated temples and buildings of the Pallavas, acknowledging their common socio-religious
and cultural heritage. The celebrated Nataraja temple at Chidambaram, the Ranganathaswamy
Temple at Srirangam, Tiruchirappalli, held special significance for the Cholas.
The Brahadesvara Temple of Thanjavur, Brihadeeswarar Temple of Gangaikonda
Cholapuram and the Airavatesvara Temple of Darasuram are titled Great Living Chola
Temples among the UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

The Cholas were overthrown by the Pandiyas in 13th century. The Pandiyan
capital Madurai was in the deep south away from the coast. They had extensive trade links with
the southeast Asian maritime empires of Srivijaya and their successors. The Meenakshi
Amman Temple in Madurai and Nellaiappar Temple at Tirunelveli are the best Pandiyan
temples. The Pandiyas excelled in both trade and literature.

The Muslim invasions in South India led to the establishment of Vijayanagaram

kingdom in Tamil Nadu by 1370 and ruled for almost two centuries till it was defeated in the
Battle of Talikota in 1565 by a confederacy of Deccan sultanates. As the Vijayanagaram
Empire went into decline after the mid-16th century, many local rulers, called Nayaks,
succeeded to the throne of the South Indian kingdoms. The Nayaks declared themselves
independent. The Nayaks of Madurai and Nayaks of Thanjavur were the most prominent
Nayaks of the 17th century. They reconstructed some of the well-known temples in Tamil Nadu
such as the Meenakshi Temple.

Europeans started to establish trade centres during the 17th century in the eastern coastal
regions. Around 1609, the Dutch established a settlement in Pulicat, while the Danes had their
establishment in Tharangambadi also known as Tranquebar. In 1639, the East India Company,
established a settlement further south of Pulicat, in present-day Chennai. British
constructed Fort St. George and established a trading post in former Madras. The office
of mayoralty of Madras was established in 1688. The French established trading posts
in former Pondichérry by 1693. The British and French were competing to expand the trade in
the northern parts of Tamil Nadu which also witnessed many battles like Battle of
Wandiwash as part of the Seven Years War. British reduced the French dominions in India to
Puducherry.

At the beginning of the 19th century, the British firmly established governance over the
whole of Tamil Nadu. The Vellore mutiny on 10 July 1806 was the first instance of a large-
scale mutiny by Indian sepoys against the British East India Company. The revolt, which took
place in Vellore, was brief, lasting one full day, but brutal as mutineers broke into the Vellore
fort and killed or wounded 200 British troops, before they were subdued by reinforcements
from nearby Arcot.
1909 Minto-Morley Reforms led to the establishment of the Madras Legislative
Council. Failure of the summer monsoons and administrative shortcomings of

2
the Ryotwari system resulted in two severe famines in the Madras Presidency, the Great
Famine of 1876–78 and the Indian famine of 1896–97 killed millions of Tamils. The famine
led to the migration of many Tamil peasants as bonded labourers for the British to countries
like Malaysia and Mauritius, which formed the present Tamil diaspora.

Tamil Nadu provided a significant number of freedom fighters to the Independence

struggle such as V.O. Chidambaram Pillai and Bharatiyar. The Tamils formed a significant
percentage of the members of the Indian National Army (INA), founded by Subhas Chandra
Bose to fight the British colonial rule in India. Lakshmi Sahgal from Tamil Nadu was a
prominent leader in the INA's Rani of Jhansi Regiment.

When India became independent in 1947, Madras presidency became Madras State,
comprising present-day Tamil Nadu and coastal Andhra Pradesh, South Canara district of
Karnataka, and parts of Kerala. The state was subsequently split up along linguistic lines. In
1969, Madras State was renamed Tamil Nadu, meaning "Tamil country".

1.3 Geography of The State

Tamil Nadu with an area of 1,30,058 km is the tenth-largest state in India. The
bordering states are Kerala to the west, Karnataka to the north-west and Andhra Pradesh to the
north. To the east is the Bay of Bengal and the state encircles the union territory of Puducherry.
The southernmost tip of the Indian Peninsula is Kanyakumari which is the meeting point of
the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, and the Indian Ocean.

The western, southern and the north-western parts are hilly and rich in vegetation.
The Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats meet at the Nilgiri Hills. The Western Ghats traverse
the entire western border with Kerala. The rain-bearing clouds of the south-west monsoon are
blocked by the Western Ghats from entering the state. The eastern parts are fertile coastal plains
and the northern parts are a mix of hills and plains. The central and the south-central regions
are arid plains and receive less rainfall than the other regions.

PEOPLE AND CULTURE

Music

The ancient Tamils had their own music system and their own musical instruments.
They had five kinds of Pan, namely Mullai, Kurinji, Marudham, Neythal and Palai. Apart from
this, they had followed seven musical notes namely, Kural, Thuttam, Kaykkilai, Uzhai, Ili,
Vilari and Tharam. These seven notes might can probably be paralleled with the seven modern
musical notes sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, da, and ni. They had their famous Yazhs (yaalkal) that is
equivalent with the modern Veena,
Different kinds of Yazhs (Yaalkal) are denoted by several names such as Periyazh
(periyaal), Maharahazh (makarayaal), Sengattuyazh (Cenkoottuyaal), Sagottaiyazh (Cakootai)
and Siriyazh (Siiriyaal). We learn through the Sangam works that the Tamils had many other

3
musical instruments. By referring to the Sangam Works it can be concluded that the Tamil
People used many other musical instruments.

It appears that in during the period of Alwars (Alvaarkal) and Nayanmars

(Naayanmaarkal), the natural system of natural music was retained with some
unconventionalities. In the year 1943 the patron of Tamil language, literature and arts, Dr.
Raja Sir Annamalai Chettiyar started the Tamil Music Academy (Tamil Isai Sankam) at Madras
and thereby he attempted to restore and enrich the Tamil music through this an attempt was
made to restore the enrichment of Tamil Music.

Dance

Tamil is broadly classified into lyal ‘prose’, Isai ‘poetry’ and Nadakam ‘drama’ and
Nattiyam or Kuttu (dance). The ancient Tamils had two kinds of Kuthu: (1) Vetiyal and (2)
Podhuviyal. Vetiyal is especially intended for royal families and Podhuviyal is meant for the
public. Later on this system changed convention had disappeared. Since the kings had slowly
lost their power the arts patronized by them also gradually lost their glamour. Thus, the Vetiyal
type of drama became extinct. The ancient Tamil country is the home of the classical dance
known as “Bharata Natyam.”

The state of Tamil Nadu slowly began to witness the fall of the royal dynasties and the
royal lineage and henceforth the culture and the art forms introduced by them lost their
significance. Thus the dramatic form Vetiyal (veettiyal) defuncted. But the land of Tamil Nadu
has the blessing of a celestial classical dance form known as “Bharata Natyam”. Drama and
dance form emerged as two pillars of preserving the cultural heritage of the state but it was
witnessed that during the 1960s and the 1970s cinema had been foregrounded and drama
became a backgrounded heritage.

Drawing and Painting:

The kings also patronized the art of drawing and painting. All over Tamil Nadu temples,
small and big, and almost all the temples are decorated by drawings and paintings. The royals
of Tamil Nadu patronized the art forms such as drawing and painting, as a result all the temples
of Tamil Nadu has magnificent forms of drawing but each one has a story or a message
associated with it. The paintings at Cithannavasal near Pudukkottai serves as a visual treat.

ARTS & ARCHITECTURE

Tamil Nadu is also famous for its huge ‘temple towers’. Rajarajan, the Chola king,
constructed a temple in Tanjavur. This temple named Gopuram is very tall and it is called
Thanjaipperiya Kovil “the big temple of Tanjavur”. His son Rajendra Chola, subdued the rulers
of the region up to the river Ganges, and constructed another big temple in Gangai Konda
Cholapuram. The Thanjai Periya Kovil is bigger than the temple in Gangai Konda Cholapuram,

4
but they are similar in terms of the architectural features. The former was named as
“Rajarajeswaram” and the latter was named as “Gangai Kondacholeswaram.” These temples
are famous for the huge Nandis (bulls) and Lingams.

These temples are famous for their huge Shiva Lingams and the Cosmic Bulls (Nandi).
The temples of Madurai Meenakshi Amman, Kanchipuram Varadharajapperumal, and
Chidambaram Natarajar are a visual treat. The skill of Tamils in architecture and sculpture can
be best witnessed through these temples. The five cars carved in rocks at Mahabalipuram are
extremely beautiful. There are also other works that show the skill of Tamils in sculpture can
also be witnessed through the collective works of Vigrahas ‘icons’, statues, drawings and
paintings, etc., found in the museums of Madras, the sculpture of Tanjavur, Pattiswaram and
Kaverippumattinam are worth mentioning.

SOCIO-CULTURAL FEATURES

Day-to-Day Life

Rice is the staple food of Tamil Nadu. The Tamils mainly eat Rice, Sambar, Rasam and
Curd (tayir). Buttermilk serves as a refreshment drink. Potato, Beans, Carrot, Cabbage,
Eggplant, Okra and other vegetables forms the side delicacies of the state. Majority of the
Tamils are non-vegetarians, but they mainly intake vegetarian food. On special occasions sweet
dish known as Payasam is served. After the meals, betel leaf and betel nuts serves as palate
cleanser.

In urban areas, people favour the eatables, Idli, Dhosai, Puri etc. and the drinks coffee,
tea or milk as morning tiffin. In rural areas people used to take rice. Now a days, almost all the
villages are being urbanized in this respect. Especially youngsters are fond of Tiffin in the
morning times. It may also be mentioned that there are people in villages who usually take
Kanchi (rice porridge) in the morning times. Idly, Vada, Pongal, Upma, Puri, Chappathi,
Dhosai, etc., are the tiffin items. Idli, Chatni and Sambar are more common items.

As far as the clothing is concerned, Tamil gents wear dhotis (worn in the so-called lungi
fashion) and shirts and ladies wear saris and jackets. Gents use pants and shirts too, though not very
common. Boy’s wear half-pants and shirts. Young girls wear Dhavani, Pavadai and Ravikkai. Some
gents wear turbans as mark of tradition.

Silk saris namely, Kanchipattu saris are woven in the town, Kanchipuram in Tami Nadu
are famous for wearing during the occasions not only because of its beauty bit also of their
durability, etc. Ladies use a variety of ornaments. Few of them are, Modhiram ’ring,’ Valayal
‘bangle,’ Mukkuthi ‘nose ringt,’ Thodu ‘ear ring,’ necklace,’ Kolusi ‘anklets,’ etc. Married women
wear Thali ‘mangala sutra’ as the symbol for marriage. Generally, gents wear wristwatch, rings,
etc. In rural areas some people wear ear rings, wrist-chains, etc. Almost all the people in the rural
areas are agriculturists and agricultural labourers. The office-going people, coolies, business people
and other labourers inhabit the urban areas.

5
 Apart from weaving the people of Tamil Nadu are also engaged in the profession of
agriculture, business and the activity comprises of office going people, luggage bearers and
other types of labourers.

As part of the Tamil culture when known persons meet, they exchange respect and
affection by the Tamil phrase ‘Vanga Vanakkam’. This vanga vanakkam (please do
come/welcome/greeting) is similar to namasthe or namaskar, the greetings words used widely
in the North India. At the time of departure ‘Poy Varukiren or Varukiren’ is used. Though this
means literally ‘I come’ but implies ‘now I go and will be back to meet you again’ in the Tamil
society.

FESTIVALS

Festivals forms an integral part of Tamil culture. There are a number of festivals observed
in Tamil Nadu. Pongal, Deepavali and Karthikai Deepam forms the significant festival of the state.
Among them Pongal is considered to be the superior festival of Tamil Nadu and it is also referred
to as Tamizhar Thirunal, the “harvest- - festival” celebrated for consecutive four days during the
month of January.

The first day of Pongal is known as Bogi or Bogipandikai. On this day, the rain, the
Rain God and the Rain Goddess are worshipped. Also, all the old and unusable articles are
burnt in bonfires. The second day of Pongal is the Pongal Proper. On this day, people worship
the Sun God. The third day is Mattu Pongal. On this day, they bathe the cattle and worship
them as they are the mainstay of farm life. The fourth day is known as Karinal or Kanru Pongal.
On this day villagers assemble at a public place and play many native games. Pongal festival
takes place towards the final stage of harvest. Makara Sankaranthi celebrated elsewhere in
India is the same festival as Pongal.

Another important festival is Deepavali which is celebrated across the state. It is

believed that on this day, Narakasuran a demon was killed by Lord Vishnu. Therefore this
festival marks a sign of the triumph of Good over Evil.

Karthikai Deepam is commonly celebrated by the people of Tamil Nadu by illuminating

their houses with Deebam ‘lights’ every night throughout the Tamil month Karthikai. During
this period people worship Lord Murugan also named Kartikeyan or Subramanyan the son of
Lord Shiva.

Apart from these popular festivals, there are several other festivals celebrated across
the state such as car festivals. The state of Tamil Nadu hosts a number fair and festivals
throughout the year.

6
 There are also a number of folk deities who are worshipped all over Tamil Nadu. Also, the
rituals and ceremonies that take place at birth, naming, ear boring, puberty, marriage and death
differ from region to region, from caste to caste, and from religion to religion.

A number of deities are also worshipped which are associated with folktales. Although
the rituals followed in these festivals are different for different regions across the state.

People And Culture

Universities in Tamil Nadu

There are fifteen universities in Tamil Nadu engaged for the improvement of the Tamil
language, literature, culture, etc. They are Annamalai University at Annamalainagar, Madras
University,; Madurai Kamaraj University at Madurai; Tami University at Tanjavur; Bharathiyar
University at Coimbatore and Bharatidasan University at Tiruchirappalli .Apart from these
universities, the International Institute of Tamil Studies functioning at Chennai also works for the
development of Tamil studies. The Anna University in Chennai is of the technological university
established in Tamil Nadu. Mother Theresa Woman’s University at Kodaikkanal and Gandhigram
Deemed University are well established universities of the state

Tamils have made significant contributions to Indian culture during the time of
independence. People like, V. O. Chidambaram Pillai, the famous poet Subramania Bharati,
are notable among them. In the field of science Sir C. V. Raman and Professor Chandrasekhar
received Nobel Prize from Tamil Nadu. There are many novelists who have received the
prestigious Sahithya Academy awards and Gnana Peeth Awards for their outstanding literary
works and contribution towards Tamil Language, literature and culture.

The history of the Tamil literature can be broadly grouped under seven periods.

1. Sangam Period 3rd Century BCE-2nd Century CE

2. Later Sangam Period 2nd Century CE- 6th Century CE
3. Pallava Period 6th Century CE - 9th Century CE
4. Chola Period 9 th Century CE - 12 th Century CE
5. Nayak Period 3 th Century CE - 17 th Century CE
6. European Period 17 th Century CE - 19 th Century CE
7. Present Period 20 th Century CE onwards

For the purpose of study, the Tamil literature may be classified into:
(i) Sangam Classics
(ii) Bhakthi/Devotional Literature
(iii) Ethics and
(iv) Modern Literature

7
 (I) Sangam Classics

The early Tamil literatures is called Sangam literatures. Though there are certain
discrepancies over the period of these classics, but in the general, the period between 200 BCE
and 500 AD is considered as the period of Sangam literature.

Sangam classics are mostly descriptive in nature. This classic contains explanation
related to nature, human feelings, love relationship and war, etc.

Pathuppattu, a compilation of ten poems, and Ettuthokai, a collection of eight

anthologies are two foremost illustrations of Sangam classics. The following are known as
Pathuppattu.

1. Thirumurukarruppadai
2. Porunararruppadai
3. Perumpanarruppadai
4. Sirupanarruppadai
5. Mullaippattu
6. Maduraikanchi
7. Nedunalvadai
8. Kurinchippattu
9. Pattinappalai
10. Malaipadukadam

The following are known as Ettuthokai.

1. Narrinai
2. Kurunthokai
3. Aynkurunuru
4. Pathirruppathu
5. Paripadal
6. Kalithokai
7. Agananuru
8. Purananuru

In addition to these, there is another set of poems known as Pathinenkizhkankku which

includes the following:

1. Naladiar
2. Nanmanikkadikai
3. Iniyavai Narpathu
4. Inna Narpathu
5. Kar Narpathu
6. Kalavazhi Narpathu
7. Thinaimozhi Aymathu

8
8. Thinaimalai Nurrayamathu
9. Aynthinai Aymathu
10. Aynthinai Ezhupthu
11. Thirikadugam
12. Thirukkural
13. Asarkkovai
14. Pazhamozhi Nanuru
15. Sirupanjamulam
16. Mudumozhikkanci
17. Elathi
18. Kaynnilai

Many of the poems in this collection appear to belong to the post-Sangham age. It is
commonly acknowledged that among these, Thirukkural was composed before the 2nd century
CE. Thiruvalluvar wrote a book named Thirukkural which comprises of 1330 Kural meaning
short verses of seven words. This book consists of three major divisions namely, Arathuppal,
Porutpal and Inbathupal.

Arathupal deals with family life and ascetic life, which are termed as Illaram and Turavaram
respectively. Perhaps this could be to some extent be equated with the Sanskrit division
Dharma.

Porutpal deals with the successors to the throne, the people of the establishment and all the
other aspects relevant to them such as their life stories, cultures and occupations etc. Perhaps
this could be equated with the Sanskrit division Artha.

Inbathuppal deals with the depiction of love both premarital and extramarital. In short,
Thirukkural serves as a guide for life and an exceptional literary work which also serves as a
source of joy while reading. This book has been translated into many Indian and foreign
languages.

The famous Tamil work Silappathikaram belong to the later Sangam period. Saint
Ilango, a Chera prince was the writer of this epic. Silappathikaram is the story of a chaste
woman, by name Kannaki. All the Tamil people are aware of the story of Kannaki. The author
Ilango, mentioned in the prologue section is that the work is based on the truth about
(i) a chaste woman is worthy of being worshipped even by great people,
(ii) the Aram (Dharma) is related to the karma of human beings. The wrong actions destroy
the dharma and the correct ones opens the path of liberation (moksha)
(iii) the fate inevitably makes one to suffer the effect of one’s own actions. There is another
epic known as Manimekalai by Sathanar, a contemporary version to Saint Ilango. These
two epics are referred to as ‘Twin Epics’.

9
Bhakti/Devotional Literature

Bhakti literature deals with religious philosophy, the history of saints, etc. Most of the
writings here are devotional poems. Religious teaching is entered Tamil literature, began with
Manimekalai. Sathanar the author of this book believed in Buddhism. The philosophy of
Buddha is extensively discussed in the book.

After the 7th century CE, a serious fight broke out between Saivites and Jains and
Saivites and Buddhists. The Nayanmars, the saints of Saivism, functioned to spread and
establish their religion all over Tamil Nadu. They were, to a great extent, successful in their
attempt. Saivism and Vaishnavism conflicted with Jainism and Buddhism. Consequently
Jainism and Buddhism lost their ground in Tamil Nadu. Jains, Saivites and Vaishnavites
extensively use the medium of literature for the propagation of their religion. Sivagasinthamani
is a work of Jains. Kambaramayanam is the most celebrated work of Vaishnavites.
Thiruvasakam is one of the most prevalent songs celebrating Saiva Bhakti. Apart from these,
there are many works for representing various other religious groups.

Ethics

The major part of Thirukkural deals with morals. Literature was chosen as the best
medium for introducing morals and values to the society. The poetic works such as Naladiar,
Nanmanikkadikai, Elathi, Sirupancamulam, Athiccudi, Konraiventhan, etc., are very popular
in Tamil Nadu. Many people tried to memorize the verses from these works.

Modern Literature

Modern literature dealt with two very important aspects.

(1) Prose and (2) Poetry.

It may be noted that prose writings have gained more popularity during that century.
Prose style is chosen as a better medium for novels, short stories, essays, etc.
Prose: Prose literature in general classified into two components: (1) Novels and (2) Short
stories.

Novels

The first novel published in Tamil was Prathaba Mudaliar Sarithiram. written by
Vedanayagam Pillai during the 19th century. At the present day there are a number of novels
written in Tamil written by eminent writers such as Akilan, N. Parthasarathi, Jayagandhan,
Sandilyan, Ashoka Mitram and eminent writers Mu. Varadarajan’s Kallo Kaviyamo, Nencil
Oru Mul and Akal Vilakku, Akilan’s Pavvai Vilakku and Nencin Alikal. Parthasarathi’s
Kurincimalar and Ponvilangu, Sandilyan’s Yavana Rani, Kadal Pura and Raja Muthirai, etc,
are excellent works in the sphere of Tamil novels. Also, Akilan received the ‘Gnana Peeth’
award for his novel, Sithirappavai.

10
Short Stories

Jayakantan is one of the eminent and popular story writer in Tamil. He is not only a
storywriter, but also a novelist. His novels Parisukkupo, Vazhkai Azhaikkiratu, etc., are worth
reading. Among his novels, Akkinippiravesam are particularly worth reading. Another story
writer who deserves to be appreciated is R. Sutamani. She has written many stories among
which Unam stands unique. Jayasirpiyan, Sundara Ramasamy, A.Madhavan, Ashoka Mithiran,
Navabharathi P. Pukazhenthi, Puvai S. Arumugam and others are well known writers in the
field short story writing of Tamil.

Apart from these, there are a number of other stories published in several weekly and
monthly magazines. Kumudam, Anandha Vikadan, Kalaimagal, Kalki, Tiipam, Kungumam,
Taay, Minnambalam are some journals that give primary importance to stories.

Poetry

The late poet Subramanya Bharathi started a new era in the history of poetry. He used
poetry as an instrument to arouse patriotism and was successful in this to a great extent. The
complete works of Bharati was published under the title Bharathiyar Kavithaikal. Among his
works Kannan Pattu, Kuyil Pattu and Panchali Sabadham were outstanding.

Another poet late Bharathidhasan, the beloved follower of Bharathi, was the most
celebrated and outstanding poet in Tamil Nadu. He followed Bharati in making poetry very
popular and in using it as the best instrument to inspire people. But he deviated from Bharati
in many aspects. Bharati believed in God but Bharathidhasan did not. While Bharati was
preoccupied by the problems of the freedom struggle and other national interests,
Bharathidhasan was particular in the development of the Tamil Nadu, Tamil language, Tamil
people and Tamil culture. Among his literary works, Pandiyan Parisu, Kudumba Vilakku Tamil
Ilakkam and Azhakin Sirippu are highly valuable.

Besides these two poets, the others such as Kannadhasan, Abdul Razan, Vairamuthu,
Mudiyarasan, Surada, Tamizh Azhagan, K. C. S. Arunachalam, Ponnadiyan, Mu Mehta and
others enriched the field of Tamil poetry. Kannadhasan’s Attanathi Athimanthi and Mangani
and Mudiyarasan’s Pungodi are notable works. Sudhanantha Bharathi is a living poet in Tamil
Nadu. Sri Armband influences him. His work Bharatha Sakthi is very famous. This book won
the Raja Rajan Award and was financially given an award of one lakh rupees. This award was
given by Tamil University, Tanjore.

Besides these works, there are a number of anthologies of poems published in this
century. Several poems are being published in weekly and monthly magazines. Mullaicaram,
Kavidhai (kavitai) and a few other journals give primary importance to these works.

In this connection, mention should be made about the new or modern poetry. Modern
poetry is worth mentioning with the context of prose and poetry. The modern poets,

11
Pichaimurthi Mani Vaidheswaran and others represented modern poetry interestingly. They
opined that Tamil literary field needs new research and new expansions and they believed that
their attempt might contribute to the Tamil literary field.

Tamil Grammatical Traditions

The general, grammar includes phonology, morphology and syntax. But the Tamil
tradition differs in this. The earliest grammar, Tolkappiyam deals not only with phonology,
morphology and syntax but also with personal and impersonal, internal and external aspects of
life, literary beauties, behavioural aspects of human life, Tamil linguistic traditions, etc., and
this part is termed as Porulathikaram.

According to the tradition that Tolkappiyar followed a three folded grammar i.e. (1)
Ezhuthu, (sounds and letters) (2) Col (words) and (3) Porul (meaning)

Later on, new traditions came in. According to the new tradition, this grammar is five
folded: (1) Ezhuthu, (2) Col, (3) Porul, (4) Yappu (versification) and (5) Ani (literary beauties).

Tholkappiyam

Tholkappiyam, the earliest grammar available engraved in the early pre-Christian era
Tamil. The first part known as Eluttatikaaram deals with phonology and morphophonemics.
The second part identified as collatikaaram deals with morphology and syntax. The third part
known as Porulatikaaram, deals with the subject matter of literature, literary and linguistic
traditions, etc.

Nannul

Following to Tholkappiyam, is Nannul. It is an outstanding piece of work in the field

of Tamil grammars. Saint Pavananti who lived around the 13th century CE wrote this book.
This grammar contains only Ezhuthu and Col. The first chapter Ezhuthu deals with phonology
and morphophonemics and the second chapter Col deals with morphology and syntax.

II

1.4 Administrative Division Of The State

As per the latest Census report of 2011, Tamil Nadu is divided into 32 districts. The
details of district wise population of Tamil Nadu, along with rural - urban breakdown, are
provided below based on the latest published Census data of 2011.

Administrative Division of Tamil Nadu -2011

State & District Total Rural Urban
Tamil Nadu 7,21,47,030 3,72,29,590 3,49,17,440

12
Thiruvallur 37,28,104 12,99,709 24,28,395
Kancheepuram 39,98,252 14,59,916 25,38,336
Chennai 46,46,732 0 46,46,732
Vellore 39,36,331 22,34,344 17,01,987
Tiruvannamalai 24,64,875 19,69,930 4,94,945
Viluppuram 34,58,873 29,39,785 5,19,088
Salem 34,82,056 17,07,934 17,74,122
Namakkal 17,26,601 10,30,476 6,96,125
Erode 22,51,744 10,93,768 11,57,976
The Nilgiris 7,35,394 2,99,739 4,35,655
Dindigul 21,59,775 13,51,735 8,08,040
Karur 10,64,493 6,29,976 4,34,517
Tiruchirappalli 27,22,290 13,84,257 13,38,033
Perambalur 5,65,223 4,68,060 97,163
Ariyalur 7,54,894 6,71,100 83,794
Cuddalore 26,05,914 17,20,725 8,85,189
Nagapattinam 16,16,450 12,51,826 3,64,624
Thiruvarur 12,64,277 10,06,482 2,57,795
Thanjavur 24,05,890 15,54,531 8,51,359
Pudukkottai 16,18,345 13,01,991 3,16,354
Sivaganga 13,39,101 9,26,256 4,12,845
Madurai 30,38,252 11,91,451 18,46,801
Theni 12,45,899 5,75,418 670,481
Virudhunagar 19,42,288 9,62,062 980,226
Ramanathapuram 13,53,445 9,42,746 410,699
Thoothukkudi 17,50,176 8,73,374 876,802
Tirunelveli 30,77,233 15,57,004 1520,229
Kanniyakumari 18,70,374 3,30,572 1539,802
Dharmapuri 15,06,843 12,45,931 260,912
Krishnagiri 18,79,809 14,51,446 428,363
Coimbatore 34,58,045 8,39,105 2618,940
Tiruppur 24,79,052 9,57,941 1521,111

13
14
1.5. Population Density Of Tamil Nadu

District wise distribution of area in sq. km and population density is presented here as
per Census 2011.

Population Area Populatio

Sl Name of District/
(In sq. n per sq.
No State Persons Males Females
km) km.
TAMIL NADU 7,21,47,030 3,61,37,975 3,60,09,055 130060 555
1 Thiruvallur 37,28,104 18,76,062 18,52,042 3394 1,098
2 Chennai 46,46,732 23,35,844 23,10,888 175 26,553
3 Kancheepuram 39,98,252 20,12,958 19,85,294 4483 892
4 Vellore 39,36,331 19,61,688 19,74,643 6075 648
5 Tiruvannamalai 24,64,875 12,35,889 12,28,986 6188 398
6 Viluppuram 34,58,873 17,40,819 17,18,054 7194 481
7 Salem 34,82,056 17,81,571 17,00,485 5237 665
8 Namakkal 17,26,601 8,69,280 8,57,321 3420 505
9 Erode 22,51,744 11,29,868 11,21,876 5760 391
10 The Nilgiris 7,35,394 3,60,143 3,75,251 2565 287
11 Dindigul 21,59,775 10,80,938 10,78,837 6036 358
12 Karur 10,64,493 5,28,184 5,36,309 2904 367
13 Tiruchirappalli 27,22,290 13,52,284 13,70,006 4509 604
14 Perambalur 5,65,223 2,82,157 2,83,066 1756 322
15 Ariyalur 7,54,894 3,74,703 3,80,191 1940 389
16 Cuddalore 26,05,914 13,11,697 12,94,217 3703 704
17 Nagapattinam 16,16,450 7,98,127 8,18,323 2569 629
18 Thiruvarur 12,64,277 6,26,693 6,37,584 2274 556
19 Thanjavur 24,05,890 11,82,416 12,23,474 3411 705
20 Pudukkottai 16,18,345 8,03,188 8,15,157 4644 348
21 Sivaganga 13,39,101 6,68,672 6,70,429 4233 316
22 Madurai 30,38,252 15,26,475 15,11,777 3710 819
23 Theni 12,45,899 6,25,683 6,20,216 2868 434
24 Virudhunagar 19,42,288 9,67,709 9,74,579 4241 458
25 Ramanathapuram 13,53,445 6,82,658 6,70,787 4104 330
26 Thoothukkudi 17,50,176 8,65,021 8,85,155 4745 369
27 Tirunelveli 30,77,233 15,20,912 15,56,321 6693 460
28 Kanniyakumari 18,70,374 9,26,345 9,44,029 1684 1,111
29 Dharmapuri 15,06,843 7,74,303 7,32,540 4497 335
30 Krishnagiri 18,79,809 9,60,232 9,19,577 5129 367
31 Coimbatore 34,58,045 17,29,297 17,28,748 4732 731
32 Tiruppur 24,79,052 12,46,159 12,32,893 5187 478

15
16
1.6. Rural-Urban Population

The total population living of the rural area of Tamil Nadu is 7,21,47,030 while the
urban areas has a population of 3,49,17,440. The distribution of the total population based on
the rural – urban district and the language spoken can be observed in following table:-

RURAL URBAN DISTRIBUTION OF LANGUAGES IN TAMIL NADU

Sl
Language Persons Rural Urban Percentage
No

1 Tamil 88.37
6,37,53,997 3,40,96,860 2,96,57,137

2 Telugu 5.87
42,34,302 19,73,884 22,60,418

3 Kannada 1.78
12,86,175 6,94,645 5,91,530

4 Urdu 1.75
12,64,537 2,43,487 10,21,050

5 Malayalam 1.01
7,26,096 1,09,184 6,16,912

6 Hindi 0.55
3,93,380 48,662 3,44,718

7 Gujarati 0.38
2,75,023 17,862 2,57,161

8 Marathi 0.12
85,454 18,848 66,606

9 English 0.03
24,495 2,279 22,216

10 Bengali 0.03
22,969 2,515 20,454

11 Odia 0.03
21,381 7,414 13,967

12 Sindhi 0.01
8,448 58 8,390

13 Nepali 0.01
7,575 1,663 5,912

14 Punjabi 0.01
6,565 394 6,171

15 Konkani 0.01
6,098 222 5,876

17
18
Mother Tongue wise Rural - Urban Population

RURAL-URBAN DISTRIBUTION OF MOTHER TONGUES IN TAMIL NADU 2011

Percentage to
Sl
Mother tongue name Total Rural Urban Total
No
Population
1 Tamil 6,37,43,847 3,40,87,554 2,96,56,293 88.35
2 Telugu 42,34,216 19,73,842 22,60,374 5.87

3 Urdu 12,64,412 2,43,462 10,20,950 1.75

4 Kannada 11,41,976 6,06,611 5,35,365 1.58

5 Malayalam 7,18,977 1,04,745 6,14,232 1.00

6 Hindi 0.46
3,31,057 36,828 2,94,229

7 Saurashtra/Saurashtri 0.33
2,38,556 15,721 2,22,835

8 Badaga 0.18
1,32,102 80,392 51,710

9 Marathi 0.12
85,380 18,833 66,547

10 Marwari 0.05
34,854 226 34,628

11 Gujarati 0.05
34,793 1,727 33,066

12 Bengali 0.03
22,930 2,496 20,434

13 Odia 0.03
21,132 7,203 13,929

14 Lamani/Lambadi 0.01
9,794 9,522 272

15 Rajasthani 0.01
9,792 341 9,451

19
20
1.7. The People And Their Languages

There are a number of language families in the world. Tamil belongs to the Dravidian
language family. This classical language is considered the earliest of the Dravidian languages
and is spoken by more than eighty million people worldwide. Tamil is regarded as one of the
four major literary languages of the Dravidian family and, in spoken form, is predominant form
of communication in Tamil Nadu in South India. The literary heritage of this South Asian
language is very rich. The Sangam literary classics that were written between 300 BCE and
500 CE are considered masterpieces of Tamil literature. This literary tradition embodies the
richness and beauty of the Tamil language. The grammatical tradition dates to the third century
BCE and is considered one of the two grammatical traditions that arose concomitantly, the
other being Sanskrit.

After the reorganisation of the states in India on the basis of languages during 1956,
Tamil Nadu emerged as one of the linguistic states of the country. Formerly, in British India
and even after Independence in 1955, there was one large heterogeneous territorial area called
' Madras Presidency' comprising Tamil Nadu, a part of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Kerala.
The presidency derived its identity from the capital Madras. Madrasi, loose cover term derived
from the place name, is used to refer to the languages belonging to the Dravidian family -
Tamil, Telugu, Tulu, Malayalam etc.

In Tamil Nadu, one finds predominance of speakers of Dravidian language family and
Dravidian culture. Tamil is the official language of Tamil Nadu and English is the additional
official language used as lingua franca. In 2004, Tamil became the first language to be
recognised as a classical language of India. As per 2011 census report, Tamil is spoken as the
first language by 88.37 percentage of the state's population. In Tamil Nadu, there are speakers
of Telugu (5.87% of state's total population), Kannada (1.78% of state's total population) and
Malayalam (1% of state's total population) due to contact with the neighbouring states of
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Kerala.

The ethnolinguistic tribes of Tamil Nadu consist of the Badagas. The Badaga
community mainly lives in the Nilgiri hills which is identified as the juncture of three main
linguistic areas of the Dravidian language family namely, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
The “blue mountains” or the Nilgiri forms a small district and henceforth this place has been
acknowledged as the homeland of the Badaga community along with other two communities
namely, Toda and Kota. The Badaga community represents the agricultural community. The
language of the Badagas serves as the lingua franca among all the small tribes.

Linguistic Profile Of The State

The dichotomy of language and mother tongue in Indian Census is co-terminus and as
such both language and mother tongue data are shown in Language Tables. Language is
inclusive of its variant mother tongues and mother tongue is exclusive. As per the latest Census
publication of 2011, out of the total rationalized and classified 1369 mother tongues at all India

21
level 96 mother tongues of speaker's strength of 10,000 and above have been returned from the
state of Tamil Nadu which have been grouped under 22 Scheduled (Part - A) languages and
100 Non-Scheduled (Part B) languages. The first 15 major languages in descending order are
presented below along with the percentage to the total population of Tamil Nadu.

Sl
Language Persons Rural Urban Percentage
No

1 Tamil 88.37
6,37,53,997 3,40,96,860 2,96,57,137

2 Telugu 5.87
42,34,302 19,73,884 22,60,418

3 Kannada 1.78
12,86,175 6,94,645 5,91,530

4 Urdu 1.75
12,64,537 2,43,487 10,21,050

5 Malayalam 1.01
7,26,096 1,09,184 6,16,912

6 Hindi 0.55
3,93,380 48,662 3,44,718

7 Gujarati 0.38
2,75,023 17,862 2,57,161

8 Marathi 0.12
85,454 18,848 66,606

9 English 0.03
24,495 2,279 22,216

10 Bengali 0.03
22,969 2,515 20,454

11 Odia 0.03
21,381 7,414 13,967

12 Sindhi 0.01
8,448 58 8,390

13 Nepali 0.01
7,575 1,663 5,912

14 Punjabi 0.01
6,565 394 6,171

15 Konkani 0.01
6,098 222 5,876

[Census of India 2011 Language Tables]

Total population of Tamil Nadu in 2011 was around 7,21,47,030. Among them
7,21,16,495 speakers form more than 98% of the total population of Tamil Nadu. The

22
remaining 30,535 speakers (total of the above mentioned 15 languages) constitute less than 2
% of the population of Tamil Nadu.

The mother tongues returned from Tamil Nadu in 2011 Census are mainly 142 in
numbers out of which the speaker's strength along with percentage of first 15 mother tongues
are mentioned below in descending order.

Percentage
Sl
Mother Tongue name Total Rural Urban to Total
No
Population

1 Tamil 88.35
6,37,43,847 3,40,87,554 2,96,56,293

2 Telugu 5.87
42,34,216 19,73,842 22,60,374

3 Urdu 1.75
12,64,412 2,43,462 10,20,950

4 Kannada 1.58
11,41,976 6,06,611 5,35,365

5 Malayalam 1.00
7,18,977 1,04,745 6,14,232

6 Hindi 0.46
3,31,057 36,828 2,94,229

7 Saurashtra/Saurashtri 0.33
2,38,556 15,721 2,22,835

8 Badaga 0.18
1,32,102 80,392 51,710

9 Marathi 0.12
85,380 18,833 66,547

10 Marwari 0.05
34,854 226 34,628

11 Gujarati 0.05
34,793 1,727 33,066

12 Bengali 0.03
22,930 2,496 20,434

13 Odia 0.03
21,132 7,203 13,929

14 Lamani/Lambadi 0.01
9,794 9,522 272

15 Rajasthani 0.01
9,792 341 9,451

23
24
1.8. The Languages Surveyed Under Lsi Tamil Nadu

Settlement in the state of Tamil Nadu dates back to a period between 15th century B.C
to 10th century B.C. From the late stone age to the modern times, this region has coexisted with
various cultures. Apart from the major Scheduled languages of Dravidian origin, mother
tongues like Badaga and Irula/Irular Mozhi are also spoken here. Saurashtra/Saurashtri being
the only exception in that it belongs to the Indo Aryan family of languages.

Dravidian Family
Badaga
Chetti Bhasha
Irula/Iruliga
Kathodi
Kota
Maliyad
Pania
Solaga/Soliga
Tamil
Toda
Urali

Indo Aryan Family

Saurashtra/Saurashtri

The distribution of the surveyed language Tamil and its mother tongues
Irula/Iruliga/Irular Mozhi, the mother tongues Badaga and Saurashtra/Saurashtri in Tamil Nadu
and its districts is presented below in descending order as per C-16 Language Table of 2011
Census. The distribution of Solaga, Maliyad, Paniya, Kota, Thogo, Toda, Padu, Kathodi and
Chettibhasha being regional varieties is not available in Census Table. Hence the distribution
of the mother tongues cannot be furnished here.

Tamil language in India and Tamil Nadu state and its districts
Language
Total Rural Urban
s
Person Male Female Person Male Female Person Male Female
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
DRAVIDIAN FAMILY
TAMIL (Language)

TAMIL
6,37,53,99 3,19,18,55 3,18,35,44 3,40,96,86 1,71,00,80 1,69,96,06 2,96,57,13 1,48,17,75 1,48,39,38
NADU
7 4 3 0 0 0 7 4 3
Thiruvallu
r 31,12,267 15,64,831 15,47,436 10,98,866 5,49,736 5,49,130 20,13,401 10,15,095 9,98,306

25
Chennai
36,40,389 18,25,401 18,14,988 - - - 36,40,389 18,25,401 18,14,988

Kancheep
36,00,948 18,08,687 17,92,261 13,93,123 6,99,571 6,93,552 22,07,825 11,09,116 10,98,709
uram

Vellore
31,63,187 15,75,047 15,88,140 19,55,907 9,78,516 9,77,391 12,07,280 5,96,531 6,10,749

Tiruvanna
23,24,591 11,65,956 11,58,635 18,93,119 9,51,359 9,41,760 4,31,472 2,14,597 2,16,875
malai
Viluppura
m 33,43,078 16,83,071 16,60,007 28,70,330 14,46,839 14,23,491 4,72,748 2,36,232 2,36,516

Salem
30,80,955 15,78,851 15,02,104 16,18,601 8,37,442 7,81,159 14,62,354 7,41,409 7,20,945

Namakkal
15,03,481 7,56,457 7,47,024 9,02,560 4,55,644 4,46,916 6,00,921 3,00,813 3,00,108

Erode
18,40,922 9,23,908 9,17,014 8,45,656 4,27,577 4,18,079 9,95,266 4,96,331 4,98,935
The
Nilgiris 3,64,909 1,79,927 1,84,982 1,27,035 62,724 64,311 2,37,874 1,17,203 1,20,671

Dindigul
19,76,617 9,89,141 9,87,476 12,41,233 6,23,020 6,18,213 7,35,384 3,66,121 3,69,263

Karur
9,78,764 4,85,042 4,93,722 5,73,654 2,84,205 2,89,449 4,05,110 2,00,837 2,04,273

Tiruchirap
26,04,457 12,93,110 13,11,347 13,56,438 6,74,620 6,81,818 12,48,019 6,18,490 6,29,529
palli
Perambal
ur 5,53,476 2,76,209 2,77,267 4,58,463 2,29,077 2,29,386 95,013 47,132 47,881

Ariyalur
7,49,409 3,71,992 3,77,417 6,67,756 3,31,601 3,36,155 81,653 40,391 41,262

Cuddalore
25,43,178 12,79,930 12,63,248 17,04,921 8,61,024 8,43,897 8,38,257 4,18,906 4,19,351
Nagapatti
nam 16,07,117 7,93,151 8,13,966 12,47,933 6,17,283 6,30,650 3,59,184 1,75,868 1,83,316
Thiruvaru
r 12,56,720 6,22,872 6,33,848 10,03,342 4,98,374 5,04,968 2,53,378 1,24,498 1,28,880

Thanjavur
23,43,718 11,50,506 11,93,212 15,41,590 7,58,135 7,83,455 8,02,128 3,92,371 4,09,757

Pudukkott
16,05,887 7,96,897 8,08,990 12,97,973 6,43,471 6,54,502 3,07,914 1,53,426 1,54,488
ai

Sivaganga
13,27,614 6,62,798 6,64,816 9,21,836 4,59,850 4,61,986 4,05,778 2,02,948 2,02,830

Madurai
28,12,271 14,13,109 13,99,162 11,48,264 5,79,103 5,69,161 16,64,007 8,34,006 8,30,001

Theni
9,84,721 4,95,754 4,88,967 4,32,756 2,19,648 2,13,108 5,51,965 2,76,106 2,75,859

Virudhun
17,38,537 8,66,204 8,72,333 8,38,652 4,18,882 4,19,770 8,99,885 4,47,322 4,52,563
agar

26
Ramanath
apuram 13,21,957 6,66,418 6,55,539 9,32,273 4,69,101 4,63,172 3,89,684 1,97,317 1,92,367
Thoothuk
kudi 16,97,740 8,38,929 8,58,811 8,40,043 4,13,910 4,26,133 8,57,697 4,25,019 4,32,678

Tirunelvel
30,32,422 14,98,292 15,34,130 15,37,433 7,58,600 7,78,833 14,94,989 7,39,692 7,55,297
i
Kanniyak
umari 17,57,093 8,74,067 8,83,026 3,17,924 1,58,965 1,58,959 14,39,169 7,15,102 7,24,067

Dharmapu
13,24,562 6,81,319 6,43,243 11,20,649 5,78,878 5,41,771 2,03,913 1,02,441 1,01,472
ri
Krishnagi
ri 10,94,684 5,59,226 5,35,458 8,53,645 4,36,478 4,17,167 2,41,039 1,22,748 1,18,291

Coimbato
23,90,504 11,97,772 11,92,732 5,66,400 2,82,965 2,83,435 18,24,104 9,14,807 9,09,297
re

Tiruppur
20,77,822 10,43,680 10,34,142 7,88,485 3,94,202 3,94,283 12,89,337 6,49,478 6,39,859

Badaga in India and Tamil Nadu state and its districts

BADAGA (Mother Tongue)

TAMIL
NADU 1,32,102 63,073 69,029 80,392 38,306 42,086 51,710 24,767 26,943
The
Nilgiris 1,22,441 58,228 64,213 78,792 37,522 41,270 43,649 20,706 22,943
Coimbato
re 6,876 3,450 3,426 499 251 248 6,377 3,199 3,178

Tiruppur
714 363 351 61 30 31 653 333 320

Erode
611 283 328 427 204 223 184 79 105
Tiruchirap
palli 448 222 226 389 194 195 59 28 31

Chennai
393 211 182 - - - 393 211 182
Thiruvallu
r 137 69 68 46 21 25 91 48 43
Kancheep
uram 121 60 61 7 3 4 114 57 57

Karur
77 41 36 57 27 30 20 14 6
Krishnagi
ri 71 35 36 24 9 15 47 26 21

Namakkal
58 27 31 37 19 18 21 8 13

Salem
37 18 19 - - - 37 18 19

27
Theni
28 18 10 21 12 9 7 6 1

Dindigul
19 8 11 9 4 5 10 4 6

Vellore
17 10 7 8 3 5 9 7 2
Tiruvanna
malai 15 9 6 6 3 3 9 6 3

Madurai
11 7 4 5 3 2 6 4 2
Dharmapu
ri 8 4 4 - - - 8 4 4
Nagapatti
nam 4 2 2 - - - 4 2 2
Kanniyak
umari 4 3 1 - - - 4 3 1

Sivaganga
3 - 3 - - - 3 - 3
Thoothuk
kudi 3 2 1 - - - 3 2 1

Cuddalore
2 2 - - - - 2 2 -
Virudhun
agar 2 1 1 2 1 1 - - -
Viluppura
m 1 - 1 1 - 1 - - -
Ramanath
apuram 1 - 1 1 - 1 - - -

Irula/IrularMozhi in India and Tamil Nadu state and its districts

IRULA/IRULAR MOZHI (Mother Tongue)

TAMIL
NADU 8,306 4,096 4,210 7,735 3,812 3,923 571 284 287
The
Nilgiris 7,904 3,900 4,004 7,341 3,618 3,723 563 282 281
Coimbato
re 393 192 201 387 191 196 6 1 5

Salem
5 2 3 5 2 3 - - -
Kancheep
uram 2 1 1 - - - 2 1 1
Viluppura
m 2 1 1 2 1 1 - - -

28
 INDO ARYAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
Saurashtra/Saurashtri in India and Tamil Nadu state and its districts
SAURASHTRA/SAURASHTRI (Mother Tongue)

TAMIL
NADU 2,38,556 1,20,084 1,18,472 15,721 8,046 7,675 2,22,835 1,12,038 1,10,797
Thiruvallu
r 97,133 48,572 48,561 3,629 1,825 1,804 93,504 46,747 46,757

Chennai
25,455 12,910 12,545 1,341 691 650 24,114 12,219 11,895
Kancheep
uram 20,848 10,423 10,425 266 142 124 20,582 10,281 10,301

Vellore
20,643 10,545 10,098 4,199 2,136 2,063 16,444 8,409 8,035
Tiruvanna
malai 15,866 8,014 7,852 40 21 19 15,826 7,993 7,833
Viluppura
m 11,863 6,027 5,836 - - - 11,863 6,027 5,836

Salem
8,860 4,522 4,338 327 172 155 8,533 4,350 4,183

Namakkal
6,759 3,355 3,404 109 49 60 6,650 3,306 3,344

Erode
6,362 3,217 3,145 2,882 1,480 1,402 3,480 1,737 1,743
The
Nilgiris 4,261 2,145 2,116 73 34 39 4,188 2,111 2,077

Dindigul
3,038 1,541 1,497 67 35 32 2,971 1,506 1,465

Karur
2,894 1,468 1,426 269 136 133 2,625 1,332 1,293
Tiruchirap
palli 2,557 1,303 1,254 95 51 44 2,462 1,252 1,210
Perambal
ur 2,317 1,152 1,165 134 80 54 2,183 1,072 1,111

Ariyalur
1,601 825 776 152 85 67 1,449 740 709

Cuddalore
1,464 739 725 115 65 50 1,349 674 675
Nagapatti
nam 1,407 689 718 4 2 2 1,403 687 716
Thiruvaru
r 1,183 610 573 1,082 561 521 101 49 52

Thanjavur
677 354 323 68 37 31 609 317 292
Pudukkott
ai 673 343 330 10 5 5 663 338 325

Sivaganga
636 303 333 106 56 50 530 247 283

Madurai
633 312 321 110 56 54 523 256 267

29
Theni
534 264 270 489 243 246 45 21 24
Virudhun
agar 268 126 142 32 14 18 236 112 124
Ramanath
apuram 161 82 79 34 17 17 127 65 62
Thoothuk
kudi 148 75 73 4 3 1 144 72 72
Tirunelvel
i 107 62 45 36 22 14 71 40 31
Kanniyak
umari 50 30 20 15 9 6 35 21 14
Dharmapu
ri 47 21 26 5 3 2 42 18 24
Krishnagi
ri 46 22 24 3 2 1 43 20 23
Coimbato
re 42 21 21 6 2 4 36 19 17

Tiruppur
23 12 11 19 12 7 4 - 4

30
31
32
 As per the above statistical data of 2011 census, the percentage of the language/mother
tongues surveyed to the population of India and Tamil Nadu are furnished below, barring
mother tongues like Solaga, Pania etc which are not included in the publication list of languages
of 2011 Census following the decision of Government of India.

Sl Name of Language Population Percentage to the total

No population
India Tamil India Tamil
Nadu Nadu
All Languages 1,21,08,54,977 7,21,47,030

1 Tamil 6,90,26,881 6,37,53,997 5.7 88.37

2 Badaga 1,33,550 1,32,102 0.01 0.18
3 Irula/Iruliga/IrularMozhi 11,870 8,306 0 0.01
4 Saurashtra/Saurashtri 2,47,702 2,38,556 0.02 0.33

Out of the 12 linguistic communities categorically covered in the survey, the following
six names Irula, Kota, Paniyan, Sholiga, Toda and Uraly appear as Scheduled tribes whose
linguistic identity can be correlated with their ethnic identity. The speaker wise distributions
of the various tribes that speak only languages as per 2011 Census are furnished in the table.

Irula/Iruliga/IrularMozhi spoken by Scheduled Tribes in Tamil Nadu

Name of tribe Number of speakers

Irular 7,909
Generic Tribes etc. 78
Kurumbas (in the Nilgiris district) 75
Uraly 4
Kurumans 2
Generic Tribes etc. 1

33
 The descriptions of the languages of all the language communities reveal the linguistic
situation of Tamil Nadu where the Aryan features of a language like Saurashtra/Saurashtri get
influenced by the features of Dravidian languages like Tamil, Badaga etc.

34
1.9. The Status Of Bilingualism/Trilingualism Of The Language Covered

According to the latest published Census data of 2011 the status of bilingualism and
trilingualism of Tamil language in India and Tamil Nadu is presented below.

Total
Language Bilinguals Trilinguals
Speakers
Language of Language of
Strength Strength
Bilingualism Trilingualism
1 2 3 4 5 6
TAMIL 6,37,53,997
Assamese 38
Hindi 3
English 3
Malayalam 1
Sanskrit 1
Urdu 1
Bengali 25598
Hindi 292
English 202
Telugu 33
Kannada 24
Malayalam 22
Marathi 4
Arabic/Arbi 4
Odia 3
Sanskrit 2
Punjabi 1
Urdu 1
Others 2
Gujarati 13550
English 1,270
Hindi 337
Telugu 34
Malayalam 21
Kannada 20
Bengali 11
Marathi 7
Arabic/Arbi 6
Sanskrit 5

35
 Urdu 5
Others 5
Hindi 446806
English 87,757
Telugu 10,514
Malayalam 10,279
Kannada 6,768
Arabic/Arbi 3,046
Marathi 2,935
Urdu 2,119
Bengali 848
Gujarati 846
Sanskrit 634
Odia 181
Punjabi 112
Konkani 27
Assamese 17
Manipuri 17
Nepali 17
Dimasa 16
Sindhi 7
Tulu 7
Munda 5
Nicobarese 4
Kashmiri 3
Kurukh/Oraon 3
Bhili/Bhilodi 1
Korwa 1
Thado 1
Others 658
Kannada 353110
English 22,933
Telugu 18,445
Hindi 7,738
Malayalam 2,207
Urdu 441
Bengali 325
Arabic/Arbi 208

36
 Marathi 140
Tulu 66
Sanskrit 23
Gujarati 21
Konkani 7
Odia 3
Punjabi 2
Assamese 1
Kashmiri 1
Sindhi 1
Parji 1
Others 61
Kashmiri 44
English 3
Hindi 1
Kannada 1
Malayalam 1
Urdu 1
Others 1
Konkani 229
English 25
Hindi 19
Malayalam 9
Kannada 7
Marathi 1
Telugu 1
Others 1
Malayalam 190560
English 32,051
Hindi 7,838
Kannada 2,050
Telugu 1,887
Arabic/Arbi 522
Urdu 394
Bengali 239
Sanskrit 41
Marathi 29
Gujarati 18

37
 Konkani 9
Tulu 9
Punjabi 4
Odia 2
Korwa 2
Munda 2
Manipuri 1
Angami 1
Coorgi/Kodagu 1
Kurukh/Oraon 1
Others 84
Manipuri 30
Hindi 2
English 2
Marathi 5352
English 726
Hindi 485
Kannada 89
Telugu 60
Malayalam 15
Gujarati 11
Urdu 9
Bengali 5
Sindhi 2
Arabic/Arbi 2
Konkani 1
Punjabi 1
Sanskrit 1
Tibetan 1
Others 2
Nepali 99
Hindi 21
English 8
Bengali 1
Odia 463
English 57
Hindi 52
Telugu 18

38
 Kannada 5
Malayalam 2
Bengali 1
Sanskrit 1
Arabic/Arbi 1
Punjabi 138
Hindi 22
English 17
Kannada 3
Urdu 3
Gujarati 2
Malayalam 2
Marathi 1
Telugu 1
Sanskrit 6482
English 1,447
Hindi 516
Telugu 39
Kannada 31
Malayalam 27
Gujarati 4
Bengali 3
Arabic/Arbi 3
Marathi 1
Urdu 1
Others 14
Santali 3
English 1
Sindhi 46
Hindi 9
English 9
Telugu 1339249
English 94,963
Kannada 32,668
Hindi 19,768
Malayalam 3,434
Bengali 1,319
Arabic/Arbi 859

39
 Urdu 790
Marathi 92
Sanskrit 88
Gujarati 51
Odia 17
Konkani 9
Kashmiri 8
Punjabi 4
Dimasa 4
Kurukh/Oraon 3
Tulu 3
Nicobarese 2
Sindhi 1
Others 98
Urdu 124050
English 9,684
Hindi 2,973
Arabic/Arbi 688
Telugu 648
Kannada 621
Malayalam 547
Bengali 69
Marathi 14
Gujarati 11
Konkani 2
Odia 2
Munda 2
Sanskrit 1
Dimasa 1
Others 32
Adi 6
English 3
Arabic/Arbi 39975
English 2,964
Hindi 1,560
Urdu 497
Malayalam 365
Kannada 107

40
 Telugu 63
Bengali 25
Gujarati 3
Marathi 3
Odia 1
Korwa 1
Munda 1
Others 57
Bhili/Bhilodi 2
English 1
Bhotia 1
Chang 2
Coorgi/Kodagu 1
Nepali 1
Dimasa 177
Hindi 17
English 8
Telugu 2
Urdu 2
Bengali 1
English 11510329
Hindi 3,93,779
Telugu 71,002
Malayalam 55,915
Kannada 39,545
Arabic/Arbi 12,873
Bengali 10,357
Urdu 8139
Sanskrit 5,376
Gujarati 1,271
Marathi 1121
Odia 116
Punjabi 95
Korwa 83
Konkani 46
Sindhi 41
Nicobarese 39
Tulu 31

41
 Nepali 25
Dimasa 13
Assamese 11
Kurukh/Oraon 10
Munda 9
Kashmiri 6
Manipuri 4
Santali 4
Kolami 4
Coorgi/Kodagu 3
Khasi 3
Rabha 3
Lahnda 2
Bhili/Bhilodi 1
Garo 1
Halam 1
Ladakhi 1
Lushai/Mizo 1
Mundari 1
Savara 1
Thado 1
Tibetan 1
Zemi 1
Others 11,247
Khandeshi 1
Sanskrit 1
Khasi 5
Korku 1
Korwa 257
English 27
Hindi 4
Malayalam 4
Urdu 1
Arabic/Arbi 1
Others 3
Kurukh/Oraon 95
Hindi 11
English 8

42
 Telugu 4
Kannada 2
Malayalam 2
Urdu 1
Ladakhi 3
English 1
Others 1
Lushai/Mizo 6
English 1
Others 1
Mao 2
Munda 48
English 8
Malayalam 2
Hindi 1
Kannada 1
Mundari 1
English 1
Nicobarese 61
English 6
Hindi 5
Telugu 2
Rabha 2
English 1
Savara 14
Gujarati 1
Thado 1
Tibetan 1
Tulu 95
English 18
Kannada 8
Hindi 5
Malayalam 2
Others 10042
English 1735
Hindi 446
Malayalam 62
Arabic/Arbi 54

43
 Telugu 36
Kannada 29
Urdu 22
Sanskrit 6
Gujarati 5
Bengali 4
Marathi 2
Punjabi 1
Dimasa 1
Shina 1

As per the above statistical data, the language wise percentage of bilingualism and
trilingualism in India and Tamil Nadu of Tamil language is furnished below. The rest are
mother tongues included under languages.

44
45
1.10. Brief Note On The Languages/Mother Tongues Surveyed Under LSI

TAMIL

Tamil belongs to the Dravidian language family, spoken mainly in Southern India with
60 million speakers, and 68 million speakers worldwide. The Dravidian languages has majority
of speakers speaking Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, and Malayalam, its closest neighbor. Tamil has
official status in the Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Puducherry and Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
Tamil is also an official language of Sri Lanka and of Singapore. Tamil is also spoken by
significant minorities in Canada, England, Fiji, France, Germany, Indonesia, Malaysia,
Mauritius, Netherlands, Philippines, Reunion, South Africa, and the United States, as well as
in emigrant communities around the world. Tamil is a classical language, and it is said that
there are early Tamil inscriptions dating back 3,200 years. Tamil is a diglossic language, with
a formal, literary form of the language, and a colloquial spoken language. The standard
grammar of written Tamil is based upon a 13th century text, Nannul.

The closest cognate language of Tamil is Malayalam. Malayalam was a dialect of Tamil
till the 9th century, after which there was a split of the western dialect and Malayalam became
a complete language in the thirteenth or fourteenth century.

There is a strong belief among the Tamils that their language originated from Potikai
Hills of Tirunelveli district in Tamil Nadu. There is a popular belief among the Tamil scholars:
kalto:nri man to:nra: ka:lattu mun to:nriya mu:ttatamil" meaning Tamil is the oldest language
in the world."

According to some historians and archeologists the people of Tamil Nadu had links
with the Harappan Civilization and Indus Valley Civilization. One hypothesis places by Henry
Heras, an archaeologist and historian in India, in the year 1950 proposed that Harappan
language is very near to the Dravidian languages, perhaps identical with Proto-Dravidian itself.
The hypothesis has gained some plausibility and is endorsed by Kamil Zvelebil, Czech scholar
in Indian literature and linguistics, Prof. Asko Parpola, Finnish Indologist and specialist in the
Indus script and Iravatham Mahadevan, an Civil servant and epigraphist. A recent research
paper published in ‘Nature Journal’ clarifies that Proto Dravidian was spoken in Indus Valley
based on some of the ultra-conserved Dravidian tooth-word and genetics. According to
Iravatham Mahadevan, "The Neolithic people of the Tamil country spoke a Harappan
language." In the 6th Century, some fragments of pottery were uncovered with a script similar
to Indus script, leading to the conclusion that it was a transition between the Indus Valley script
and Tamil Brahmi script.

Diglossia in Tamil

There is a wide gap between spoken and written Tamil. Spoken Tamil is used for face-
to-face communication or in informal occasions whereas written Tamil is used during official
speeches and other formal occasions. Spoken Tamil is not generally written; thus, while

46
writing, the written form is invariably used. While there is a wide gap between the two forms
of Tamil, there are certain rules the use of which would help the learner to derive one form of
language from another.

The socio-linguistic situation of Tamil is characterized by diglossia: there are two

separate registers varying by social status, a high register and a low one. Tamil dialects are
primarily differentiated from each other because they have undergone different phonological
changes and sound shifts in evolving from Old Tamil. For example, the word for "here"—iṅku
in Centamil (the classic variety)—has evolved into iṅkū in the Kongu dialect of Coimbatore,
inga in the dialect of Thanjavur, and iṅkai in some dialects of Sri Lanka. Old Tamil's iṅkaṇ
(where kaṇ means place) is the source of iṅkane in the dialect of Tirunelveli, Old Tamil iṅkaṭṭu
is the source of iṅkuṭṭu in the dialect of Madurai, and iṅkaṭe in various northern dialects. Even
now, in the Coimbatore area, it is common to hear "akkaṭṭa" meaning "that place". Although
Tamil dialects do not differ significantly in their vocabulary, there are a few exceptions. The
dialects spoken in Sri Lanka retain many words and grammatical forms that are not in everyday
use in India, and use many other words which differ in minimal features. slightly differently.
The various Tamil dialects include Central Tamil dialect, Kongu Tamil, Madras Bashai,
Madurai Tamil, Nellai Tamil, Kumari Tamil in India and Batticaloa Tamil dialect, Jaffna Tamil
dialect, Negombo Tamil dialect in Sri Lanka. Sankethi dialect in Karnataka has been heavily
influenced by Kannada.

The differences between the two varieties are at the phonological, morphological,
lexical and syntactic levels.

Differences at phonological level

Literary Tamil Colloquial Tamil Meaning

varukire:n varren come-I
po:ka:vittal po:ka:tta: if do not go

Morphological level

Literary Tamil Colloquial Tamil Meaning

atu avaratu panam. na:n Atu avaratu panam. It is his money
pe:na:vai avanitam na:n pe:na:ve avankitte I gave the pen to him
kotutten. kotutten.

na:n na:lai vara-k u:tum na:n na:le varala:makka: I may come tomorrow.
akka:l vanta:r vantatu Elder sister came.

47
Lexical level

Some words used only in literary Tamil are

annai 'mother' a:rava:ram 'din and bustle' ali 'offer'
tarmam 'charity' iyalum 'possible' illam 'house'
kata 'cross' karpi 'teach'.

Likewise, some words are used only in colloquial Tamil.

Le:cu 'easy', rompa 'much', vantava:lam ' unpleasant facts',

va:ttiya:r 'boss/leader' tatave 'times/occasion.'

Syntactic level

Literary Tamil Colloquial Tamil Meaning

Kannan ra:man kamalam Kannan ra:maala:m Kannan, Raman, Kamalam
mutaliyo:r vanta:nka etc came
a:kiyo:r vanta:rkal

Avan ko:pam atainta:n Avanukku ko:pam vantatu He got angry

Regional varieties of Tamil language

The earliest reference to Tamil dialects is found in Tolkappiyam. Zvelebil (1964),

Karunakaran (1970), Srinivasa Varma (1992) divided the Tamil linguistic area into dialect
areas and sub-areas. These divisions are tentative and ad-hoc.

Northern Dialect Area

The northern dialect area consists of Chennai, Chengalpattu, Thiruvallur,

Kanchipuram, Vellore districts. In this region Tamil dialect is the most commonly spoken form
of Tamil. It is known for its unique vocabulary, pronunciation and grammatical structures that
differ from other dialects of Tamil spoken in other regions of the state. The presence of voiced
plosive sounds as marginal phonemes such as /b, d, ḍ, j, g/ is one of the characteristic features
of this region. In the north Tamil Nadu dialect, ni: does not express the difference between
honorific and non-honorific. The difference in meaning is made clear from the context. The
form ni:nke 'you(pl)' states the plural meaning and not the singular honorific meaning.

Eastern Dialect Area

The Eastern dialect of Tamil is primarily spoken in the eastern parts of Tamil Nadu,
including the districts of Puthukkottai, Thanjavur, Thiruvarur, Nagapattinam. This region is
also known as Cauvery delta region, which is a fertile agricultural area that gets fertility from
the Cauvery River. The dialect is distinct in nature from other dialects of Tamil in terms of

48
grammar. The region has a rich cultural heritage, and the dialect has played a crucial role in
the development of Tamil literature, music and dance. The Zvelebil, middle class educated
speech of this area form a model for standard spoken Tamil. It has retained the prestigious
sound of Tamil. Pudukkottai is considered a sub-dialect area. Some of the characteristic
phonological features exclusive in this dialect are such as the intervocalic / k / becoming / y /
in words like makan > mayen 'son' and the intervocalic k becoming v in words like toka:i >
to:ve ' feather of a peacock.

Western Dialect

The western region of Tamil Nadu is predominantly home to the Kongu Nadu people
of Tamil, which is spoken in areas such as Coimbatore, Tirupur, Erode, Salem, Namakkal,
Karur and parts of Nilgiris and Dharmapuri districts. The Kongu Nadu dialect has some unique
characteristics that from other dialects of Tamil. The special feature of this dialect is a distinct
intonation. The merger of the lateral phonemes /l, ḷ, ḻ/ to one phoneme /l/ is a distinguishing
feature of this dialect. The Coimbatore variety is characterized by the greater frequency of the
auxiliary po:ṭu for example ca:pṭupo:ṭu ' eat(definitive).' In other dialects it is ca:pṭiviṭu and -
unka is used for the honorific form. Another feature is the use of -nr- as the genitive case suffix
for example ennra postakam 'my book'. In other dialects it is en/enno:te pustakam 'my book.'

Southern Dialect

The Southern region of Tamil Nadu is home to several dialects of Tamil, including
Madurai Tamil, Thirunelveli Tamil and Nagarcoil Tamil. Madurai Tamil also known as the
Madurai dialect, spoken in the districts of Madurai, Dindugul, Sivagangai and Theni.
Thirunelveli Tamil also known as the Nanjil dialect is spoken in the districts of Thirunelveli,
Thoothukudi and Kanyakumari. The striking feature of this area is the merger of /ḻ/ phoneme
with /ḷ/. The phoneme /ṟ/ is prevalent in southern Kanyakumari dialect. In other dialects, /ṟ/ has
merged with /r/. ko: ḷa:ṟu means confusion in most of the regional varieties. In this dialect it is
'arrangement.' The word 'amma' is used for addressing woman in all dialects. In this dialect,
particularly in Tirunelveli and Ramnathapuram it is used to address 'mother' only.ayya is a
respectable word only in this dialect.
Kanyakumari speech is considered to be a sub-dialect within the southern dialect area.
Kanyakumari is bordering the state of Kerala where Malayalam is spoken as the major
language. The phoneme /c/ in words like /u:ci/ 'needle', /pacu/ 'cow' correspond with /y/ in the
Kanyakumari area in the words /uyi/ 'needle', and /payavu/ 'cow'. It is one of the special features
of this sub-dialect. Tirunelveli and Madurai comprise another sub-dialect area wherein present
tense suffix /-t-/ is an important isogloss.

Apart from the variations in the Tamil language in Tamil Nadu, there are more than
thirty- six indigenous Tribal languages spoken by the tribal communities of the state. They are,

Adiyan - The word Adiyan means “Slave” in Malayalam. The Adiyans are found in the
Wayanad and Kannur districts of Kerala and Salem district of Tamil Nadu.

49
Aranadan- The people are also known as Eranadans. These people are settled in Kerala,
Kozhikode, Ernakulam, Palakkad, Malappuram, Nilambur, and Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.

Eravallan - Eravallan’s alternate names are Ambuvilluvedar, Villu Vedan and Vilven. They
are found in Kerala, Palakkad district and Chittor and Coimbatore district of Tamilnadu.

Irular – Irulas are settled in the following districts of Tamil Nadu: Chennai, Chengalpat,
Villupuram, Cuddalore, Salem, Coimbatore, Nilgiri, Madurai, Trichy, Thanjavur, Thirunelveli and
Kanyakumari. The alternative name of this tribe is Irulan. Irulars are seen in Attapady area of
Mannarkadu Thaluk in Palakkad District and also seen in Nelliyampathy, Pothuppara, Mayamudi,
Palakkapandi, Koonapalam of Chittur Thaluk and Valayar hills. The Irular community in Kerala
are different in features and occupation from the Irula people seen near Chennai, Tamil Nadu.

Kadar – The alternate name of Kadar is Kada. They are settled in Thrissur, Palakkad and
Chittoor districts in Kerala and Coimbatore district of Tamil Nadu. Their Phonology is related
to Tamil [tam] and vocabulary is related to Malayalam [mal] (Menon 1996). The scheduled
tribe is called Kader in Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The Kadar who use the Kadar language live
primarily in the Palakkad and Thrissur hills and Coimbatore. The group lives in Wayanad and
use Malayalam and third Kadar group in Trichirapalli and Thanjavur districts of Tamilnadu.

Kammara - This group is a designated scheduled Tribe in the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Kammaras are found in Kasargode district in Kerala. They
are blacksmiths by profession.

Kanikaran - People of Kanikaran are also known as Kani, Kanikkar and Kanigar settled in
Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Kanikkars are inhabitants of the area around Agastyakutam and
Mahendragiri peaks of the Western Ghats in the Thiruvananthapuram and Kollam districts of
Kerala. They are also seen in the Adimali hills of Idukki.

Kaniyan, Kanyan - The Kaniyan is a tribal community residing in the Tirunelveli district of
Tamil Nadu.
Kattunayakan - Kattunaikans are also called as Ten-Kurumans (Ten means honey) and are
found in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Kattunaikan means ‘King of Jungle’ and they have very
little contact with the main non-tribals. Some of them are educated and send their children to
schools through tribal hostels run by the government.

Kochu Velan: Kochu Velans are inhabitants of the Ranny Forest Range in Pathanamthitta,
Kottayam and Idukki districts.

Konda Kapus: Konda Kapus tribes live in great numbers in Karnataka. This tribes have also
taken shelter in great number in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. The Konda Kapus have
developed their mother tongue popularly known as Konda Bhasha.

50
Kondareddis: Konda Reddis are to be found at number six in the list of scheduled tribes for
Tamil Nadu, Though initially Konda Reddis of Kanyakumari District and Shencottah Taluk of
Tirunelveli.

Koraga - Koraga people, listed as primitive tribe, are found in Kasargod and Majeswaram. A
good number of Koragas are also seen in Karnataka, and Tamilnadu. The Koragas who live in
plain areas are called Kuntu Koraga and those found in forests are named as Sappu
Korag. Kundu Koragas are seen only in Kerala and the Sappu Koragas are found in Karnataka
State.

Kota-The Kotas live in Nilgiris. Alternate name: Kota. Kotas are mainly found in the Nilgiris
district of Tamilnadu, but a few families live in the Malappuram, the bordering district of
Kerala.

Kudiya- Altenate name: Melakkudi : They are seen in the Kannur and Kasaragode district of
Kerala district. The main occupation is agriculture. The rest of the tribe is found in Coorg
(Kodaku), the neighbouring district in Karnataka.

Kurichchan: The alternative name is Kurichchan, Kurichiyar. Total Population –

22,215. Literacy 28.06 % Kurichiar people are found in Wayanad and some parts of
Kozhikode districts in Kerala.

Kurumban: Kurumban is considered as a 'primitive' tribe in the list of scheduled tribes of

Kerala. Their settlements are found in both sides of the Bhavani River in Attapady area of
Palakkad district. The language they speak is close to Kannada but they also converse in
Malayalam and Tamil. The clan system is of very high order among Kurumbas.

Kurumans –The alternative name is Kaurumar. The subgroups are divided into Urali
Kurumar, Then Kurumar Mullu Kuruman, Mulla Kuruman, Mala Kuruman. Traditionally
Vetta Kurumar are hunters, Then Kuruamar are honey gatherers, and Urali Kurumar,
agriculturists. They also collect honey and other forest products as they continue to live in the
forest land. Nowadays they are engaged in all kinds of profession such being a manual labour,
wood cutting, climbing trees, working at tea and coffee plantations and in forest department.

Maha Malasar - They are also described as Malai Malasar, Mala Arasar and Kumatti Makkal.
They live in the Anamalai hills of Southern India; their settlements are located in the
Coimbatore district of Tamil Nadu and the Palghat district of Kerala. The term Maha Malasar
might have been derived from the words maha (big) and malasar (king of the hills). Among
themselves, they speak a dialect of Tamil. With others they speak either in Tamil or Malayalam.

Malai Arayan - Mala Arayans are found in Meenachil and Changanasseri Taluks of the
Kottayam district. Due to the educational work of the CMS missionaries, they are well
educated, socially and economically more developed than any other tribal communities in
Kerala.

51
Malai Pandaram - The Malapantāram are a Scheduled Tribe of the state of Kerala in South
India and inhabit the forested hills of the Western Ghats between Lake Periyar and the town of
Tenmali. Although they share the name "Pandaram" with a caste community of Tamil Nadu,
there appear to be no links between the two communities. Mala (mountain) refers to their long
association with the hill forests, the Western Ghats,

Malai Vedan - Alternate name: Malai Vedan. Mala Vedans are found in the Pathanamthitta,
Thiruvanathpuram and Idukki districts in Kerala. The main occupation is hunting and
collecting what the forest produces.

Malakkuravan - The Malakkuravans are found in Kanyakumari district of Tamil Nadu and
Thiruvananthapuram, Pathanamthitta, and Kottayam districts in Kerala. They are engaged in
hunting, collection of honey and agriculture. Women are engaged in fire-wood collection,
fortune-telling and palmistry.

Malasar - Malasar people are seen in Palakkad and Thrissur districts of Kerala. This once
nomadic people are now settled in colonies, provided by the Government. Maha Malasar is a
subcommunity among them who are found at some parts of Thekkedi in the Parambikulam
forests.

Malayali – The Malayali people settled in many places of Tamil Nadu like Dharmapuri,
Villupuram, Pudukottai, Salem, Cuddalore and Tiruchirappalli districts.

Mannan - Mannan people are seen in Idukki and Kottayam districts and a few in Palakkad
district and border areas of Tamil Nadu. They are engaged in agriculture, collection of forest
produces and fishing. They used to live in bamboo huts on tree tops, in the forest areas until
the recent past. They were experts in weaving thin mats named 'Kannadi Paya' (Mirror mat).
Even now they have their own king named Kozhimala Raja-Mannan and his subjects used to
gather together for meetings every year.
Mudugar, Muduvan - A community of forest dwellers, the Mudugar is distributed in the
Pudar and Agali panchayats of Palakkad district in Kerala. They speak Muduga Bhasa, and
admixture of Malayalam and Tamil.

Muthuvan - Alternate names: Mudugar, Muduvan. Muthuvan are found in Idukki and
Eranakulam districts of Kerala. They are believed to be migrated from Madurai in Tamil Nadu.

Palleyan – Palleyan is one of the tribes of Kerala. Palleyan tribes mostly are found in several
places like Kumily, Vandanmedu, Chakkupallam and Idukki, Ernakulam and Kottayam. This
people of Kerala are said to be of Dravidian race and reside in several parts of south western
ghats in Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

Palliyan – The alternative names are Palleyan, Palliyan, Palliyar, Paliyan. The tribal groups
known by three names are seen in Idukki district. Their cultures seemed to be a mixture of

52
Tamil and Malayalam traditions. Palliyar: Palliays in Virudhunagar and Madurai districts are
mostly settled in the hilly areas of Sathuragiri, Shenbaga Thoppu, Thanipparai, Atthikoil,
Ayyanarkoil, Vinobanagar in Pilavakkal Dam, Vallimmanagar, Palavakkal dam, etc.
Sathuragiri is known for its legendry presence and religion. It is an isolated hill situated at the
eastern side of Western Ghats.

Paniyan : They are residing in the Nilgiris District in Tamil Nadu and Wayanadu region in
Kerala and are known by alternative name Paniya, Paniyar. Paniyas are the largest tribal
community in Kerala and are found in Wayanad, Kannur, Kozhikkode, and Malapuram
districts.

Sholaga - Sholaga and Shōlaga, is an ethnic group. Its members inhabit the Biligirirangan
hills and associated ranges in southern Karnataka, mostly in the Chamarajnagar and Erode
districts of Tamil Nadu. Many are also inhibiting in and around the BR Hills in Yelandur and
Kollegal Taluks of Chamarajanagar district of Karnataka. The Soliga speak Sholaga, which
belongs to the Dravidian family.

Toda - It is well known tribe settled in Nilgiri district of Tamil Nadu. Their settlement names
are Todanad, Kundah Nad, Peranga Nad and Merku Nad. Todas are a small pastoral
community living on the Nilgiri plateau, along with other communities like Badaga, Kota and
Kurumba from since pre-eighteenth century. It is well known tribe settled in Nilgiri district of
Tamil Nadu. The Todas enjoyed some prestige and were considered the top-ranking tribe in
the region.

Urali - The Uralis are a pre-literate community inhabiting Satyamangalam taluk of Erode
district. Apart from the Uralis the other hill tribes that live in the nearby area are Soliga,
Krumbas and Badagas. In the 1891 Madras census report, Uralis are described as “a caste of
agricultural labourers found in the Districts of Madurai and Trichirappalli. Urali meaning ruler
of a village was formerly employed as soldiers. They are engaged in cultivation and collection
of forest produces. Historically, according to opinions of scholars, their language is a cognate
language of Kannada.

Va:gribo:li [Narikkuravar] (Indo-Aryan ): The people also known as Kuruvikka:ran - “bird

catcher” in Northern districts, Narikkuravar - “people who hunt and eat the animal” in
Cuddalore district and Rattiyan - “people move from place to place” - Southern districts.

Kollimalai Tribes: It is a dialect of Tamil. The people also known as Malayala Gounder
setteled in Salem district of Tamil Nadu.

Kasaba: The tribal people basically settled in va:laito:TTam and Pokkapuram area of Nilgiri
district and they are living some other places like Masinikkudi, Arakkodu, Pulinchoru,
Katharappatti, Atharapatti, Jahalikathavu and Asnooru.

53
Kalrayan Malayalis (a dialect of Tamil): The settled in Kalrayan hills situated in Kallakurichi
in Cuddalore district.

Lambadi: They migrated from Maharashtra, Sourashtra and Karnataka regions to different
part of Tamil Nadu, Villupuram, Chengalpat, Dharamapuri, Salem and Coimbatore districts.

Soliga Po:Du [A Dilact Of Kannada]: The Settlement areas of this tribe is Geddesal,
Kottadi, Guliyur, Hasanur, Arepalayam, Mavallam, Devarnattam, Osatti, Uppatti in Tamil
Nadu, Bilgiri Rangana Hills, Yalandur, Chamarajanagar, Kollegal and Heggada Devana Kota
taluks of Mysore districts in Karnataka.

Pachamalai Malayali: The people identify the language by different names like Kavanan,
Malaya:latta:n, Intumalaya:li. They are settled in Trichy and Salem districts.

Saurashtra / Saurashtri

The Saurashtra people, originally from Gujarat, migrated to the South several centuries
ago. They are now settled in almost all major towns in Tamil Nadu. Madurai is their cultural
Head Quarter where their concentration is more.

According to prevailing oral tradition, they migrated on the fall of the 'Somnath Temple'
when Gazni Mohammed invaded and plundered the Hindu temples. It is said that they lived in
Devagiri for about two centuries and later moved to Vijayanagaram on receiving an invitation
from their king.
In Grierson's LSI, Saurashtra has been referred to as 'Saurashtri’, another name of
Patnuli dialect of Gujarati. According to him, Saurashtra is an Indo-Aryan language derived
from Sauraseni Prakrit. Though the Saurashtra language is a member of the Indo-Aryan
language family, as it has been in close contact with the Dravidian languages, it developed a
grammar that is almost Dravidian.
----****-----

54
DRAVIDIAN FAMILY
 TAMIL
P. Edward Vedamanickam

1. INTRODUCTION

Tamil is one of the Scheduled languages of India. It is a Dravidian language natively

spoken by the Tamil people of South Asia. Tamil is the official language of the Indian state
of Tamil Nadu, the sovereign nations of Sri Lanka and Singapore, and the Indian Union
territory of Puducherry. Tamil is also spoken by significant minorities in the four other South
Indian states of Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and the Union Territory of
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. It is also spoken by the Tamil diaspora found in many
countries, including Malaysia, Myanmar, South Africa, the United Kingdom, the United
States, Canada, Australia and Mauritius. Tamil is also natively spoken by Sri Lankans. One of
22 scheduled languages in the Constitution of India, Tamil was the first to be classified as
a classical language of India.
Tamil is one of the longest-surviving classical languages of India. A. K.
Ramanujan described it as "the only language of contemporary India which is recognizably
continuous with a classical past". The variety and quality of classical Tamil literature have led
to it being described as "one of the great classical traditions and literatures of the
world". Recorded Tamil literature has been documented for over 2000 years. The earliest
period of Tamil literature, Sangam literature, is dated from c. 300 BC until AD 300. It has the
oldest extant literature among Dravidian languages. The earliest epigraphic records found on
rock edicts and 'hero stones' date from around the 3rd century BC. About 60,000 of the
approximately 1,00,000 inscriptions found by the Archaeological Survey of India in India are
in Tamil Nadu. Of them, most are in Tamil, with only about 5 percent in other
languages. Tamil language inscriptions written in Brahmi script have been discovered in Sri
Lanka and on trade goods in Thailand and Egypt. The two earliest
manuscripts from India acknowledged and registered by the UNESCO Memory of the World
register in 1997 and 2005, were written in Tamil. In 1578 itself a Tamil prayer book in an old
Tamil script named Thambiran Vanakkam was published thus making Tamil, the first Indian
language to be printed and published. The Tamil Lexicon, published by the University of
Madras, was one of the earliest dictionaries published in Indian languages. According to a
2001 survey, there were 1,863 newspapers published in Tamil, of which 353 were dailies.

1.1 Family Affiliation:

The origin of the Tamil language is traceable to the South Dravidian family of
languages. The family, sub-family, and group of affiliation of this language are presented
below.

55
 1.2 Speakers’ Strength: Bilingualism
Distribution of Tamil Language in States/Union Territories as per Census 2011:

Sl. No India/States/UTs Total Male Female

INDIA 60,793,814 30,648,376 30,145,438
1 Tamil Nadu 55,798,916 28,057,045 27,741,871
2 Karnataka 1,874,959 962,230 912,729
3 Pondicherry 861,502 430,985 430,517
4 Andhra Pradesh 769,685 390,429 379,256
5 Kerala 596,971 314,140 282,831
6 Maharashtra 527,995 284,803 243,192

56
 7 NCT of Delhi 92,426 47,939 44,487
8 Andaman & Nicobar Islands 62,961 34,932 28,029
9 Gujarat 37,092 20,751 16,341
10 Madhya Pradesh 24,848 13,696 11,152
11 West Bengal 20,238 11,390 8,848
12 Uttar Pradesh 13,665 8,128 5,537
13 Chhattisgarh 13,241 7,037 6,204
14 Jharkhand 12,913 6,890 6,023
15 Punjab 12,339 8,538 3,801
16 Rajasthan 11,852 7,751 4,101
17 Haryana 10,207 6,203 4,004
18 Jammu & Kashmir 9,494 8,452 1,042
19 Orissa 8,709 4,796 3,913
20 Goa 7,903 4,605 3,298
21 Chandigarh 5,716 3,042 2,674
22 Assam 5,672 4,289 1,383
23 Manipur 2,279 1,381 898
24 Uttaranchal 2,215 1,490 725
25 Arunachal Pradesh 1,595 1,280 315
26 Bihar 1,453 816 637
27 Nagaland 1,441 1,088 353
28 Tripura 1,312 1,172 140
29 Himachal Pradesh 1,066 728 338
30 Meghalaya 834 586 248
31 Dadra & Nagar Haveli 666 413 253
32 Sikkim 484 424 60
33 Mizoram 431 351 80
34 Lakshadweep 386 364 22
35 Daman & Diu 348 212 136

1.3 Socio-Linguistic Information

a) Home

Tamil, being a state language is being used in all the domains of usage in the State of
Tamil Nadu. In most of the homes in Tamil Nadu, Tamil is the only language used for all
communication purposes.

57
b) School

According to a 2006 Act, learning Tamil is compulsory till class X while students
whose mother tongue is Telegu, Malayalam or Kannada, or Urdu can learn their respective
language. Tamil is being used as a Medium of instruction/ Subject till a higher level of
education. A paper on the Tamil language, conforming to Class 10 standards is compulsory in
all such exams and a score of 40 percent is the minimum qualifying mark, according to a
Government Order dated 1 December 2021. If an aspirant does not get through in the
qualifying Tamil language paper, other subject papers, that are part of the overall exam
scheme, would not be taken up for evaluation, the order said. While Tamil language paper
would be compulsory, a pass in it is the basic qualifying norm for entry to government and
PSU services and this rule applies to all state government recruiting agencies including the
Tamil Nadu Public Service Commission.

As regards the TNPSC, the norm takes immediate effect, the government said. Other
state recruitment agencies including the Teachers Recruitment Board, Medical Services
Recruitment Board, TN Uniformed Services Recruitment Board, and TN Forest Uniformed
Services Recruitment Committee would adhere to similar guidelines.

Tamil University was established in the year 1981 with the noble objective of spreading
the mellifluous, melodious, and vibrant Tamil Language with its multifaceted components
throughout this Universe. The Tamil University which was established for the betterment of
the Tamil language has completed its 26th year and started its 27th year. The Tamil University
is progressing with a commitment towards the development of the Tamil Language, Tamil
Society, Tamil Culture and which are the multifaceted components of the Tamil Language.

c) Mass Media

The state of Tamil Nadu has a vibrant media culture whose origins can be traced back
to the late 19th century. The Sudesamitran (Swadesamitran) was the first Tamil-language
newspaper owned and operated by Indians. Setup by G SubramaniaIyer in 1882, who had also
founded The Hindu a few years earlier. The paper was in circulation till 1985. “The British
had set up many Tamil newspapers earlier, such as Jana Vinothini. They were more about
curiosities and were essentially translations of news articles from English to Tamil,” says
Professor V Arasu, former head of the Department of Tamil Literature, University of Madras,
and a keen observer of media culture in Tamil Nadu. He adds, “The Sudesamitran was the first
of a series of anti-British, pro-independence journals that started coming out in Tamil Nadu,
especially Chennai. The famines in Bengal and other parts of India around this time were also
a catalyst for strong, pro-independent sentiments and triggered Indian journalism. A Tamil
newspaper called the DesaBhaktan (Patriot) was set up towards the end of the twentieth
century. VavesuIyer, Subramaniya Bharati, and other doyens of India’s freedom struggle in
Tamil Nadu were running this newspaper then.”

58
 The newspaper has been and continues to be a strong political and ideological
instrument in Tamil Nadu. In 1925, Periyar EV Ramasamy set up the Kudiyarasu (Republic)
to espouse the ideals of the Dravidian Movement. While the newspaper was primarily a
propaganda tool, it was in the 30s that it became a business in Tamil Nadu. Dina Mani, the
Tamil newspaper of the Bombay-based Indian Express group, was the first newspaper to be
set up as a purely profit-based venture. It continues to hold a reasonable part of the Tamil
newspaper market today.

As it stands now, the major newspapers and magazines in Tamil Nadu are the
following. Dina Thanthi, Dinakaran, Dina Malar, Dina Mani, The Hindu (Tamil), and Malai
Malar are the major Tamil dailies. The Vikatan group and the Kumudham group are the major
magazine groups and publish a range of weeklies and monthlies.

d) TV and other media

“Tamil Nadu has long been captivated by the visual culture. A case-in-point is our
politicians. I don’t think anywhere else, so many actors have become rulers,” says Professor
V Arasu. The visual medium has long harboured a seemingly direct-connection to who is and
is not in power in Tamil Nadu. This has continued with the advent of TV news journalism as
well.

e) Script

The Tamil script, like the other Brahmic scripts, is thought to have evolved from the
original Brahmi script. The earliest inscriptions which are accepted examples of Tamil writing
date to the Ashokan period. The script used by such inscriptions is commonly known as
the Tamil-Brahmi or "Tamili script" and differs in many ways from standard Ashokan Brahmi.
For example, early Tamil-Brahmi, unlike Ashokan Brahmi, had a system to distinguish
between pure consonants (m, in this example) and consonants with an inherent vowel (ma, in
this example). In addition, according to Iravatham Mahadevan, early Tamil Brahmi used
slightly different vowel markers, had extra characters to represent letters not found
in Sanskrit, and omitted letters for sounds not present in Tamil such as voiced consonants and
aspirates. [8] Inscriptions from the 2nd century use a later form of Tamil-Brahmi, which is
substantially similar to the writing system described in the Tolkāppiyam, an ancient Tamil
grammar. Most notably, they used the puḷḷi to suppress the inherent vowel. The Tamil letters
thereafter evolved towards a more rounded form and by the 5th or 6th century, they had
reached a form called the early vaṭṭeḻuttu.

The modern Tamil script does not, however, descend from that script. In the 4th
century, the Pallava dynasty created a new script for Tamil and the Grantha alphabet evolved
from it, adding the Vaṭṭeḻuttu alphabet for sounds not found to write Sanskrit. Parallel
to Pallava script a new script (Chola-Pallava script, which evolved to modern Tamil script)
again emerged in Chola territory resembling the same glyph development as Pallava script,
59
but it did not evolve from that. By the 8th century, the new scripts supplanted Vaṭṭeḻuttu in
the Chola resp. Pallava kingdoms lay in the north portion of the Tamil-speaking
region. However, Vaṭṭeḻuttu continued to be used in the southern portion of the Tamil-
speaking region, in the Chera and Pandyan kingdoms until the 11th century, when the
Pandyan kingdom was conquered by the Cholas.

With the fall of the Pallava kingdom, the Chola dynasty pushed the Chola-Pallava
script as the de facto script. Over the next few centuries, the Chola-Pallava script evolved into
the modern Tamil script. The Grantha and its parent script influenced the Tamil script notably.
The use of palm leaves as the primary medium for writing led to changes in the script. The
scribe had to be careful not to pierce the leaves with the stylus while writing because a leaf
with a hole was more likely to tear and decay faster. As a result, the use of the puḷḷi to
distinguish pure consonants became rare, with pure consonants usually being written as if the
inherent vowel were present. Similarly, the vowel marker for the kuṟṟiyalukaram, a half-
rounded u that occurs at the end of some words and in the medial position in certain compound
words, also fell out of use and was replaced by the marker for the simple u. The puḷḷi did not
fully reappear until the introduction of printing, but the marker kuṟṟiyalukaram never came
back into use although the sound itself still exists and plays an important role in Tamil prosody.

1.4 Diglossia in Tamil

There is a wide gap between spoken and written Tamil. This socio-linguistic situation
of Tamil is characterized by diglossia – a high register and a low register. The diglossic
situation and all the regional varieties of the Tamil language have already been discussed in
the Introduction chapter in detail.

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 2 PHONOLOGY

Phonology is the study of sounds organized and used in a natural language. The
phonological system of a language includes an inventory of sounds and their features as well
as rules which specify how sounds interact with each other. The phonemic analysis consists of
all the indefinite number of sounds occurring in utterances to a definite and limited set of
phonemes contrastive, at least, in some environments.

2.3 Phonemic Inventory

Tamil does not have aspirated consonants. The Tamil script does not have distinct
letters for voiced and unvoiced plosives, although both are present in the spoken language
as allophones--i.e., they are in complementary distribution and the places they can occur do
not intersect. For example, the unvoiced plosive 'p' occurs at the beginning of the words and
the voiced plosive 'b' cannot. In the middle of words, unvoiced plosives commonly occur as
a geminated pair like -pp-, while voiced plosives do not usually come in pairs. Only the voiced
plosives occur after a vowel, or after a corresponding nasal. Thus, both the voiced and
unvoiced plosives can be represented by the same script in Tamil without ambiguity, the script
denoting only the place and broad manner of articulation (plosive, nasal, etc.). The rule is
identical for all plosives.

With the exception of one rule - the pronunciation of the letter c at the beginning of a
word - these rules are largely followed even today in pronouncing centamil. The position is,
however, way more complex in relation to spoken koduntamil. The pronunciation of southern
dialects and the dialects of Sri Lanka continues to reflect these rules to a large extent, though
not completely. In northern dialects, however, sound shifts have changed many words so
substantially that these rules no longer describe how words are pronounced. In addition many,
but not all, Sanskrit loan words are pronounced in Tamil as they were in Sanskrit, even if this
means that consonants which should be unvoiced according to the Tolkāppiyam are voiced.

Phonologists are divided in their opinion over why written Tamil did not distinguish
between voiced and unvoiced characters. One point of view is that Tamil never had conjunct
consonants or voiced stops - voice was rather the result of elision or sandhi. Consequently,
unlike Indo-European languages and other Dravidian languages, Tamil did not need separate
characters for voiced consonants. A slightly different theory holds that voiced consonants were
at one stage allophones of unvoiced consonants, and the lack of distinction between the two in
the modern script merely reflects that.

61
Vowels:

Tamil has two (2) front short vowels, two (2) back short vowels and one (1) central
short vowel. Each vowel has its corresponding long vowels. Total segmental vowel phonemes
in Tamil are 10 (including 5 long vowels). The segmental vowels Tamil are presented below.

Front Central Back

High /i/ /i:/ /u/ /u:/

Mid /e/ /e:/ /o/ /o:/

Low /a/ /a:/

Consonants:

Total 22 segmental consonantal phonemes available in Tamil language. The segmental

consonants in Tamil is presented below.

Bilabial Dental Alveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar Glottal

Stops p t ʈ c k
Nasal m ṇ n ɳ ɲ ŋ
Trill r
Tap ɾ
Fricative s ȿ Ɉ h
Approximant v y
Lateral l ɭ L
Approximant

Distributiohn of Vowels:

/a/ /anil/ ‘squireel’

/paŋku/ ‘a share’
/aṇtha/ ‘that’

/a:/ /a:du/ ‘goat’

/ka:tu/ ‘ear’

/i/ /ilai/ ‘leaf’

/tinam/ ‘day’
/koʈumai/ ‘cruelty’

62
 /i:/ /i:kkaɭ/ ‘flies”
/i:tal/ ‘act of giving’

/u/ /ural/ ‘grinder’

/pukai/ ‘smoke’
/nilavu/ ‘moon’

/u:/ /u:ci/ ‘needle”

/pu:nai/ ‘cat’

/e/ /erumpu/ ‘ant’

/pen/ ‘woman’

/e:/ /e:ni/ ‘ladder”

/teŋka:j/ ‘coconut’

/o/ /ontɾu/ ‘one’

/sonna:n/ ‘he said’

/o:/ /o: ʈam/ ‘boat’

/po:tum/ ‘enough”

Distribution of Cononants:

/p/ /paʈʈam/ ‘kite’

/nanbarkaʈ/ ‘friends’

/t/ /tangam/ ‘gold’

/kattdam/ ‘building’
/ʈ/ /ʈappa/ ‘box’
/paʈam/ ‘picture’

/c/ /cakkaram/ ‘wheel’

/kaɲcu/ ‘poridge’

/k/ /kaŋ/ ‘eye’

/pakkam/ ‘near’

/m/ /ma:du/ ‘cow’

/kammal/ ‘ear ring’
/maram/ ‘tree’

/ṇ/ /ṇa:j/ ‘dog’

63
 /aṇta/ ‘that’
/ṇa:n/ ‘I”

/n/ /annai/ ‘mother’

/avan/ ‘he’

/ɳ/ /maɳam/ ‘aroma’

/aɳai/ ‘dam’

/ɲ/ /maɲcaɭ/ ‘turmeric’

/r/ /iravu/ ‘night’

/avar/ ‘he’ honorofic

/ɾ/ /iɾakkai/ ‘wing'

/kaɾkal/ ‘stones’

/s/ /Sarasvati/ ‘name of a person’

/saṇtosam/ ‘happiness’

/ȿ/ /varuȿam/ ‘year’

/puruȿan/ ‘husband’

/Ɉ/ /Ɉa: ʈ i/ ‘mug’

/Ɉannal/ ‘window’

/l/ /lattu/ ‘sweet’

/pa:l/ ‘milk’
/illam/ ‘house’

/ɭ/ /paɭɭam/ ‘pit’

/n:ɭam/ ‘length’
/viɭakku/ ‘lamp’

/L/ /paLam/ ‘fruit’

/vaLi/ ‘way’

Vowel Sequence/Diphthongs:

A diphthong known as a gliding vowel is a phonetic sequence, consisting of a

vowel and a glide that is interpreted as a single vowel. It refers to two adjacent vowel sounds
occurring within the same syllable. Technically the tongue moves from one point of
articulation to another during the pronunciation of the vowel

64
 /ai/ /kai/ ‘hand’
/mai/ ‘ink”

Phonemic Contrast:

/p/ /t/ /paṇtu/ ‘ball’

/tantu/ ‘give

/t/ /ʈ/ /kattu/ ‘shout’

/ka:ʈʈu / ‘show’

/c/ /k/ /caʈʈai/ ‘shirt’

/kaʈʈai/ ‘stick’

/m/ /ṇ/ /ma:jai/ ‘vain’

/ṇa:jai/ ‘dog’ accuasative case

/ṇ/ /n/ /pantu/ ‘ball’

/pannu/ ‘to do’

/n/ /ɳ/ /manam/ ‘mind’

/maɳam/ ‘aroma’

/l/ /ɭ/ /vilakku/ ‘to remove’

/viɭakku/ ‘lamp’

/l/ /L/ /vali/ ‘pain’

/vaLi/ ‘way’

/ɲ/ /ŋ/ /maɲcaɭ/ ‘turmeric’

/maŋkalam/ ‘auspicious”

/r/ /ɾ/ /aram/ ‘a file’

/aɾam/ ‘good deed’

Major Allophonic Distribution

In Tamil language, Voiced is not phonemic. The Tamil script does not distinguish
between voiced and voiceless consonants. Phonetically voiced is assigned by the placement of
the consonants.
The stops, p, t, & k at the beginning of the word is pronounced as voiceless and, in the
middle, it is pronounced as voiced. For example:

65
 /apa:tiram/ is pronounced as /aba:thiram/
/pa:tam/ is pronounced as /pa:dam/
/taɳkam/ is pronounced as /taɳgam/

Here the stop consonant is pronounced as voiceless at the beginning of the word and
voiced in the middle of the word.

The transmutation of the letters takes place when two words are joined together and
affects the last letter of the preceding word and the first letter of the following word.

- When the preceding word ends in a mute consonant and the following word starts with a
vowel, the vowel is dropped and its characteristic mark is joined to the mute consonant.

/avanillai/ ‘he is not’ /avanillai/

- /m/ changes to ŋ when followed by /k/

changes to ɲ when followed by /c/
changes to n when followed by /t/

/cejamkoŋʈa:n/ is written as /cejaŋ koŋʈa:n/ ‘he conquered’

/pavamcejta:n/ is written as /pavaɲcejta:n/ ‘he sinnned’
/puttakamtaṇta:n/ is written /asputtakaṇtaṇta:n/ ‘he gave book’

- When /l/ is followed by /a/, /s/, or /p/, the /l/ is changed into /ɾ/
-
/kal/ + /kaɭ/ = /kaɾkaɭ/ ‘gravel stone’
/patil/ +/col/ = /patiɾcol/ ‘reply’

Consonant Clusters

There are no initial consonant clusers in Tamil language

/mp/ /uʈampu/ ‘body’

/ampu/ ‘arrow’
/rt/ /irentu/ ‘two’
/arttam/ ‘meaning’
/ɳʈ/ /maɳʈi/ ‘sediments’
/vaɳʈi/ ‘cart’
/Ƞk/ /caŋku/ ‘conch’
/paŋku/ ‘share’
/ṇt/ /taṇtam/ ‘tusk’

66
 /ka:ṇtam/ ‘magnet’
/ll/ /allal/ ‘trouble’
/ɪllam/ ‘home’
/ɭɭ/ /kaɭɭan/ ‘thief’
/vaɭɭal/ ‘generous man’
/pp/ /kappal/ ‘ship’
/veppam/ ‘heat’
/cc/ /kacce:ri/ ‘orchestra’
/accham/ ‘fear’
/tt/ /katti/ ‘knife’
/chitti/ ‘mother’s younger sister’
/kk/ /pakkam/ ‘near’
/majakkam/ ‘faint’
/rr/ /iratirri/ ‘night’
/ɾk/ /paɾkaɭ / ‘teeth’
/kaɾkaɭ / ‘stones’
/mm/ /tummal/ ‘sneezing’
/kammal/ ‘ear ring’
/nn/ /tinnai/ ‘verandah’
/annam/ ‘swan’

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 3 MORPHOPHONEMICS

a) Addition
b) Deletion
c) Alteration

The plural number is morpho- phonologically marked by the plural suffix /-kaɭor/ /-
kkaɭ/. The plural suffix is always added to the noun stem—never to the oblique stem of a noun.

The two allo-morphs of the plural suffix, /-kaɭ/ and /-kkaɭ/, have the following distribution.
/-kkaɭ/ occurs with all nouns
(i) ending in a long vowel,
Or (ii) consistin g of two short syllables and ending in u—

With all other nouns -kaɭoccurs

/pu:/ 'flower' /pukkaɭ/ 'flowers'
/i:/ 'fly' /i:kkaɭ/ 'flies'
/pacu/ 'cow' /pacu-kkaɭ/ 'cows'
/teru/ 'street' /teru-kkaɭ/ 'streets'
/kal/ 'stone' /kar-kaɭ/ 'stones'
/maram/ 'tree' /maraŋ-kaɭ/ 'trees'
/vi:tu/ 'house' /vi:tu-kaɭ/ 'houses'

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 4 MORPHOLOGY

Tamil morphology is characterized as agglutinating type. That means morphs are stuck
on in a sequence. Concatenative morphology in Tamil involves always suffixation; morphs
are added in a sequence as suffixes after a stem. Thus, one or more suffixes are added to the
stems. For example, the markers of gender, case, and number are suffixed to the Stem.
/kai/ hand
/kaikaɭ/ hands
/kaikaɭil/ in the hands

In the above example, the noun stem /kai/ is followed by the plural marker /kaɭ/ which
in turn is followed by the case marker /il/

4.1 Word Class

A word is a unit which is a constituent at the phrase level. It stands in contrast to

morpheme which is the smallest meaningful unit in the grammar of a language. Based on
morphological and syntactical structure the word classes of Tamil may be divided into: nouns,
verbs, postpositions, adjectives, adverbs, quantifiers, determiners and conjunctions.

4.1.1 Noun

A noun is a member of a syntactic class that includes words which refer to people,
places, things, ideas, or concepts, whose members may act as any of the following: subjects of
the verb, objects of the verb, indirect object of the verb, or object of a preposition or
postposition. Noun morphology deals with forms and classification of nouns, pronouns and
their declensional and inflectional patterns in association with gender, number, adjective, etc.
Nouns in Tamil are marked by two numbers (singular and plural), three genders (masculine,
feminine and neuter); and seven cases (nominative, accusative, dative, ablative, genitive,
locative and instrumental). The noun stem is the form of the noun without the attachment of
inflectional suffixes.

4.3.1.1 Basic Nouns

Basic nouns in Tamil are those which are a class by itself as they are not derived from
any other word class. Some examples are given below:

/vi:ʈu/ ‘house’
/ṇa:i/ ‘dog’
/paiyan/ ‘boy’
/maram/ ‘tree’
/pa:Lam/ ‘fruit’
/mattiya:nam/ ‘mid day’

69
 /mirukam/ ‘animal’
/kuruvi/ ‘sparrow’
/amma/ ‘mother’

4.1.1.2. Derived Nouns:

Some nouns have in addition to the noun stem an oblique noun form, called oblique
stem, some nouns do not. The oblique stem has a four-fold function and context of occurrence.
The first set of nouns comprises all nouns consisting of a root ending in the vowel ‘a’
and the noun stem forming suffix -m,
. /maram/ 'tree',
These nouns form their oblique stem by replacing the stem forming suffix - m with the
oblique suffix -ttu.
/mara-ttu/ 'tree'
/paLa-ttu/ 'fruit'
/nlla-ttu/ 'ground'
/to:ʈʈa-ttu/ 'garden'
/to:ʈʈattil/ 'in the garden'

When nouns in oblique form are followed b y a noun or postposition beginning with
one of the four stop consonants /k/, /c/, /t/, /p/, the respective stop is reduplicated and added to
the preceding oblique form.

The second set of nouns comprises only five nouns (pronouns), which do not exhibit a
common property except that they have the same oblique suffix:

/pala/ 'many'
/cila/ 'few'
/ivai/ 'these'
/avai/ 'those'
/ella:-m/ 'all'

These nouns (pronouns) form their oblique stem by adding the oblique suffix ‘-arm’ .
In this case, “ella:m’ drops its final ‘-m’ and ‘ivai’ ‘aval’ appear in the shortened form
i- and a::
/pala-v-aɾɾu/ 'many'
/a-v-aɾɾu/ 'those'
/ella:-v-aɾɾu/ 'all'

The context of occurrence of this type of oblique stem is shown below:

Oblique stem + case suffix.

/pala-v-aɾɾ-ootu/ many-obl-soc 'with many’ Oblique stem + head noun

70
 /pala-v-aɾɾ-in vilai/ many-obl-euph price ‘the price of many’

Oblique stem + postposition

/pala-v-aɾɾ:in pakkam/ many-obl-euph near 'near many (things, persons)'

With this type of nouns (pronouns) the euphonic increment -in, occurs obligatorily
after the oblique suffix -arm when the respective noun (pronoun) occurs as a noun modifier or
is followed by a postposition. These nouns (pronouns) do not occur in compound noun
constructions.

Oblique stem formed by doubling of consonant

Nouns consists of all nouns whose stems end in the syllable tu or ru, but do not consist
of two short syllables,
/vi:ʈu/ 'house',
/na:ʈu/ 'nation’
/a:ɾu/ 'river',
/kinaru/ 'well'.

Nouns belonging to this class form their oblique stem by doubling of the consonant of
the final syllable /tu/ or /ru/.
, /vi:ʈʈu/ ‘of the house'
/na:ʈʈu/ 'of the country'
/a:ɾɾu/ 'of the river'
/kinaɾɾu/ 'of the well'

The context of occurrence of this type of oblique stem is shown by the following
examples:

oblique stem + case suffix

/vi:ʈ-ʈ-il/ house(obl)-loc ‘in the house'
/kinaɾ-ɾ-il/ well(obl)-loc 'in the well'

oblique stem + head noun

/vi:ʈ-ʈu-k katavu/ house(obl) door ‘door of the house'
/kinaɾ-ɾu-ccuvar/ well(obl) wall ‘wall of the well'

oblique stem + noun (in noun-nɾɾoun compound

/vi:ʈ-ʈu ve:lai/ house(obl) work ‘house work'
/kinaɾ-ɾu-taɳɳi:r/ well(obl) water ‘well water'

71
oblique stem + postposition
/vi:ʈ-ʈu-p pakkam/ house(obl) near 'near the house'
/kinaɾ-ɾu—ppakkam/ well(obl) near 'near the well'

Nouns consist of all other nouns which do not belong to one of the above three classes
and which do not have an oblique stem occur, with their noun stem in the context in which
other nouns occur with their oblique stem.

Examples
noun stem + case suffix
/talai-j-il/ head-loc 'on the head'
noun stem + head noun
/talaimajir/ head hair 'hair of the head'
noun stem + noun (i n noun-noun compound)
/talaivali/ head pain 'headache'
noun stem + postposition
/talaimele:/ head on 'on the head'

Number

The Tamil language distinguishes between singular and plural numbers. The plural
number is morpho-phonologically marked by means of the plural suffix /-kaɭ/ or /-kkaɭ/. The
plural suffix is always added to the noun stems—never to the oblique stem of a noun. The two
allomorphs of the plural suffix, /-kaɭ/ and /-kkaɭ/, have the following distribution.

/-kkaɭ/ occurs with all nouns

(i) ending in a long vowel,
Or (ii) consistin g of two short syllables and ending in /u—/

With all other nouns /-kaɭ/ occurs

/pu:/ 'flower' /pukkaɭ/ 'flowers'
/i:/ 'fly' /i:kkaɭ/ 'flies'
/pacu/ 'cow' /pacu-kkaɭ/ 'cows'
/teru/ 'street' /teru-kkaɭ/ 'streets'
/kal/ 'stone' /kar-kaɭ/ 'stones'
/maram/ 'tree' /maraŋ-kaɭ/ 'trees'
/vi:tu/ 'house' /vi:tu-kaɭ/ 'houses'

An exception to this is nouns whose noun stem consists of a root which combines with
a masculine/feminine/epicene gender suffix

/ma:na-v-an/ 'male student',

/ma:na-v-i/ 'female student',

72
 /ma:na-v-ar/ '(honorific) student',
/nanp-an/ 'friend',
/nanp-ar/ '(honorific) friend'.

With these nouns the plural suffix -kaɭ can only be added to noun stems ending in the
epicene, honorific gender suffix -ar, or ending in the female gender suffix -i—but not to noun
stems ending in the masculine gender suffix -an

/ma:na-v-ar-kaɭ/ 'students'
/nanp-ar-kaɭ/ 'friends'
/ma:na-v-i-kaɭ/ 'female students'
/ma:na-v-ar-kaɭ/ 'male students'

With rational nouns, that is nouns denoting rational beings—humans, gods, etc, the
occurrence of the plural suffix is obligatory.

/na:ŋkaɭ ma:navar-kaɭ/ 'We are students

/enpaiyaŋ-kaɭ va-ṇt-a:rkaɭ/ 'My boys (children) came.'

With non-rational nouns, on the other hand, the occurrence of the plural suffix is
optional. It is often deleted, especially, when the noun is modified by a quantifier.

/aŋku niɾaiya vi:tu iru-kkinɾ-an-a/ 'There are many houses.'

/iranʈu ṇa:j va-ṇt-atu/ ‘Two dogs came.'

Euphonic increments -in and -a

There is also an optional inflectional increment in the form of the phonological suffixes
-in and -an, to which we have referred to as euphonic suffixes. Whereas the suffix -in occurs
with all nouns, the suffix -an occurs only with the pronouns

/itu/ 'this, it' and

/atu/ 'that, it'.

With a number of nouns these euphonic suffixes are, however, obligatory in certain
contexts.

The contexts in which the euphonic suffixes /-in/ and /-an/ can occur are as follows:
i) in nouns inflected for case.

The euphonic suffix occurs between the noun stem or the oblique stem, or the plural
suffix and the case suffix,

/kai(-j-in)-a:l/ 'with the hand'

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 /at(-an)-a:l/ 'with that'
/catta-tt(-in}-a:l/ 'with sound'
/kar-kaɭ(-in)-a:l/ 'with the stones'

The euphonic increment -in occurs optionally between the noun stem of the noun kai
'hand', which has no oblique stem, and the instrumental case suffix -a:l; the euphonic
increment -an occurs optionally between the stem of the pronoun -atu 'that' and. the
instrumental case. The euphonic increment -in occurs optionally between the oblique stem of
the noun maram 'wood', formed with the oblique suffix -ttu, and the instrumental case suffix.
-in occurs optionally between the plural suffix and the instrumental case suffix,

ii) with nouns occurring as noun modifier with genitive case function before a head noun. The
euphonic increment -in occurs optionally after thenoun or oblique stem of the noun, or after
the plural suffix.

/appa:(-v-in) pustakam/ 'father's book'

/mara-tt(-in) kiɭai/ 'branch of the tree'
/me:cai-y-inka:l/ 'the le g of the table'
/at-anvilai/ 'the price of it'

Gender

The two basic gender distinguished in Tamil is Masculine and Feminine gender. The
masculine includes all male sex and the feminine includes all female sex. Generally, the
masculine nounds ends with the consonant and the feminine nounds ends with vowel or -aɭ

/avan/ ‘he’ /avaɭ/ ‘she’

/ma:navan/ ‘male student’ /ma:navi/ ‘female student’
/ciruvan/ ‘small boy’ /cirumi/ ‘small girl’

Two different words are also used for different gender distinction.

/annan/ ‘elder bother’ /akka/ ‘elder sister’

/tampi/ ‘younger brother’ /taŋkai/ ‘younger sister’
/appa/ ‘father’ /amma/ ‘mother’

The non-human things are termed as neuter gender.

/vi:ʈu/ ‘house’
/maram/ ‘tree’
/me:cai / ‘table’

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Pronoun

Pronouns are the ones which represent nouns and they are declined like nouns. They
are called substitutes for Nouns. They are divided into nouns referring to ourselves, nouns
referring to persons standing before us, nouns referring to persons or things at a distance: nouns
of interrogation: and nouns of number.

Personal Pronouns

Person singular Plural

First /ṇa:n/ ‘I’ /ṇa:m/ ‘We’ Includes the persons addressed
/ṇa:ŋkaɭ/ Excludes the persons addressed
Second /ne:/ ‘You” /ne:r/
/ne: ŋkaɭ/
Third /avan/ ‘he’
/avaɭ/ ‘she’
/atu/ ‘that’
/avar/ /avarkaɭ/
‘honorofic’

Demonstrative Pronoun
The demonstrative letters ‘a’ and ‘i’ are prefixed to any noun, of whatever number,
gender, or case. If the, noun begin with a consonant, this is doubled after ‘a’ and ‘i’ but if it
begins with a vowel, those letters are united to it by the letter ‘v’ doubled.

/ammanitan/ ‘that man’ /immanitan/ ‘this man’

/akka:lam/ ‘that time’ /ikka:lam/ ‘this time’.
/avvu:r / ‘that village’ /ivvu:r/ ‘this village’
/avvalayam/ ‘that -temple’ /ivvalayam/ ‘this temple’
/avvilaikaɭ/ ‘those leaves’ /ivvilaikaɭ/ ‘these leaves’

/aṇta/ and /iṇta/, are also demonstrative pronouns, and are prefixed as adjectives to any noun,
when the usual rules of the increase of letters must be observed. They are called as defective
demonstrative nouns, because they do not in themselves point out any particular person,
number, gender, or case, and cannot therefore be used by themselves.

/aṇtattuɳi/ ‘that cloth’ /iṇtattuɳi/ ‘this cloth’

/aṇtatta:nijam/ ‘that grain’ /iṇtatta:nijam/ ‘this grain’
/aṇtavoli/ ‘that sound’ /iṇtavoli/ ‘thissound’

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Indefinite Pronoun

The indefinite demonstrative pronouns in Tamil Language is ‘anna’ and ‘inna’ which
mean such, or such like, when the usual personal terminations are affixed. They also form
nouns, and are then regularly declined

/anna:n inna:n/ ‘such a man’

/anna:ɭ inna:ɭ/ ‘such a woman’
/annatu innatu/ ‘such a thing’

Interrogative Pronoun

Interrogative pronoun is formed by the letters, e and ya, with the usual personal
terminations.
/evan/ ‘who’ /evaɭ/ ‘who’ (feminine)
/javan/ ‘who’ /javaɭ/ ‘who’ (feminine)

The plural form is

/evarkaɭ/ ‘who’
/evai/ ‘what things’

The interrogative letter e, is prefixed to any nouns, and means what?

/emmanitan/ ‘what man?’

/emmanitarkaɭ/ ‘what men?’
/eppatinam/ ‘what city?’

Instead of the simple letter ‘a’ the adjective form ‘eṇta’ is also used interrogatively, and
prefixed to nouns
/eṇtamanitan/ ‘what man?’
/eṇtamanitarkaɭ/ ‘what men?’
/eṇtapatinam/ ‘what city?’

Case

The category of case indicates the syntactic and semantic relationship between
(i) a noun or noun phrase and a verb, or
(ii) two nouns or noun phrases.
(iii) noun phrase and the verbal predicate.

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 The cases are known in Tamil grammer as the First case, Second case, Third Case, and
so on.

First Case Nominative Subject of sentence

Second Case Accusative Object of action /ai/
Third Case Instrumental Means by which action is done /a:l/
Fourth Case Dative Object to whom action is done /-kku/, /-ukku/, /-ku/
Fifth Case Ablative Motion from /il/, /ilirunthu/, /ininru/
Sixth Case Genitive Posseseive /in/, /utaija/, /inutaija/,
/inatu/
Seventh Case Locative Place in which /il/, /itatil/
Eighth Case Vocative Addressing /e:/, /a:/

First Case or the Nominative Case

The subject is always in the nominative. The verb agrees with its subject in Gender,
number and person.

/avanva:nta:n/ ‘He came’

/kutiraivantatu/ ‘horse came’

/avarkalvanta:rkal/ ‘they came’

The nominative case is not marked on the noun by means of a case suffix or
postposition. It is morphologically the unmarked case. Since in Tamil syntactic functions—
except the subject function — and semantic roles are mainly expressed by case markers and
the nominative case is not marked by a case marker, the nominative case is not only
morphologically, but also syntactically and semantically, the unmarked case. Syntactically the
nominative case is the unmarked case in the sense that it does not indicate a particular
grammatical function, viz., the subject function.

Second case or Accusative Case

It is the case of the object of the verb. The accusative case marker is the case
suffix ‘-ai’

/paiyan paiyan-ai/ 'boy'

/avanmaɳavaɳaianupina:n/ ‘He sent a servant’
/avanpustakattaikkoʈutta:n/ ‘he gave the book’

The function of the accusative case is to mark the direct object noun phrase of a
transitive verb. Thus, when the direct object noun phrase of a transitive verb is definite, the
accusative case suffix occurs obligatorily on the object noun phrase.

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 /kumarkamala;-v-ai-k ka:tali-kkir-a:n/ ‘Kumar loves Kamala.'
/na:nenca:vi-y-ai-ttolai-tt-e:n/ ‘I lost the key.'

Third Case or the Instrumental Case

The case suffix ‘-a:l’ labelled as instrumental case suffix, not only express
instrumentality, with which it is labelled, but also a number of other concepts, like cause,
reason, means, etc.

/paiyan paiyan-a:l/ ‘boy':

The instrumental case suffix expresses the following semantic functions.

1. Instrument:
/kumarkattiya:lpaLattaiveʈʈina:n/
'Kumar cut the fruit with a knife.'
2. source or material:
/kumarmaɳala:liṇtap pa:naiyaicceyta:n/
'Kumar made this pot out of sand.'
3. Reason:
/vejila:lkumarvaravillai/
Because of the heat Kumar didn't come.'
4. Cause
/maLaija:lpayirṇanɾa:ka vaɭarnt-atu/
'Because of the rain the crops grew well.'

Fouth Case or Dative Case

The dative case suffix has the following three allomorphs: -kku, -ukku, and -ku. The
distribution of these allomorphs is as follows:
a) the allomorph -kku occurs
1. after the oblique stem of nouns and pronouns

/maram/ 'tree' /mara-ttu-kku/

/pala/ 'many' /pala-v~arru-kku/
/vi:tu/ 'house' /vi:t-tu-kku/
/a:ru/ 'river' /a:r-ru-kku/
/na:n/ ‘I /ena-kku/

2. after the noun stem ending in i,ii,ai,ay or the short vowel u.

/tampi/ 'younger brother' /tampi-kkui:-kku/

/cattail/ 'shirt' /cattai-kku/
/na:j/ 'dog' /na:j-kku/
/makku/ 'fool' /makku-kku/

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 /patippu/ 'study' /patippu-kku/

b) the allomorph /-ukku/ occurs after the noun stem of all other nouns,

/amma:/ 'mother' /amma:-v-ukku/

/pu:/ 'flower' /pu:-v-ukku/
/pa:l/ 'milk' /pa:l-ukku/
/teru/ 'street' /teru-v-ukku/
/paijan/ 'boy' /paijan-ukku/
/pen/ 'girl' /penn-ukku/

The Fifth Case or Ablative Case

The Ablative case is formed by adding /il/, /iruṇtu/, /itatiliruṇtu/

/pu:/ ‘flower’ /pu:viliruṇtu/

/maram/ ‘tree’ /maratiliruṇtu/

‘itatiliruṇtu’ is always added to animate nouns.

/puli/ ‘tiger” /puliitatiliruṇtu/

/makan/ ‘son’ /makanitatiliruṇtu/

The Sixth Case or the Genitive Case

It expresses the relation between two noun phrases. Morphosyntactically case marking
in Tamil is realized in two ways:
(i) by case suffixes,
(ii) by postpositions—some of which are bound forms.

In the case of postpositions, case marking is actually realized by a combination of both

a case suffix and a postposition since most postpositions govern a certain case suffix on the
preceding noun phrase. Thus, the semantic role of instrument, for example, can be expressed
by a case suffix—the suffix -a:l—added to a noun phrase,

. with the noun

/ca:vi'/ key':/
/ca:vi-j-a:l/ 'wit h the key'.

It can also be expressed b y a postposition—the word

/mu:lam/ 'with’
/ca:vimu:lam/ 'wit h the key'.

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 And finally, the semantic role of instrument can be expressed by a postpostion
governing a case suffix.

The Seventh Case or Locative Case

It is formed by adding /il/, /iʈatil/ to the inflexional base.
/il/ denotes in, position in, position at a neuter noun.
/iʈatil/ dnotes in, position in, position at a personal noun.

/valai/ ‘net’ valaiyil

/malai/ ‘mountain’ malaiyil
/avan/ ‘he’ avaniʈatil
/makan / ‘son’ makaniʈatil

The Eighth Case or the Vocative Case

It is always formed from the nominative, not from the inflexiional base.

a. It is most commonly formed in the singular by adding ‘e:’ to the nominative.

/makan / ‘son’ /makane:/ ‘O Son’

/piɭɭai/ ‘child’ /piɭɭaie:/ ‘O Child’

Verb Morphology

A verb is a member of the syntactic class of words that comprise, individually or in a

phrase, a minimum predicate in a sentence, governing the number and types of other
constituents that may appear in the clause. Verb is a form class that marks tense – aspect –
modal – personal markers distinguished by number and gender. In in inflectional languages,
verbs may be inflected for tense, aspect, and voice, and modality, agreement with other
constituents in terms of person, number and grammatical gender.

Verb Morphology deals with the forms and classification of verbs, and their pattern in
association etc.

Types of verb: A verb denotes action. Different types of actions are given below.

a) Physical Activity Verbs

/o:ʈu/ ‘run’
/naʈi/ ‘act (take part in a drama)’
/kaʈɪ/ ‘bite’
/muri/ ‘break (stick)’
/vuʈai/ ‘break’
/vuʈai/ ‘kick’

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 b) Instrument Verbs
/veʈʈaiyaʈu / ‘hunt’
/to:ɳʈu / ‘dig (a hole)’
/veʈʈu/ ‘cut (cloth)’

c) Verbs of fighting
/to:ɾkaʈi/ ‘to defeat’
/kollu / ‘kill’ ,
/kuttu/ ‘stab’
/aʈi/ ‘beat’
/kuttu/ ‘stab’

d) Music Verbs
/naʈanamaʈu/ ‘dance’ ,
/pa:ʈʊ/ ‘sing’
/isai/ ‘play an instrument’
/miʈʈu/ ‘play an instrument’

e) Motion verbs
/va: / ‘arrive’
/iLu/ ‘pull)’
/muLhɪ / ‘drown’
/teɭi / ‘springle’

Inflection of Verb

The verbs in Tamil can be studied with respect to their transitivity, Finiteness, non-
finiteness, negation, Causativization and Passivization.

Transitivity

The number of arguments that a verb takes is called its transitivity. Based on
transitivity the verb stems can be further divided into two sub-classes.
These are: 1. Intransitive 2. Transitive.

1. Intransitive:

The verbs which do not take any object are intransitive verbs

/asai/ ‘shake’
/ilai asaiṇtatu/ ‘leaf shakes’
/kuɾai/ ‘to decrease’
/cuʈu kuɾaiṇtatu/ ‘heat has dcreased’

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 /po:/ ‘go’
/avan po:na:n/ ‘he went’
/va:/ ‘come’
/ivan vaṇta:n/ ‘he came’

2. Transitive

The verbs which take an object are transitive verbs. It denotes an action that does pass
over to an object. The examples of transitive verbs are:

/pa:r/ ‘see’
/avan avalaippa:rtta:n/ ’He saw her’
/kiLi/ ‘tear’
/avan tuɳiyaik kiLitta:n/ ’he tore the cloth’
/ca:ppiʈu/ ‘eat’
/avan co:ɾu cappiʈʈa:n/ ‘he ate rice’
Finiteness

A finite verb is a verb form that occurs in an independent clause and is

fully inflected according to the inflectional categories marked on verbs in the language.
Having the verb roots as the base both Finite and Non-finite verbal formations are realised in
Tamil. The components of the finite verb are: 1. Tense, 2. Aspect, and 3. Mood.

Tense

The positive form of the Tamil verb has three tenses, present, past and future. The
tenses are formed from the root by adding particles, called medials, which show the time of
the action, and then adding personal endings corresponding to the person or persons, thing or
things, which are the subject of the verb.

The medials for the three tenses are as follows

Present tense /-kiɾu/

/-kkiɾu/
Past tense /-ṇtu/
/-inu/
/-ttu/
Future tense /-vu/
/-ppu/

The Personal endings are derived from the personal pronouns and are shown below.
They correspond to the personal pronouns in distinctions of Gender and Number. They are
same for all the verbs.

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 Number Person Gender Personal Endings
Singular First Person /ṇa:n/ /e:n/
Second Person /ṇi:/ /a:j/
Third Person Masculine /avan/ /a:n/
Feminine /avaɭ/ /a:ɭ/
Neuter /atu/ /atu/
Plural First Person /ṇa:m/ /o:m/
ṇa:ŋkaɭ/
Second Person /ṇi:r/ /i:r/
/ṇi::ŋkaɭ/ /i:rkaɭ/
Third Person Masculine & /avar/ /a:r/
Feminine /avarkaɭ/ /a:rkaɭ/
Neuter /avaikaɭ/ /ana/

The plural endings ‘i:r’ and ‘a:r’ exactly correspond in use to the Pronouns ‘ṇi:r’ and
‘avar’ and thus, though they are Plural in form, they are courteously and used as Honorific
Singulars.

The endings ‘i:rkaɭ’ and ‘a:rkaɭ’, like the Pronouns ‘ṇi:Ƞkaɭ’ and ‘avarkaɭ’ are the
forms used to denote the full Plural; and like those Pronouns, they are generally and
courteously used in reference to a single individual.

The three tenses of

/va/ ‘to come’ are as follows:-

/varukiɾe:n/ ‘I am coming’
/va ṇte:n/ ‘I came’
/varuve:n/ ‘I will come’

/varukiɾo:m/ ‘We are coming’

/va ṇto:m/ ‘We came’
/varuvo:m/ ‘We will come’

/va ṇta:i/ ‘You came’

/varukinɾa:i/ ‘You are coming’
/varuva:i/ ‘You will come’

/va ṇti:rka ɭ / ‘You (pl) came’

/varukinti:r ka ɭ / ‘You(pl) are coming’
/varuvi:r kaɭ / ‘You(pl) will come’

/va ṇta:n/ ‘He came’

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 /varukinɾa:n/ ‘He is coming’
/varuva:n/ ‘He will come’

/va ṇta:ɭ / ‘She came’

/varukinɾa:ɭ / ‘She is coming’
/varuva:ɭ / ‘She will come’

/va ṇta:rka ɭ / ‘They came’

/varukinta:r ka ɭ / ‘They are coming’
/varuva:r kaɭ / ‘You(pl) will come’

/va ṇtatu / ‘It came’

/varukinɾatu / ‘It is coming’
/varum/ ‘It will come’

Mood

Mood is one of a set of distinctive forms that are used to signal modality. The mode or
manner of a speaker is expressed by mood. It incorporates a statement, a command, a question,
a doubt etc.

a. Indicative mood
Denotes an action performed.
/ma: ʈu pa:l tarum/ ‘cow gives milk’
/curiyan utikkum/ ‘sun rises’
/na:i kuɾaikkum/ ‘dog barks’

b. Imperative Mood
Verb in the imperative mood denotes command or request.
This mood always occurs with second person.
/ni: va: / ‘you come’
/poka:te:/ ‘You don’t go’
/ca:piʈu/ ‘You eat’

c. Subjunctive Mood

In the subjunctive mood, the sense is to suppose or desire an action.

/oru veɭai avan vaṇta:l ṇa:n varuve:n/ ‘In case if he comes I will come’
/pu:nai vaṇta:l eli vara:tu/ ‘If cat comes, rat will not come’

d. Optative Mood
The optative mood expresses a desire, wish, permission or request in a
sentence.

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 /avan cappi ʈaʈum/ ‘let him eat’

e. Compulsive Mood
The compulsion on the part of the subject is expressed in compulsive mood.
/ni: kanʈippaka va:/ ‘you should come’
/avarkaɭ poka venʈa:m/ ‘they should not go’

f. Potential Mood
The potential action is expressed in potential mood.
/na:n vaṇta:lum varuve:n/ ‘I may come’

Non-Finite:

Verbal Nouns

The Verbal noun names the action of the verb. In Tamil it has several forms.
a. Verbal Noun in ‘tal’ ‘ttal’
It is made by affixing ‘tal’ to a root which takes ‘kiɾe:n’
/cej/ + /tal/ > /cejtal/ ‘doing’
/paʈi/ + /ttal/ > /paʈittal/ ‘learning’
/sollu/ + /tal/ > /sollutal/ ‘telling
b. Verbal Noun in /kai/ /kkai/
/po/ + /kai/ > /pokai/ ‘going’
/naʈa/ + /kai/ > /na ʈakkai/ ‘walking’
/ke:ɭ/ + /kai/ > /ke ʈkai/ ‘hearing’
c. Verbal Noun in ‘ppu’
/paʈi + ppu/ > /paʈippu/ ‘learning’
/naʈi + ppu/ >/naʈippu/ ‘acting’

Participial

The relative participles may take the pronominal suffixes and form composite nouns
called as Participial nouns. These participial nouns indicate the doer of the action of the verb.
Thus, from the relative participle of the verb

cey ‘to do’ the following participial nouns are formed.

Present Tense
/cejkiravan/ He who does
/cejkiravaɭ/ She who does
/cejkiratu/ It which does
/cejkiravar/ He (hon) who does

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 /cejkiravarkaɭ/ They who do
/cejkiravaikaɭ/ they(neuter) which do

Past tense
ceytavan He who did
ceytavaɭ She who did
ceytatu It which did
ceytavar He (hon) who did
ceytavarkaɭ They who did
ceytavaikaɭ They (neuter) which did

Future Tense
/cejpavan/ He who will do
/cejpavaɭ/ she who will do
/cejvatu/ It which will do
/cejpavar/ He (hon) who will do
/cejpavarkaɭ/ They who will do
/cejpavaikaɭ/ They which will do

Relative Participle:

Relative participles are followed by a noun. It shows that the person who does the action
is also the person who is affected by it.

/neɾɾu vaṇta paiyan ivan ta:n/

‘This is the boy who came yesterday’

/aȠke vizhunta pazaȠkaɭai na:n saapiʈʈen/

I ate the fruits which fell down there’
/accaʈikka paʈʈa putakkatai avan paʈiʈʈan/
He read the books which were printed.

Gerund

Gerunds and infinitives are forms of verbs that act like nouns. They can follow
adjectives and other verbs. Since it is a kind of noun, it may be the subject or object to some
verb.

/vekama:ka oʈutal kutiraiya:l seiyapaʈʈatu/

‘fast running is done by the horse’

/kuɾaital na:ya:l seiya paʈʈatu/

‘Barking is being done by a dog’

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Negation

In Tamil the negative is expressed by distinct negative forms of the verb.

a. The negative Present is expressed by the nominative Singular of the Present Neuter
Participial followed by the negative marker /illai/
/na:n paʈikirathu illai/ ‘I am not learning’
/ni: paʈikirathu illai/ ‘You are not learning’
/avan paʈikirathu illai/ ‘He is not learning’

b. The negative Past is expressed by the infinitive followed by /illai/

/na:n paʈikavillai/ ‘I did not learn’
/ni: paʈikavillai/ ‘you did not learn’
/avan paʈikavillai/ ‘He did not learn’

c. The negative Future is expressed by the infinitive prefixed to the required person of
Tense /maʈʈu/ is the root verb.
/na:n paʈika maʈʈe:n/ ‘I will not study”
/ni: paʈika maʈʈa:ɪ/ ‘You will not study’
/avan paʈika maʈʈa:n/ ‘He will not study’

d. The negative Imperative singular is formed by adding ‘te’ to the third singular neuter
verb.
/po/ > /pokate:/ ‘you do not go’
/paʈi/ > /paʈiyate:/ ‘you do not study’

e. The negative Participial Nouns are formed by adding the pronominal suffixes to the
negative relative participle. They are used of past, present or future time.
/ceja:tavan/ ‘a man who does not do’
/ceja:tavaɭ/ ‘a woman who does not do’

Passivization

In Tamil the passivisation is expressed by prefixing an infinitive to any form of

/paʈu/
/a ʈikapa ʈukiren/ ‘I am being beaten’
/panam koʈukkapaʈʈatu/ ‘Money is being given’

Adjectives

Tamil adjectives are indeclinable and are always prefixed to the Noun which they
qualify.

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 /nalla ku ʈirai/ ‘good horse’
/aLakiya vi:ʈu/ ‘beautiful house’

Adjectives are formed by addition of the suffixes /a:na/, /ulla/ to the nouns.
/santo:sam/ + /a:na/ > /santo:sama:na/ ‘joyful’
/aLaku/ + /ulla/ > /aLakulla/ ‘beautiful’

Adjectives are formed from nouns ending in ‘mpu’ to ‘ppu’

/irumpu/ ‘iron’
/iruppuk ko:l/ ‘iron rod’

Adjectives are formed by few nouns denoting qualities and ending in ‘umai’ by
changing the ‘umai’ into ‘iya’
/perumai/ ‘greatness’ > /perija/ ‘great’
/putumai/ ‘newness’ > /putija/ ‘new’

Numerals

Tamil has a numeric prefix for each number from 1 to 9, which can be added to the
words for the powers of ten (ten, hundred, thousand, etc.) to form multiples of them.

For instance, the word for fifty, (aimpatu) is a combination of /(ai/ the prefix for five)
and (/pattu/ which is ten). The prefix for nine changes with respect to the succeeding base 10.
/to/+ the unvoiced consonant of the succeeding base 10 forms the prefix for nine.

For instance, 90 is to + ɳ (ɳ being the unvoiced version of ɳu), hence, toɳɳuɾu). onpatu
is the contraction of onru oli pattu. ie; one minus ten.

The word irupatu is the combination of ‘iru’ the adjectival form of rentu. and pattu
ennoru is ettu + nooru. en is the abbreviation for ettu.

/onɾu/ one
/renʈu/ two
/mu:nɾu/ three
/na:nku/ four
/aiṇtu/ five
/a: ɾu/ six
/e:Lu/ seven
/eʈʈu/ eight
/onpatu/ nine
/pattu/ ten
/patinonɾu/ eleven
/toɳɳuɾu/ ninety

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 /nu: ɾu/ hundred
/ɪrunu: ɾu/ Two hundred
/tola:jiram/ Nine hundred
/a:jiram/ thousand
/lacham/ lakh
/ko: ʈi/ crore

Adverb
Adverb is used to give more information about the verbor the action in a sentence. It
has also the property of describing an adjective or another adverb. It adds more information
about the place, time, manner, cause or degree of the verb.

Types of Adverbs: Adverbs are classified into different types according to their functions when
used in a sentence.

Adverb of Manner
It describes how an action is done.
/metuvaka pe:cu/ ‘Speak slowly’.
/cikirama:ka va:/ ‘Come quickly’
/vekama:ka eLutu/ ‘write fast’
In the above sentences the adverbs are
/metuvaka/ ‘slowly’.
/cikirama:ka/ ‘quickly’
/vekama:ka/ ‘fast’ describes the action.

Adverb of Frequency
Describes whenever the action is taken place.
/avan aʈikaʈi varuva:n/ ‘He comes often’
/avan eppoLutavatu varuva:n/ ‘He comes sometime’
/avan tinamum varuva:n/ ‘He comes daily’

In the above sentences the adverbs are

/aʈikaʈi / ‘often’
/eppoLutavatu/ ‘sometime’
/tinamum/ ‘He comes daily’

Adverb of Time
It refers ti the time.
/neɾɾu/ ‘yesterday’
/intɾu/ ‘today’
/naɭaikku/ ‘tomorrrow’

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 5. SYNTAX

The Syntax is the study of the principles and rules for constructing phrases and
sentences in natural languages and rules governing the order of combining the words to form
sentences in a language. A syntactic category is a set of words and/or phrases in a language
which share a significant number of common characteristics. The classification is based on
similar structure and sameness of distribution (the structural relationships between these
elements and other items in a larger grammatical structure), and not on meaning.

5.1 Word-Order

Word order typology is the study of the order of the syntactic constituents of a
language. The primary word order that is of interest is the relative ordering of subject, object,
and verb in a sentence. The Word order in Tamil is of SOV (subject-object-verb) pattern.

/ṇan avania pa:rte:n/ ‘I saw him’

/avan tinamum varuva:n/ ‘He comes daily’
/avan avalaippa:rtta:n/ ’He saw her’

5.2 Types of Sentences

A sentence is a grammatical unit that is composed of one or more clauses and makes
sense. It is a set of words expressing complete thought. The sentences in Tamil can can be
classified into three as follows:
i. Simple
ii. Complex
iii. Compound

5.2.1 Simple Sentence

The simple sentence consists of a subject and a predicate. It is a sentence structure that
contains one independent clause and no dependent clauses.

/ṇan avania pa:rte:n/ ‘I saw him’

/avan tinamum varuva:n/ ‘He comes daily’
/avan avalaippa:rtta:n/ ’He saw her’

5.2.2 Compound Sentence

A compound sentence is a sentence composed of two or more coordinate clauses. In

Tamil, the connectives used are
/um/ ‘and’
/a:kaiya:l/ ‘therfore’

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 /a:na:l/ ‘but’
/a:na:lum/ ‘still’
/allatu/ ‘or’
/e:ne:nil/ ‘for’
/maʈʈum/ ‘only’
/maʈʈumanɾu/ ‘not only’

/avanum avalum vanta:rkal/

“He and She came’

/vayiryu valikiratu a:kaiya:l vara ma:tten/

Stomach is paining therefore I will not come

/avan avalai vara connan a:na:l aval varavillai/

‘He asked her to come, but she did not come’

/na:n unnai po:ka connen a:nalum ni: poka villai/

“I asked you to go still you did not go’

/ni: po: allatu va:/

‘You go or come’

5.2.3 Complex Sentence

A sentence having one principal clause followed by one or more subordinate clause(s)
is known as a complex sentence. The independent clause can stand alone.

/avan antha puthakatai patitapin avalukku kotuppan/

‘After he finished reading the book, he will give that to her’

/avan nalamilamal irukirata:l aluvalakathukku pogavillai/

‘As he is unwell, he did not go to office’

/ma:navarkal nanra;ka patikirata;l te;rvil terva:rkal/

‘As the students study well they will pass the exam’

/ni: nara:ka patita:l tervil te:ruvay/

‘If you study well, you will pass the exam,

/avan vekamaka otium parisai pervillai/

‘Though he ran fast, he did not get prize’

91
 /na:n velaiyai mudikkum varai etaiyum sapita ma:tten/
‘untill I finish the work, I will not eat anything’

Sentences in Tamil can further be sub-classified into-

Statement Sentence

It is also known as Assertve sentence or Declaratve Sentence. It generally starts with a

noun or a pronoun and ends with a full stop.

/avan enakku nanpan/ ‘He is my friend’

/nan pustakam patikkiren/ ‘I read book’
/pu:nai otiyatu/ ‘Cat ran’

Interrogative Sentence

It contains a question and ends in a question mark.

/avarkal evvalu neram ka:tirukirarkal/
‘How long they are waiting?’

/neenkal celvatharkku tayara:/

‘Are you ready to go?’

/yar vantatu/
‘who came?’

/avan enna cona:n/

‘what did he say?

/itu evvalavu vilai/

‘How much is this?’

Imperative Sentence

The sentence which expresses Order, Command, advise or suggestion is called as

Imperative Sentence.
/pecuvatai nirutu/
‘stop speaking’

/ippadi natantu kola ve:ntam/

‘do not behave like this hereafter’

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Exclamatory Sentence

The sentence which express strong feeling such as sorrow, joy, surprise, contempt etc.,
is called an exclamatory sentence.

/aiyo en appa irantu vittar/

‘Alas , my father expired’

/o:, sirumi salaiyil viLuntu vittal /

‘ Oh, the girl has fallen on the road’

/itu evvalavu arumaiyana patam/

‘wow, what a lovely picture’

Negative Sentence

In Tamil the negative is expressed by distinct negative forms of the verb.

a. The negative Present is expressed by the nominative Singular of the Present Neuter
Participial followed by the negative marker ‘illai’
/na:n paʈikirathu illai/ ‘I am not learning’
/ni: paʈikirathu illai/ ‘you are not learning’
/avan paʈikirathu illai/ ‘He is not learning’

b. The negative Past is expressed by the infinitive followed by ‘illai’

/na:n paʈikavillai/ ‘I did not learn’
/ni: paʈikavillai/ ‘you did not learn’
/avan paʈikavillai/ ‘He did not learn’

c. The negative Future is expressed by the infinitive prefixed to the required person of
Tense ‘maʈʈu’ is the root verb.
/na:n paʈika maʈʈe:n/ ‘I will not study”
/ni: paʈika maʈʈa:ɪ/ ‘You will not study’
/avan paʈika maʈʈa:n/ ‘He will not study’

d. The negative Imperative singular is formed by adding ‘te’ to the third singular neuter
verb.
/po/ > /pokate:/ ‘you do not go’
/paʈi/ > /paʈiyate:/ ‘you do not study’

e. The negative Participial Nouns are formed by adding the pronominal suffixes to the
negative relative participle. They are used of past, present or future time.
/ceja:tavan/ ‘a man who does not do’
/ceja:tavaɭ/ ‘a woman who does not do’

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5.3 Structure of Phrases

A phrase is a syntactic structure that consists of more than one word but lacks
the subject-predicate organization of a clause. The phrasal sub-division in Urali is as follows-

5.3.1 Noun Phrase

A noun phrase or nominal phrase, (NP) combines with other words in a noun phrase,
optionally accompanied by modifiers like adjectives and intensifiers.
Examples:
/en peyar Narayan/ ‘My name is Narayan’
/nalla paiyankal/ ‘The good boys’
/un vitu:/ ‘Your (sg) house.’

5.3.2 Verb Phrase

A verb phrase (VP) is a phrase that has the syntactic role of a simple verb and is
composed of a main verb and auxiliary verbs or verbal particles related syntactically to the
verb. In generative grammar, a verb phrase is a syntactic unit that corresponds to the predicate.
In addition to the verb, this includes auxiliaries, objects, object complements, and other
constituents apart from the subject. These are inflected for person, number and gender. The
predicate may be a finite intransitive or transitive verb.
Examples:

/nan roti sapitten/ ‘I eat bread’

/avan putakam vasikiran/ ‘He reads a book’
/so:riyan kilakil uthikkum/ ‘The sun rises in the east’.

5.3.3 Adjectival Phrase

In an adjectival phrase, the adjective acts as the head of the phrase. An adjectival phrase
consists of an adjective followed by a noun, intensifiers or adverbs followed by adjective and
noun, thereby making the structure more complex.
Examples:
/nalla paiyan:/ ‘The good boy’
/unnutaiya rentu pustakam/ ‘Two books of yours’

5.3.4 Adverbial Phrase

An adverb is a lexical category whose members have the same syntactic distribution
and which modifies adjectives, other adverbs, verbs, or whole clauses or sentences. An adverb
phrase has an adverb that complements the verb.

94
 Examples
/satamaka pesathe:/ ‘Do not speak loudly’
/methuvaka pesu:/ ‘Speak slowly’

5.4 Passivization

Passivization indicates that the subject is the patient or recipient of the action denoted
by the verb. In Tamil the passivisation is expressed by prefixing an infinitive to any form of
‘paʈu’
/a ʈikapa ʈukiren/ ‘I am being beaten’
/panam koʈukkapaʈʈatu/ ‘Money is being given’

5.5 Negation

In Tamil the negative is expressed by distinct negative forms of the verb.

1. The negative Present is expressed by the nominative Singular of the Present Neuter
Participial followed by the negative marker ‘illai’
/na:n paʈikirathu illai/ ‘I am not learning’
/ni: paʈikirathu illai/ ‘you are not learning’
/avan paʈikirathu illai/ ‘He is not learning’

2. The negative Past is expressed by the infinitive followed by ‘illai’

/na:n paʈikavillai/ ‘I did not learn’
/ni: paʈikavillai/ ‘you did not learn’
/avan paʈikavillai/ ‘He did not learn’

3. The negative Future is expressed by the infinitive prefixed to the required person
of Tense ‘maʈʈu’ is the root verb.
/na:n paʈika maʈʈe:n/ ‘I will not study”
/ni: paʈika maʈʈa:ɪ/ ‘You will not study’
/avan paʈika maʈʈa:n/ ‘He will not study’

4. The negative Imperative singular is formed by adding ‘te’ to the third singular
neuter verb.
/po/ > /pokate:/ ‘you do not go’
/paʈi/ > /paʈiyate:/ ‘you do not study’

5. The negative Participial Nouns are formed by adding the pronominal suffixes to
the negative relative participle. They are used of past, present or future time.
/ceja:tavan/ ‘a man who does not do’
/ceja:tavaɭ/ ‘a woman who does not do’

95
5.6 Causativization

The causative sentences are formed by suffixing causative marker to the verb which
varies according to the person. Causative indicates that a subject cause someone or something
else to do or be something.
Examples:
/na:n kudʊrraiai ottukiren/ ‘I am making the horse run’

96
 6. TEXT

Two friends and a Bear

/renʈu ṇaɳparkaɭum karaʈi um/

Two friends, Ramu and Shyam walked through a forest.

/iru ṇaɳparkaɭ Ramu vum Shyam mum ka:ʈʈu vaLiya:ka ṇaʈaṇʈu po:y konʈu iruṇta:rkaɭ/

They promised each other that they would remain untied in case of any danger.
/eṇta a:pattu vaṇta:lum oɾɾumaiya:ka iruppo:m enɾu oruvarukkoruvar vuɾuti aɭittanar/

A bear came on their way.

/avakaɭ po:kum vaLiyil oru karaʈi vaṇtatu /

Ramu climbed a tree.

/ramu marattil e: ɾi viʈʈan/

Shyam did not know how to climb a tree.

/shyamukku maram eɾa teriya:tu /

He told his friend, “I donot know how to climb a tree, please help me.”
/enakku maram e:ɾa teriyatataa:l tayavu ceitu enakku vutavi cei enɾu avan tan ṇaɳpaniʈam
conna:n /

But Ramu did not respond.

/a:na:l ramu patil colla villai/

In fear and grief, shyam lay down on the ground breathless.

/payattoʈum naʈukkattoʈum shyam tarail mu:ccai piʈituk konʈu paʈutukonʈʈa:n/

The bear came near the man lying on the ground.

/ tarail paʈutukonʈʈavaniʈʈam karaʈi vaṇtatu /

It smelt his ears, and slowly left the place,

/ atu avan ka:tu pakkam mukarṇtu pa:rtu viʈʈu avviʈattai viʈʈu po:I viʈʈatu/

because bears do not touch dead creatures.

/ e:nenɾal karaʈi iɾaṇtu po:navaɾɾai ca:piʈʈaʈu /

After the bear left, Ramu came down from the tree and asked his friend Shyam,
/ karaʈi po:na pin ra:mu ki:Le iɾaki vaaṇtu avan ṇaɳpan shyamu vidam keʈʈan/

97
“Friend what did the bear tell you into your ears?”
/ ṇaɳpa: karaʈi un ka:til enna connatu /

Shyam replied,
/ shyam conna:n/

“The bear advised me not to trust a friend who leaves you in times of trouble to save himself,”
/a:patil utava:ta ṇaɳpanai ṇampakuʈa:tenɾu karaʈi connata:ka conna:n

saying this Shyam walked in own way,

/ippaʈi colli viʈʈu shyam tan vaLiye centʈu viʈʈa:n/

98
 7. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Agesthialingom, S. 1972. Verbal constraints on the use of indefinite pronouns in

Tamil. In Journal of Tamil Studies 2.30-36.

Amritavalli, R. 1984. Anaphorization in Dravidian. In C1EFL Working

Papers in Linguistics 1.1-31.

Anderson, S. R. and E. L. Keenan. 1985. Deixis. InT.Shope n (ed.), Language typology and
syntactic description Vol. I:I. Cambridge:
Cambridge Uni- versity Press.

Andronow, M. 1969. A standard grammar of modern and classical Tamil.

Madras: Ne wCentur y Boo k House.

Andronow, M. 1972. Notes o n the nature and origin of the adjective in

Tamil

S. Agesthiaulingam and S. V. Shanmugam (eds.), Third seminar on Dravidian linguistics.

Annamalai Nagar: Annamalai University.

Annamalai, E. 1968. The so-called adverbs in Tamil. Unpublished M.A.

disser- tation. Chicago: University of Chicago.

Annamalai, E. 1969. Adjectival clauses in Tamil. Unpublished Ph.D.

dissertation. Chicago: Universit y of Chicago

Balasubramniam, K. 1973. Postpositions reconsidered. In Aintavatu karuttaranku

ayvukoovai. Madras.

Bhat, D. N. S. 1978. Pronominalization. Poona: Deccan College.

Caldwell, R. 1856. A comparative grammar of the Dravidian or South

Indian family of languages. Reprinted in 1987 by Asian
Educational Services, Ne w Delhi.

Jeyakanthan, T. 1964. Unnaippoolaoruvan. Madurai: Mi:natci Puttaka

Nilaiyam. Keenan, E. L. 1976. Towards a universal
definitio n of subject. I n C. Li (ed.), Subject and topic.
New York: Academic Press.

Kothandararnan, R. 1984. Complers and complements in Tamil.

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Paramasivam, K. 1971. Verbal nouns in literary Tamil. In V.I. Subramoniam
(ed.), Proceedings of the first conference of Dravidian
linguists. Trivandrum: Dravidian Linguistics
Association.

Paramasivam, K. 1979. Effectivity and causativity in Tamil. Trivandrum:

Dravidian Linguistics Association.

Paramasivam, K. 1980. A neutralization in progress.

M. Israel, R. Shanmugam, and G. Vijayavenugopal (eds.), A festschrift for Professor M.

Shanmugam Pillai. Madurai: Muttu Patippakam

Paramasivam, K. 1981. Why the permissive is not permissive. In

M.Arunachalam (ed.), Proceedings of the Fifth
International Conference-Seminar of Tamil Studies
(Vol. 1). Madras: International Association of Tamil
Research.
Paramasivam, K. 1983. Ikkalat tamil marapu. Sivagangai: Annam.
Ramasamy, K. 1981. Correlative relative clauses in Tamil. In
S.Agesthialingom and N. Rajasekharan Nair (eds.),
Dravidian syntax. Annamalai Nagar: Annamalai
University.
Unpublished 380 References manuscript. Trivandrum: International School of Dravidian
Linguistics. Larkin, D. 1972. 'Enru' and 'enpatu' as
complement markers in Tamil. In S. Agesthialingom and
S. V. Shanmugam (eds.),

Third seminar on Dravidian linguistics. Annamalai Nagar: Annamalai University. Lindholm,

J. 1971.

Cleft sentences in Tamil and Malayalam. In V.I. Subra- moniam (ed.), Proceedings of the
first conference of Dravidian linguists. Trivandrum:
Dravidian Linguistics Association. Lindholm, J. 1975.

The conceptual basis of the Tamil adverbial participle. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation.
Chicago: University of Chicago

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100
 BADAGA
R. Nakkeerar &
Jhuma Ghosh
1. INTRODUCTION

The name Badaga is derived from the word “Badugaru” -an anglicized name standing for
the Northerner. The language spoken by the Badagas is referred to as ‘Badugu’. The Badaga
community mainly lives in the Niligiri hills which is identified as the juncture of three main
linguistic areas of the Dravidian language family, namely Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The
“blue mountains” or the Nilgiris forms a small district and henceforth this place has been
acknowledged as the homeland of the Badaga community along with two other communities,
namely, Toda and Kota. The Badaga community represents the agricultural community. Names of
many places in the Nilgiri district are derived from the Badugu language, e.g., Doddabetta,
Coonoor, Kotagiri, Gudaluru, Kunda and Othagae (Ooty), Kattabetu, Kodanadu, Aravenu etc. This
Badugas are also known as Padu/Paduga/Badu/Badaga by the local people. For this reason, may be
Baduga mother tongue is returned as Padu/Padaga/Paduga during Census enumeration. Thurston
(1909:6) pointed out that Badagas are believed to be descendants of the speech community of
Kannada language, who migrated to the Nilgiri during the thirteenth centuries owing to famine.
Due to the continuous disturbances from the Chieftains, they moved towards the South and settled
at Mysore. According to the Gazetteer 1891of the Nilgiri, some of them are believed to be settled
in Coorg. Thurston (1909:68-69) identifies that migration had taken place probably by 1602, as
some Catholic priests from the west coast noticed them getting settled on the south of the plateau.

i) Family Affiliation:

Badaga was traced in Grierson’s Linguistic Survey of India (LSI) in the year 1904. In LSI
Grierson identifies ‘Badaga’ as a dialect of Kannada language of Dravidian family of languages.
Here he gave descriptions. According to Grierson, ‘the Baḍagas are the most numerous of the tribes
inhabiting the Nilgiris. The name simply denoted them as the people from the north. The Baḍagas
of the Nilgiri Hills are often called by us ‘Burghers’. Their language is a dialect of Kanarese
(Grierson, 1906, Vol. IV, p. 401)”.

In Indian Census, Badaga is traced since pre-independence time. At the Census of 1891,
total 30,656 persons were returned as speaking Baḍaga. Badaga is a Dravidian language, comes
under the Southern sub group of Tamil-Kannada dividions. Of course, this is one of the mother
tongues grouped under Tamil-Kannada language and which is again grouped under Kannada
language in Indian Census. Linguistic classification of Badaga language in Dravidian family of
languages is presented below.

101
 Dravidian

Northern Central Southern

Tulu Tamil-Kannada

Kannada Tamil-Kokagu

Badaga Kannada

The Badagas are the largest aboriginal tribes of the Nilgiri district which was originally a
tribal land. The Badagas live in nearly 303 villages, called "Hattis", throughout the district. Badaga
language has no script. Some of the villages are Kukal, Kadanad, Ithalar, Nundala, Meluru, Hulical,
Athikaratty, Melkunda, Kilkundha, Ketti, Thanthanadu, Milidenu, Nandatti, Jakkanari, Aravenu,
Thinniyoor, Iyooru, Kannerimukku, Beragany, Pethuva, Jakkatha, Thuneri, etc. They are also called
as 'Gowdas of Nilgiris'. Badagas belong to Palaeolithic period. Neolithic cultures like Dolmens,
Cromlech, Cairns, Kistavens, and Burrows could be found in many Baduga villages, which are
considered as sacred by Badugas. Ashmound is a unique feature of Neolithic culture, which was in
practice with Badagas.
Badaga people distinguished their living place into four categories called Porangadu seeme,
Thothanadu (Thodanadu became Thothanadu) seeme, Merkunadu seeme, Kundae seeme, where
nearly 303 villages are there under these four seeme. The Community has four clans as, Badugar,
Kanakar, Haruvar, Athikari. Thoreyas may consider as sub clan. Badagas have no kolas.
There are many traditional stories associated with the origins of Badagas. It can be supposed that
the Badagas were once considered as a subjugated communal. They were a small group, which
migrated between 13th and 18th centuries. The people have been using a common speech variety
since they have to differentiate themselves from the other inhabitants of the community, containing
different social groups.

The Badagas were grouped into eighteen different sub castes (Grigg 1873). Hockings
(1980:75) classified the community into ten sub clans by collaborating the social groups on the
source of prevailing cultures. The Badagas, being an agricultural community, soon after migration,
cleared up the forests and bequeathed their lands to the indigenous tribes namely the Kota and the
Todas (Balakrishnan 1999: 9).

102
 There were about 311 Badaga villages (Hockings 1980:48-62). Hockings further states that
the clans share a conventional association of kinship alignments and occupational specializations
(Balakrishnan 1999:36). The Badaga community takes distinctive care of the social factors like
generations, sex and age. Badaga comprises of two subsystems of relations, precisely consanguineal
relations and affinial relations (Balakrishnan 1999: 36)

Badaga was the contact language between Badagas and other tribal people before Britishers
and other community people arrived at Nilgiris. Names of many places in the Nilgiri District are
derived from the Badaga, e.g., Doddabetta, Coonoor, Kotagiri, Gudaluru, Kunda and Othagae
(Ooty), Kattabetu, Kodanadu, Aravenu etc. Due to lack of script, Badaga people could not record
their history.

On 30th March 1814, William Keys came from plains of Coimbatore and reached Denad
(Kil Kotagiri). He met a group of Wodeas and had conversations with them and collected
information. At the time Nilgiris was a part of Mysore and every transcation was with Mysore.

William Keys further, by his obscure notice, simply grouped them into three - Badugas,
Wodeas, and Toreas, who migrated from Mysore and thus emerged the factual error. Thus, in 1897,
when Edgur Thurston wrote a book called "Anthropological Bulletin" and "Caste and Tribes of
South India (reprint) in 1909", he followed the field work done by William Keys ("A Topographical
Description of neelaghery Mountains in appendix of H.B. Griggs, 1880: XLVIII") and, Edgar
Thurston also gave awrong information that Badagas migrated from Mysore.

ii) Location
The field data was collected for this language during 2021-22 from the Udagamandalam
Taluk of the Nilgiri district of Tamil Nadu state.

iii) Speakers’ Strength:

In Indian census Badaga is traced since beginning. At the Census of 1891, total 30,656
persons were returned as speaking Baḍaga, among them 30,633 persons were from the Nilgiris, 21
from Coimbatore and 2 from Malabar was recorded. Whereas at in the Census of 1901, total Badaga
speakers were recorded as 34,229, among which 34,223 from the Niligiris and only 6 people were
recorded from Coimbatore. Since beginning, there are around 320 Badaga hamlets in three taluks,
Ooty, Coonoor and Kotagiri in the Nilgiris. The major distribution of Badaga language in Inida is
furnished below as per the lates published Census information, i.e. 2011.

103
 TOTAL RURAL URBAN
AREA NAME Person Male Female Person Male Female Person Male Female
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
INDIA 1,33,550 63,780 69,770 81,090 38,645 42,445 52,460 25,135 27,325
Jammu &
Kashmir 3 3 0 3 3 0 0 0 0
Uttarakhand 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
Haryana 4 2 2 0 0 0 4 2 2
Nct Of Delhi 6 3 3 0 0 0 6 3 3
Rajasthan 15 7 8 9 4 5 6 3 3
Uttar Pradesh 3 1 2 0 0 0 3 1 2
Bihar 14 6 8 5 0 5 9 6 3
Assam 3 2 1 3 2 1 0 0 0
West Bengal 11 7 4 8 5 3 3 2 1
Chhattisgarh 3 2 1 0 0 0 3 2 1
Madhya Pradesh 4 2 2 0 0 0 4 2 2
Gujarat 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
Maharashtra 50 22 28 0 0 0 50 22 28
Andhra Pradesh 662 313 349 626 300 326 36 13 23
Karnataka 619 315 304 42 24 18 577 291 286
Goa 7 6 1 0 0 0 7 6 1
Kerala 20 7 13 1 0 1 19 7 12
Tamil Nadu 1,32,102 63,073 69,029 80,392 38,306 42,086 51,710 24,767 26,943
Puducherry 18 6 12 0 0 0 18 6 12
Andaman &
Nicobar Islands 4 1 3 0 0 0 4 1 3

The major distribution of Badaga language in Tamil Nadu is furnished below as per the
latest published Census information, i.e. 2011.

104
iv) Bilingualism
Language is a basic factor for considering tribal status. Most of the tribes in India are

State/Districts Total Rural Urban

Person Male Female Person Male Femal Person Male Female
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
TAMIL NADU 1,32,102 63,073 69,029 80,392 38,306 42,086 51,710 24,767 26,943
The Nilgiris 1,22,441 58,228 64,213 78,792 37,522 41,270 43,649 20,706 22,943
Coimbatore 6,876 3,450 3,426 499 251 248 6,377 3,199 3178
Tiruppur 714 363 351 61 30 31 653 333 320
Erode 611 283 328 427 204 223 184 79 105
Tiruchirappalli 448 222 226 389 194 195 59 28 31
Chennai 393 211 182 0 0 0 393 211 182
Thiruvallur 137 69 68 46 21 25 91 48 43
Kancheepuram 121 60 61 7 3 4 114 57 57
Karur 77 41 36 57 27 30 20 14 6
Krishnagiri 71 35 36 24 9 15 47 26 21
Namakkal 58 27 31 37 19 18 21 8 13
Salem 37 18 19 0 0 0 37 18 19
Theni 28 18 10 21 12 9 7 6 1
Dindigul 19 8 11 9 4 5 10 4 6
Vellore 17 10 7 8 3 5 9 7 2
Tiruvannamalai 15 9 6 6 3 3 9 6 3
Madurai 11 7 4 5 3 2 6 4 2
Dharmapuri 8 4 4 0 0 0 8 4 4
Nagapattinam 4 2 2 0 0 0 4 2 2
Kanniyakumari 4 3 1 0 0 0 4 3 1
Sivaganga 3 0 3 0 0 0 3 0 3
Thoothukkudi 3 2 1 0 0 0 3 2 1
Cuddalore 2 2 0 0 0 0 2 2 0
Virudhunagar 2 1 1 2 1 1 0 0 0
Viluppuram 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0
Ramanathapuram 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0
bilinguals. But as an exception to this, Badagas were monolinguals comparatively for a longer
period. Once lingua franca of the Nilgiris plateau was Badaga and there was no major language
within their reach. However, bilingualism is seen with the present generation.

105
v) Badaga as a Language and Socio-linguistic informations
Badagas have a distinctive language of their own and it belongs to the Dravidian family of
languages. The Badaga language is a dominant spoken language of the Nilgiri hills of Tamil Nadu.
Although Badaga language is considered as uncultivated because of its lack of writing system and
literature, it fully serves the purpose of Badagas. Study of the Badaga language is important from
the point of view of the culture, habits and social attitudes of the Badagas. In Tamil Nadu, next to
Tamils, Badagas are the second largest linguistic group who speak indigenous language of the state.
Badagas are unadulterated from outside influence for a long period. They retain many old and
distinct features. For this reason, only Badaga preserves many words that are archaic in Dravidian
languages. A careful study of the Badaga words reveals to us much of the life and thought of the
ancient Badagas.

vi) Review of Literature

Badaga have no written literature. According to the informants, the elder generations of this
community use some oral short stories for the younger generations. But now a days they are trying
to develop their own script and grammar for their language so that their language can retrived and
documented. They are using Tamil script for their writing purpose. There are many works on
Badaga people and their language. Some of them are describe in the following.
The Linguistic Survey of India (1966) by Grierson plaches Badaga as a dialect of Kannada
language. In 1971, Nigam classifies Badaga as a mother tongue, which were returned from Tamil
Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka in 1961 Census.

106
 It is evident that Badagas were traced in Tolka:ppiyam (3rd century B.C. grammatical
treatise). There, the term Vaṭuku was refered to as region of the north of the then Tamil country as
well as its language. For instance
‘vaṭaticai maruNkiṉ vaṭuku varampa:ka
In the northern side Vadugu is the border’.
̶ (Tolka:ppiyam - commentary-Porul-650)
Kannatam Vatuku kalinɡkam Telinkam

(Lanɡuaɡes of ) Kannadam,Vaduɡu,Kalinkam and Telinkam

(Tolka:ppiyam - commentary-Porul-650)

Vatuku is referred to as a lanɡuaɡe spoken in a country situated in the Northern side of the
Tamil Speakinɡ land. And also the twelve countries namely, Palanti:pam, Kollam, Ku:pakam,
Cinkalam, Kannatam, Vatukam, KaliNkam, TeliNkam, KoNkanam, Tuluvam, Kutakam,
Kunrakam (Teyvaschilaiyar: commentators of Tolka:ppiyam 3rd century ɡrammatical Treatise) .

The border countries have different lanɡuaɡes of the Centamil nilam meaninɡ pure Tamil
land. From this time forth Vatukam the country of the speech community of the Vatuku lanɡuaɡe
conceivably oriɡinated. The drop of the initial consonant /ʋ/ sound to /b/ in Kannada has been
witnessed from the 10th century onwards. Thus this chanɡe was supposed to be the reason behind
the chanɡe of the words Vatukur, Vatukar, Baduɡu, Baduɡaru and concurrently Badaɡa
subsequently in the consecutive year’s. Henceforth the name Badaɡa as the name of the lanɡuaɡe
came into presence.

G.A. Grierson (1906) in his Linguistic Survey of India, Munda and Dravidian Languages,
Vol. IV. identifies Badaga as a dialect of Kanarese. Badaga as a dialect of Kannada language, is
studied by E. Thurston in his book Castes and Tribes of Southern India published in the year 1909.

M.B. Emeneau in his book “The South Dravidian Languages”, published in the year 1967
has brought out the description of the Badaga language and the community.

Dr. R. Balakrishnan (1999) has brought out the Description, Grammar and Vocabulary of
Badaga in his book on “Badaga - A Dravidian Language”. He has analysed the language
systematically and tried to identify all the phonological, morphological and syntactic features of the
language. The features were highlighted in the form of lessons.

vii) Present Study

The present grammatical description of the Badaga has been developed from the collected
data by the in-house linguist of Language Division in the year 2021-22 for the present LSI volume
for Tamil Nadu.

Apart from this study, during the Mother Tongue Survey of India Project (MTSI) audio-
visual linguistic data of four samples of Badaga had been collected from the Srimadurai and

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Mudumalai village of Gudalur taluk of the Nilgiris of Tamil Nadu, by officials of Directorate of
Census Operation of Tamil Nadu, Office of the Registrar General, India during 2015. Name of the
informants and interpreters are Smt. N. Priya, Smt. K.G. Mini, Shri K.V. Vishvanathan, Shri Ashok,
Smt. Shushila, Smt. Geeta and Smt. Shri Kumari.
All the data had been transcribed and analysed by linguistic Resource Persons namely Smt.
K. Suba, Shri G. Myilsamy and Dr. V. Alagumuthu. The analysed reports had been consolidated
by Prof. C. Sivashanmugam, Bharathiar University.

The data has been collected from Sri P. Prakash, age is 49 years and again this data was
verified by another male person named G. Anand. Both are residing at the Udagamandalam taluk
of Nilgiri district.

The present study is a humble attempt to present the detailed phonological, morphological
and syntactical features of Badaga based on the field data collected from in and around
Udagamandalam in Nilgiris district of Tamil Nadu during December 2021. The name of the
Informants are Dr Raghupathi, Dr. Savaraj and Sri Mahalingam.

Based on these analysed reports of four samples and a consolidated report and the collected
information in the field survey by the in-house linguist of Language Division, the linguistic
description of the Badaga is presented here in the following chapters.

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 2. PHONOLOGY

Phonology is a branch of linguistics which studies the sound system of languages. The
phoneme inventory of Badaga shows the distinctive sound units occurring in the Badaga speech.
The phonological system of Badaga is presented below based on the data collected from the
informant.

A) PHONEMIC INVENTORY

According to the available data, the phonological description of Badaga may be posited in
the following way.

i) Segmental phoneme:
The language has 34 segmental phonemes out of which 9 are vowels and 25 are consonantal
phonemes.

Segmental vowel phoneme

Phonetically vowels are the sounds articulated without a complete closure in the mouth or
a degree of narrowing which would produce audible friction. The segmental vowel phonemes of
Badaga are presented below.

VOWEL CHART
Front Central Back
Close i y ɨ u
Near close ʊ
Close mid e o
Mid ə
Open mid ɛ ɔ
Near open
Open a

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Segmental consonant phoneme
Phonetically they are sounds made by a closure or narrowing in the vocal tracts so that the
air flow is either completely blocked or so restricted that audible friction is produce. The segmental
consonant phonemes in Badaga are presented below.

CONSONANT CHART

BilabialLabio Dental Alveolar Post Palato Palatal Velar Glottal

Dental AlveolarRetroflex
Alveolar

Plosive p b t d ʈ ɖ k ɡ
Nasal m n ɳ ɲ ŋ
Trill r ɽ
Tap
Fricative f ɵ s ʃ ɦ
Affricate ʧ ʤ

Approximant ʋ j
Lateral l ɭ
Approximant

Note: Where symbols appear in pairs, the right one represents a voiced consonant and the left one
represents a voiceless consonant.

ii) Suprasegmental phoneme

The suprasegmental phonemes of the language are described with the features such as length
and nasalisation

Length
A term used in Phonetics to refer to the physical duration of a sound or utterance, and In
Phonology length refers to the relative durations of sounds and syllables when these are
linguistically contrastive; also referred to as quantity. Sometimes the term is restricted to
phonological contexts. The phonetic dimension being referred to as ‘duration’. Phonologically long
and short values are conventionally recognized, for both Vowels and Consonants. Languages often
have one degree of phonological length, and may have more than one.

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 /a:/ /na:/ ‘I’
/i:/ /si:mɛ/ ‘weather’
/e:/ /e:nə/ ‘what’
/o:/ /no:ɖi/ ‘towards’
/u:/ /tu:ʃi/ ‘dust’
/ɛ:/ /bɛ:ɽə/ ‘other’
/ə:/ /kaʈʈə:/ ‘till’

Nasalisation

Nasalisation Nasalization is a way of pronouncing sounds characterized by resonance

produced through the nose in course of which the velum is lowered, so that some air escapes through
the nose during the production of the sound by the mouth. In Badaga nasalisation occurs with or
without the influence of nasal consonants.

The nasalised consonants are ñ, m̃, ŋ̃, ɲ̃ and nasalised vowels /ũ/, /ã/, / /, /õ/, / /, / /, /ĩ/
/ñ/,/ɲ̃/

/ñ/ /ɵɡʊñɛ/ ‘bug’

/m̃/ /m̃uɖu/ ‘shoulder’
/ŋ̃/ /maŋ̃ɡəʃɔ:tu/ ‘to fade’
/ɲ̃/ /aɲ̃cɔ:tu/ ‘to fear’
/ã/ /nãttə/ ‘snail’
/ / /bɛkk / ‘feather’
/ĩ/ /sĩbbatu/ ‘to sneeze’
/ũ/ /ɛɵũ/ ‘bull’
/õ/ /õɽəbi:ppatu/ ‘to freeze’

B) PHONEMIC CONTRASTS

Contrasts in vowels

/a/ ~ /o:/ /amə:/ ‘he‘ - /o:mə:/ ‘ajwain’

/o/ ~ /e/ /olə/ ‘oven’ - /elə/ ‘leaf’
/i/ ~ /a/ /itu/ ‘this’ - /atu/ ‘that’
/e/ ~ /a/ /eɭɭi/ ‘where’ - /aɭɭi/ ‘there’
/u:/ ~ /o/ /ku:ʃʊ/ ‘child’ - /koʃʊ/ ‘Mosquito’
/a:/ ~ /i/ /na:/ ‘I’ - /ni/ ‘you’
/a:/ ~ /e/ /a:lə/ ‘but’ - /elə/ ‘leaf’

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The contrasts in the consonants are represented below
/s/ ~ /m/ /sa:ʋ/ ‘death’ - /ma:ʋə/ ‘flour’
/ʈ/ ~ /t/ /sui/ ‘hammer’ - /suʈʈi/ ‘dry ginger’
/k/ ~ /s/ /ka:ʋi/ ‘brown’ - /sa:ʋi/ ‘key’
/b/ ~ /s/ /ba:ʋi/ ‘well’ - /sa:ʋi/ ‘key’
/b/ ~ /k/ /ba:ʋi/ ‘well’ - /ka:ʋi/ ‘brown’
/t/ ~ /l/ /etə/ ‘courage’ - /elə/ ‘leaf’
/ʋ/ ~ /k/ /ʋaʈʈə:/ ‘circle’ - /kaʈʈə:/ ‘square’
/ʋ/ ~ /m/ /aʋə:/ ‘she’ - /amə:/ ‘his’
/m/ ~ /b/ /m :/ ‘rain’ - /bɛ:/ ’dal’
/m/ ~ /b/ /maɵi/ ‘rain’ - /kaɵi/ ‘knife’

D) Allophonic Distribution

An allophone is a phonetic variant of a phoneme in a particular language. Although a

phoneme’s allophones are all alternative pronunciation for a phoneme, the specific allophone
selected in a given situation is often predictable. From the data allophonic variation in Badaga.

Allophonic Distribution:

An allophone is a phonetic variant of a phoneme in a particular language. Although a

phoneme’s allophones are all alternative pronunciation for a phoneme, the specific allophone
selected in a given situation is often predictable. The data show the following allophonic variation
–
/k/ (Voiceless velar stop) has four allophones [kʰ], [ɡʰ], [ɡ]

/kũ/ ‘cooked rice’ /kaʃikilɔ/ ‘broom’ ----

/kʰ/ Aspirated phoneme /kʰ/ (voiceless velar stop) sound occurs only in the word initial position.

/khɛnɖəɡɔ:ji/ ‘hen’ ----------

/ɡʰ/ Aspirated phoneme [ɡʰ] (voiced velar stop) sound occurs only in the word initial position.

/ɡhiɽɔ:/ ‘storm’ ---- ----------

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/ɡ/ Phoneme [ɡ] (voiced velar stop) sound occurs in the word initial, medial and final position.
/ɡʊɖi/ ‘temple’ /ʋoɡə/ ‘smoke’

/s/ (Voiceless alveolar fricative) has three allophones [ʧ], [ʤ] and [ʃ].

/saɳɖə/ ‘war’ /ɡɛsuru/ ‘mud’

/ʤ/ Phoneme [ʤ] (voiced palatoalveolar affricate) sound occurs in the word initial, medial and final
position.

/ʤə:li/ ‘strainer’ /ra:ʤa:/ ‘king’

/ʃ/ Phoneme [ʃ] (voiceless palato-alveolar fricative) sound occurs only in the word initial and
medial position.

/ʃɛɡə/ ‘heat’ /arəʃə:/ ‘health’

/ʈ/ (Voiceless retroflex stop) has one allophone [ɖ]

/ʈi/ ‘tea’ /koʈi/ ‘flag’ ---

/ɖ/ Phoneme [ɖ] (voiced retroflex stop) sound occurs in the word medial position, but less frequently
in word intial positions.

--- /koɖəɭi/ ‘axe’ ---

/n/ (Voiced alveolar nasal) has two allophones [ɳ] and [ñ].

/ɳ/ Phoneme /ɳ/ (voiced retroflex nasal) sound occurs only in the word medial position.

--- /boɳɖɛ:t/ ‘to use’ ---

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/ñ/ Phoneme [ñ] (voiced alveolar nasal) sound occurs only in the word medial position.

/ña:ʃʊʋə:/ ‘barber’ /jɛ:ñʊ/ ‘honey’ ---

D) Phonemic description and Distribution of phonemes:

a) Description and distribution of vowel phonemes

/i/ High front Vowel

/i:/ High front long vowel

/e/ Mid high front vowel

/e:/ Mid high long front vowel

/ɛ/ Near low front vowel

/ǝ/ Mid Low central vowel

/a/ Low front vowel

/a:/ Low front long vowel

/ɔ/ Mid low back vowel

/o/ Mid high back vowel

/o:/ Mid high long back vowel

/u/ High back vowel

/ʊ/ High nerar back vowel

Distribution of the vowel phonemes in Badaga langaue is as follows:

Vowel Initial Medial Final

/i/ /ijarkkə/ ‘nature’ /kiʧʧʊ/ ‘fire’ /etiroli/ ‘echo’

/iɭuku:ʈʊ/ ‘skeleton’ /tiŋɡʊʋa/ ‘moon’ /da:ri/ ‘road’
/intiʃʊ/ ‘hinge’ /ɵiɡʊñɛ/ ‘bug’ /tu:ʃi/ ‘dust’
/e/ /etiroli/ ‘echo’ /keɳɳi/ ‘cheek’ ---
/ebba:tɛ/ ‘cockroach’ /netti/ ‘forehead’
/etə/ ‘heart’ /u:elə/ ‘petal’

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/a/ /aɭɭə:/ ‘flood’ /nari/ ‘fox’ /so:la/ ‘forest’
/aʈʈənə/ ‘ground’ /nari/ ‘jackal’ /pariʧʧa/ ‘Examination’
/aɭə/ ‘wave’ /paʧʧə/ ‘green’ /peruma/ ‘pride’
/u/ /uʃərɔ:ʈə/ ‘alive’ /tuɖi/ ‘lip’ /na:lu/ ‘shade’
/uɡũ/ ‘saliva’ /m̃uɖɔ/ ‘shoulder’ /ma:riɭu/ ‘rib’
/uɽi/ ‘sweat’ /tuɭəsi/ ‘tulsi’ /so:mbu/ ‘aniseed
(saunf)’
/o/ /oləɡa:/ ‘world /doɖɖa:la/ ‘high tide’ /kiɖo/ ‘plant’
/oddʊ/ ‘sun /kotti/ ‘cat’ /edo/ ‘which’
/oʈʈəɡa:/ ‘camel /ɵoɳɖi/ ‘prostitute’
/ə/ --- /ʋəri/ ‘tax’ /ʃɛɡə/ ‘heat’
/ʋaʈəkkʊ/ ‘north’ /ijarkkə/ ‘nature’
/eñəɡə:/ ‘to me’ /aɭə/ ‘wave’
/ɛ/ /ɛmmɛ/ ‘buffalo’ /bɛɳɖʊ/ ‘butterfly’ /ɵiɡʊñɛ/ ‘bug’
/ɛɵũ/ ‘bull’ /mɛɡə:/ ‘deer /ɛmmɛ/ ‘buffalo’
/ɛñə:/ ‘dead body’ /ʤɛjilʊ/ ‘prison’ /ñɛ/ ‘dog’
/ʊ/ /ʊji/ ‘tamarind’ /ɡʊɖi/ ‘temple’ /basəmbʊ/ ‘neem’
/ʃʊrəm/ ‘tune’ /su:ʈʊ/ ‘hot’
/naɖʊʋə/ ‘middle’ /kɛbbʊ/ ‘red’

/ɔ/ --- /bɔkkʊ/ ‘book’ /siɡɡu/ ‘shame’

/i:ʃɔtu/ ‘to get’ /nətt rɔ/ ‘blood’
/oɽa:ʃbʊɖɔtu/ ‘to release’ /kaɖəʃɔ/ ‘calf’

b) Description and distribution of consonantal phonemes

/p/ Voiceless unaspirated Bilabial stop.

/b/ Voiced unaspirated Bilabial stop.

/t/ Voiceless unaspirated Dental stop.

/d/ Voiced unaspirated Dental stop.

/ʧ/ Voiceless unaspirated Palatal affricate.

/ʤ/ Voiced unaspirated Palatal affricate.

/ʈ/ Voiceless usnaspirated Retroflex stop.

/ɖ/ Voiced unaspirated Retroflex stop

/k/ Voiceless unaspirated Velar stop

/g/ Voiced unaspirated Velar stop.

/m/ Voiced Bilabial Nasal

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 /n/ Voiced Alveolar Nasal

/ŋ/ Voiced Velar Nasal

/ɳ/ Voiced retroflex Nasal

/ɲ/ Voiced palatal Nasal

/s/ Voiceless alveolar fricative

/ʃ/ Voiceless Palatal fricative

/h/ Voieless Glotal Fricative

/r/ Voiced Alveolar Trill

/ɽ/ Voiced Retroflex Tap/Flap

/ʋ/ Voiced Dental approximant

/j/ Voiced Palatal approximant

/l/ Voiced Alveolar Lateral approximant

/ɭ/ Voiced palatal Lateral approximant

Distribution of the consonantal phonemes in Badaga language are as follows:

Consonant Initial Medial Final

/p/ /paɖə:/ ‘picture’ /a:spittəri/ ‘hospital’ ---
/pillikarə/ ‘sorcerer’ /uppu/ ‘salt’
/paʧʧə/ ‘green’ /doɖəpɛʈʈu/ ‘mountain’
/b/ /ba:sə/ ‘language’ /dənəba:ʈu/ ‘beef’ ---
/bɛ:di/ ‘diarrhoea’ /sembu/ ‘copper’
/ba:ʋʊ/ ‘swelling’ /so:mbu/ ‘aniseed’
/t/ /təʈʈʊ/ ‘plate’ /otə/ ‘ceiling’ ---
/tɛnə/ ‘verandah’ /intiʃʊ/ ‘hinge’
/ta:mərə/ ‘lotus’ /etə/ ‘courage’
/d/ /duppa:/ ‘ghee’ /bu:di/ ‘Ash’ ---
/du:kkə:/ ‘balance/scale’ /saɖə/ ‘noise’
/de:ʃə:/ ‘country’
/ʈ/ /ʈikiʈʈʊ/ ‘ticket’ /daʋʈu/ ‘dhenki ---
/ʈi/ ‘tea’ (husk)’

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/ɖ/ --- /kaɖuɡʊ/ ‘mustard ---
/koɖəɭi/ ‘axe’
/kiɖo/ ‘plant’
/kɔɖə/ ‘umbrella’
/koɖi/ ‘flag’
/k/ /kũ/ ‘cooked rice’ /saʃikilɔ/ ‘broom’ ---
/ka:ppi/ ‘coffee’ /seŋkallʊ/ ‘brick’
/katti/ ‘knife’ /ʋakubətu/ ‘division’
/ɡ/ /ɡɛsuru/ ‘mud’ /oləɡa:/ ‘world’ ---
/ɡəuʋə:ʈʊʋə:/ ‘dear’ /ʋoɡə/ ‘smoke’
/ɡʊɖi/ ‘temple’ /paɡəʈ(schwa)/ ‘dice’
/ɦ/ /ɦa:ɭʊ/ ‘milk’ /aɲciɦɛttu:tu/ ‘heart’ ---
/ɦəɳɳʊ/ ‘Fruit’
/ɦərʧinə:/ ‘haldi
(turmeric)’
/m/ /moʃurʊ/ ‘curd’ /bu:mi/ ‘land’ /ʃʊrəm/ ‘tune’
/mi:nʊ/ ‘fish’ /o:mə:/ ‘ajwain’
/ma:ʋ/ ‘flour’ /si:mɛ/ ‘weather’
/n/ /nɛllʊ/ ‘paddy’ /mənə/ ‘house’ ---
/na:ɖəŋɡɛ/ ‘drama’ /tɛnə/ ‘verandah’
/nɛlə:/ ‘floor’ /da:nʃʊ/ ‘dance’
/inki/ ‘ink’
/ŋ/ --- /uŋɡərə:/ ‘ring’ ---
/seŋkallʊ/ ‘brick’
/ɳ/ --- /ʋɛɳɖəka:/ ‘lady’s ---
finger’
/aɳiɡɛ/ ‘comb’
/a:ɳi/ ‘nail’
/ɲ/ /ɲə:jə:/ ‘judgement’ /iɲci/ ‘ginger’ ---
/ɲa:jəɛ:ɡɔ:tu/ ‘to judge’ /nɔ:ɲca:/ ‘by
weight’
/kaɲcə/ ‘wheat’
/s/ /so:la/ ‘forest’ /asəɡə:/ ‘washer- ---
/saɳɖə/ ‘war’ man’
/saʈʈə:/ ‘law’ /ba:sə/ ‘language’
/ɡɛsuru/ ‘mud’
/ʃ/ /ʃɛɡə/ ‘heat’ /nərʃʊ/ ‘nurse’ ---
/ʃʊrəm/ ‘tune’ /ruʃi/ ‘taste’
/ʃuɳɳə:/ ‘lime’ /moʃurʊ/ ‘curd’
/ʧ/ /ʧɛʈə/ ‘ladle’ /sa:ʈʧi/ ‘witness’

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 /ʧiɡʊñɛ/ ‘bug’ /kiʧukɛʈəso:tu/ ‘to
/ʧaʈʈʊkatti/ ‘sister-in-law’ extinguish’
/uɳ̃iʧɔ:tu/ ‘to hide’
/ʤ/ /ʤə:li/ ‘strainer’ /ro:ʤa:/ ‘golap ---
/ʤa:kɛʈʈʊ/ ‘blouse’ (rose)’
/ʤi:rəŋɡə/ ‘cuminseed’ /nɛʤə:/ ‘truth’
/ra:ʤa:/ ‘king’
/r/ /ruʃi/ ‘taste’ /bari/ ‘roof’ ---
/rəilʊ/ ‘train’ /mundri/ ‘cashew’
/ra:ɳi/ ‘queen’ /karəɳɖi/ ‘spoon’
/ɽ/ --- /moɽə:/ ‘tree’ ---
/mu:ɽʊ/ ‘three’
/ɡɔɽʊʋɔu/ ‘cold‘
/l/ --- /oləɡa:/ ‘world’ ---
/kolusu/ ‘anklet’
/elə/ ‘leaf’
/ɭ/ --- /ki:ɭʊ/ ‘bolt’ ---
/koɖəɭi/ ‘axe’
/oɭə:/ ‘field’
/ʋ/ /ʋoɡə/ ‘smoke‘ /koʋili/ ‘cap’ /sa:ʋ/ ‘death’
/ʋəlla:rə/ ‘brahmi’ /sa:ʋi/ ‘key’ /ma:ʋ/ ‘flour’
/ʋɛ:ɳɖɔtʊ/ ‘worship’ /aʋərə/ ‘beans’ /ʤotɛɡɛɽəʋ/ ‘pair of
shoes’
/j/ /jɛ:ñʊ/ ‘honey’ /uji/ ‘chisel’ ----
/kĩjə/ ‘under’
/a:jiʋta/ ‘weapon’

v) Consonant clusters

A consonant cluster is a group of consonants which have no intervening vowel. The

consonant clusters can be a combination of two identical as well as two non-identical consonants
that generally occur in the medial position of a word. The occurrence of the consonant clusters is
most frequently in the word initial and medial position.

Initial consonant clusters

-ɡɽ- /ɡɽəkɔbbɔ:mə/ ‘cobbler’

-ɡr- /ɡriʈə/ ‘crown’
-br /brijə:ɳi elə/ ‘bel (sriphal)’
-pr- /prə:tiɛɡʊʋətu/ ‘to complain’

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Medial Consonant Clusters

The medial consonant cluster is divided into two groups. They are given below.
a) Geminated /or/ identical consonant clusters
b) Non-geminated /or/ Non-identical consonant clusters

a) Geminated /or/ identical consonant clusters

/kk/ /oɽəkkʊtu/ ‘morning’
/ɡɡ/ /siɡɡu/ ‘insult’
/ʧʧ/ /ariʧʧinə:/ ‘yellow’
/bb/ /kɛbbʊ/ ‘red’
/pp/ /paʈippʊ/ ‘education’
/ɳɳ/ /kaɳɳə:ʈi/ ‘mirror’
/nn/ /ñɛnnɛ:/ ‘yesterday’
/mm/ /ɛmmɛ/ ‘buffalo’
/tt/ /sattə/ ‘dead’
/dd/ /ɛddũ/ ‘bull’
/ʈʈ/ /oʈʈəɡa:/ ‘camel’
/ɖɖ/ /aɖɖə/ ‘across’
/ll/ /ɡollə/ ‘beggar’
/ɭɭ/ /bɛɭɭə/ ‘white’
/ʋʋ/ /uʋʋətu/ ‘to hit’
/ʤʤ/ /uʤʤɔ:tu/ ‘to strike’

b) Non-Geminated /or/ Non-identical consonant clusters

/mb/ /dumba:/ ‘full’

/mɦ/ /mamɦɛɳɳʊ/ ‘son’s daughter’
/nb/ /tinbatu/ ‘ to eat’
/ɽk/ /mɛ:ɽkʊ/ ‘west’
/ʃʈ/ /kaʃʈəʋa:tə:/ ‘hard’
/ɳɖ/ /du:ɳɖɔ:tu/ ‘to tempt’
/ʈʧ/ /sa:ʈʧi/ ‘witness’
/ʈɽ/ /nanʈɽi e:ɡɔ:tu/ ‘to thank’
/lk/ /maɳəlka:ʈʊ/ ‘desert’
/rp/ /ni:rpani/ ‘dew’
/rl/ /ba:rli/ ‘barley’

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 /rʧ/ /ɦərʧinə:/ ‘haldi’
/rn/ /etirno:tɔ:tu/ ‘to expect’
/ɽt/ /aɽtə ma:ʈɔ:tu/ ‘to understand’
/ɲc/ /maɲcʊ/ ‘cloud’
/ɳɖ/ /aɖədu:ɳɖiibbatu/ ‘to lie down’
/ɳb/ /nɛ:rukku nɛ:r ka:ɳbatu/ ‘to meet’
/nk/ /mi:nkotti/ ‘Kingfisher’
/nd/ /munda:ʈɛ/ ‘already’
/nt/ /ontumaɳisa:ma:/ ‘hour’
/sb/ /ɡa:jiʋɔɽə:sbuʈətu/ ‘fart’
/ŋɡ/ /ʃiŋɡə:/ ‘lion’
/ŋk/ /muŋka:lʊ/ ‘toe’
/ʃñ/ /suʃñə:/ ‘by temperature’
/ʃt/ /ta:ʃti ma:ʈɔ:tu/ ‘to increase’
/ʃʈ/ /do:ʃiporuɭʊnaʃʈə:ppatu/ ‘to lose’
/ʈʤ/ /ʤəʈʤʊ/ ‘judge’
/ʋk/ /ɡɔɽʊʋka:la:/ ‘winter’
/ʋk/ /ɡə:ʋkoʈəɛʈə/ ‘altar’
/ʋʈ/ /daʋʈu/ ‘dhenki (husk)’
/ɭʋ/ /kɛɭʋike:ppatu/ ‘to ask’
Tri-Consonental Clusters

/-ɽʧʧ-/ /do:ɽʧʧɔ:tu/ ‘to show’

/-ɽkk -/ /teɽkku/ ‘south’
/-rtt-/ /sa:ma:rtti/ ‘smart
/-ʃtt-/ /oʃ(thita sound)ʊ/ ‘fresh’

E) Diphthongs
It refers to a vowel where there is a single noticeable change in quality during a
syllable. The dipthongs diphthongs in this language are presented below.

Dipthongs Initial Medial Final

au /auῦə:lmi:nʊ/ /bala auʋɛ/ ‘step mother’ /doɳə doɳə:embau/
‘pomfret’ ‘ to whisper’
/auʋə:appa:/

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 ‘parents’
ai /paittijəka:ra/ ‘insanity’ /mɔñəkai/ ‘elbow’
--- /sa:lai:ʃɔ:tu/ ‘to borrow’ /mɔñəkai/ ‘fist’
/kaim / ‘bitter’
əo: --- /maɳɖəo:ʈʊ/ ‘skull ---
/barəo:bba:/ ‘to climb’
/ʋəɳɖijəo:bbatu/ ‘to travel’
/ʈəipa:jiɖʊ/ ‘typhoid’ ---
əi ---
/səiñʊ/ ‘necklace’
/ɡəuʋə:ʈʊʋə:/ ‘dear’ ---
əu --- /baɽəullʊ/ ‘hay’
/ɡəuʋə:ʈʊʋə:/ ‘dear’
/doɳə doɳə:embau/ --
ə:e ---
‘to whisper’
/nanʈɽie:ɡɔ:tu/ ‘to thank’ ---
ie: ---
/buttie:ɡɔ:tu/ ‘to instruct‘
eə --- /beərəilla:tə:/ ‘raw’ ---
/no:ʈieddɔ:tu/ ‘to choose’ ---
ie --- /ɔ:ɽiɡiebbatu/ ‘to wake up’
/brijə:ɳielə/ ‘bel (sriphal)’
ia --- /buddia:tə:/ ‘clever’ ---
iu --- /kiu:ʋətu/ ‘to harvest’ ---
ui --- /buʈə:tuiʈippatu/ ‘to grab’ ---
u:e --- /u:elə/ ‘petal’ ---
/mũ:ʧʊeddɔ:tu/ ‘to breath’ ---
ʊe ---
/bokkʊeriʃi/ ‘heap of books’
/kammʊñʊibbatʊ/ ‘to be silent’ ---
ʊi --- /mi:nʊiʈʊppəkabbə:/‘fishing
festivals’
/suddiɳɖʊo:bbatu/ ---
ʊo: ---
‘to wander’
/pi:kɛu:totu/ ‘to blow’ --
ɛu: --- /pɛ:ɳɖʊtu pi:kɛu:totu/
‘to play’

F) Syllable Structure

A syllable is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds. It is a unit of spoken

languages consisting of a single uninterrupted sound formed by a vowel, diphthong or syllabic

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consonant alone or any of these sounds preceded followed or surrounded by one or more
consonants. The syllabic classification of Badaga words are as follows.

• Monosyllabic
• Disyllabic
• Trisyllabic
• Tetra syllabic
• Pent asyllabic

Monosyllabic:

Words which have only one syllable are called monosyllabic words. The examples of
monosyllabic words are as follows.

Words Syllable Structure Gloss

/u:/ V ‘insect’
/ni/ CV ‘you’
/me:/ CV ‘rain’
/be:/ CV ‘bangal’
/sa:ʋ/ CVC ‘death’
/iru/ VCV ‘night’

Disyllabic
Those words which have two syllables are called disyllabic words. The examples of
disyllabic words are as follows.

Words Syllable Structure Gloss

/kʊə/ CVV ‘mine’
/eɭ.ɭi/ VC-CV ‘where’
/iñ.ñɔ:/ VC-CV ‘and’
/oɽə:.ʃu/ VCV-CV ‘out’
/iji.jə/ VCV-CV ‘lead’
/ʋeɭ.ɭi/ CVC-CV ‘coin’
/mɛ:ɽ.kʊ/ CVC-CV ‘west’
/teɽk.ku/ CVCC-CV ‘south’

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Trisyllabic
Those words which have three syllables are called trisyllabic words. The examples of
trisyllabic words in Badaga are as follows.

Words Syllable structure Gloss

/bɛ:.ʃə.ɡə/ CV-CV-CV ‘summer’
/tiŋ.ɡʊ.ʋə:/ CVC-CV-CV ‘month’
/en.nʊ.tu/ VC-CV-CV ‘my’
/u.ʋə.tu/ V-CV-CV ‘to beat’
/mun.da:.ʈu/ CVC-CV-CV ‘opposite’
/i.jark.kə/ V-CVCC-CV ‘nature’
/eʈə.sa.ri/ VCV-CV-CV ‘left (hand)’

Tetrasyllabic:
Words which have four syllables are called tetrasyllabic words. The example of tetrasyllabic
words are as follows.

Words Syllable Structure Gloss

/mu.ɽip.pa.tu/ CV-CVC-CV-CV ‘to break’
/e.ʈəi.ɡɔ:.ɡə/ V-CVV-CV-CV ‘at’
/kəi.ʋɛ.ləŋ.ɡʊ/ CVV-CV-CVC-CV ‘handcuffs’
/na.ɖʊ.ʤa:.ma:/ CV-CV-CV-CV ‘midnight’
/a.məi.ʤo:.tu/ V-CVV-CV-CV ‘to set’
/ku.lʊŋ.ɡɔ:.tu/ CV-CVC-CV-CV ‘to shake’

Pentasyllabic
Those words that have five syllables are called pentasyllabic words. The example of
pentasyllabic words are as follows.

Words Syllable Structure Gloss

/puɳ.ɳi.jəs.ta.lə:/ CVC-CV-CVC-CV-CV ‘holy place’
/kam.mi.ma.ʈɔ:.tu/ CVC-CV-CV-CV-CV ‘to bark’
/tup.pa:k.ki.kuɳ.ɖʊ/ CVC-CVC-CV-CVC-CV ‘bullet’
/ɦat.tʊ.tom.bo.tu/ CVC-CV-CVC-CV-CV ‘nineteen’
/ʋɔ:.ɡuɳ.ɖʊ.ʋɔ:.ɡɛ/ VC-CVC-CV-CV-CV ‘into’
/da:n.ʃa:.kɔ.ʋu.ma/ CVC-CV-CV-CV-CV ‘dancer’
/aɲ.ci.ɦɛt.t :.tu/ VC-CV-CVC-CV-CV ‘hreat’

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Hexasyllabic:
Those words that have six syllables are called hexasyllabic words. The example of
hexasyllabic words are as follows.

Words Syllable Structure Gloss

/ot.tu.uʈ.ʈɔ:.ʤa:.mə:/ VC-CV-VC-CV-CV-CV ‘sunrise’
/kab.bu.ñə.sa:.mə:.nə:/ CVC-CV-CV-CV-CV-CV ‘metal’
/on.tu.ma.ɳi.sa:.ma:/ VC-CV-CV-CV-CV-CV ‘hour’
/mu.jəɽʧ.ʧi.ma:.ʈɔ:.tu/ CV-CVCC-CV-CV-CV-CV ‘to trial’
/kiʧ.ʧu.kat.tu.ʋə.po.ru.ɭʊ/ CVC-CV-CVC-CV-CV-CV-CV-CV ‘fuel’
/ʋam.pu.saɳ.ɖə.ma:.ʈɔ:.tu/ CVC-CV-CVC-CV-CV-CV-CV ‘to quarrel’
/a.ləi.jə.ko.ləi.jə.ma:.ʈɔ:.tu/ V-CVV-CV-CV-CVV-CV-CV-CV-CV ‘to torture’
/ma.ri.ja:.təi.kɔ.ʈʊ.ʋə.tu/ CV-CV-CV-CVV-CV-CV-CV-CV ‘to obey’
/paɭ.ɭi.ku.ñə.ʋə.ku:ʈ.ʈa:/ CVC-CV-CV-CV-CV-CVC-CV ‘group of boys/girls’
/sap.pəʈ.ʈə.kuʈ.ʈʊ.ʋə.tu/ CVC-CVC-CV-CVC-CV-CV-CV ‘to clap’
/pa.ri.ta:.bə.pa.ʈʊ.ʋə.tu/ CV-CV-CV-CV-CV-CV-CV-CV ‘sympathy’
/on.tu.ʤa:.ti.ak.ki.lu/ VC-CV-CV-CV-VC-CV-CV ‘flock of birds’
/ʃiʈ.ʈuk.ku.mu.ɽip.pa.tu/ CVC-CVC-CV-CV-CVC-CV-CV ‘to snap (fingers)’
/dab.bə.ñə.ki.riʧ.ʧɔ.ʋʊ.tu/ CVC-CV-CV-CV-CVC-CV-CV-CV ‘Clarion’
/kaɳ.ɳʊ.mʊʧ.ʧʊ.ʋa:ʈ.ʈə:/ CVC-CV-CVC-CV-CVC-CV ‘hide and seek’
/pɛ:ɳ.ɖʊ.tu.pi:.kɛu:.to.tu/ CVC-CV-CV-CV-CVV-CV-CV ‘to play’
/tap.pʊ.ma:.ʈə:.tə.mə:/ CVC-CV-CV-CV-CV-CV ‘innocent’
/ʤɛ.ji.lu.ɡə:.aʈ.əp.pə.tu/ CV-CV-CV-CV-VC-CV-CV-CV ‘imprisonment’
/ta.ɖʊ.mʊʈ.ʈʊ.bu.ba.tu/ CV-CV-CVC-CV-CV-CV-CV ‘to slip’
/ma.ri.ja:.tə.ma:.ʈɔ:.tu/ CV-CV-CV-CV-CV-CV-CV ‘to serve’
/bu.ʈə:.tui.ʈip.pa.tu/ CV-CV-CVV-CVC-CV-CV ‘to grab’
/ɡa:.ji.jə.a:p.pa.tu/ CV-CV-CV-VC-CV-CV ‘to injure (a person)

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 3. MORPHOPHONEMICS

It is a possible phonological variation with the addition of some bound morpheme when
there is change in the phoneme of the base morpheme, the change is known as morphophonemic
change. There are various Morphophonemic changes, these can be

1. Addition of phoneme in a morpheme

2. Alternation of phoneme in a morpheme
3. Dropping of a phoneme in a morpheme

In Badaga, this process is realised in the following ways.

i) Addition of phonemes
In this case when a suffix is added with the vowel ending verbal stem, a new phoneme is
introduced in between the base and the suffix. In Badaga, when accusative case marker –a is added
with the vowel ending verbal root then –ʋ- or -y- is inserted in the accusative form of the noun. For
example
toda + -a > /todaʋa/ ‘toda people’
ku:ʈa + -a > /ku:ʈaʋa/ ‘crowd’
male + -a > /malea/ ‘the mountain’

ii) Alternation of phonemes

In alternation of phonemes because of the addition of some morphemes there is change in
the phoneme of the base morpheme. For example,

In Badaga, when past tense marker –a is added with the -e ended verbal stem -e changes into -a
before tense marker. For example,
iɡe + t + a > iɡata ‘he pushed’
oɡe + p + I > oɡapi ‘will wash – you (pl)’

iii) Deletion of phoneme

When a suffix is added with the base morpheme the final phoneme of the base
morpheme gets deleted. For example,
In Badaga, when words containing voiceless double plosives occur as postpound
word in the compound structure, the geminated voiceless plosive becomes single plosive.
For example,
ha:l + aʈʈu > /ha:laʈu/ ‘pour milk’
lo:l + akkilu > /to:lakilu/ ‘bat’

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 4. MORPHOLOGY

Morphology is the branch of linguistics that deals with words, their internal structure, and
how they are formed. It deals with the identification, analysis and description of the structureof a
given language’s morphemes and other linguistic units.

I. Noun Morphology
The morphological noun is built on a noun base which is the simplest case consisting of a
noun root. The noun morphology here deals with the word formation processes, gender, and
number, case and post position.

i) Word Formation:
Word formation is the creation of a new word. There are a number of methods of word
formation. The words in Badaga are form by a single morpheme or more than one free morpheme
or a combination of free and bound morpheme.

/mənə/ ‘house’ is a word and /mənəiɡɔ/ ‘houses’ also is word which is a combination of /mənə/
‘house’ + /iɡɔ/ (plural marker).
free morpheme -/mənə/ ‘house’ - /mənə-iɡɔ:/ ‘houses’
bound morpheme -/-iɡɔ/ (plural marker).

Four types of word formation are found in Badaga such as Affixation, Derivation,
Compounding and Reduplication.

• Affixation
An affix is a morpheme that is attached to a word stem to form a new word. Affixes may be
derivational, or inflectional. In Badaga, the affixes added to form familial relations are of
inflectional nature, tending to preserve the grammatical class of the base to which it is attached.
Words are formed by adding prefixes or suffixes to base as in –

• Prefixation
It is a morphological process whereby a bound morpheme is attached to the front of a root
or stem. The kind of affix involved in this process is called prefix. The examples of prefixation are
as follows.
• /kuɽi/ (prefix) + /a:ʈu/ > /kuɽia:ʈu/ ‘sheep’

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 • Suffxation
It is the morphological process whereby a bound morpheme is attached to the end
of a root or stem. The kind of affix involved in this process is called suffix. The examples
of suffixation are given below
• /mənəi/ ‘house’ + /ɡɔ/ ‘suffix’ > /mənəiɡɔ/ ‘houses’
• /ɛɽəʈʊ/ ‘two’ + /tirukkʊ/ ‘suffix’ > /ɛɽəʈʊtirukkʊ/ ‘twice’
• /mu:ɽʊ/ ‘three’ + /tirukkʊ/ ‘suffix’ > /mu:ɽʊtirukkʊ/ ‘thrice’

• Reduplication
Reduplication is a morphological process in which a root or stem or part of it is
repeated.

/da:ri da:ri/ ‘by’

/doɳə doɳə:embau/ ‘to whisper’
/bikki bikki a:ʋɔtu/ ‘to cry (weep)’
/kaɳə kaɳə embatu/ ‘to shine’
• Echo-formation
Echo words are characterized by reduplication of a complete word or phrase, with the initial
segment or syllable of the reduplicate being overwritten by a fixed segment or syllable.
For example,
/o:ʃi mi:nʊɡə doɖɖʊtʊ o:ʃi mi:nʊɡə kuññətu/ ‘Some fish are big and some are small’

Compounding
It is the process of word formation that creates compound lexemes. It occurs when two or
more words joint together to make one word. The examples of compounding in Badaga are as
follows.
/bukkʊ/ ‘book’ + /si:rə:/ ‘bag’ > /bukkʊ si:rə:/ ‘school bag’
/ʤɔ:lʊ/ ‘jowar’ + /ma:ʋ/ ‘flour’ > /ʤɔ:lʊ ma:ʋ/ ‘jowar flour’
/kijə/ ‘lower’ + /tuɖi/ ‘lip’ > /kijə tuɖi/ ‘lower lip’
/kutirə/ ‘horse’ + /bəɳɖi/ ‘cart’ > /kutirə bəɳɖi/ ‘horse coach’

Derivation
It is the process of forming a new word on the basis of an existing word. A derivational
suffix usually applies to words of one syntactic category and changes them into word of another
syntactic category. The examples of derivation are as follows.

/da:rə/ ‘who’ + /ʋə/ ‘suffix’ > /da:rəʋə/ ‘whom’

/atu/ ‘it’ + /ɡə:/ ‘suffix’ > /atuɡə:/ ‘to it’

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Coining new words

In Badaga, many new words are coining either from Tamil, English, Kannada, Hindi or
Malayalam.

For Example – (English)

/ʈi/ ‘tea’
/so:ppu/ ‘soap’
/ʈikkeʈʊ/ ‘ticket’
/ko:rʈu/ ‘court’

For Example – (Tamil)

/ra:ɳi/ ‘queen’
/kaɳɳə:ʈi/ ‘mirror’
/kɔʈə/ ‘umbrella’
/mɔʈʈəikɔ:ʃu/ ‘cabbage’
/ra:ʤa:/ ‘king’
/ɡriʈə:/ ‘crown’
/koʈi/ ‘flag’
i:ʈʈi/ ‘spear’
/etiroli/ ‘echo’
/mu:kutti/ ‘nose-ring’
/eɳɳəi/ ‘oil’
/maɳi/ ‘bell’

For Example – (Hindi)

/de:ʃə:/ ‘country’
/mantiri/ ‘minister’

For Example – (Kannada)

/uŋɡərə:/ ‘ring’
/mənə/ ‘house’
/u:/ ‘flower’

For Example – (Malayalam)

/bommə/ ‘doll’
/pu:ʈʈʊ/ ‘lock’
/ra:ʤa:/ ‘king’

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 /koʈi/ ‘flag’
/sa:ʋi/ ‘key’

Suppletion
Suppletion is the use of one word as the inflected from of another word when the two words
are not cognate. Example of suppletion in Badaga include –
/ku:ʃʊ/ ‘child’
/kʊñəʋə/ ‘children’

Types of Noun

Common
Used to name people, place or things in general. It refers to the class or type of person or
thing (without being specific)
/ɡaɳɖʊ/ ‘male’
/paʈʈəñə:/ ‘city’
/ba:ttirʊ/ ‘teacher’

Countable
Have a singular and plural form and can be use with a number or a/an before it. They are
sometime called Count Nouns
/di:diɡ / ‘lamp’
/sa:ʋi/ ‘key’
/mənə/ ‘house’

Concrete
Refer to people or things that exist physically and that at least one of the senses can detect.
/ñɛ/ ‘dog’
/moɽə:/ ‘tree’
/a:ppiɭʊ/ ‘apple’

Compound
Two or more words that create a noun. They can be written as one word, joined by a hyphes
or written as separate words.
/iŋkpuʈʈi/ ‘ink pot’
/kɔ:ji saɳɖə/ ‘cock-fight’
/eddʊ saɳɖə/ ‘bull-fight’

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 /uŋɡərə bɛrəlʊ/ ‘ring finger’
Proper
Used to name a specific (or individual) person, place or things. Proper nouns begin with a
capital letter
/ra:mu/ ‘ramu‘
/maɲcəka:ma:lə/ ‘jaundice’
/ta:mərə/ ‘lotus’
/a:ppiɭʊ/ ‘apple’

Uncountable
Cannot be counted. They often refer to substances, liquids, and abstract ideas. They are
sometimes called Mass Nouns
/taɳɳi:ɽu/ ‘water‘
/ɡa:ji/ ‘air’
/saŋɡəʈə:/ ‘hatred’

Abstract
Have no physical existence. They refer to idea, emotions and concepts you cannot see,
touch, hear, smell or taste
/siñɛ:ʃʊ/ ‘love’
/ʤa:mə:/ ‘time’
/nɛɡəʋətu/ ‘laugh’

Collective
Refer to a set or group of people, animals or things.
/mi:nʊ ku:ʈʈa:/ ‘shoal of fishes’
/ka:jitəkaʈʈʊ/ ‘pile of papers’
/ʤanəku:ʈʈa:/ ‘crowd of people’
/sa:ʋikottu/ ‘bunch of keys’

Noun Morphology
It is identification, analysis and description of the structure of noun.

1. Simple and Deriveb Noun

Simple Noun:
The simple nouns in Badaga language are as follows.

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 /so:la/ ‘forest’
/pa:ɽəikallʊ/ ‘rock’
/mɔɽəkaʈʈə/ ‘wood’
/taɳɳi:ɽu/ ‘water’
/ɡa:ji/ ‘air’

Derived noun
The examples of derived noun are given below.

/ñɛ/ ‘dog’ > /ñɛ:mari/ ‘puppy’

/kiʧʧʊ/ ‘fire’ > /kiʧʧʊ kattɔ:tʊ/ ‘flame’
/pani/ ‘water’ > /panikuɽam/ ‘rhinoceros’

2. Animate and Inanimate Noun

Animate Noun: Example of animate noun is as follows.

/ku:ʃʊ/ ‘boy’
/maʈuʋəi ɦɛɳɳʊ/ ‘bride’
/ mməɡatti/ ‘woman’
/ku:ʃʊ/ ‘child’

Inanimate Noun: The examples of inanimate noun are as follows.

/oddʊ/ ‘sun’
/mi:nʊ/ ‘star’
/tiŋɡʊʋə:/ ‘moon’
/kaməɭʊ ɡə:ji/ ‘wind’
/maɲcʊ/ ‘cloud’
/taɳɳi:ɽu/ ‘water’

3. Human and Non-human Noun

Human Noun: Example of human noun is as follows.

/ma:tti/ ‘son’
/sinɛ:su/ ‘friend’
/ɦɛɳɳʊku:ʃʊ/ ‘daughter’
/ɦəʋʋə/ ‘mother’

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 /appa:/ ‘father’

Non-human noun: The examples of non-human noun in Badaga are given below.

/iruppʊ/ ‘ant’
/sɛɳɖʊ/ ‘ball’
/karaʈi/ ‘bear’
/ɛddũ/ ‘bull’
/kotti/ ‘cat’
/mi:nʊ/ ‘fish’

External Structure: (Gender, Number and Person)

Gender

A grammatical gender is a system of noun classification. The nouns in Baduga are inflected
by two genders as male and female. Gender differentiation is determined by adding suffixes to the
stem or by using two completely separate lexemes.

In Badaga, the suffix /-a/ is used to indicate male gender in case of human nouns and the
suffix and /-a:/, /-ə/ in case of non-human nouns, the suffix /-u/ is used to indicate female gender in
case of human and the suffix /-a/ and /-I /in case of non-human nouns Example of male and female
gender by using different suffixes are as follows.

Male Female
/appa:/ ‘father’ /ɦəʋʋə/ ‘mother’
/a:ɳə/ ‘elephant’ /a:ɳə/ ‘elephant’
/kaɳɖa:ʈu/ ‘goat’ /ɦɛɳɳʊa:ʈu/ ‘goat’
/ɛmmɛ/ ‘buffalo’ /ɛmmɛ/ ‘buffalo’
/sammanti/ ‘daughter-in-law’s father’ /sammanti/ ‘daughter-in-law’s mother’
/kʊɭɭə:/ ‘dwarf’ /kʊɭɭi/ ‘dwarf’

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Example of male and female by using different lexemes are as follows.

Male Female
/kaɳɖa:/ ‘husband’ /ɦɛɳɳʊɽʊ/ ‘wife’
/manʊʃə:/ ‘man’ / mməɡatti/ ‘woman’
/matuʋəma:ʈəma:/ ‘bachelor’ /kaññəɦɛɳɳʊ/ ‘spinster’
/muɽʊʋə:/ ‘widower’ /muɳɖəkiɖi/ ‘widow’
/ra:ʤə ma:tti/ ‘prince’ /ra:ʤənə ɦɛɳɳʊ/ ‘princess’
/ajijə pɛʈʈə:/ ‘bridegroom’ /maʈuʋəi ɦɛɳɳʊ/ ‘bride’
/ku:ʃʊ/ ‘boy’ /ɦɛɳɳʊ/ ‘girl’
/ma:tti/ ‘son’ /ɦɛɳɳʊku:ʃʊ/ ‘daughter’

Number

Number is the grammatical category of nouns, pronouns and adjectives and verb agreement
that express count distinctions (such as one, two or three or more). The nouns in Badaga are marked
by two numbers as singular and plural. The singular is unmarked. The plural is marked by adding
the suffixes /-iɡɔ/ and /-ɡɔ/ to the nouns.
Examples of plural marker affixed to the noun are as follows.

Singular Plural
/aʋəkkə mənə/ /aʋəkkərə mənə-iɡɔ/
they-GEN house they-GEN house-PL
‘Their house’ ‘Their houses’
/kunnə ku:ʃʊ/ /kunnə kʊñə-ʋə/
small child small child-PL
‘The small child’ ‘The small children’
/b ɭɭə kutirə/ /b ɭɭə kutirə-iɡɔ/
white horse white horse- PL
‘The white horse’ ‘The white horses’
/uddə mərə/ /uddə mərə-ɡɔ/
large tree large tree -PL
‘The large tree’ ‘The large trees’
/oɭɭijə ɦɛɳɳu/ /oɭɭijə eŋɡə:/
good girl good girl-PL
‘The good girl’ ‘The good girls’

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 /oɭɭijə ku:ʃʊ/ /oɭɭijə kʊñəʋə/
good boy good boy- PL
‘The good boy’ ‘The good boys’
/doɖɖə bukkʊ/ /doɖɖə bukkʊ-ɡɔ/
big book big book- PL
‘The big book’ ‘The big books’

Person
Badaga also has a dual person. There are three persons in Badaga as first person, second
person and third person. The following are the persons in Badaga.

Singular Dual Plural

First person /na:/ ‘I’ /ñəŋɡə ɛɽəʈa/ /ñəŋɡə/ ‘we’
‘we two’
Second person /ni/ ‘you’ /niŋɡə/ ‘you (PL)’
Third person /amə:/ ‘he’ /aʋəikka eɽəʈəʋu/ ‘they /aʋəkka/ ‘they’
/aʋə:/ ‘she’ two’
/atu/ ‘it’

Case
Case is an inflected form of a noun, pronoun or adjective indicating its grammatical relation
to other words. Some cases are marked while others are unmarked. The following are the different
case in Badaga.

Nominative case
It is the case marking typically the subject of the verb. The nominative marker in Badaga is
the suffix /-kə/ in case of intransitive verb. The following are the examples.

/eŋɡə akkila no:ʈinijɔ/

We-NOM bird that see-SFP
‘We see the bird’

/na:n akkila no:ʈitən/

I-NOM bird that see-SFP
‘I saw the bird’

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 /ra:mʊ sijə:mukə bukkʊ koʈʈə:/
ram-NOM book that shyam-DAT give-SFP
‘Ram gave the book to Shyam’

/amə: oɭətə ʋɔ:kɛ akkila koddə:/

he-NOM bird that garden-LOC kill-SFP
‘He kill the bird in the garden’

/eŋɡə: ni:rə kutiʧʧinijɔ/

we-NOM water boil-SFP
‘We boil water’

/bɛ:ʈʈəka:rə ma:nə iɖittə:/

deer that hunter-NOM catch-SFP
‘The hunter caught the deer’

Accusative case
It is the grammatical case that marks the direct object of a verb. In Badaga, the accusative
case is marked by the suffix /-ɡə/as in the following examples.

/na:n ku:ʃʊɡə eʈʈʊ koʈʈɛ:n/

I baby-ACC feed-PROG.ASP
‘I feed the baby’

/amə: bukku o:tinɖidanɛ/

he book read-PROG.ASP
‘He reads a book’

/kuñəʋɛ ennə no:ʈin idərɛ/

child-PL I-ACC see-SFP
‘The children see me’

Some examples without the accusative case marker/-jə:/are as follows

/eŋɡə: dənəʋə u:di-jə:/
cow-PL cow-ACC beat-SFP
‘We beat the cows’

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 /na:n kutiri-jə: e:titen/
I-NOM horse that run-SFP
‘I run the horse’

/na:n kutəri-jə: o:ʈə bi:ddənɛ/

I-NOM horse-ACC run-CAUS-SFP
‘I am making the horse run’

Dative case
It is the grammatical case that marks typically the indirect object of a verb, the object of
some ad positions or a prossessor. In Badaga the dative case is marked by /-kə/, /-ɡə/as in the
following examples.
/amə: enəɡə aitu ruppi tanta:/
I-DAT he-NOM rupees five give-SFP
‘He gives me 5 rupees’

/ra:mʊ sijə:mukə bukkʊ koʈʈə:/

ram-NOM shyam-DAT book that give-SFP
‘Ram gave the book to Shyam’

/sərkkə:rʊ e:ɭəiɡɔɡə ɦəɳə tantə:rə/

government-NOM poor-DAT money give-SFP
‘The government gives money to the poor’

Instrumental case
The primary function of this marker is to indicate the instrument that the agent uses while
carrying out an activity. The instrumental case is marked by the marker /-ɡə/ or /-ja/ as in the
following examples.

/ennə: pɛ:nəd :ɡə bar /

I-GEN pen-INST write-IMP
‘Write with my pen’

/mɔɽəʋə koʈəɭiʋɔ:ɡə biʈʈʊ/

tree that axe-INST cut-SFP
‘The tree is cut with axe’

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 /ʋɔɽəməʋ kattiri ʋɔ:ɡɛ biʈʈʊ/
hair this scissors-INST cut-SFP
‘The hair is cut with scissors’

/kiññəʋɛ mi:n kambija bi:ddʊ mi:n eɖuttərɔ/

child-PL-NOM fishing rods-INST fish that catch-SFP
‘The children caught the fish with the fishing rods’

/ra:mʊ ennə pɛ:nə d ɡə ka:kitə baɽətə:/

ram-NOM I-GEN pen-INST letter that write-SFP
‘Ram wrote the letter with my pen’

/ma:ɳusə doɖɖʊ mərəʋə koʈi lijɔɡə biʈʈitə:/

man-DET-NOM big tree DETI axe-INST cut-SFP
‘The man cut the big tree with the axe’

Ablative case
It is a grammatical case expressing typically the relations of separation and source and also
frequently such relations as cause or instrument. The ablative case is marked by the suffix/-tə/. The
examples are given below.

/amə: ennə ʤannəlʊntə kijijə bittubuʈʈə/

he I-GEN window-ABL fall-SFP
‘He fell down from my window’

/na:ləi ində bəʃ elləʋə oʈusuʋəɡə biʈʊʋə talla/

tomorrow-ABL bus run-NEG-UNR.ASP
‘Tomorrow onwards the buses will not run’

/ʤʊ:ləi tiŋɡʊʋə:ntə mɛ: uʋʊtuɡə a:rəmiʧʧiɡə/

july month-ABL rain here start-SFP
‘Ran starts from the month of july’

/ku:ʃʊ mɔɽəntə annə ku:tubuʈʈə/

child-NOM tree-ABL fruit DET pluck-SFP
‘The child plucked the fruit from the tree’

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 /amə: mənəi o:dəɡəntə kijijə a:ɽi buʈʈə:/
he (top of house)-ABL jump-SFP
‘He jumped from the top of the house’

/mɔɽə:ntə: eləi elləm buttubuʈʈə:/

tree-ABL leaves this fall-SFP
‘The leaves fall from the tree’

Locative case
It is a grammatical case that denotes place or the place where or wherein. It is use to indicate
the location of an object or event. The locative case marker is marked by the suffix/-n /,/-jə/, /-ɡə/in
Badaga as in the following examples.

/amə: məi-jə iddənɛ/

he house-in-LOC remain
‘He is in the house’

/ennə kuñəʋə paɭɭiʈu-n idərə/

I-GEN child-PL school-LOC remain
‘My children are in the school’

/na:n ennə mənəik-kʊ ʋɔ:ktɛ:n/

I I-GEN house-LOC remain
‘I am in my house’

/ennə kuñəʋə paɭɭiʈu-n idərə/

I-GEN child-PL school-LOC remain
‘My children are in the school’

/na:n məi-ɡə ʋə:kəʋɔ:nɛ/

I house-LOC go-SFP
‘I go to the house’

/mɛ:ʤəi otəɡə nillʊ/

table-on-LOC stand-IMP
‘Stand on the table’

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 /amə: mɔɽə kaɖijə:s oriɡən /
he tree-under-LOC sleep-PROG.ASP
‘He sleeps under the tree’

/ennə mənəiɡə ʋɔ:kʊ/

I-GEN house-LOC go-IMP
‘Go to my house’

/ennə mənəiɡə ba:/

I-GEN house-LOC come-IMP
‘Come to my house’

/ennə ma:tti pali iʈʈʊɡə ʋɔ:kita:nɛ/

I son school-LOC go-PERF.ASP
‘My son has gone to the school’

Genitive case
It is a grammatical case marking typically a relationship of possessor or source. The genitive
case in Badaga is marked by the suffix /-nə:/ the following examples.

/amə-nə: mənə/
he-GEN house
‘His house’

/nin-nə mənə/
you-GEN house
‘Your (sg) house’

/aʋək-kə ma:tti/
they-GEN son
‘Their son’

/ennə kəiɡɔ/
I-GEN 1PP-eye-PL
‘My hands’

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 /eŋɡə kəiɡɔ/
we-GEN 1PP-hand-PL
‘Our hands’

/aʋənə kəɳɳʊ/
she-GEN 3PP-eyes
‘Her eyes’

/innə eɽəʈu bukkʊɡɔ/

you-GEN book two
‘Two books of yours’

Pronoun
Pronoun is a small set of words in a language that are used as substitutes for nouns or noun
phrases and whose referents are named or understood in the context. There are six types of pronouns
in Badaga. They are as follows.

Singular Dual Plural

First person /na:/ ‘I’ /ñəŋɡə ɛɽəʈa/ ‘we two’ /ñəŋɡə/ ‘we’
Second person /ni/ ‘you’ /niŋɡə/ ‘you (PL)’
Third person /amə:/ ‘he’ /aʋəikka eɽəʈəʋu/ ‘they two’ /aʋəkka/ ‘they’
/aʋə:/ ‘she’
/atu/ ‘it’

1. Demonstrative pronoun
There is a two way distinction between demonstratives, typically one set of demonstrative
is proximal indicating objects close to the speaker and the other series is distal indicating objects
further moved from the speaker. The demonstrative pronouns in Badaga are realized in two numbers
as singular and plural as in the following examples.

Pronouns Proximate Remote

Singular /itu/ ‘this’ /atu/ ‘that’
Plural /atə/ ‘these’

2. Interrogative pronoun
An interrogative pronoun or question word is a function word used to ask a question. The
interrogative pronouns found in the Badaga language are as follows.

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 Interrogative Pronoun Gloss
/e:nə/ ‘what’
/e:ɡʊʋə/ ‘when’
/eɭɭi/ ‘where’
/edo/ ‘which’
/da:rə/ ‘who’
/da:rəʋə/ ‘whom’
/e:kka/ ‘why’

3. Indefinite pronouns
An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun that refers to one or more unspecified beings, objects or
places. The indefinite pronouns found in the language are as follows.

Indefinite Pronoun Gloss

/ellə:/ ‘everything’
/darə:/ ‘anybody’
/darə:/ ‘nobody’
/ella:ʋʊ/ ‘everybody’
/da:rəɭijɔ/ ‘no one’

4. Reflexive pronoun
A reflexive pronoun is a pronoun preceeded by the noun, adjective, adverb or pronoun to
which it refers within the same clause or sentence. In Baduga the reflexive pronoun are form by
adding/-nɛ/to the pronoun as in/na:ttə:/ ‘myself’ >/na:/‘I’ +/-ttə:/. The reflexive pronouns found in
Baduga language are given below.

Reflexive Pronoun Gloss

/na:ttə:/ ‘myself’
/naŋɡəʋɛ/ ‘ourselves’
/ni:ttə/ ‘yourself’
/niŋɡətə/ ‘yourselves’
/aʋəɡə:/ ‘herself’
/amə:ddə:/ ‘himself’
/atuttə:/ ‘itself’

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Pronominals:
The linguistic phenomenon termed as pronominalization takes place in two ways: 1)
Nominal pronominalization and 2) Verbal pronominalization. Badaga has nominal
pronominalization according by possessed things, kinship terms and parts of body. The nominal
pronominal markers found from the available data are as follows.

The nominal pronominal system of Baduga is as follows. It is affixed to the nouns.

Singular Plural
1st Person /nə:/ /nə:/
3rd Person /nə:/

Examples of 1st person singular:

/ennə kəiɡɔ/
I-GEN 1PP-hand-PL
‘My hands’

Examples of 1st person plural:

/eŋɡə kəiɡɔ:/
we-GEN 1PP-hand-PL
‘Our hands’

Example of 3rd person singular:

/aʋənə kəɳɳʊ/
she-GEN 3PP-eye
‘Her eyes’

Verb morphology

The verb class is the solitary word class that displays inflection. The verb is thus explicitly
defined by inflection. Significant number of dissimilar features are marked on the verb and work to
contextualize its use. Tense, mood, aspect, and voice are some of the most common types of
features.
Tense locates an event in time, aspect refers to the way in which the event makes known
within a time frame. Mood signals the speaker’s intent or attitude towards the utterance,
and voice distinguishes thematic relationships between the verb and arguments of a sentence.

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 Classification of Verbs: Verbs in Badaga may be classified in two ways,
(1) Structurally and (2) Semantically.

(1) Structurally: Three classes of verbs can be classified structurally as Transitive, Intransitive
and Ditransitive

(a) Transitive verb : The transitive verbs need an object. The object of the transitive verb
receives the action. Examples of Transitive Verbs identified from Badaga language are
given below
/no:ʈi/ ‘see’ /tanta:/ ‘give’ /saʋə:ri/ ‘ride’ /o:tinɖi/ ‘read’, /tinda:/ ‘ate’,
/u:dijə:/ ‘beat’ /kod/ ‘kill’ /iɖʊtə/ ‘catch’ /baɽə/ ‘write’ as in.

/eŋɡə akkila no:ʈi nijɔ/

we-NOM bird DET see-SFP
‘We see the bird’

/amə: enəɡə aitu ruppi tanta:/

I-DAT he-NOM rupees five give-SFP
‘He gives me 5 rupees’

/eŋɡə: kutirə saʋə:ri ma:ʈitijɔ:/

we horse ride-SFP
‘We ride the horses’

/amə: bukku o:tinɖidanɛ/

he book read-PERF.ASP
‘He reads a book’

/makɛ:ʃʊ mə:ʋkaññʊ tinda:/

mahesh-NOM mango DET eat-PERF.ASP
‘Mahesh ate the mango’

/eŋɡə: dənəʋə u:dijə:/

we-NOM cow-ACC beat-SFP
‘We beat the cows’

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 /amə: oɭətə ʋɔ:kɛ akkila koddə:/
he-NOM bird DET garden-LOC kill-SFP
‘He killed the bird in the garden’

/kuññəʋə mi:nə iɖʊtərʊ/

children-PL-NOM fish that catch-PL
‘The children caught the fish’

/ra:mʊ ennə pɛ:nə d ɡə ka:kitə baɽətə:/

ram-NOM I-NOM pen-INST letter DET write-SFP
‘Ram wrote the letter with my pen’

(b) Intransitive verb

The intransitive verb does not take any object. Examples of intransitive verb from Badaga
language are given below.
/banta/ ‘come’ /ʋɔ:n/ ‘go’ /ɡɛɽtə/ ‘barks’ /oriɡə/ ‘sleep’
/o:ʈi/ ‘run’ /nɛɡə/ ‘smile’ /and/paɽə/ ‘fly’ /nid/ ‘stand’ as in

/aʋəkkə iɭɭiɡə banta:ra/

here they come-SFP
‘They come here’

/na:n sattəika ʋɔ:nɛn/

I market-LOC go-SFP
‘I go to the market’

/nɛɡʊ ʋəʋ ɡɛɽtərə:/

dog-NOM bark-SFP
‘The dog barks’

/amə: mɔɽə kaɖijə:s oriɡən /

he tree-under-LOC sleep-PROG.ASP
‘He sleeps under the tree’

/ra:mə: maɳəkañə o:ʈitə:n/

ram-NOM quickly run-SFP
‘Rama runs quickly’

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 /ku:ʃʊ nɛɡətərə:/
baby DET smile-SFP
‘The baby smiles’

/atu ennə maɳʈəikkʊ mɛ:la paɽəntə/

it head-over-LOC fly-SFP
‘It flies over the head’

/aʋə: aɭɭi niddə ʋɔʈitiʋi/

she there stand-PERF.ASP
‘She stands there’

(c) Ditransitive verb

A ditransitive verb takes two objects. The objects could be direct objects and the indirect
objects of a sentence but it could be direct object and object complement. The ditansitive verbs of
Badaga are as follows

/ta/ ‘give’, /koʈ/ ‘gave’, /soppʊ/ ‘serve’ /e:tu/ ‘led’ as in

/amə: enəɡə aitu ruppi tanta:/

I-DAT he-NOM rupees five give-SFP
‘He gives me 5 rupees’

/ra:mʊ sijə:mukə bukkʊ koʈʈə:/

ram-NOM book that shyam-DAT give-SFP
‘Ram gave the book to Shyam’

/si:tə nəʈʈʊka:ruka iʈʈʊ soppʊ koʈʈə:/

sita-NOM guest-PL-DAT food serve-PROG.ASP
‘Sita served the food to the guests’

/eŋɡə: danəʋə koʈʈə:jikə: e:tudijɔ/

we-NOM cow-PL DET shed-LOC led-PERF.ASP
‘We led the cows to the shed’

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(2) Semantically the verbs of Badaga can be classified into fifteen categories. The examples are
given below.

(a) Physical verbs

These verbs are simply called action verbs. Any specific physical action is indicated by this
category of verbs. Examples of Physical verbs from Badaga are mentioned below

/kɛlasakijiʋətu/ ‘to work’

/ba:ɡɡɔ:tu/ ‘to sweep’
/undɔ:tu/ ‘to push’

(b) Instrument verbs

Instrument verbs are verbs incorporating nouns that have the instrument theta-role in their
underlying argument structure. The examples of Instrument verbs from Badaga are given below.

/oɖəppattu/ ‘split’
/bɛ:ʈʈə a:ʈʊʋətu/ ‘hunt’
/do:ɳɖɔ:tu/ ‘dig’

/bɛʈʈɔ:tu/ ‘chop (fire wood)’

/do:ɳɖɔ:tu/ ‘dig (a hole)’
/oɖəppattu/ ‘split (wood)’

(c) Verbs of fighting

Verbs of fighting are verbs used without object. Examples of Badaga are
/buʈə:tuiʈippatu/ ‘to grab’
/ɡobbatʊ/ ‘to kill’
/ɡiɭiʤo:tu/ ‘to win’

(d) Music verbs

The agent of this verb is the instrument. Examples from Badaga language are as follows.
/pi:kɛu:totu/ ‘to blow’
/kadəjɛ:ɡo:tu/ ‘to sing’
/naɖəna a:kkɔ:tu/ ‘to dance’

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 (e) Motion verbs
Motion verbs, as designated by the term “motion”, are verbs that describe motion or
movement. These verbs cannot be used in passive voice. Examples from Badaga language are given
below.

/bantusɛppətu/ ‘to arrive’

/uɡɡɔ:tu/ ‘to enter’
/mitəppatu/ ‘to float’

(f) Occupational verbs

Verbs used to engage a livelihood or engagement. Examples from Badaga language
includes:-
/sa:ra:jəka:ʧʧʊʋətu/ ‘to brew’
/bɛ:bbatu/ ‘to cultivate’
/kiu:ʋətu/ ‘to harvest’

(g) Culinary verbs

Verbs that describe action related to cooking. The examples are as follows.
/kuʈuppatu/ ‘to drink’
/tinbatu/ ‘to eat’
/baɽəbbatu/ ‘to fry’

(h) Cosmetic verbs

Verbs related to Grooming can be termed as cosmtic verbs. The examples of Badaga
language are as follows.
/maɳɖəɡɔ:ɽɔtu/ ‘to comb (hair)’
/eñiɡəa:ɡɔ:tu/ ‘to tie (hair)’
/baʈʈəkkɔ:tu/ ‘to wear (clothing)’

(i) Communicative verbs

Verbs through which thoughts feelings and information can be exchanged are known as
communicative verbs. In Badaga the following communicative verbs can be identified.
/batile:ɡɔ:ʋtu/ ‘to answer’
/koɽəʃo:tu/ ‘to invite’
/kɔɽəʧʧɔ:tu/ ‘to call’

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 (j) Non motion verbs
The verbs which involve no movement or action are known as non motion verbs. The
examples from Badaga are given below
/oppɔ:tu/ ‘to approve’
/mo:to:tu/ ‘to collide’
/sa:ʋətu/ ‘to die’

(k) Inchoative verbs

These verbs are also known as inceptive verbs. These verbs indicate the process of beginning
or becoming. Example from Badaga language are as follows.
/u:bbatu/ ‘to bloom’
/nəijəbippatu/ ‘to soak’
/õɽəbi:ppatu/ ‘to freeze’

(l) Sensory verbs

These verbs describes one of the five senses. Examples of sensory Verbs in Badaga are as
follows.
/kɛmmɔ:tʊ/ ‘to cough’
/bikki bikki a:ʋɔtu/ ‘to cry’
/aɲ̃cɔ:tu/ ‘to fear’

(m) Emotive verbs

These verbs describe the feelings of person. Examples from Badaga are as follows.
/ʋeɽuppu/ ‘to dislike’
/k :ɳabi:ppatu/ ‘to like’
/ɡəʋə:bi:ppatʊ/ ‘to love’

(n) Cognitive verbs

These verbs are the task words that can often be seen at the start of a question.
/ñəbɔ:tu/ ‘to believe’
/aɽʊtubippatu/ ‘to know’
/ɡ :ɳabuɖʊʋətu/ ‘to forget’

(o) Other verbs

The verbs mostly include the linking verbs, auxiliary verbs, linking verbs modal verbs.
Example from Badaga are as follows.

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 /obbatibbatu/ ‘to fast’
/kɔtɔ:tu/ ‘to offer’
/tirikki ma:ʈɔ:tu/ ‘to repeat’

The verb construction makes a two-fold distinction viz. Finite and Non-finite. Another way
of classifying verbs is on the basis of finiteness.

Finite verb information

The structure of finite verb shows a stem followed by tense, aspect and mood markers. In
Badaga the finite verbs are form by adding different suffixes to the verb according to the aspect and
mood. By analyzing the available data of Badaga, there is no tense marker.

As Badaga is an inflectional type of language. Here words are formed by adding syllables
or letters (i.e. affixes) or different postpositions to the stem and different endings are used to form
different types of words and these affixes show no traceable signs of having been independent
words.

Simple aspect
The simple aspect is expressed by different markers. They occur under phonological
condition. The simple aspect marker /-ɛn/ occurs after vowel. The following are the examples
/na:n akkila no:ʈinɛn/
I bird DET see-SIM.ASP
‘I see the bird’

/eŋɡə akkila no:ʈinijɔ/

we- NOM bird DET see-SIM.ASP
‘We see the bird’

/ni sattəika ʋɔ:rɛ/

you market -LOC go-SIM.ASP
‘You (sg) go to the market’

/amə: sattəika ʋɔ:nə:/

he market-LOC go-SIM.ASP
‘He goes to the market’

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/eŋɡə iɭɭiɡə baññijɔ/
we here come-SIM.ASP
‘We come here’

/atu ennə maɳʈəikkʊ mɛ:la paɽəntə/

it head-over-LOC fly-SFP
‘It flies over the head’

/ku:ʃʊ ki:ɭɛ buttərə/

child DET fall-SIM.ASP
‘The child falls down’

/eŋɡə: kutirə saʋə:ri ma:ʈitijɔ:/

we horse ride-SFP
‘We ride the horse’

/aʋə: aɭɭi niddə ʋɔʈitiʋi/

she there stand-PERF.ASP
‘She stands there’

/amə: enəɡə aitu ruppi tanta:/

I-DAT he- NOM rupees five give-SFP
‘He gives me 5 rupees’

/aʋəkkə ni:rə kutiʧʧirə:/

they-NOM water boil-SIM.ASP
‘They boil water’

/aʋə: kutirijə: e:tit /

she- NOM horse DET run-SIM.ASP
‘She runs the horse’

/na:n doɖɖi tinnɔnkontu iruntɛ:n/

I bread eat-SIM.ASP
‘I eat bread’

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 /ra:mə: maɳəkañə o:ʈitə:n/
ram-NOM quickly run-SIM.ASP
‘Ram runs quickly’

Present Progressive aspect

The present progressive aspect is marked by adding the suffix/-iddɛn/to the verb as in the
following examples

/na:n iɭɭiɡə bannɛ:n/

I here come-PROG.ASP
‘I am coming here’

/amə: iɭɭiɡə bantukoɳɖuiddənə/

he here come-SIM.ASP
‘He is coming here’

/aʋə: iɭɭiɡə bantukoɳɖuiddəʋɛ/

she here come-PROG.ASP
‘She is coming here’

/aʋəkka iɭɭiɡə bantukoɳɖuiddərɛ/

they here come-PROG.ASP
‘They are coming here’

/na:n akkila no:ʈin iddɛn/

I bird DET see-PROG.ASP
‘I am seeing the bird’

/eŋɡə: akkila no:ʈin iddijɔ/

we bird DET see-PROG.ASP
‘We are seeing the bird’

/amə: akkila no:ʈin iddənɛ/

he bird DET see-PROG.ASP
‘He is seeing the bird’

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Perfective aspect
The perfective aspect is mark by the suffix /-puʈʈɛ:n/, /-puʈʈə/, /-puʈʈi/, /-ktɛn/, /-uʈʈijə:/, /-
ktijɔ/, /-ktijɔ/, /-tə/, /- tru/ to the verb as in the following examples

/na:n akkila no:ʈi-puʈʈɛ:n/

I bird DET see-PERF.ASP
‘I had seen the bird’

/ni akkila no:ʈi-puʈʈə/

you bird DET see-PERF.ASP
‘You (sg) had seen the bird’

/niŋɡə: akkila no:ʈi -puʈʈi/

you(pl) bird DET see-PERF.ASP
‘You(pl) had seen the bird’

/nə:n sattəiɡə: ʋɔ:-ktɛn/

I market-LOC go-PERF.ASP
‘I had gone to the market’

/eŋɡə: akkila no:ʈi -puʈʈijə:/

we bird DET see-PERF.ASP
‘We had seen the bird’

/eŋɡə: sattəiɡə: ʋɔ:-ktijɔ/

we market-LOC go-PERF.ASP
‘We had gone to the market’

/enɡə: ɛɽəʈə:ʋ sattəiɡə: ʋɔ:-ktijɔ/

we(two) market-LOC go-PERF.ASP
‘We (two) had gone to the market’

/ni sattəiɡə: ʋɔ:-tə/

you market-LOC go-PERF.ASP
‘You(sg) had gone to the market’

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 /niŋɡə: sattəiɡə: ʋɔ:ti/
you(pl) market-LOC go-PERF.ASP
‘You(pl) had gone to the market’

/amə: santəiɡə: ʋɔ:tə/

he market-LOC go-PERF.ASP
‘He had gone to the market’

/aʋə: santəiɡə: ʋɔ:tə/

she market-LOC go-PERF.ASP
‘She had gone to the market’

/adu sattəiɡə: ʋɔ:-tu/

it market-LOC go-PERF.ASP
‘It had gone to the market’

/aʋəkka: sattəiɡə: ʋɔ:-tru/

they market-LOC go-PERF.ASP
‘They had gone to the market’

/aʋəkka: ɛɽəʈə:ʋ sattəiɡə: ʋɔ:-tru/

They (two) market-LOC go-PERF.ASP
‘They (two) had gone to the market’

Unrealised aspect
The unrealized or erealis aspect is mark by the suffix /-kəʋɔ:nijɔ/ as in the following
examples

/eŋɡə: santtaikkə: ʋɔ:-kəʋɔ:nijɔ/

we market-LOC go-UNR.ASP
‘We will go to the market’

/eŋɡə: ɛɽəʈə:ʋ santtaikkə: ʋɔ:kəʋɔ:nijɔ/

we(two) market-LOC go-UNR.ASP
‘We (two) will go to the market’

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/amə: oɭəɡə ʋɔ:kɔnə/
he field-LOC go-UNR.ASP
‘He will go to the field’

/aʋə: oɭəɡə ʋɔ:kɔtijə/

she field-LOC go-UNR.ASP
‘She will go to the field’

/atu santəikkə ʋɔ:kəʋɔ:rə/

I market-LOC go-UNR.ASP
‘It will go to the market’

/na:n akkila no:ʈitɛ:n/

I bird DET see-UNR.ASP
‘I will see the bird’

/eŋɡə: akkila no:ʈitijɔ:ʋ/

we bird DET see-UNR.ASP
‘We will see the bird’

/ni akkila no:ʈəjɔ:rɛ/

you bird DET see-UNR.ASP
‘You (pl) will see the bird’

/amə: akkila no:ʈəʋɔ:nə:/

he bird DET see-UNR.ASP
‘He will see the bird’

/aʋə: akkila no:ʈəʋɔ:tijə/

she bird DET see-UNR.ASP
‘She will see the bird’

/atu akkila no:ʈəʋɔ:rə/

bird DET see-UNR.ASP
‘It will see the bird’

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 /aʋəkka akkila no:ʈəʋɔ:tə:rə/
bird 3PP-see-UNR.ASP-PL
‘They will see the bird’

Mood
Mood is a distinction of form or a particular set of inflectional forms of a verb to express
whether the action or state it denotes is conceived as fact or in some other manner. The following
are the different mood in Badaga.

Indicative Mood
The Indicative mood is a verb form that makes a statement and asks a question. Badaga
language, indicative mood is marked by the suffix /-ɡɔ/, /-ti/, /-m /, /-ʈʊ/ as in the following
examples.

/itu ellə: ennə mənəiɡɔ/

these I-GEN house-IND
‘These are my houses’

/atu amənə katti/

that he-GEN knife-IND
‘That is his knife’

/atu ellə: ennə bukkʊɡɔ/

those I-GEN book-PL-IND
‘Those are my books’

/atu ontu kutərə/

That horse-IND
‘That is a horse’

/itu na:n e:ɡu tinba: kiʈʈʊ/

this I-GEN usual food-IND
‘This is my usual food’

/itu ontu oɭɭijə ba:mm /

this story good-IND
‘This is a good story’

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Imperative Mood
The imperative mood forms a command or a request. In Badaga, it is marked by the suffix
/-kʊ/, /-ʈʊ/, /-ʃʊ/as in the following examples.

/ennə mənəiɡə ʋɔ:kʊ/

I-GEN house-LOC go-IMP
‘Go to my house’

/ennə mənəiɡə ba:/

I-GEN house-LOC come-IMP
‘Come to my house’

/mɛ:ʤəi otəɡə nillʊ/

table-on-LOC stand-IMP
‘Stand on the table’

/mɛləinə: ma:ttəʈʊ/
slowly speak-IMP
‘Speak slowly’

/bərəʋətunə oɭɭəŋɡə baɽi/

words DET neatly write-IMP
‘Write the words neatly’

/i: bukkə: o:tu/

book this read-IMP
‘Read this book’

/ulla: setukku/
grass DET remove-IMP
‘Remove the grass’

/aɖijə: ʃɔ:ʃʊ/
door DET close-IMP
‘Close the door’

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 /kijijɛ kuɭi/
sit-IMP
‘Sit down’

/na:kku maɳikku mɛ:la ba:riʋi/

four time after come-IMP
‘Come after 4 o’clock’

/ni:rʊ eddiɳɖʊbə:/
water some bring-IMP
‘Bring some water’

/bukkə: tiriki ottuɳɖʊ ba:/

book DET bring-IMP
‘Bring the book back’

Subjunctive mood
It is a grammatical mood that represents a denoted act or state not as fact but as contingent
or possible or viewed emotionally (as with doubt or desire). The subjunctive mood in Badaga is
express by adding the suffix /-la/ the verb as in the following example

/ontu ʋɛ:la sarijə:nə sə:məñʊ bantu-la ni: idənə no:ʈəkkʊ/

you (in time) come-SUBJ we (will examine this)
‘If you come in time we will examine this’

/kutirəiɡə pɛkkə uʈʈija:ʈ-la aʋə paɽənʈrə:/

horse-PPL DET wing had-SUBJ they (would have flown)
‘If the horses had wings they would have flown’

/sippə:ji bantə-lə kaɭɭərə iɖitirə a:kkʊm/

polise come-SUBJ thief catch-?
‘If the police comes than the thief will be caught’

/ni maddu kuʈitə-lə saŋɡəʈ uɭɭətə:kkʊm/

you-NOM medicine DET eat-?-SUBJ disease cure-?
‘If you take the medicine then the disease will be cured’

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Dubitative Mood
The dubitative mood pertains to the mood of a verb that states the need or obligation. In this
language is express by adding the suffix/-kʊ/to the verb. The following are the examples.

/amə: akkilə kollə:kkʊ/

he-NOM bird DET kill-DUBIT
‘He may kill the bird’

/amə: itu intə:ʈʊ barə:kkʊ/

he still come-DUBIT
‘He may still come’

/na:n barə:kkə/
I come-DUBIT
‘I may come’

Obligatory mood
The Obligatory mood indicates the action that must be performed. In Badaga it is expressed
by the suffix /-tu/which follows the verb as in the following examples

/ni iɽəɖʊ ba:lə k nnʊ tinbə-tu/

you banana two eat-OBLIG
‘You should eat two bananas’

/amə: ontu bukkʊ bərəʋ-tu/

he book one write-OBLIG
‘He should write a book’

/na:n babbu-tu/
I come-OBLIG
‘I should come’

Negation
The process of altering affirmative to negative is called negation. The negation in Badaga
language is done by adding the prefixing and suffixing /-allə/ and /-illə/to the verb as in the
following sentence.

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/itu bɛ:ʃutuɡə sarijənətu allə/
this edible-NEG-IND
‘This is not edible’

/ni iɭɭi irəba:rtu/

you here NEG-remain-IMP
‘You must not remain here’

/kiʧʧʊ sa:rɛ ʋɔ:kə bɛ:ʈə:/

fire near-LOC NEG-go-IMP
‘Do not go near the fire’

/aʋə: kɛlasa: ma:ʈi bi:bbilə/

he work DET NEG-do-NEG-SFP
‘She has not done the work’

/aʋəkkərə:ɭɛ itu muʈijə:/

they work this NEG-do-NEG-UNR.ASP
‘They cannot do it’

/niŋɡə: o:tulə/
You (pl) book NEG-read-NEG-SFP
‘You(pl) are not reading’

/na:ləikinə na:n barə:tʊi rə:kkʊ/

tomorrow I NEG-come-NEG-UNR.ASP
‘I shall not come tomorrow’

/ʋɛ:ɡə: oɭɭijə ma:ttʊ allə:/

these words ? NEG-good-NEG-SFP
‘These are not good words’

/entə sa:rɛ ontu illə/

I-GEN-LOC nothing NEG-have-NEG-SFP
‘I have nothing with me’

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 /ituɡʊ muntɛ innə inɡə no:ʈitarətɛ illə/
we before you-ACC NEG-see-never
‘We have never seen you before’

/a: manʊsə: innʊm babbila/

man DET NEG-come-yet
‘That man has not come yet’

Causation
The causative is a term used in grammatical description to refer to the causal relation
between alternative versions of a sentence. Some affixes have a causative role. This is a relationship
which is clearly established in the morphological structure of language where an affix can
systematically distinguish between non-causative and causative uses of a verb. Causative indicates
that a subject-causes someone or something else to do or be something or cause a change in state
of non volitional event. The causative sentence is formed by suffixing causative marker to the verb.
Example of causativisation in Badaga is form by adding the suffix/-ʋə/to the verb as in the sentence
below.

/na:n nərəʃʊɡə mu:lijəʋə kuñə-ʋəɡə eʈʈʊ koʈʈɛ:n/

I-NOM nurse feed? baby-ACC?-CAUS-SFP
‘I make the nurse feed the baby’

/na:n kɛlasaka:rə bittʊ oɭə-ʋə: ki:sitɛ:n/

I-NOM servant -DET field-LOC work do-CAUS-SFP
‘I make the servant work in the field’

/na:n ʤənəkɔ:-ʋə nɛɡisitɛn/

I-NOM people-ACC laugh-CAUS-SFP
‘I make the people laugh’

/na:n kutərijə: o:ʈə bi:ddənɛ/

I-NOM horse-ACC run-CAUS-SFP
‘I am making the horse run’

/na:n kutirijə: e:titen/

I-NOM horse DET run-CAUS-SFP
‘I run the horse’

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 /eŋɡə: kutirijə: e:titijɔ/
we-NOM horse DET run-CAUS-SFP
‘We run the horse’

/aʋə: kutirijə: e:tit /

she-NOM horse DET run-CAUS-SFP
‘She runs the horse’

/eŋɡə: koʈi mundirijə doɖsinijɔ:/

we-NOM grapes grow-CAUS-SFP
‘We grow grapes’

/aʋəkkə koʈi mundirijə doɖsijə:/

they- NOM grapes grow-CAUS-SFP
‘They grow grapes’

/aʋə: koʈi mundirijə doɖsijə:/

she-NOM grapes grow-CAUS-SFP
‘She grows grapes’

Adjective
A grammatical word class whose main function is to qualify a noun or noun phrase,
providing additional information concerning the subject or object signified. The different types of
adjectives found in Badaga are as follows.
/o:sattʊ/ ‘new’
/do:ɖɖatu/ ‘big’
/a:ɭəʋa:tə:/ ‘deep’
/keʈʈətu/ ‘bad’

Classification of Adjectives:
Baduga has the following kinds of adjectives.
1. Qualitative
2. Quantitative
3. Predicative

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1) Qualitative Adjective
Adjectives which attribute a quality to the noun are called qualitative adjectives.
/kaʃʈəʋa:tə:/ ‘hard’
/do:ɖɖatu/ ‘big’
/erəkkamanəʃu/ ‘kind’

2) Quantitative Adjective
These adjective refers to the quantity of the nouns to which they are attributed.
/kuññə:/ ‘light’
/ka:lija:tə:/ ‘empty’
/dumba:/ ‘full’

3) Predicative Adjective
Adjective in Badaga are also used predicatively, but they cannot be considered as a verb.
The reason is verbs take tense/aspect/mood markers, whereas predicative adjectives do not take.
These adjectives are formed by adding of/-tu/to the basic adjectives.

/m ɖu bubbətu dirɛɡəɡə oɭɭittu/

swimming (n) health (n) good-ADJ
‘Swimmimg is good for health’

Numerals
This category indicates numbers. The Cardinals, Ordinals, Fractional and
Multiplicative/Enumerative Numerals in Badaga are as follows

Cardinal
The following are the cardinal numerals in Badaga.

Cardinals Gloss
/ontu/ ‘one’
/ɛɽəʈʊ/ ‘two
/mu:ɽʊ/ ‘three’
/na:kkʊ/ ‘four’
/aitu/ ‘five’
/a:ɽʊ/ ‘six’
/i:ɭʊ/ ‘seven’
/eʈʈʊ/ ‘eight’

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 /ombəttu/ ‘nine’
/ɦattu/ ‘ten’

From eleven onwards the numerals are form ‘one’, two’, ‘three’ etc. The formation of eleven
to nineteen is as follows.

/ɦañontu/ ‘eleven’
/ɦañ ɛɽəʈʊ/ ‘twelve’
/ɦatimu:ɽʊ/ ‘thirteen’
/ɦatinə:kkʊ/ ‘fourteen’
/ɦatinəitu/ ‘fifteen’
/ɦatinə:ɽʊ/ ‘sixteen’
/ɦatiri:ɭʊ/ ‘seventeen’
/ɦatireʈʈʊ/ ‘eighteen’
/ɦattʊtombotu/ ‘nineteen’

From twenty one onwards the numerals

/ibbattiontu/ ‘twentyone’
/ibbattiɛɽəʈʊ/ ‘twentytwo’
/ibbattiaitu/ ‘twentyfive’
/ibbattiombattʊ/ ‘twentynine’

From thirty onwards the numerals

/muʋəttiontu/ ‘thirty one’

/muʋəttiaitu/ ‘thirty five’
/muʋəttiombattu/ ‘thirty nine’

From fortyone onwards the numerals

/naləʋəttiontu/ forty one

/naləʋəttiɛɽəʈʊ/ forty two
/naləʋəttiaitu/ forty five
/nalʋəttiombattu/ forty nine

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From fiftyone onwards the numerals are

/aiʋətontu/ ‘fifty one’

/aiʋəttiaitu/ ‘fifty five’
/aiʋəttiombəttu/ ‘fifty nine’

From sixtyone onwards the numerals are

/aɽʊʋəttiontu/ sixty one

/aɽəʋəttiaitu/ sixty five
/aɽəʋttiombattu/ sixty nine

From seventyone onwards the numerals are

/eɭəʋəttiontu/ ‘seventyone’
/eɭəʋəttiaitu/ ‘seventyfive’
/eɭəʋəttiombattu/ ‘seventynine’

From eightyone onwards the numerals are

/embattuontu/ ‘eighty one

/embataitu/ ‘eighty five’’
/embattuombattu/ ‘eighty nine

From ninetyone onwards the numerals are form

/tombattuontu/ ‘ninetyone’
/tombattuaitu/ ‘ninetyfive’
/tombattuombattu/ ‘ninetynine’

The numerals twohundred, threehundred, fourhundred etc are form by

adding/ʋanta:/‘Allomorph of hundred’ as prefix to ‘one’, ‘two’, ‘three’, ‘four’ respectively as

/nu:ɽʊ/ ‘hundred’
/nu:ɽʊ/ + /mu:ɽʊ/ ‘three’ > /muɳɳʊ:ɽʊ/ ‘three hundred’
/nu:ɽʊ/ + /aitu/ ‘five’ > /aiɳʊ:ɽʊ/ ‘five hundred’

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Ordinals
The ordinals are form by adding/-a/ as suffix to ‘two’, ‘three’ as-
/mutala:ʋətu/ First

/ɛɽəʈə:ʋətu/ Second

/mu:ɽə:ʋətu/ Third

Fractional
The fractional of Badaga language are as follows.
/pa:ti/ ‘half’
/ontu/ ‘one’ + /arə/ ‘half’ >/ontuarə/ ‘one and a half’
/ɛɽəʈu/ ‘two’ + /arə/ ‘half ’ > /ɛɽəʈuarə/ ‘two and a half’
/mukka:lu/ ‘three fourth’

Multiplicative/Enumerative
The concept of ‘twice’, ‘thrice’ are conveyed by suffixing/-tirukkʊ/to the base cardinal
number as follows

/ɛɽəʈʊ/ ‘two’ + /tirukkʊ/ > /ɛɽəʈʊ tirukkʊ/ ‘twice’

/mu:ɽʊ/ ‘three’ + /tirukkʊ/ > /mu:ɽʊ tirukkʊ/ ‘thrice’

Adverbs
The adverbs as a grammatical category qualifies the verbs. The three types of adverbs in
Badaga are as follows:

Adverbs of Manner Adverbs of Direction Adverbs of time

/marija:təi a:tə:/ ‘kindly’ /kaɭəkkʊ/ ‘east’ /mariʧʧijɔ:/ ‘again’
/keʈʈəma:/ ‘cruely’ /mɛ:ɽkʊ/ ‘west’ /inta:ɖʊ/ ‘afterwards’
/dabbəñə: / ‘loudly’ /eʈəsari/ ‘left hand’ /munda:ʈɛ/ ‘already’
/mɛlenə/ ‘slowly’ /du:rə:/ ‘far’ /ʤanə:ɡʊ/ ‘daily’
/mañəkaɳə:/ ‘fast /oɽə:ʃu/ ‘out’ /sandottu/ ‘evening’
(quick)’
/dabba:tə:/ ‘badly’ /mɛ:lano:ʈi/ ‘upward’ /ʤa:mə:/ ‘time’
/suddəʋə:tə/ ‘neatly’ /aɖɖə:/ ‘across’ /iñdu/ ‘today’
/aɽiʋə:tə:/ ‘smartly’ /sa:rə/ ‘near’ /iru/ ‘night’

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Word order:
Badaga has SOV sentence structure. The example is given below

/makɛ:ʃʊ mə:ʋkaññʊ tinda:/

mahesh-NOM mango that eat-PERF.ASP
‘Mahesh ate the mango’

/eŋɡə akkila no:ʈinijɔ/

we-NOM bird DET see-SFP
‘We see the bird’

The position of the qualifying adjective in relation to noun is that it precedes the noun as in
the following example

/oɭɭijə ku:ʃʊ/
good boy
‘The good boy’

/itu oɭɭijə ba:mə/

this good story-IND
‘This good story’

The numerals follow the noun as in following example

/aɭɭi ɛɽəʈʊ kottiɡɔ iddərɛ/

there two cat remain
‘There are two cats’

/aɭɭi ɛɽəʈʊ doɖɖʊ aʈʈiɡɔ ʈətə/

there big village two remain
‘There are two big villages’

Demonstrative follows the noun as in the following example

/a: manʊsə: innʊm babbila/

man DET NEG-come-yet
‘That man has not come yet’

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 /a: manʊʃə abbərə dabbəʋə idda:nɛ/
man that fat-IND
‘That man is fat’

Adverb precedes the verb as in following example

/ra:mə: maɳəkañə o:ʈitə:n/

ram-NOM quickly run-SFP
‘Rama runs quickly’

/bərəʋətunə oɭɭəŋɡə baɽi/

words DET neatly write-IMP
‘Write the words neatly’

Conjunction
They are words that link other words, phrases or clauses. There are three types of
conjunction: coordinating, subordinating, and correlative conjuctions

/iññɔ:/ ‘and’
/badiɭʊɡə:/ ‘for’
/a:lə/ ‘but’
/illa:tuʋɔ:lə/ ‘or’

Participle
A lexical item, showing some of the characteristics and functions of both verbs and
adjectives.
/ʋa:ntukɔɽəʃotu/ ‘to welcome’

Interjection
It is that class of grammatical words which are used to show exclamation or other emotional
states of that speaker.

/amə: innɔ ʤəʋɔ nima:kkijɛ idənɛ!/

he – PRP young – ADJ seems – VBZ
‘He seems still young!’

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 /ba:ñʊ d :ɡɛ ettə ontu ʃo:ɡə:tə ka:ŋɡərə billʊ!/
beautiful - ADJ temple – NN how – WRB
‘What a beautiful temple it is!’

The above mentioned nine word classes are broadly grouped into two categorie

1) Declinable and
2) Indeclinable
Declinable are those which are declined for number, gender, person, for examples, noun,
pronouns, adjectives, and verb. Indeclinable are postpositions, conjunctions, adverbs, and participle.

Structure of phrase
A phrase refers to any group of word or sometimes a single word that forms a constituent
and so function as a single unit in the syntax of a sentence. It lacks the subject-predicate organization
of a clause. The phrasal sub-division in Badaga is as follows.

(1) Noun Phrase

A noun phrase is any syntactic element with a noun’s function. A noun phrase is a noun and
all its modifiers and determiners. Examples of noun phrase in Badaga are-
• /innə eɽəʈu bukkʊɡɔ/
you-GEN two book
‘Two books of yours’

• /aɭɭi ɛɽəʈʊ kottiɡɔ iddərɛ/

there two cat remain
‘There are two cats’

(2) Verb Phrase

A verb phrase is a phrase that has the syntactic role of a simple verb and which together
functions as a single verb. In addition to the verb it includes auxiliaries, objects, object complement
and other constituent apart from the subject. They are inflected for person, number and gender.
Example of verbal phrase in Badaga are-

• /eŋɡə: ni:rə kutiʧʧinijɔ/

we-NOM water boil-SFP
‘We boil water’

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 • /aʋəkkə ni:rə kutiʧʧirə:/
they-NOM water boil-SFP
‘They boil water’

• /na:n doɖɖi tinnɔnkontu iruntɛ:n/

I bread 1PP-eat
‘I eat bread’

• /eŋɡə: dənəʋə u:dijə:/

we-NOM cow-ACC beat-SFP
‘We beat the cows’

(3) Postpositional Phrase

A postpositional phrase is an adpositional phrase in which the postposition serves as the
head. The postposition follows its complement. The phrase thus formed is an exocentric
construction that functions as an adjectival or adverbial modifier. Examples of postpositional phrase
in Badaga are as follows

• /kiɭi mɔɽədɔ:ɡə idərə/

parrot DET tree-on-LOC remain
‘The parrot is on the tree’
Here /dɔ:ɡə/ is the postpositional phrase

• /na:n mənəiɡə ʋə:kəʋɔ:nɛ/

I house-LOC go-SFP
‘I go to the house’
Here/mənəi-ɡə/ is the postpositional phrase

• /amə: mɔɽə kaɖijə:s oriɡən /

he tree-under-LOC sleep-PROG.ASP
‘He sleeps under the tree’
Here/kaɖijə:s/ is the postpositional phrase

• /na:n mɔɽə:ntə appərə du:rnə iddɛ:n/

I tree-ABL-far remain
‘I am far from the tree’
Here /appərə/ is the postpositional phrase

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 (4) Adjectival Phrase
The head of an adjectival phrase is an adjective. The examples of adjective phrase in Badaga
are given below.

• /doɖɖə bukkʊ/
big book
‘The big book’

• /oɭɭijə ku:ʃʊ/
good boy
‘The good boy’

• /uddə mərə/
large tree
‘The large tree’

• /b ɭɭə kutirə/
white horse
‘The white horse’

• /kunnə ku:ʃʊ/
small child
‘The small child’

• /ʃiɡɡa:bba ɦɛɳɳʊ/
shy girl
‘The clever girl’

(5) Adverbial Phrase

An adverbial phrase is a linguistics term for a group of two or more words operating
adverbially when viewed in terms of their syntactic function. An adverb phrase has an adverb that
complements the verb. Examples of adverbial phrase in Badaga are as follows.

• /na:n ʤənəɡʊ a:piskkə ombətu maɳikka ʋoktɛ:n/

I (at 9 o’clock) office go-?-SFP
‘I used to go to the office at 9 o’clock’

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 • /amə: sattəikka e:ɡʊ ombətu maɳikka ʋokta:n/
he (at 9 o’clock) market-LOC go-?-SFP
‘He used to go to the market at 9 o’clock’

• /na:kku maɳikku mɛ:la ba:riʋi/

time four after come-IMP
‘Come after 4 o’clock’

• /ra:mə: maɳəkañə o:ʈitə:n/

ram-NOM quickly run-SFP
‘Rama runs quickly’

• /ku:ʃʊ ki:ɭɛ buddʊpuʈʈə/

child DET fall-SFP
‘The child falls down’

• /mɛləinə: ma:ttəʈʊ/
slowly speak-IMP
‘Speak slowly’

• /bərəʋətunə oɭɭəŋɡə baɽi/

words DET neatly write-IMP
‘Write the words neatly’

Passivisation
The transformation of a sentence from its active to its passive is known as passivisation. It
indicates that the subject is the patient or recipient of the action denoted by the verb. Example of
passivisation in Badaga is given below.

Active: /amə: bukku o:tinɖidanɛ/

he book read-PROG.ASP
‘He reads a book’

Passive: /amə: bukkə o:tita:n/

book DET he-NOM read-SFP
‘The book was being read by him’

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 Active: /na:n doɖɖi tinnɔnkontu iruntɛ:n/
I bread eat-SFP
‘I eat bread’

Passive: /na:n doɖɖi tintɛ:n/

bread DET me-NOM eat-SFP
‘Bread is being eaten by me’

Thus to form passive from active we see that (subject + object + verb) becomes (object + subject
+ verb).

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 5. SYNTAX

Syntax is the study of the rules and principles and processes by which sentences are
constructed in a particular language. Badaga has SOV sentence structure. The syntax of Badaga is
discussed below.
Types of sentence: Structurally a sentence can be divided into three categories. They are (1)
Simple sentence (2) Complex sentence and (3) Compound sentence. The different types of sentence
in Badaga are given below:

(1) Simple sentence

A simple sentence is a sentence structure that contains one independent clause and no
dependent clause. As a sentence structure a simple sentence contains one independent clause and
no dependent clause. The simple sentences in Badaga are as follows:

• /dənəɡɔ ɦə:l dantarə/

cow-NOM milk give
‘The cow gives milk’

• /eŋɡə: kutirə saʋə:ri ma:ʈitijɔ:/

we horse ride-SFP
‘We ride the horse’

• /amə: bukku o:tinɖidanɛ/

he book read-PROG.ASP
‘He reads a book’

• /aʋə: aɭɭi niddə ʋɔʈitiʋi/

she there stand-PERF.ASP
‘She stands there’

• /eŋɡə: dənəʋə u:dijə:/

we-NOM cow-ACC beat-SFP
‘We beat the cows’

• /makɛ:ʃʊ mə:ʋkaññʊ tinda:/

mahesh-NOM mango that eat-PERF.ASP
‘Mahesh ate the mango’

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 • /na:n doɖɖi tinnɔnkontu iruntɛ:n/
I bread eat-SFP
‘I eat bread’

• /ku:ʃʊ nɛɡətərə:/
baby DET smile-SFP
‘The baby smiles’

(2) Complex sentence

A complex sentence contains one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. The
complex sentences in Badaga are as follows:

• /amə: bantə mɛ:lɛ na:n ʋɔ:nɛ/

he come ? after I go-UNR.ASP
‘I shall go after he comes’

• /sippə:ji bantələ kaɭɭərə iɖitirə a:kkʊm/

polise come-SUBJ thief catch-?
‘If the police comes than the thief will be caught’

• /ennə:lɛ ennə mi:n ʋaləijə kaɳɖɛʈʊppʊɡə muʈija:tətintə: na:n aɭɭəɡə ʋɔ:ppinɛ/

I-GEN fishing net NEG-find so I today river NEG-go ?
‘I could not find my fishing net so I did not go to the river today’

• /ni maddu kuʈitələ saŋɡəʈ uɭɭətə:kkʊm/

you-NOM medicine DET eat-?-SUBJ disease cure-?
‘If you take the medicine then the disease will be cured’

• /ni ma:ʈətuʋəɡə munta:ʈi amə: ma:ʈibuʈʈə:/

you-NOM do-PERF.ASP before he-NOM work DET do-PERF.ASP-?
‘He did the work before you did’

• /amə: ɦəʃʊ a:ɡətə ibʊnijɔ kiʈʈə tintubuʈʈə:/

he meal NEG-hungry although he meal eat
‘Although he was not hungry he ate the meal’

174
 (3) Compound sentence
A compound sentence is composed of at least two independent clauses joined by a
connective. The compound sentences in Badaga are as follows:

• /o:ʃi mi:nʊɡə doɖɖʊtʊ o:ʃi mi:nʊɡə kuññətu/

some fish big CON some small
‘Some fish are big and some are small’

• /ennə ka:lʊ ʤa:ri na:n buddʊ pʊʈʈɛ:n/

I foot slip CON I fall-SFP
‘My foot slipped and I fell down’

• /kombu eʈʈʊ maɳiɡə u:tətə ʤanəŋɡə ellə: kɛlasa kijiʋətukkʊ a:rəmiʧʧidarʊ/

time (at 8 o’clock) blow-SIM.ASP CON people-NOM work do start-SFP
‘The siren blew at 8 o’clock and people started working’

• /ra:mə: kisnənə: ba:intə: a:la: kisnəɡə sa:mə sikkilə/

krishna-ACC come-IMP ? ask-SIM.ASP but krishna time NEG-have ?-SFP
‘Rama asked Krishna to come but Krishna had no time’

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 6. TEXT

Two friends and a Bear

Two friends, Ramu and Shyam walked throuɡh a forest. They promised each other that they would
remain united in case of any danɡer. Once they were walkinɡ throuɡh a forest. A bear came on their
way. Ramu climbed a tree. Shyam did not know how to climb a tree. He told his friend, “I do not
know how to climb a tree, please help me.” But Ramu did not respond. In fear and ɡrief, Shyam lay
down on the ɡround breathless.

The bear came near the man lyinɡ on the ɡround. It smelt in his ears, and slowly left the place,
because bears do not touch dead creatures. After the bear left, Ramu came down from the tree and
asked his friend Shyam, “Friend, what did the bear tell you into your ears?" Shyam replied, "The
bear advised me not to trust a friend who leaves you in times of trouble to save himself." Sayinɡ
this Shyam walked in own way, leavinɡ Ramu alone in the forest.

/eɾuɖu sne:sə ka:ɾəɾu: ondu kəɾəɖe/

Two friends and a Bear

/eɾuɖu sne:sə ka:ɾəɾu: iddɨɾu: ɾa:mu: so:mu:ndo: a:ɡa: eɾəɖə ka:ɖɨda:ɾi: nəɖɨdɨ o:dɨɾu o:pɨne:ɡa:
eɾəɖe:nu sətjə ma:ɖitəɾu: nəŋɡeɾəɖa: eppe:ɾpəʈʈə kəsʈə bəndəlijo: eppe:ɾpəʈʈə pɾəʧʧənə bəndəlijo:
obbuɡobba: ossa:səja: hibbudo: obbɡobbu buʈʈu okkuɖɨdo: əttinde:ɡe: sətjə i:sɨndɾo: sətjəma:di
nəɖdɨʋɨnɨ o:pəne:/

Two friends, Ramu and Shyam walked throuɡh a forest. They promised each other that they would
remain united in case of any danɡer.

/ondu da: ɾi da:ɾi kəɾəɖi bənduʈʈa: Once they were walkinɡ throuɡh a forest/

A bear came on their way.

/əkkəɾəɖi: no: ɖidədu: ɾa: mu: o: ɖindo:ji: mo:ɾa:ttiʈʈa: so:mu: moɾətti əɾiɡa:/

Ramu climbed a tree.

176
/ɾa:mu soɾə ke:ttənə ɾa:mu: nə moɾətti əɾijə dəɡa: e:nɨma:ɖ əʋədu a:ɡə ɾa:mu: no:ɖitu: no:ɖa:da:ke:
səfe:ni diʋnə so:mu:/

Shyam did not know how to climb a tree.

/əɲʤikijo:ɡe: kənnəmuʧʧi: əde: a:ɖudunna: səttəma:kke: əde: əɖɨdunna: a:ɡa: kəɾəɖi əde: pəkkə
bəndu: so:mu: sutti no:ɖiʈʈu: tənnə kiʋi sa:ɾa:di mu:si noʈʈu: i:mə səttɨdune: tummɨʈʈɨ o:jiʈʈa:/

He told his friend, “I do not know how to climb a tree, please help me.” But Ramu did not respond.
In fear and ɡrief, Shyam lay down on the ɡround breathless.

/e:ka:ndəle: səttə enədo: kəɾəɖi: tinnu dilla: ha:ɡa: hidɨnən no:ɖiddə ɾa:mu: moɾa:ndə ki:jə bəndu:
so:mu sa:ɾe: kəɾəɖi: e:nondɨ e:ttə tu:ʋu ke:ttəna:/

The bear came near the man lying on the ɡround. It smelt in his ears, and slowly left the place,
because bears do not touch dead creatures.

/a:ɡə so:mu: ittəma:kke: a:bəttu ka:lədo:ɡe: odəʋa:də nənbəna: səʋəɡa:sə bi:jəbəɖa: əkindi e:kindi
bəndiʈʈu: so:mu: ətte:ɾi da:ɾidəɾi o:jiʈna: ɾa:mu: əlliliddu: jo:ʧʧi:niduna:/

After the bear left, Ramu came down from the tree and asked his friend Shyam, “Friend, what did
the bear tell you into your ears?" Shyam replied, "The bear advised me not to trust a friend who
leaves you in times of trouble to save himself." Sayinɡ this Shyam walked in own way, leavinɡ
Ramu alone in the forest.

177
 7. REFERENCES

Balakrishnan, D. R. (1999). Badaga A Dravidian Language. Chennai: Page Offset

Printers Chennai.

Bright, W. (1975). The Dravidian enunciative Vowel. Carol: In Schiffman

Harold , F and Eastman .

E.Thurston. (n.d.). Castes and Tribes of Southern India. Madras University

Press.

Grierson, G. (n.d.). Linguistic Survey of India (Munda and Dravidian Languages)

(Vol. IV). Calcutta.

Grigg, H. (1880). A manual of the Nilgiri District in the Madras Presidency. (H.

Grigg, Ed.) Madras: E keys, Government Press.

Hockings, P. (1550-1975). Ancient Hindu Refugees: Badaga Social History. New Delhi:

Vikas Publishing House Pvt.Ltd.

----****----

178
 CHETTIBHASHA
Jhuma Ghosh
1. INTRODUCTION

Chettibhasha is one of the unclassified mother tongues of India. This language is spoken
by the Chetti community of the Nilgiris district of Tamilnadu and some of the districts of
Kerala. The Kannada is the closest major language. Their language is also very similar to
Badaga language. The speakers of Chettibhasha mainly live in western Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

The origin of Chettibhasha is traceable to the South Dravidian family of languages and
is related to and influenced by the neighbouring languages like Tamil, Malayalam, Telugu,
Kannada, etc.

i) Family Affiliation
‘Chetty’ is the name of the community and the language spoken by them is named as
‘Chettibhasha’. There are ten groups of Chetty people identified in Tamil Nadu and their
spoken language is Tamil or a variety of Tamil. They are mainly trading caste of South India.
Thurston (1909) states that Chetti means trader, but this occupational term is loosely employed
as a caste name.

‘Chetti’ community is traced since 1874 Census (1874, Census of Travancore Report).
There it is mentioned as a treading caste of South India. In Census 1961 total 711 number of
speakers use Chettibhasha as their mother tongue. Chettibhasha is a Dravidian language, comes
under the Southern sub group of Tamil-Kannada divisions. Of course, this is one of the mother
tongues grouped under Tamil-Kannada language and which is again grouped under Kannada
language in Indian Census. Linguistic classification of Chettibhasha in Dravidian family of
languages is presented below,

Dravidian

Northern Central Southern

Tulu Tamil-Kannada

Kannada Tamil
Chettibhasha

179
ii) Location

The field data for Chettibhasha for the project of Linguistic Survey of India, Tamil
Nadu, is collected from the Udagamandalam Taluk of the Nillgiris of Tamil Nadu. The data
has been collected from a female informant named Smt. Nandini R, her age is 31 years and
again this data was verified by another female person named Smt. Vijayalakshmi S, her age is
40 years. The name of the interpreter is Smt. B. Geetha Lakshmi and her age is 38 years. All
the persons are residing at the Udagamandalam taluk of Nilgiri district.

iii) Speakers’ Strength

In Indian census Chettibhasa language is traced since beginning. Chetti community was
identified in Census 1874 (1874, Census of Travancore Report). There they are identified as a
trading caste of South India. In 1874 total 16,948 people were identified in this community who
were only 1% to the total Hindu population of India.

In Census 1961 total 711 number of speakers used Chettibhasa as their mother tongue.
Speakers’ strength of Chettibhasa according to 1961 is presented below.

AREA NAME TOTAL

Person Male Female
1 2 3
Tamilnadu 711 377 334
Madras 711 377 334

iv) Bilingualism

Language is a powerful mode of transmission of cultures and it is also a basic factor for
considering tribal status. Most of the people in India are bilinguals. Similarly, ‘Chettiar’ people
are also bilingual since very long period of time. They mainly communicate with Tamil
language within their group. However, younger generation also uses English language in their
day to day communication with each other. So, the primary means of communication of this
community is Tamil and English but they can understand Kannada language too. This
community also understands and responses in Badaga language which is the major language of
the Nilgiri and Kannada language.

v) Sociolinguistic Information

Chetti people are identified with various alternative names like ‘Chetti’ or ‘Chetty’ or
‘Chettiar’. Chettiar are the part of the large business caste of Bania in India. Thurston (1909)
states that the word ‘Chetti’ means trader or merchant. Some of these people are the most
180
successful business persons in South India. They founded many of the leading banks of India.
They are also involved in various industries like finance, real estate, entertainment, textiles,
timber and grains. Some of them have their own tea and coffee plantations, which are farmed
by other castes.
The primary means of communication of this community is Tamil and English but they
can understand Kannada and Badaga also. These people are mainly concentrated in Tamilnadu
(Coimbatore, Nilgiri and Periyar districts, Kerala (Wayanad district) and Karnataka (Bavali
district).
‘Chetti’ people are mainly the followers of Hinduism, they worship Ramanuja. The
Chetti marry within their Bania caste often to families with the same level of income and
property. Families arrange marriages with the consent of the young people. Sons inherit
property from their fathers. Weddings are held at mansions owned by other Chetti. Brahmin
priests officiate at important family occasions like births, weddings and funerals.

vi) Review of earlier literature

Chettibhasha has no standard form and they also have no written literature. Elder
generations of this community use some oral fables and moral stories for younger generaltions.
As per the information from the informants, now a days this community has started publishing
one half yearly magazine which presents matrimonial advertisement, small poems and songs
regarding marriage ceremony, small story etc. They are using Tamil script for their writing
purpose.

181
vii) Present Study of Chettibhasha

The present study of Chettibhasha has been developed on the basis of four varieties of
reports and transcription of the data and one consolidated report of Mother Tongue Survey of
India Project (MTSI).

Audio-visual linguistic data of four samples of Chettibhasha for MTSI project had been
collected from the Srimadurai and Mudumalai village of Gudalur taluk of the Nilgiris of Tamil
Nadu, by a group of people of Directorate of Census Operation of Tamil Nadu, Office of the
Registrar General, India. All the data have been transcribed and analysed by linguistic Resource
Persons of Annamalai University and CIIL, Mysore.
The analysed reports have been consolidated by Prof. C. Sivashanmugam, Bharathiar
University. Based on his consolidated report, the linguistic description of the Chettibhasha has
been developed in the following chapters.

Based on this above sociolinguistic imformation, the linguistic description of the

Chettibhasha is presented here in the following chapters.

182
 2. PHONOLOGY

The phonology is a branch of linguistics which studies the sound system of a particular
language. The phonemic inventory of Chetti Bhasha shows the distinctive sound units
occurring in Chetti Bhasha speech. The phonological system of Chetti Bhasha is presented
below based on the data collected from the informant.

i) Phonemic Inventory
According to the available data, the phonological description of Chetti Bhasha may be
posited in the following way.

a) Segmental phoneme:

Segmental vowel phoneme:

Phonetically vowels are the sounds articulated without a complete closure in the mouth
or a degree of narrowing which would produce audible friction. Total 15 vowels are available
in Chetti Bhasha (including 6 long vowel). The segmental vowel phonemes of Chetti Bhasha
are presented below.

Vowel chart
Front Central Back
Close i u
Near close ʊ
Close mid e o
Mid ə
Open mid ɛ ɔ
Near open
Open a

Contrasts in vowels

/ʊ/ ~ /ə/ /pʊtʊ/ ‘command’ : /pətʊ/ ‘papad’

/ a: / ~ / i / /alla:/ ‘or’ : /alli/ ‘there’
/ e: / ~ / i / /ille:/ ‘not’ : /illi/ ‘here’
/i/~/a/ /itu/ ‘their’ : /atu/ ‘they’
/a/~/e/ /alli/ ‘there’ : /elli/ ‘where’
/ i / ~ / e: / /itu/ ‘their’ : /e:tu/ ‘which’
/ a / ~ / e: / /atu/ ‘they’ : /e:tu/ ‘which’
/ a: / ~ / i / /na:/ ‘our’ : /ni/ ‘you’
/e/~/ɛ/ /na:ne/ ‘ourselves’ : /na:nɛ/ ‘myself’

183
 / u / ~ / a: / /huʋu/ ‘flower’ : /ha:ʋu/ ‘snake’
/ a: / ~ / ə / /aʋa:n/ ‘he’ : /aʋən/ ‘him’
/ i / ~ / a: / /akki/ ‘rice’ : /akka:/‘father’sbrother’sdaughter’
/a/~/e/ /mella/ ‘slow’ : /melle/ ‘slowly’
/u/~/ʊ/ /kallu/ ‘rock’ : /kallʊ/ ‘stone’
/i/~/a/ /illi/ ‘here’ : /alli/ ‘there’
/ʊ/~/u/ /u:rʊ/ ‘family’ : /u:ru/ ‘house’
/u/~/i/ /nu:ɽu/ ‘hundred’ : /ni:ru/ ‘water’
/i/~/u/ /huɭi/ ‘sour’ : /huɭu/ ‘worm’
/ a: / ~ / i / /ba:ddu/ ‘peacock’ : /biddu/ ‘seed’
/i/~/a/ /eli/ ‘rat’ : /ela/ ‘leaf’

Segmental consonant phoneme:

Phonetically they are sounds made by a closure or narrowing in the vocal tracts so that
the air flow is either completely blocked or so restricted that audible friction is produce. Total
25 Consonantal phonemes available in Chetti Bhasha. The segmental consonant phonemes in
Chetti Bhasha are presented below.

CONSONANT CHART
Post Palato
Labio Alveola Retrofle Glotta
Bilabial Dental Alveola Alveola Palatal Velar l
Dental r x
r r
p t k
ʈ
Plosive b d c ɡ
ɖ

Nasal m n ɳ ɲ ŋ

Trill ɽ
r
Tap
Fricati ʃ
s h
ve ʤ
Affricate
Approxima
ʋ ɻ
nt j
Lateral
Approxima l ɭ
nt

184
Contrasts in consonants
/j/~/l/ /ba:jkiɲcai/ ‘to float’ : /ba:lkiɲcai/ ‘to fly (as a bird)’
/d/~/ɡ/ /da:ɖi/ ‘chin’ : /ɡaɖi/ ‘door’
/m/~/p/ /mala/ ‘rain’ : /pala:/ ‘many’
/n/~/ɡ/ /neʈʈi/ ‘greedy’ : /ɡe:ʈʈi/ ‘shawl
/s/~/h/ /sa:ʋu/ ‘death rituals : /ha:ʋu/ ‘snake’
/b/~/k/ /baʈʈa:/ ‘circle’ : /kaʈʈa:/ ‘square’
/r/~/l/ /era/ ‘earthworm’ : /ela/ ‘leaf’
/m/~/n/ /mu:ɽu/ ‘three : /nu:ɽu/ ‘hundred’
/ʈ/~/t/ /muʈʈu/ ‘joint’ : /muttu/ ‘coral’
/k/~/m/ /ka:la:/ ‘season’ : /ma:la:/ ‘desert’
/b/~/k/ /bəʈʈa/ ‘road’ : /kaʈʈa:/ ‘square’
/s/~/l/ /ma:sa:/ ‘month’ : /ma:la:/ ‘desert’
/h/~/k/ /hana/ ‘money : /kana:/ ‘weight(weight measure)’
/p/~/m/ /pala:/ ‘many’ : /mala/ ‘rain’
/p/~/k/ /appa:/ ‘father’ : /akka:/ ‘father’s brother’daughter’
/h/~/k/ /ha:lu/ ‘milk’ : /ka:lu/ ‘leg’
/t/~/l/ /hattu/ ‘ten’ : /hallu/ ‘tooth’
/k/~/h/ /ka:lu/ ‘quarter’ : /ha:lu/ ‘ pillar’
/n/~/h/ /na:ʋu/ ‘tongue’ : /ha:ʋu/ ‘snake’

b) Suprasegmental phoneme:

Length

A term used in phonetics to refer to the physical duration of a sound or utterance, and
in phonology to refer to the relative durations of sounds and syllables when these are
linguistically contrastive; also referred to as quantity. Sometimes the term is restricted to
phonological contexts, the phonetic dimension being referred to as ‘duration’. Phonologically
long and short values are conventionally recognized for both Vowels and Consonants.
Languages often have one degree of phonological length, and may have more than one.

/iː/ /niːrʊ/ ‘water’

/uː/ /sʊːɖʊ/ ‘heat’
/oː/ /oːnəkkʊ ɱiːɳʊ/ ‘dried fish’

185
 /ɔː/ /ɱɔːɖaː/ ‘sky’

/aː/ /paːrəkəllʊ/ ‘rock’

/e:/ /e:tu/ ‘which’

/e/ /ɱəle/ ‘rain’

/e:/ /ɱəleː/ ‘mountain’

Nasalisation

Nasalisation is a way of pronouncing sounds characterized by resonance produced

through the nose in course of which the velum is lowered, so that some air escapes through the
nose during the production of the sound by the mouth. In Chetti Bhasha nasalization occurs
with or without the influence of nasal consonants.

The nasalized vowels ũ, ã, ǝ̃, õ, ɔ̃, ɛ̃, ĩ

/ã/ /nãttə/ ‘snail’

/ǝ̃/ /bɛkkǝ̃/ ‘feather’
/ĩ/ /sĩbbatu/ ‘to sneeze’
/ũ/ /ɛddũ/ ‘bull’
/õ/ /õɽəbi:ppatu/ ‘to freeze’
/ɔ̃/ /uɽiccɔ̃/ ‘ache/pain’
/ɛ̃/ /koʈʈəiɡɛ̃/ ‘cattle’

ii) Phonemic description and Distribution of phonemes:

a) Description and distribution of vowel phonemes

/i/ High front Vowel

/i:/ High front long vowel

/e/ Mid high front vowel

/e:/ Mid high long front vowel

/ɛ/ Near low front vowel

/ǝ / Mid Low central vowel

/a/ Low front vowel

/ɔ/ Mid low back vowel

/ɔ:/ Mid low back long vowel

186
 /o/ Mid high back vowel

/o:/ Mid high long back vowel

/a:/ Low front long vowel

/u/ High back vowel

/u:/ High back vowel

/ʊ/ High near back vowel

Distribution of the vowel phonemes in Chetti Bhasha is as follows:

VOWEL Intial Medial Final

/ɱɔːdikəttʊtʊ/‘flood’
/iːɲeː/ ‘fly’ /səli/ ‘cold’
/i/ /elanilaːvʊ/ ‘crescent
/iɲʤi/ ‘ginger’ /pʊːdi/ ‘ash’
moon’

/ʊceː/ ‘insanity’ /pʊːsʊlʊ/ ‘fog’

/kʊɳɳʊ/ ‘hill’
/ʊ/ /sʊːɖʊ pəɳi/‘small
/ʊt͡sʤɛː/ ‘urine’ /toːɖʊ/ ‘stream’
pox’

/iːɖɖi/ ‘sword’ /niːrʊ/ ‘water’ /tɔʈiʤiː/‘father’smother’

/iː/
/iːkəʈʈaː/ ‘yet’ /ɱiːɳʊ/ ‘fish’ /ɱajɳiː/ ‘broom’

/uŋɡara:/ ‘ring’
/mundri/ ‘cashew’ /ɡɛɳru/ ‘wife’
/u/ /uk :ʃʊ/cauliflower’
/surǝka:/ ‘pumpkin’ /pantu/ ‘ball’

/pu:ccɛ/ ‘cat’
/u:ɲcci/ ‘needle’ /u:ɽu:/ ‘house’
/u:/ /su:la/ ‘prostitute’
/u:ɭutu/ ‘to call’ /u:ma:la/ ‘graland’

/erɛː/ ‘earthwarm’ /sʊnɖeɭi/ ‘mouse’ /kere/ ‘lake’

/e/
/eliʋaːɱaː/ ‘clerk’ /akkeli kʊːʈʊ/ ‘nest’ /ɱəle/ ‘rain’

/əlʊtʊpʊɖʊtʊ/‘to take /ɱəleː/ ‘mountain’ /pɔːlə/ ‘river’

/ə/
off (clothing)’ /neləlʊ/ ‘shade’ /nɛːrə/ ‘time’

/jaːrɔːoppaːn/ ‘some
/oppaː/ ‘fat’
/o/ one’ -----------
/oʤɛː/ ‘music’
/koɖiː/ ‘flag’

187
 /meneː/ ‘family’
/eː/ /eːrʊpʊː/ ‘ant’ /tereːəttʊtʊ/ ‘wave’
/pʊːʤeː/ ‘cat’
/oːndʰʊ/ ‘full’ /toːɖʊ/ ‘stream’
/oː/ -----------
/oːɖʊtʊ/ ‘to run’ /toːlʊ/ ‘skin’
/ɛ/ /ɛrəʈʈamakka/‘twin’ /ɡɛɳru/ ‘wife’ /a:lɛ/ ‘cattle’
/ɡɛɳəɡa:/ ‘woman’ /pu:ccɛ/ ‘cat’
/na:jɛ/ ‘dog’
/a/ /a:lɛ/ ‘cattle’ /pani/ ‘fever’ /tela/ ‘head’
/ambici/ ‘butterfly’ /ɱajɳiː/ ‘broom’ /de:nna/ ‘diseases’
/arsa:/ ‘temper’
/ɱajɳiː/ ‘broom’ /doʈa/ ‘thigh’

/aːjleː/ ‘cattle’ /aːlaːktʊ/ ‘deep’ /maːlaː/ ‘ground’

/aː/
/aːɱe/ ‘tortoise’ /aːɖɖəkaːraː/‘dance’ /lɔːkaː/ ‘world’

/ɔrəlʊ/ ‘mortar’ /dǝʋʋu/ ‘to dig up’ /ʋirǝʋ/ ‘to write’

/ɔ/
/ɔkəjle/ ‘tobacco’ /nǝʋkə/ ‘boat’ /ɡəsǝʋ/ ‘grass’
/ɔːkkaː/ ‘full’ /rɔːɖʊ/ ‘road’ /tɔːbbiːkaːrɔː/ ‘police’
/ɔː/
/ɔːllɛːaːʃɛː/‘greedy’ /tɔːɖʊ/ ‘brook’ /nəɡarɔː/ ‘town’

b) Description and distribution of consonantal phonemes

/p/ Voiceless unaspirated Bilabial stop

/b/ Voiced unaspirated Bilabial stop

/t/ Voiceless unaspirated Dental stop

/d/ Voiced unaspirated Dental stop

/c/ Voiceless unaspirated Palatal stop

/ʈ/ Voiceless usnaspirated Retroflex stop

/ɖ / Voiced unaspirated Retroflex stop

/k/ Voiceless unaspirated Velar stop

/g/ Voiced unaspirated Velar stop

/m/ Voiced Bilabial Nasal

188
 /n/ Voiced Alveolar Nasal

/ŋ/ Voiced Velar Nasal

/ɳ/ Voiced retroflex Nasal

/ɲ/ Voiced palatal Nasal

/s/ Voiceless alveolar fricative

/ʃ/ Voiceless Palatal fricative

/h/ Voieless Glotal Fricative

/r/ Voiced Alveolar Trill

/ɽ/ Voiced Retroflex Tap/Flap

/ʤ/ Post-alveolar fricative

/ʋ/ Voiced Dental approximant

/ɻ/ Retroflex approximant

/j/ Voiced Palatal approximant

/l/ Voiced Alveolar Lateral approximant

/ɭ/ Voiced palatal Lateral approximant
/j/ Palatal approximant

Distribution of the consonantal phonemes in Chetti Bhasha is as follows:

Consonant Initial Medial Final

/p/ /pani/ ‘fever’ /karuʋe:pilapaʈ/‘babool’
/pommɛ/ ‘toy’ /kompu/ ‘horn’ ----
/pantu/ ‘ball’ /barnapu:sutu‘todye(cloth)’
/b/ /barlu/ ‘finger’ /ambici/ ‘butterfly’
/badda:/ ‘paddy’ /a:barana:/ ‘ornament’
----
/tiricciboʈusutu/ ‘to earn’
/bi:ŋɡicai/ ‘to swell’
/t/ /tela/ ‘head’ /be:ŋɡutu/ ‘swelling’
/tilao:ʈu/ ‘skull’ /ʃo:ta/ ‘taste’
/be:tana/ ‘ache/pain’

189
/d/ /doʈa/ ‘thigh’ /moda/ ‘marriage’
/do:ɳi/ ‘boat’ ----
/de:nna/ ‘diseases’
/ʈ/ /paʈi/ ‘stair/step’
---- /ko:ʈaɭi/ ‘axe’ ----
/doʈa/ ‘thigh’
/ɖ / /nɛɳɖu/ ‘kou’
---- /da:ɖi/ ‘chin’ ----
/ɡaɖi/ ‘door’
/k/ /kuɡə/ ‘cave’ /cuɳɖakɛrə/ ‘phond’
/kammbi/ ‘ wire’ /baʈʈəku:ɖi/ ‘this’
/naɖukina/ ‘between’ ----
/koʈi/ ‘flag’

/ɡ/ /ɡɛɳru/ ‘wife’ /lo:ɡa:/ ‘world’

/ɡəida:n/ ‘boy’ /maɡa:/ ‘girl’ ----
/ɡiɽutu/ ‘to scratch’ /eɡɡu/ ‘steel’
/h/ /hasu/ ‘cow’ /ni:ruhɔʈʈa/ ‘diarrhoea’
/hana/ ‘ money’ /su:ɖuhasut ‘by
----
/haɭɭa:/ ‘ valley’ temperature’
/ollaituha:lutu/ ‘praise’
/m/ /maɳəlu/ ‘sand’ /irumbu/ ‘iron’ /ʤinaɡalum/
/ma:ji/ /kaimuʈʈi/ ‘hammer’ ‘daily
‘mother-in-law’ /kumuʈutu/ ‘to pray’
/maru/ ‘pimple’ /e:ɡalum/

‘always’
/ellatum/
‘all’
/n/ /nelaʋu/ ‘moon’ /boɭutanera:/ ‘white’ /daʈija:n/ ‘fat
/nuɡulu/ ‘thread’ /pani/ ‘fever’ (man)’
/nɛɻalu/ ‘shade’
/mi:nu/ ‘fish’ /kollə:n/

‘blacksmith’
/taʈʈa:ʋa:n/

190
 ‘goldsmith’
/ŋ/ /saŋɡaʈʈə:/ ‘tired’ /kʊɡə:ŋ/ ‘hen’
----- /uŋɡara:/ ‘ring’
/korəŋɡu/ ‘monkey’
/ɳ/ /na:ɳa:/ ‘shy’
----- /ma:ɳi/ ‘broom’ ----
/uɳukkutu/ ‘sprain’
/ɲ/ /meliɲcaʋa:n ‘lean (man)’
---- /neɲcu/ ‘chest’ -----
/u:ɲcci/ ‘needle’
/s/ /seɽiʋ/ ‘slope’ /kasa:/ ‘dust’
/su:la/ ‘prostitute’ /ma:sa:/ ‘month’ ----
/siba:rishkoʈutu/‘tocomplain’ /arsa:/ ‘temper’
/ʃ/ /ʃaɭi/ ‘cold’ /beʃa:/ ‘venom/
/ʃela:/ ‘pus’ ‘poison’
/ʃi:ŋɡɛ/ ‘shikakai’ /miʃini/ ‘face’ ----
/tula:ʃu/ ‘ balance /
‘scale’
/c/ /cukku/ ‘dry /naccatira/ ‘star’
ginger’ /ʋaɭiccuca:rutu/
----
/co:rə/ ‘blood’ ‘to wrap up’
/cero:ɡa:/ ‘tuberculosis’ /irupumcaʈʈi/‘pan’
/ʤ/ /ʤendu/ ‘insect’ /ro:ʤa:/ ‘golap (rose)’
/ʤina/ ‘date’ /ra:ʤe/ ‘state’
----
/kelasaʤina/ ‘during’
/ʤinaɡalum/ ‘daily’
/r/ /ra:ɳi/ ‘queen’ /ni:ru/ ‘flood’
/ra:ɡa:/ ‘music’ /nerte/ ‘already’ ----
/ro:ʤa:/ ‘golap (rose)’ /neri/ ‘tiger’
/ɽ/ /aɽɛ/ ‘hip’
---- /mu:se:ɽi/ -----
‘coppersmith’

191
 /ahuɽʊ/ ‘scab’
/l/ /lo:ɡa:/ ‘world’ /i:ɡale/ ‘suddenly’
/loɡija:/ ‘love’ /barlu/ ‘finger’
/nelaʋu/ ‘moon’

/ɭ/ /uɭi/ ‘chisel’

/oɭɛ/ ‘oven
---- ----
(tandoor)’
/ɡaiɭu/ ‘spoon’
/ɻ/ /talaɻu/ ‘bolt’
---- /be:ɻi/ ‘fence’ ----
/boɻa/ ‘river’
/ʋ/ /ʋastara:/ ‘cloth’ /ha:ʋu/ ‘snake’ /seɽiʋ/
/ʋirda:/ ‘ fast’ /auʋɛ:/ ‘mother’ ‘slope’
/bu:ppʊʋɛ/ ‘father’s
brother’s wife’
/j/ /ja:ra/ ‘who’ /nəja:/ ‘law’
/mujilu/ ‘rabbit’
/jeɳi:cca/ ‘honey bee’ ----
/a:jita:/ ‘weaphon’
/juʋdda:/ ‘war’

ii) Allophonic Distribution

An allophone is a phonetic variant of a phoneme in a particular language. Although a

phoneme’s allophones are all alternative pronunciation for a phoneme, the specific allophone
selected in a given situation is often predictable. The data show the following allophonic
variations in Chetti Bhasha –

/ə/ has three allophones /ə/, /aː/ and/ɛ/

• /ə/ vocoid occurs in word initial, medial and final
/əlʊtʊpʊɖʊtʊ/
‘to take off /ɱəleː/ ‘mountain’ /pɔːlə/ ‘river’
(clothing)’

• /ɛ/ vocoid occurs only in word initial and medial position

/ɛɳɳi/ ‘beard’ /tekɛttʊtʊ/ ‘acidity’ ----------

192
 /ɛxeː/ ‘enemy’ /cɛlaː/ ‘pus’

• /aː/ vocoid occurs in word initial, medial, and final position

/aːjleː/ ‘cattle’ /aːlaːktʊ/ ‘deep’ /maːlaː/ ‘ground’
/aːɱe/ ‘tortoise’ /aːɖɖəkaːraː/ ‘dance’ /lɔːkaː/ ‘world’

/k/ has three allophones/k/, /ɡ/ and /h/

• /k/sound occurs only in the word initial and medial position
/kaːɖʊ/ ‘forest’ /kaːkkɛː/ ‘crow’
----------
/kere/ ‘lake’ /kʊrkkaːn/ ‘jackal’

• /ɡ/ sound occurs in the word initial and medial position

/ɡəllʊ/ ‘tooth’ /məŋɡaː/ ‘son’
/ɡɛɖi/ ‘door/ /ʊŋɡəraː/ ‘ring’ ----------

• /h/ sound occurs only medial position

/sɔːhaː/ ‘to taste’
---------- ----------
/kəhalʊ/ ‘day’

/s/ has three allophones /c/, /ʤ/ and /ʃ/

• /c/ sound occurs in the word initial and medial position

/ cɛlaː/ ‘pus’ /kɔːcaːzaːʈʈaː/ ‘dice’
-----------
/cinaːlʊm/ ‘daily’ /ʊceː/ ‘insanity’

• /ʤ/ sound occurs in the word initial, and medial position

/ʤeːɳʊ/ ‘honey’ /tɔʈiʤiː/ ‘father'smother’
-----------
/ʤʊɲʤi/ needle’ /ɛraʤi/ ‘meat’

• /ʃ/ sound occurs only in the word initial and medial position
/ʃɔːpʊ/ ‘soap’ /cɔːʃe/ ‘daughterin-law’
-----------
/ʃəntɔːsaː/‘to rejoice’ /peʃaː/ ’venom/poison’

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 /ʈ/ has two allophones /ɖ/and /ʈ/

• /ɖ/ sound occurs only medial position

/kaːɖrʊ/ ‘air’
----------- -----------
/mɔːɖa/ ‘cloud’

• /ʈ/ sound occurs only in the word initial and medial position

/ʈoʈʈeː/‘wife's elder sister's /tɔːʈʈəɱʊːdi/ ‘low tide’ ---------

husband’ /tɔːʈiʤi/‘mother’s mother’ --

iii) Vowel Sequence

When two vowels are coming together and a single noticeable change is realized in
quality during a syllable. The vowel sequence in this language are presented below.

Vowel Initial Medial Final

sequence
/au/ /auʋɛappə: ‘paren’ /ɡauɭi/ ‘lizard’ ---
/ai/ /baɭaippatu/ ‘to ---
/aitu/ ‘five’
bend’(stick)’
/ao:/ --- /tilao:ʈu/ ‘skull’ ---
/əu/ --- /baɭəuʋɛ/ ‘step’ ---

/əe/ --- /na:ŋɡəellarum/ ‘we all’ ---

/əi/ --- /ɡəida:n/ ‘boy’ ---

/ie/ --- /ba:riellu/ ‘rib’ ---

/ia:/ --- /du:ɽia:ʈusutu/ ‘lullaby’ ---

/iu/ --- /buddiuɭɭaʋa:n/ ‘player’ ---

/io/ --- /tiriccioccɛ:/ ‘echo’ ---

/iɔ:/ --- /tuɳiɔ:ppa:ʋan/ ‘washer- ---

man’
/ui/ --- /ɡɛɳruilla:taʋə:n/ ---
‘widower’
/ɛa/ --- /auʋɛappə:n/ ---
‘paren’

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v) Consonant Clusters:

A consonant cluster is a group of consonants which have no intervening vowel. The

consonant clusters can be a combination of two identical as well as two non-identical
consonants that generally occur in the medial position of a word. The occurrence of the
consonant clusters is most frequently in the word initial and medial position.

Initial Consonant Clusters:

Initial consonants are less in number when compared with the medial consonant
clusters.
ʤn - /ʤneːkaː/ ‘dear’
pr - /prətəjppətʊ/ ‘to fast’
br - /brtdippətʊ/ ‘to keep’
cr - /crɱbətʊ/ ‘sneeze’
kr - /krəɡaː/ ‘planet’
tʃ - /tʃaːjekele/ ‘tea’

Medial Consonant Clusters

The medial consonant cluster is divided into two groups. They are given below

a) Geminated /or/ identical consonant clusters

b) Non-geminated /or/ Non-identical consonant clusters

a) Geminated /or/ identical Consonant Clusters

- pp - /tʊppaː/ ‘ghee’
- ʈʈ - /kʊːɖə kɔʈʈi taːvɳə ɱəŋɡaː/ ‘brother’s son’
- kk - /kaːkkɛː/ ‘crow’
- bb - /tɔːbbiːkaːrɔː/ ‘Police’
- dd - /eddəʈe/ ‘brass’
- mm - /kʊmmʊɖʊtʊ/ ‘to bow (bend the body)’
- ll - /kəllʊ/ ‘stone’
-mɱ- /mɔːmɱəŋɡaː/ ‘grand son’
-nn- /binnʊtʊ/ ‘lightning’
-ɡɡ- /ajɡɡɔːɖi/ ‘rice flour’

b) Non-Geminated /or/ Non-identical Consonant Clusters

- ks - /tərksʊtʊ/ ‘argument’
195
 - dr - /baːʃəɱaːɖrʊtʊ/ ‘to translate’
-mb- /ɛmbətɔmbəttʊ/ ‘eighty-nine’
- rʤ - /kərʤənaː/ ‘diamond’
-jʃ- /ɱaːj ʃitʊ/ ‘dirty’
- ŋdʰ - /pːrʊŋdʰʊkaːrʊ/ ‘guests’
- ɳɖ - /keɳɖənna kʊːʈə kɔʈʈi taːʋlə kəɳda/ ‘husband's sister's
husband’
-ŋɡ- /mɔːmɱəŋɡaː/ ‘grand son’
- jm - /kəj mʊːɖɖʊ/ ‘fist’
- mp - /ɱʊm paːra ɡəllʊ/ ‘front tooth’
- nɖ - /sʊnɖeɭi/ ‘mouse’
- ndʰ - /ɱʊndʰdiri/ ‘grape’
- ɲʤ - /ʤʊɲʤi/ ‘needle’
- ɲs - /neɲsʊː/ ‘heart’
- ŋɡ - /jɛrəŋɡinillʊtʊ/ ‘to descend (climb down)’
- ʋɳ - /appənnə kʊːʈə kɔʈʈi taːʋɳə keɳɖrʊ/‘father's brother's wife’
- ʋl- /appənnə kʊːʈə kɔʈʈi taːʋlə məɡa/ ‘father's sister's
daughter’
- jl - /ɱəjlʊ/ ‘peacock’
- jt - /paːpəː, məjtaː/ ‘elder/youngersister's
husband’
- rc - /iːrcəpaːlʊ/ ‘saw’
- jr - /paːjrɛllʊ/ ‘rib’
- rj - /kaːrjeːdiːppətʊ/ ‘divorce’

Tri-Consonantal Clusters

/rtm/ /do:rtmuɳɖu/ ‘towel’

/ntb/ /kauntbu:ɭutu/ ‘o crawl (as a baby)’
/ndɡ/ /mundɡabopputu/ ‘to try, attempt’
/ŋɡm/ /saɖiŋɡmara:/ ‘tree’
/psh/ /opshutu/ ‘to recite’
/shk/ /ushko:lu/ ‘school’
/rpp/ /ci:rppu/ ‘comb’
/ʋpp/ /coʋppu/ ‘red’
/rcc/ /i:rccaba:lu/ ‘saw’
196
 /rpp/ /ci:rppu/ ‘comb’
/ɖcc/ /doɖcca:n/ ‘mother’s father’

vi) Syllable Structure

A syllable is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds. It is a unit of

spoken languages consisting of a single uninterrupted sound formed by a vowel, diphthong or
syllabic consonant alone or any of these sounds preceded followed or surrounded by one or
more consonants. The syllabic classification of Chetti Bhasha words are as follows

• Monosyllabic
• Disyllabic
• Tetrasyllabic

Monosyllabic Pattern

Words which have only one syllable are called monosyllabic words. The example
of monosyllabic words are as follows

Words Syllable Structure Gloss

/naː/ CV I
/naj/ CVC dog

Disyllabic Pattern

Those words which have two syllables are called disyllabic words. The
example of disyllabic words are as follows

Words Syllable Structure Gloss

/baːlʊ/ CV-CV tail
/aleː/ V-CV cave
/piɭɭʊ/ CVC -CV bow
/ɛheː/ VC-V enemy
/tɔːkʊ/ CV-CV gun
/iːɖɖi/ VC-CV sword
/ʊtaː/ VC-V war
/oʤɛː/ VC-V bomb
/mʊtʊ/ CV-CV coral
/ajraː/ VC-VC thousand
/pəʈʈaː/ CVC -CV circle

197
 Trisyllabic Pattern

Those words which have three syllables are called trisyllabic words. The example
of trisyllabic words are as follows.

Words Syllable Structure Gloss

/pərʊmbʊ/ CV-CVC-VC border
/toːlʊtʊ/ CV-VC-CV defeat
/səŋɡətaː/ CVC -CV-CV security
/an ʃʊtʊ/ VC-CV-CV threat
/diːppətʊ/ CVC -CV-CV judgment
/ɡəllʊtʊ/ CVC -VC-CV theft
/ɔjtajrʊ/ VC-CVC-CV blessing
/kʊːmaleː/ CV-CV-CV garland
/məɳɖəɡa/ CVC -CV-CV temple

198
 3. MORPHOPHONEMICS

It is a possible phonological variation with the addition of some bound morpheme when
there is change in the phoneme of the base morpheme, the change is known as
morphophonemic change. There are various Morphophonemic changes, these can be
1. Addition of phoneme in a morpheme
2. Alternation of phoneme in a morpheme and
3. Dropping of a phoneme in a morpheme.
In Chetti Bhasha this process is realised in the following ways.

i) Addition of phonemes
When a suffix is added with the base morpheme the a new is added in between the
base and the suffix. In Chetti Bhasha when two vowels are coming together -y- is insertied in
between two vowels. For example

1. /iɳai/ couple + /piri/ separate + -aamal Neg.suffix + Verbal particple suffix >
/iɳaipiriyaamal/
‘inseparable’

2. /aɽi/ know + -aamal Neg.suffix + Verbal particple suffix > /aɽiyaamal/

‘unknowingly’

ii) Alternation of phonemes

In alternation of phonemes because of the addition of some morphemes there is

change in the phoneme of the base morpheme. For example,

/aʤhaku/ beauty + -aana > /aʤhakaana/ ‘beautiful’

/liʈivu/ clearness + -aaka > /teɭivaaka/ ‘clearly’

iii) Deletion of phoneme

When a suffix is added with the base morpheme the final phoneme of the base
morpheme gets deleted. For example,

In Chetti Bhasha when past participle marker/-a:/is added with the

consonantal ending verbal base the phoneme of the verbal base gets deleted. For
example.

/cuɽɽu/ surroundings + -il + -um > /cuɽɽilum/ ‘continuously’

/miiɳʈu/ having come back + -um > /miiɳʈum/ ‘again’
/enguku/ where + - um > /engakum/ ‘everywhere’

199
 4. MORPHOLOGY

Chetti Bhasha is a partial agglutinating type of mother tongue. That means, here
different words are coming together or different postpositions are added to the stem and
different endings are used to form different types of words and these affixes show no traceable
signs of having been independent words. For example, /u:ɽu:/ house is a word and /u:ɽuakka:/
houses also is word which is a combination of /u:ɽu:/ house + /ka:/ (plural marker) but
/aʋana:ruka/ his houses where /aʋa/ stands for his

I. Noun Morphology

i) Word Formation:
Word formation is the creation of a new word. There are a number of methods of word
formation. The words in Chetti Bhasha are form by a single morpheme or more than one free
morpheme or a combination of free and bound morpheme.

Four types of word formation are found in Chetti Bhasha such as Affixation, Derivation,
Compounding and Reduplication.

• Affixation
An affix is a morpheme that is attached to a word stem to form a new word. Affixes
may be derivational, or inflectional. In Chetti Bhasha, the affixes added to form familial
relations are of inflectional nature, tending to preserve the grammatical class of the base to
which it is attached. Words are formed by adding prefixes or suffixes to base as in –

Prefixation
It is a morphological process whereby a bound morpheme is attached to the front of a
root or stem. The kind of affix involved in this process is called prefix. The examples of
prefixation are as follows.

/kaːjl/ prefix + /ɛrɑʤi/ ‘meat’ > /kaːjllaːrʤi/ ‘beef’

/pəlɑː/ prefix + /ɑ̃ppɑː/ ‘ father’ > /pəlɑː ɑ̃ppɑː/ ‘step father’
/melaɡ/ prefix + /muɳɖu/ ‘saree’ > /melaɡmuɳɖu/ ‘coat’

Suffixation
It is the morphological process whereby a bound morpheme is attached to the end of a
root or stem. The kind of affix involved in this process is called suffix. The examples of
suffixation are given below.

/u:ɽu:/ ‘house’ + /kɑ:/ suffix > /u:ɽuakka:/ ‘houses’

/mərɑː/ ‘tree’ + /kɑː/ suffix > /məroːkkɑː/ ‘trees’
/kɛɳɳʊ/ ‘girl’ + /ɱəkkɑː/ suffix> /keɳɳo ɱəkkɑː/ ‘girls’

200
Reduplication
Reduplication is a morphological process in which a root or stem or part of it is
repeated.
For example,
/ar kəli kəli nəʈʈʊ / and
/ɱɛlɛː kɔʈʊ kɔʈʊ/ ‘speak slowly’

Echo-formation
Echo words are characterized by reduplication of a complete word or phrase, with the
initial segment or syllable of the reduplicate being overwritten by a fixed segment or syllable.
For example,
/ kəkkəra ɱɔkkərə/ ‘roughly’
/kin diːŋ/ ‘again’

Compounding
It is the process of word formation that creates compound lexemes. It occurs when two
or more words joint together to make one word. The examples of compounding in Chetti
Bhasha are as follows.

/bushtaɡa/ book + /saɲci/ bag > /bushtaɡa saɲci/ ‘ school bag’

/ʤo:ɭa/ jowar + /hɔɖi/ flour > /ʤo:ɭa hɔɖi/ ‘jowar flour’
/na:ŋɡa/ we + /ellarum/ all > /na:ŋɡa ellarum/ ‘ we all’
/kutira/ horse + /baɳɖi/ cart > /kutira baɳɖi/ ‘horse coach’

Derivation
It is the process of forming a new word on the basis of an existing word. A derivational
suffix usually applies to words of one syntactic category and changes them into word of another
syntactic category. The examples of derivation are as follows

/naɖi/ act + /ppu/ suffix > /naɖippu/ ‘acting’

/ra:ɡa:/ music + /pa:ʈʈəʋa:n/ suffix > /ra:ɡapa:ʈʈəʋa:n/ ‘singer’

Coining new words:

In Chetti Bhasha many new words are coining either from Tamil, English, kannada,
Hindi or Malayalam

For Example – (English)

/kɑːppiː/ ‘coffee’ /tɑːʊʃərʊ/ ‘trousers’
/i ʃkʊːlʊ/ ‘school’ /bʊkkʊ / ‘book’
/bə ʃʊ/ ‘bus’ /cəːrʊː/ ‘car’
/ojərʊ/ ‘wire’ /ʃaːɡ ʃʊ/ ‘socks’
201
 /ʃɔːpʊ/ ‘soap’

For Example – (Telugu)

/kirisʊkɑːrɑː/ ‘farmer’

For Example – (Tamil)

/mɔːjlʊ/ ‘rabbit’ /jeɭi / ‘rat’
/kɔːraŋɡʊ/ ‘ monkey’ /siŋɡaː/ ‘lion’
/ɱiːɳʊ/ ‘fish’ /ɱaːɳʊ/ ‘deer’
/ɔːʈʈəːkaː/ ‘camel /kʊjlʊ / ‘cuckoo’
/irəʈʈeː / ‘twin’ /ʊppʊ/ ‘salt’
/məraː/ ‘tree’ /mɔːrʊ/ ‘buttermilk’

For Example – (Hindi)

/de:ʃə:/ ‘country’
/mantiri/ ‘minister’

For Example – (Kannada)

/uŋɡərə:/ ‘ring’
/mənə/ ‘house’
/u:/ ‘flower’

For Example – (Malayalam)

/bommə/ ‘doll’
/pu:ʈʈʊ/ ‘Lock’
/ra:ʤa:/ ‘king’
/koʈi/ ‘flag’
/sa:ʋi/ ‘key’

Suppletion:
Suppletion is the use of one word as the inflected from of another word when the two
words are not cognate. Example of suppletion in Chetti Bhasha include –

/majitti/ ‘child’ /məkkɑː / ‘children’

/koː ppətʊ/ ‘go’ /koː tʊɱ/ ‘went’

ii) Noun

The Noun is a word class which takes number, gender and case markers. The noun
functions as a subject or an object in a construction and it denotes person, place, thing etc.
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Nouns thus realized in Chetti Bhasha can be categorized into two broad classes, namely simple
Noun and derived Noun.

Types of Noun

Common Noun

Used to name people, place or things in general. It refers to the class or type of person
or thing (without being specific).
/ɡaɳɖu/ ‘male’
/rɑːʤeː/ ‘city’
/u:ru/ ‘house’

Countable Noun

Have a singular and plural form and can be use with a number or a/an before it. They
are sometime called Count Nouns.
/cəːrʊː/ ‘car’
/tɑːkkɔːlʊ/ ‘key’
/u:ru/ ‘house’

Proper Noun

Used to name a specific (or individual) person, place or things. Proper nouns begin with
a capital letter.
/krisnənnə/ ‘Krishna’
/bʊːɱi/ ‘Earth’
/ɑʃpətri/ ‘Hospital’

Uncountable Noun

Cannot be counted. They often refer to substances, liquids, and abstract ideas. They are
sometimes called Mass Nouns.
/ni:ru/ ‘water’
/kə:ʈʈu/ ‘air’
/ʃəndʰɔːʃɑː/ ‘happiness’

Abstract Noun
Have no physical existence. They refer to idea, emotions and concepts you cannot see,
touch, hear, smell or taste.

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 /loɡija:/ ‘love’
/oncaica:jiʈu/ ‘time’
/siripputu/ ‘laugh’

Collective Noun
Refer to a set or group of people, animals or things of+plural noun

/mi:nuku:ʈikaʈutɛ/ ‘shoal of fishes’

/mi:nuku:ʈikaʈutɛ/ ‘pile of papers’
/a:ɭuka:rku:ʈippatu/ ‘crowd of people’
/ta:ko:lukoɲcal/ ‘bunch of keys’

Semantically, Noun can be classified into three broad divisions. They are Simple and
Derived noun

Simple Noun: The simple nouns in Chetti Bhasha are as follows,

/ka:ʈu/ ‘forest’
/kallu/ ‘rock’
/maramuʈʈi/ ‘wood’
/ni:ru/ ‘water’
/kə:ʈʈu/ ‘air’

Derived Noun: The examples of derived noun are given below,

/naɖi/ act + /ppu/ suffix> /naɖippu/ ‘acting’

/ra:ɡa:/ music + /pa:ʈʈəʋa:n/ suffix > /ra:ɡapa:ʈʈəʋa:n/ ‘singer’

2 Animate and Inanimate Noun

Animate Noun: Example of animate noun is as follows,
/kəjtɑː/ ‘boy’
/mɔɖə keɳɳʊ/ ‘bride’
/kɛnnɑːkɑː/ ‘woman’
/ʤibbi məj di/ ‘child’

Inanimate Noun: The examples of inanimate noun are as follows,

/sʊːrjɑː/ ‘sun’
/nəcətdirɑː/ ‘star’
/nelɑːvʊ/ ‘moon’
/ɔllekɑːɖrʊ/ ‘wind

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3 Human and Non-human Noun

Human noun: Example of human noun is as follows,

/məŋɡɑː/ ‘son’
/kʊːʈʈʊ kɑːrɑːɴ/ ‘friend’
/ɱəɡɑː/ ‘daughter’
/ɑʷveː/ ‘mother’

Non human Noun: The examples of non human noun in Chetti Bhasha are given below,

/eːrʊpʊː/ ‘ant’
/bəŋdʰʊ/ ‘ball’
/kerəɖi/ ‘bear’
/jettʊ/ ‘bull’

External Structure

The Chetti Bhasha nouns are inflected for Gender, Number, and Case. This language
has two genders (ie masculine, feminine and neuter); and seven cases (nominative, accusative,
dative, ablative, genitive, locative and instrumental). The following description gives the
details of Chetti Bhasha gender – number – case system (Gender, Number and Person),

Gender

A grammatical gender is a system of noun classification. The nouns in Chetti Bhasha

are inflected by two genders as male and female. Gender differentiation is determined by
adding suffixes to the stem or by using two completely separate lexemes.

In Chetti Bhasha, the suffix /-a/ is used to indicate male gender in case of human nouns
and the suffix and /-a/ /-li/ in case of non-human nouns, the suffix /-ɛ/ is used to indicate female
gender in case of human and the suffix /-ɛ/ and /-ɭi/ in case of non-human nouns Example of
male and female gender by using different suffixes are as follows.

Male Female
/appa:/ ‘father’ /auʋɛ:/ ‘mother’
/kaɳdajne:/ ‘male elepant’ /kɛɳajne:/ ‘elepant’
/maʈa:dʊ/ ‘male buffalo’ /kɛɳajne/ ‘ female buffalo’
/doɖɖamma:/ ‘son-in-laws /doɖuma:ɭi/‘ ’daughter-in-
father’ laws mother’
/kuɭɭa:n/ ‘dwarf’ /kuɭɭi/ ‘dwarf’

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Example of male and female by using different lexemes are as follows.

Male Female
/haɳɖə:/ ‘ husband’ /ɡɛɳru/ ‘wife’
/manʊsə:/ ‘man’ /ɡɛɳəɡa:/ ‘ woman’
/motakalijatəʋən/‘bachelor’ /kanniɡeɳɳu/ ‘spinster’
/ɡaɳɖu/ ‘male’ /heɳɳʊ/ ‘female’
/ɡɛɳruilla:taʋə:n/ ‘widower’ /haɳɖailla:taʋa:/ ‘widow’
/ra:ʤa:ʋina maŋɡ/ ‘prince’ /ra:ʤa:ʋina maŋɡa:/
‘princess’
/ doɖɖə/ ‘bridegroom’ /motaka:r ɡəida:n/ ‘ bride’
/ɡəida:n/ ‘ boy’ /maɡa:/ ‘girl’
/məŋɡa:/ ‘son’ /maɡa:/ ‘daughter’

Number
Number is the grammatical category of nouns, pronouns and adjectives and verb
agreement that express count distinctions (such as one, two or three or more). The nouns in
Chetti Bhasha are marked by two numbers as singular and plural. The singular is unmarked.
The plural is marked by adding the suffixes/-ka:/and/ -ɡǝ or -ɡa to the nouns.

Examples of plural marker affixed to the noun are as follows

Singular Plural
/ɑrkkələ ʊːrʊ/ /ɑrkkələ ʊːrɔkkɑː/
their - GEN house their – GEN house – PL
‘Their house’ ‘Their houses’
/tːʊʈʈə pʊʃtəkɑː/ /tːʊʈʈə pʊʃtəɡə ɔkkɑː/
big book big book – PL
‘The big book’ ‘The big books’
/cippi maitti/ /cippi makkaɡa:/
small child small child-PL
‘The small child’ ‘The small children’
/vɛllə kʊtərəj/ /vɛllə kʊtə rɔkkɑː/
white horse white horse – PL
‘The white horse’ ‘The white horses’
/na:/ ‘I’ /naŋ ɡǝ/ ‘We’

Person

Chetti Bhasha also has a dual person. There are three persons in Chetti Bhasha as first
person, second person and third person. The following are the persons in Chetti Bhasha
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 Person Singular Dual Plural
First /nɑː/ ‘I’ /naŋɡa ipurum/ ‘we two’ /naŋɡa/ ‘we’
/niŋɡa/ ‘you(PL)’
Second /niː/ ‘ you’ /niŋɡə ippirʊ/ ’‘you two’
/ɑvɑːn/ ‘ he’ /akka: ipurum/ ‘‘they Two’ /akka:/ ‘they’
Third /ɑʋɑː/ ‘she’
/adʰʊ/ ‘it’

Case:

Case is an inflected form of a noun, pronoun or adjective indicating its grammatical

relation to other words. Some cases are marked while others are unmarked. The following are
the different case in Chetti Bhasha.

Nominative Case
The nominative case generally marks the subject of a verb or the predicate noun or
predicate adjective which is either a noun or a pronoun. In Chetti Bhasha, the marker for
nominative is /-na/.
Example –
• /naŋɡa -okka həikkili-na no:ɖi-nu/
we-NOM bird that see-SFP
‘We see the bird’

• /na:-n həikkili-na no:ɖi-ti/

I-NOM bird that see-SFP
‘I saw the bird’

• /aʋa-n nine həikili-na kon-na:n /

he-NOM bird that garden-LOC kill-SFP
‘He kill the bird in the garden’

Accusative Case

Accusative case is the case in nominative – accusative language that marks certain
syntactic function, usually direct object. In Chetti Bhasha, the marker for Accusative is /-ɡa/

Example –
• /na:n maitti-ɡa ti:ni koʈ-ʈen/
I baby-ACC feed-PROG.ASP
‘I feed the baby’

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 • /aʋan bushta-ɡa paʈicini/
he book read-PROG.ASP
‘He reads a book’

• /makka-la ja:-ɡa no:ɖi-te/

child-PL I-ACC see-SFP
‘The children see me’

Some examples without the accusative case marker /-ta/ are as follows,
• /na: kutara-ta o:ʈsi-ni/
I-NOM horse -ACC that run-SFP
‘I run the horse’

• /na:n kutara-ta o:ɖʃi-ni/

I-NOM horse-ACC run-CAUS-SFP
‘I am making the horse run’

• /naŋɡa ka:li-ta kʊji-tum/

cow-PL cow-ACC beat-SFP
‘We beat the cows’

Dative Case

The dative case designates the indirect object of a transitive verb. Nouns having the role
of recipient (as of things given), beneficiary of an action, or possessor of an item are datives.
The context plays a crucial factor in differentiating between dative and accusative. In Chetti
Bhasha, the marker dative is/-na/
Example
• /ra:ma saimi-na kaiji puʃtaɡa koʈ-ʈa:n/
ram-NOM shyam-DAT that book give-SFP
‘Ram gave the book to Shyam’
• /aʋana nanak-ɡa aitu rupi tan-ta:n/
I-DAT he-NOM five rupees give-SFP
‘He gives me 5 rupees’

Instrumental Case

This case is used to denote an instrument with which the action is performed. It is a case
indicating that the referent of the noun. In Chetti Bhasha, the marker is /-la/ or /-le/.

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 Example

• /nanna pe:na-la eɻi/

I-GEN pen-INST write-IMP
‘Write with my pen’

• /marata ko:ʈaɭija-la beʈʈu/

tree that axe-INST cut-SFP
‘The tree is cut with axe

• /muʈita katiriko:la-la beʈʈu/

hair this scissors-INST cut-SFP
‘The hair is cut with scissors’

• /ra:ma nanna penina:-le laʈʈaru eɻita:n/

ram-NOM I-GEN pen-INST letter that write-SFP
‘Ram wrote the letter with my pen’

Ablative Case
Ablative case is a case that expresses movement of the subject or the object from one
place to another either in the spatial plane or on the temporal plane is expressed by the ablative
case /-ta/.

Example
• /aʋa:n nanna canalin-ta ki:ɻe bidda:n/
he I-GEN window-ABL fall-SFP
‘He fell down from my window’

• /ʤu:lai ma:san-ta maɻai iʋadde toɖaŋɡutu/

july month-ABL rain here start-SFP
‘Ran starts from the month of July’

• /maitti mara-ta me:lan-ta palate paɽicci-tu/

child-NOM tree-ABL fruit DET pluck-SFP
‘The child plucked the fruit from the tree’

• /maran-ta ela utirittu/

tree-ABL leaves this fall-SFP
‘The leaves fall from the tree’

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Genitive Case
Genitive case is a case in which the referent of the marked noun is the possessor of the
referent of another noun. The case expresses the meaning of belonging to or possession of
something by the subject. In Chetti Bhasha, the genitive case markers /-a/.

Example
• /aʋan-a u:ru/
he-GEN house
‘His house’

• /naŋɡaɭ-a u:ru/
you-GEN house
‘Your(sg) house’

• /akkal-a maŋɡə:/
they-GEN son
‘Their son’

• /nanna kaji/
I-GEN 1PP-eye-PL
‘My hands’

Locative Case
Locative case is a case that expresses location at the referent of the noun it marks. The
location of the subject or object is expressed by the locative case marker. In Chetti Bhasha, the
locative case markers /-na/, /-ke/, /-ga/, /-te/.

Example
• /aʋan u:ru-na iddini/
he house-in-LOC remain
‘He is in the house’

• /na:n nanna u:ri-na iddine/

I I-GEN house-LOC remain
‘I am in my house’

• /na:n u:ri-ɡa hɔ:pe:n/

I house-LOC go-SFP
‘I go to the house’

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 • /aʋan mara-te aɖi keʈantu orəŋɡine/
He tree-under-LOC sleep-PROG.ASP
‘He sleeps under the tree’

• /nanna u:ri-ɡa ba/

I-GEN house-LOC come-IMP
‘Come to my house’

• /nanna maŋɡa ushkolu-ke ho:tini/

I son school-LOC go-PERF.ASP
‘My son has gone to the school’

iii) Pronoun

Pronoun is a small set of words in a language that are used as substitutes for nouns or
noun phrases and whose referents are named or understood in the context. There are six types
of pronouns in Chetti Bhasha. They are as follows

Singular Dual Plural

First person /nɑː/ ‘I’ /naŋɡa ipurum/ ‘we two’ /naŋɡa/ ‘we
Second person /niː/ ‘you’ /niŋɡə ippirʊ/ ‘you two’ /niŋɡa/ ‘you (PL)’
Third person /ɑvɑːn/ ‘ he’ /akka: ipurum/ ‘’they Two’ /akka:/ ‘ they’
/ɑʋɑː/ ‘she’
/adʰʊ/ ‘ it’

Demonstrative Pronoun

There is a two-way distinction between demonstratives, typically one set of

demonstratives is proximal indicating objects close to the speaker and the other series is distal
indicating objects further moved from the speaker. The demonstrative pronouns in Chetti
Bhasha are realized in two numbers as singular and plural as in the following examples.

Proximate Remote
Singular /itʊ/ ‘this’ /ɑtʊ/ ‘that’
Plural /itɔːkkɑː/ ‘these’ /ɑː/ ‘those’

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 Examples
This – /itʊ ɔllɛː ʃolʊkkɑː/
DEM/prox/ good – ADJ story (n)
‘This good story’ marker is/əɖə//

Those –/ɑː kɛnnɑːkkɑː sɔːrɑjɖɖʊ ːʊllɑːkkɑː/

DEM/rem/ girls – NNS beautiful – ADJ
‘Those girls are beautiful’ /marker is/se//

We can also classify Chetti Bhasha demonstrative pronouns in terms of distance as,

Proximate Remote
/illiː/ here /illiː/ there

Example:-
Here –/ɑkkɑː illijɛ pəntdirɛː/
They – 3rd pl /pro/ DEM/prox//PCL come – VBP
‘They come here’ /marker is/illijɛ//

There –/nɑː ɑlliːkɛː kɔːdineː/

I – 1st sg /pro/ DEM /rem/ stands – VBZ
‘I go there’ marker is /ɑlliːkɛː/

Interrogative Pronoun
An interrogative pronoun is used in questions to stand for the item questioned. The
Interrogative pronouns in Chetti Bhasha can be classified into personal and impersonal forms
with examples as: -

who, whom (personal)

what, which (impersonal)

Examples
Personal forms: /ja:ra: aʋa:n/ ‘Who is he?’
/jaunɳa kuʈʊra atu/ ‘Whose horse is that?’

Impersonal forms: /ni: ja:ɳã: timbʊtũ/ ‘What do you eat?’

/elli niɳɳa mǝi ti:/ ‘Where are your children?’
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Indefinite Pronouns
An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun that refers to one or more unspecified beings,
objects or places. The indefinite pronouns found in the language are as follows.

Examples: -

Indefinite Pronoun Gloss

/ellam/ everything
/ja:ra/ anybody
/ja:ʋana/ nobody
/ellarum/ everybody
/obburna/ no one

As in sentences
anybody - /jɛrɑːʊʈʰːʊ iːkeləʃə iːɑːkkeː/
Anybody – (n) work – (n) do – VB
‘Anybody can do this work’

everyone - /ɛllɑːrʊɱ ɑllijɛ kəjdirɛ/

Everyone – NN there – ADV went – VBD
‘Everyone went there’

Reflexive Pronoun

A reflexive pronoun is a pronoun preceeded by the noun, adjective, adverb or pronoun

to which it refers within the same clause or sentence. In Chetti Bhasha the reflexive pronoun
are form by adding /-nɛ/ to the pronoun as in /na:nɛ/ myself > /na:/ I + /-na:nɛ/. The reflexive
pronouns found in Chetti Bhasha language are given below.

Example

Reflexive Pronoun Gloss

/na:nɛ/ myself
/na:ne/ ourselves
/ni:tanne/ yourself
/ni:tanne/ yourselves
/aʋa:ɭe/ herself
/aʋane/ himself
/atutanne/ itself

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As in Sentences
• /nɑːɳɛ ɑtənə tinniː/
myself – REFL ate – VBD
‘I ate it myself’

• /nine: nitanne basutaruta ʋo:ttuʈu/

you – 2nd sg yourself – REFL clothes (n)pl wash
‘You wash the clothes yourself’

• /atu tanne sattaɳɖu hɔ:ttu/

itself – REFL/pro/ died – VBD
‘It died by itself’

Pronominals
The linguistic phenomenon termed as pronominalization is a widely used
morphological feature of Tibeto-Burman languages. It takes place in two ways: 1) Nominal
pronominalization and 2) Verbal pronominalization. Chetti Bhasha has nominal
pronominalization according by possessed things, kinship terms and parts of body. The
nominal pronominal markers found from the available data are as follows.

The nominal pronominal systems of Chetti Bhasha are as follows. It is affixed to the nouns.

Singular Plural
1st Person /a-/ /a-/
3rd Person /a-/

Examples of 1st person singular

• /nann-a kaji/
I-GEN 1PP-hand-PL
‘My hands’

Examples of 1st person plural

• /naŋɡaɭ-a kaji/
we-GEN 1PP-hand-PL
‘Our hands’

Example of 3rd person singular

• /akkal-a kaɳɳu/
she-GEN 3PP-eye
‘Her eyes’

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 iv) Adjective

An adjective is a word that belongs to a class whose members modify nouns. An

adjective specifies the properties or attributes of a noun referent. In this language adjectives
occur before noun and remain unchanged for any change in gender and number.

Attributive Adjectives – These are noun phrase headed by the modifier noun
For example
• /ɔllɛː kəjtɑːn/
good – ADJ boy – (n)
‘The good boy’

• /tːʊʈʈə pʊʃttəkɑː/
big – ADJ book – (n)
‘The big book’

• /kɛʈʈʊ kəjʊ/
dirty – ADJ hand – NN
‘Dirty hand’

Predicative Adjectives

These are linked via a copula or other connecting device to the noun or pronoun they
modify.

For example
▪ /ɑː mənəʃə mɑːrʊ pelə ːʊllɑːkkɑː/
those – DT men – NNS strong – ADJ
‘Those men are strong’

▪ /ɑː kɛnnʊ kiː kɛlətɑvɑː/

that – DT girl – (n) deaf – ADJ
‘That girl is deaf’

▪ /ɑlliː jɛrəɖʊ pʊːzə kəɖətə/

there – EX two – CD cats – NNS
‘There are two cats’

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Similarly, there are other types of adjective found in Chetti Bhasha are as follows

Types Example Gloss

Quantitative Adjectives /sʊɳɖʊtʊ/ little

/ɔntʊillɑːttʊtʊ/ empty

/ɔːkkɑː/ full

Qualitative Adjectives /kiʈʈəɑːttʊ/ hard

/tɔːʈʈʊtʊ/ big

/jɛləkitəməɳə ʃʊ/ kind

Descriptive Adjectives /təjrɑːjʈʈʊ/ brave

/pivərɑːjʈʈʊ/ clever

/vəɳəŋɡitʊ/ dry

v) Numerals

The Cardinals, Ordinals, Fractional and multiplicative/numerative numerals in Chetti

Bhasha are as follows:

Cardinal: The following are the cardinal numerals in Chetti Bhasha

Cardinals Gloss
/ontu/ one
/irəɖu/ two
/mu:ɽu/ three
/na:kku/ four
/aitu/ five
/a:ɽu/ six
/e:ɻu/ seven
/eʈʈu/ eight
/ompo:tu/ nine
/hattu/ ten

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 From eleven onwards the numerals are form by adding /tʰəra/ ten as prefix with /-də/ to
one, two, three etc. The formation of eleven to nineteen is as follows.

/hann/ ten + /də/ +/ ontu:/ one > / hannontu:/ ‘eleven’

/hann/ ten + /də/ + /kʰəni/ two > /tʰəradəkʰəni/ ‘twelve’
/hann/ ten + /də/ + /kətʰum/ three > /tʰəradəkətʰum/ ‘thirteen’
/hann/ ten + /də/ + /məti/ four > /tʰəradəməti/ ‘fourteen’
/hann/ ten + /də/ + /pəŋa/ five > /tʰəradəpəŋa/ ‘fifteen’
/hann/ ten + /də/ + /tʰəɹuk/ six > /tʰəradətʰəɹuk/ ‘sixteen’
/hann/ ten + /də/ + /ʃinni/ seven > /tʰəradəʃinni/ ‘seventeen’
/hann/ ten + /də/ + /ciʃət/ eight > /tʰəradəciʃət/ ‘eighteen’
/hann/ ten + /də/ + /ciko/ nine > /tʰəradəciko/ ‘nineteen’

From twentyone onwards the numerals are form by adding /ippatt/ twenty with to one,
two, three etc as-

/ippatti/ twenty + /ontu/ one > /ippattiontu/ ‘twentyone’

/ippatti/twenty + /iraɳɖu/ two > /ippattiraɳɖu/ ‘twenty two’
/ippatti/ twenty + /aitu/ five > /ippattiaitu/ ‘twenty five’
/ippatti/ twenty + /ompatu/ nine > /ippattiompatu/ ‘’twenty nine’

From thirty onwards the numerals are form by adding /mu:ʋatti/ thirty with one, two, three etc
as-
/mu:ʋatti/ thirty + /ontu/ one > /mu:ʋattiontu / ‘thirtyone’
/mu:ʋatti/ thirty + /aitu/ five > /muʋattiaitu/ ‘thirtyfive’
/mu:ʋatti/ thirty + /ompatu/ nine > /muʋattiompatu/ ‘thirtynine’

From fortyone onwards the numerals are form by adding /na:latti/ forty with one, two, three
etc as-

/na:latti/ forty + /də/ + / ontu / two > /na:lattiontu/ ‘fortyone’

/na:latti/ forty + /də/ + /aitu/ five > /na:lattiaitu/ ‘fortyfive’
/na:latti/ forty +/də/ + /ompattu/ nine > /na:lattiompattu/ ‘fortynine’

From fiftyone onwards the numerals are form by adding /aiʋatti/ fifty with /də/ to one, two,
three etc as-

/aiʋatti/ fifty + /ontu/ one > /aiʋattiontu/ ‘fiftyone’

/aiʋatti/ fifty + /aitu/ five > /aiʋattiaitu/ ‘fiftyfive’
/aiʋatti/ fifty + /ompatu/ nine > /aiʋattiompatu/ ‘fiftynine’

217
From sixtyone onwards the numerals are form by adding /aiʋatti/ aɽaʋatti sixty with one, two,
three etc as-

/aɽaʋatti/ sixty + /ontu/ one > /aɽaʋattiontu/ ‘sixtyone’

/aɽaʋatti/ sixty + /aitu/ five > /aɽaʋattiaitu/ ‘sixtyfive’
/aɽaʋatti/ sixty + /ompattu/ nine > /aɽaʋattiompattu/ ‘sixtynine

From seventyone onwards the numerals are form by adding /eɻuʋatti/ seventy with /də/ to one,
two, three etc as

/eɻuʋatti/ seventy + /ontu/ one > /eɻuʋattiontu/ ‘seventyone’

/eɻuʋatti/ seventy + /aitu/ five > /eɻuʋattiaitu/ ‘seventyfive’
/eɻuʋatti/ seventy + /ompattu/ nine > /eɻuʋattiompattu/ ‘seventynine’

From eightyone onwards the numerals are form by adding /empatti/ with one, two, three etc
as-

/empatti/ eighty + /ontu/ one > /empattiontu/ ‘eightyone’

/empatti/ eighty + /aitu/ five > /empattiaitu/ ‘eightyfive’
/empatti/ eighty + /ompattu/ nine > /empattiompattu/ ‘eightynine’

From ninetyone onwards the numerals are form by adding /toɳure/ ninety with one, two, three
etc as-

/toɳure/ ninety+ /ontu/ > /toɳureontu/ ‘ninetyone’

/toɳure/ ninety + /aitu/ > /toɳɳureaitu/ ‘ninetyfive’
/toɳure/ninety+/ompattu/ > /toɳɳureompattu/ ‘ninetynine’

The numerals twohundred, threehundred, fourhundred etc. are form by adding /muɳ/ allomorp
of hundred as prefix to one, two, three, four respectively as-

/nu:ɽu/ ‘hundred’
/nu:ɽu/ + /muɳ/ three > /muɳɳu:ɽu/ ‘three hundred’
/nu:ɽu/ + /a/ five > /anu:ɽu / ‘five hundred’

Ordinal Numerals – The cardinals are form by adding /-a/ as suffix to two, three as-

/a:tijattatu/ ‘first’
/eraɖa/ + /mattatu/ two > /eraɖamattatu/ ‘second’
/mu:ɽa/ + /mattatu/ three > / mu:ɽamattatu/ ‘third’

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Fractions The fractional of Chetti Bhasha language are as follows.

/paɡuti/ ‘half’
/ontɛ/ one + /ra/ half > /ontɛra/ ‘one and a half’
/eraʈʈ/ two + /ʈrɛ/ half > /eraʈʈrɛ/ ‘two and a half’
/mukka:lu/ ‘three fourth’

Multiplicative/ Enumerative: The concept of twice, thrice are conveyed by suffixing /-perasa/
to the base cardinal number as follows,

/ira:ɖu/ two + /perasa/ > /ira:ɖuperasa:/ ‘twice’

/mu:ɽu/ three + /perasa/ > / mu:ɽuperasa:/ ‘thrice’

vi) Classifiers

The classifiers are denoted by the use of cardinal numerals like /ɑkkə jɛllɔːrʊɱ/ to refer
to a person.
For example –
• /ɑkkə jɛllɔːrʊɱ pərɑːkkɛː/ ‘Let them all come’
• /ɑː/is also used to denote singularity as in –
/ɑː kɛnnʊ kiː kɛlətɑvɑː/ ‘That girl is deaf’
• /idʰɔkkkə/is also used to denote plurality as in –
/idʰɔkkkə nənnə ːʊːrʊ/ ‘These are my houses’

II. Verb Morphology

i. Verb

A verb is a member of the member of the syntactic class of words that signals events
and actions constitute, singly or in a phrase, a minimal predicate in a class, govern the number
and type of other constituents which may occur in the clause. Verb is a form class that marks
tense – aspect – model – personal markers distinguished by number and gender. Verbs may be
inflected for tense, aspect, and voice, and modality, agreement with other constituents in terms
of person, number and grammatical gender.

Verb morphology deals with the forms and classification of verbs, and their pattern in
association etc. Verbs in Chetti Bhasha may be classified in two ways:

(1) Semantically and (2) Structurally

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Types of Verbs

The verb of Chetti Bhasha can be classified into fifteen categories. The list of different
verb from the provided data are given below

(a) Physical Verbs

These verbs are simply called action verbs. Any specific physical action is indicated
by this category of verbs. Examples of some Physical verbs are as follows.

/ɡɛlasakejiʋatu/ ‘to work’

/ɡərkkutu/ ‘to sweep’
/taɭɭutu/ ‘to push’

(b) Instrument Verbs

Instrument verbs are verbs incorporating nouns that have the instrument theta-role in
their underlying argument structure. The examples of some Instrument verbs from Chetti
Bhasha are given below.
/hɔɻuppuma:ɖutu/ ‘split’
/be:ɖeha:kkutu/ ‘hunt’
/do:ɳɖutu/ ‘dig’

(c) Verbs of fighting

Verbs of fighting are verbs used without object. Examples of Chetti Bhasha are
/paʈʈikiʈippatu/ ‘to grab’
/kollutu/ ‘to kill’
/ha:rusutu/ ‘to win’

(d) Music Verbs

The agent of this verb is the instrument. Examples from Chetti Bhasha language are as
follows.
/uɽusutu/ ‘to blow’
/pa:ɖutu/ ‘to sing’
/a:ʈʈə:ʈutu/ ‘ to dance’

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 (e) Motion Verbs

Motion verbs, as designated by the term “motion”, are verbs that describe motion or
movement. These verbs cannot be used in passive voice. Examples from Chetti Bhasha
language are given below.

/bantu ho:pputu/ ‘to arrive’

/tapputu/ ‘to enter’
/pa:jaɡa:sutu/ ‘to float’

(f) Occupational Verbs

Verbs used to engage a livelihood or engagement. Examples from Occupational

language includes:-

/sa:raka:sutu/ ‘to brew’

/beɭiʋatu/ ‘to cultivate’
/kʊtuettutu/ ‘to harvest’

(g) Culinary Verbs

Verbs that describe action related to cooking. The examples are as follows.
/kuɖipputu/ ‘to drink’
/timputu/ ‘to eat’
/baɽupputu/ ‘to fry’

(h) Cosmetic Verbs

Verbs related to Grooming can be termed as cosmtic verbs. The examples of Chetti
Bhasha language are as follows.

/tela pa:ccutu/ ‘to comb(hair)’

/heɳiʋatu/ ‘to tie (hair)’
/tuɳihaʋukutʊ/ ‘to wear (clothing)’

(i) Communicative Verbs

Verbs through which thoughts feelings and information can be exchanged are known
as communicative verbs. In Chetti Bhasha the following communicative verbs can be
identified.
/padiluhɛɭatu/ ‘to answer’
/ceɳippatu/ ‘to invite’
/u:ɭutu/ ‘to call’
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 (j) Non Motion Verbs

The verbs which involve no movement or action are known as non-motion verbs. The
examples from Chetti Bhasha are given below.
/e:ɻusutu/ ‘to approve’
/esumuɖɖutu/ ‘to collide’
/sa:jiʋatu/ ‘to die’

(k) Inchoative verbs

These verbs are also known as inceptive verbs. These verbs indicate the process of
beginning or becoming. Example from Chetti Bhasha language are as follows.

/biɽiʋutu/ ‘ to bloom’
/moɭasutu/ ‘to soak’
/baɭuppattupi:ppatu/ ‘to freeze’

(l) Sensory Verbs

These verbs describe one of the five senses. Examples of sensory Verbs in Chetti
Bhasha are as follows.
/kemmutu/ ‘to cough’
/hikkihikkiaɻutu/ ‘to cry’
/anusutu/ ‘to fear’

(m) Emotive Verbs

These verbs describe the feelings of person. Examples from Chetti Bhasha are as
follows.
/ʋeɽupputu/ ‘to dislike’
/isʈapaʈutu/ ‘to like’
/sineɡusutu/ ‘to love’

(n) Cognitive Verbs

These verbs are the task words that can often be seen at the start of a question. In Chetti
Bhasha these are as follows.
/nambutu/ ‘to believe’
/ka:mputu/ ‘to know’
/maɽaiʋutu/ ‘to forget’

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 (o) Other Verbs
The verbs mostly include the linking verbs, auxiliary verbs, linking verbs modal verbs.
Example from Chetti Bhasha are as follows.

/no:mbettutu/ ‘to fast’

/kummuɖutu/ ‘to offer’
/hindinɡiʋutu/ ‘to repeat’

➢ Classification of Verb:

The Chetti Bhasha three classes of verbs can be classified structurally as Transitive,
Intransitive and Ditransitive.
Structurally the verbs in Chetti Bhasha can be studied with respect to their Transitivity,
Finiteness, non – finiteness, negation, Causativization and Passivization.

Transitivity

The number of arguments that a verb takes is called its transitivity. Based on transitivity
the verb stems can be further divided into three sub-classes. These are

a) Intransitive

b) Transitive

c) Ditransitive

a) Intransitive: The verbs which do not take any object.

Example

/ba/ ‘come’
/ hɔ:/ ‘go’
/kuɽai/ ‘barks’
/orəŋɡi/ ‘sleep’
/o:ʈi/ ‘run’
/siri/ ‘smile’
/paɽa / ‘fly’
/nin/ ‘stand’

as in sentences
• /akka illiɡa ba-ntire/
they here come-SFP
‘They come here’

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 • /na:n aŋɡʊʈiɡu hɔ:-tinɛ/
I market-LOC go-SFP
‘I go to the market’

• /na:ja kuɽai-kku/
dog-NOM bark-SFP
‘The dog barks’

• /aʋan marate -aɖi keʈantu orəŋɡi-ne/

he tree-under-LOC sleep-PROG.ASP
‘He sleeps under the tree’

b) Transitive: The verbs which take an object.

Example

/no:ɖi/ ‘see’
/ta/ ‘give’
/ɡeji/ ‘ride’
/paʈi/ ‘read
/tiɳ/ ‘eat’
/kʊji/ ‘beat’
/kon/ ‘kill’
/hiʈi/ ‘catch’
/eɻi/ ‘write’

as in sentences

• /naŋ-ɡa okka həikkilina no:ɖi-nu/

we-NOM bird DET see-SFP
‘We see the bird’

• /aʋan nanak-ka aitu rupi ta-nta:n/

I-DAT he-NOM rupees five give-SFP
‘He gives me 5 rupees’

• /naŋɡa kutira me:ɭe saʋari ɡeji-tino:/

we horse ride-SFP
‘We ride the horses’

c) Ditransitive: The verb has a subject, a direct object, and a indirect object.

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 Example
/ta/ ‘give’
/koʈ/ ‘gave’
/parima:r/ ‘serve’
/o:ʈi/ ‘led’

as in sentences

• /aʋan nanak-ka aitu rupi tan-ta:n/

I-DAT he-NOM rupees five give-SFP
‘He gives me 5 rupees’

• /ra:ma saimi-na kaiji bushta-ɡa koʈ-ʈa:n/

ram-NOM book that shyam-DAT give-SFP
‘Ram gave the book to Shyam’

• /si:ta ʋiruntukaru-ka ʋiruntu pari-ma:rita/

sita-NOM guest-PL-DAT food serve-PROG.ASP
‘Sita served the food to the guests’

• /nanta ka:li-ta aɻiɡa o:ʈi-citum/

we-NOM cow-PL DET shed-LOC led-PERF.ASP
‘We led the cows to the shed’

The verb construction makes a twofold distinction viz Finite and Non-finite. Another
way of classifying verbs is on the basis of finiteness.

Finite verb information:

A finite verb is a verb form that which occurs in an independent clause and is fully
inflected according to the inflectional categories marked on verb in the language. Having the
verb roots as the base both Finite and Non – finite verbal formations are realized in Chetti
Bhasha. The components of finite verb are 1Tense, 2Aspect and 3Mood. In Chetti Bhasha, finite
verbs are formed by adding different suffixes to the verb root and different forms are available
for different person and tense.

The finite verbal formation is √ + tense marker ± aspect marker + personal marker. The
formations of the verb/ʤəʋʋəro/ to go for three different persons and different tenses are given
below.

▪ Tense

Accordingly, verbs in Chetti Bhasha morphologically marked for having three-way

opposition of tense as,

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 a. Present Tense

b. Past Tense

c. Future Tense

Following are the person wise tense formations in Chetti Bhasha taking /kɑːt/ go as the
model verb root.

Present indefinite:
The present indefinite tense markers for singular and plural forms are as follows –/ɳɛ/
or /lɛ//

Examples –
• /nɑː ɑŋɡiʈijə kɑːtiɳɛ/
I – 1st sg market – LOC go – VBP
‘I go to the market’

• /nəŋ ɑŋɡiʈijə kɑːdiɳʊ/

We –1st
pl market – LOC go – VBP
‘We go to the market’

• /niː ɑŋɡiʈijə kɑːtɳɛ/

You – 2nd
sg market – LOC go – VBP
‘You (sg) go to the market’

• /niŋɡə ɑŋɡiʈijə kɑːtilɛ/

You – 2nd
pl market – LOC go – VBP
‘You (pl) go to the market’

• /ɑvɑː ɑŋɡiʈijɑ kɑːtɑllɛ/

She – NOM market – LOC go – VBP
‘She goes to the market’

• /əkkɑː ipirʊ ɑŋɡiʈijə kɑːtilɛ/

They – 3rd
pl two - CD market – LOC go – VBP
‘They (two) go to the market’

Past indefinite:

The past indefinite tense markers for singular and plural forms are as follows –/ti/,
/tam/, /tɛ/, /ta/, rʊ/ etc.

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Examples –
• /nɑː ɑŋɡiɖijə kɑːti/
1st
I – sg market – LOC go – VBD
‘ I went to the market’

• /nɑŋɡɑː ɑŋɡidijə kɑːtʊm/

1st
We – pl market – LOC go – VBD
‘We went to the market’

• /niː ɑŋɡidijə kojttɛ/

You – 2nd
sg market – LOC go – VBD
‘You(sg) went to the market’

• /niŋɡə ɑŋɡidijə kəjttʊrʊ/

You – 2nd
pl market – LOC go – VBD
‘You(pl) went to the market’

• /ɑvɑː ɑŋɡiɖijə kəjtɑː/

She – NOM market – LOC go – VBD
‘She went to the market’

• /ɑkkɔːkkɑː ɑŋɡiɖijə kɔjttʊrʊ/

They – pl3rd market – LOC go – VBP
‘They went to the market’

Simple Future:

The past indefinite tense markers for singular and plural forms are as follows /-po:m/,
/-pan/.

Examples –
• /naŋɡa okka: aŋɡəʈi-ɡa: hɔ:-po:m/
we market-LOC go-FUT.ASP
‘We will go to the market’

• /naŋɡa ipurum aŋɡəʈi-ɡa: hɔ:-po:m/

we(two) market-LOC go-FUT.ASP
‘We (two) will go to the market’

• /aʋan baili-ɡa: hɔ:-pa:n/

he field-LOC go-FUT.ASP
‘He will go to the field’

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 • /aʋa: baili-ɡa: hɔ:-pa:n/
she field-LOC go-FUT.ASP
‘She will go to the field’

▪ Aspect

Aspect is a grammatical category associated with verbs that expresses a temporal view
of the event or state expressed by the verb. Aspectual information implies is related with
duration, perfection, habituality etc. Chetti Bhasha three aspects interpreted in different tenses
These are –

i. Imperfective Aspect

ii. Perfective Aspect

iii. Habitual Aspect

Imperfective Aspect
Imperfective aspect is an aspect that expresses an event or state, with respect to its
internal structure, instead of expressing it as a simple whole. It depicts an action which is
considered as continuous in the past or present or future tenses.

Present Imperfective Aspect

The present imperfective aspect markers for singular and plural forms are as follows –
/-ta:le/ or /-tine:/ or /-te/ or /-ne/.

Examples

• /na: illiɡa ban-tine:/

I here come-PROG.ASP
‘I am coming here’

• /aʋan illiɡa ban-ti:ne/

he here come-SIM.ASP
‘He is coming here’

• /aʋa: illiɡa ban-ta:le/

she here come-PROG.ASP
‘She is coming here’

• /akka illiɡa ban-ti:re/

they here come-PROG.ASP
‘They are coming here’
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 • /na:n həikili-na no:ɖi-te:/
I bird DET see-PROG.ASP
‘I am seeing the bird’

• /na:n həikili-na no:ɖi-te:/

we bird DET see-PROG.ASP
‘We are seeing the bird’

• /aʋan həikili-na no:ɖi-ne/

he bird DET see-PROG.ASP
‘He is seeing the bird’

Past Imperfective: Aspect

The present imperfective aspect markers for singular and plural forms are as follows –
/-ɳɛ/, /-tʊm/, /-te:/, /-tʊrʊ/ or /ta:/.

Examples: -

• /nɑː ɑŋɡəɖijə kɔjntiːɳɛ/

I –PRP market – LOC go – IMPASP (Past)
‘I am going to the market’

• /nɑŋɡɑ ɑŋɡiɖijə kəjnteːitʊm/

We –PRP market – LOC go – IMPASP (Past)
‘We were going to the market’

• /ni ɑŋɡiɖije kɔjnteː iteː/

You – 2nd
sg market – LOC go – IMPASP (Past)
‘You(sg) were going to the market’

• /niŋɡɑ ɑŋɡiɖije kɔjntɛ itʊrʊ/

You – 2nd
pl market – LOC go – IMPASP (Past)
‘You(pl) were going to the market’

• /ɑvɑː ɑŋɡiɖije kɔjntɛ itɑː/

She – NOM market – LOC go – IMPASP (Past)
‘She was going to the market’

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 • /ɑkkɑ ɑŋɡiɖijə kɔjntɛ itʊrʊ/
They – 3rd
pl market – LOC go – IMPASP (Past)
‘They were going to the market’

Future Imperfective: Aspect

The future imperfective aspect markers for singular and plural forms are as follows
–/-bi:/, /pɔ:m/, /-pɛ/ or /-pǝrʊ/.

Examples –
• /nɑː ɑŋɡiɖijə kɑːp-biː/
I –PRP market – LOC go – IMPASP (Fut)
‘I will be going to the market’
• /nɑŋɡɑ ɑŋɡəɖijə kɑːp-pɔːm/
We –PRP market – LOC go – IMPASP (Fut)
‘We will be going to the market’

• /niː pəjllijɛ kɑːp-pɛ/

You – 2nd sg field – LOC go – IMPASP (Fut)
‘You(sg) will be going to the field’

• /niŋɡɛ pəjllijɛ kɑːp-pǝrʊ/

You – 2nd
pl field – LOC go – IMPASP (Fut)
‘You(pl) will be going to the field’

• /ɑvɑː pəjllijɛ kaːp-pɑː/

She – NOM field – LOC go – IMPASP (Fut)
‘She will be going to the field’

• /ɑkkɑ pɑjllijɛ kaːp-pərʊ/

They – 3rd
pl feild – LOC go–IMPASP(Fut)
‘They will be going to the field’

ii. Perfective Aspect

Perfective aspect is an aspect that express that expresses a temporal view of an event of
state as a simple whole, apart from the consideration of the internal structure of the time in
which it occurs. The examples in Chetti Bhasha are –

Present Perfective Aspect

The present perfective aspect markers for singular and plural forms are as follows –/-
ti/, /-tʊm/, /-tɛ:/, /-tʊrʊ/ or /-ta/
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 Examples
• /nɑː ɑŋɡiɖijə kəjti/
I –PRP market – LOC go – PERFASP (Pres)
‘I have gone to the market’

• /nəŋɡɑː ɑŋɡiɖijə kəjtʊm/

We –PRP market – LOC go – PERFASP (Pres)
‘We have gone to the market’

• /ni ɑŋɡiɖijə kəjtɛː/

You – 2nd sg market – LOC go – PERFASP (Pres)
‘You (sg) have gone to the market’

• /niŋɡə ɑŋɡəɖijə kəjtʊrʊ/

You – 2nd pl market – LOC go – PERFASP (Pres)
‘You (pl) have gone to the market’

• /ɑvɑː ɑŋɡiɖijə kɑjtɑː/

She – NOM market – LOC go – PERFASP (Pres)
‘She has gone to the market’

• /ɑkkɔkkɑː ɑŋɡiɖijə kɔjtʊrʊ/

They – 3rd pl market – LOC go – PERFASP (Pres)
‘They have gone to the market’

Past Perfective Aspect

The perfective aspect is mark by the suffix /- tin/, -/tɛ/, /ro:/, /-da:n/, /-da:/ or /-daru/ to
the verb as in the following examples.

• /na: həikkili-na no:ɖi-tin/

I bird DET see-PERF.ASP
‘I had seen the bird’

• /ni həikkili-na no:ɖi-tɛ/

you bird DET see-PERF.ASP
‘You(sg) had seen the bird’

• /niŋɡa okka: həikkili-na no:ɖi-ro:/

you(pl) bird DET see-PERF.ASP
‘You(pl) had seen the bird’

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 • /naŋɡa okka: həikkili-na no:ɖi-tum/
we bird DET see-PERF.ASP
‘We had seen the bird’

• /aʋan aŋɡaʈi-ɡa: hɔ:-da:n/

he market-LOC go-PERF.ASP
‘He had gone to the market’

• /aʋa: aŋɡaʈi-ɡa: hɔ:-da:/

she market-LOC go-PERF.ASP
‘She had gone to the market’

• /aʋa: aŋɡaʈi-ɡa: hɔ:-da:/

it market-LOC go-PERF.ASP
‘It had gone to the market’

• /akku okka: aŋɡaʈi-ɡa: hɔ:-daru/

they market-LOC go-PERF.ASP
‘They had gone to the market’

• /akku ipurum aŋɡaʈi-ɡa: hɔ:-daru/

They (two) market-LOC go-PERF.ASP
‘They(two) had gone to the market’

iii. Habitual Aspect

It describes an action which happens/happened or will happen habitually or regularly.

Present Habitual Aspect

Example
• /sʊːrjɑːɳ kɛləkkʊ pɑːttʊ ʋdikʊɱ/
sun – NN east – ADJ rises – VBZ
The sun rises in the east’

• /ɑkkɑ jɑːkɔːttʊ ɑːppiːsʊ ɔɳpəttʊ məɳi kɑːpərʊ/

They – NOM office – LOC nine – CD oclock go – VB
‘They used to go to office at 9 oclock’

• /ɑvɑːɳ toːʈʈɑːtɛ pəttʊ ɱəɳikə ɔlliɡəttətʊ kɑːpɑːn/

It – PRP ten – CD clock – (n) garden – LOC grazing – NN
‘He goes to the garden for grazing at 10 oclock’

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 Past Habitual Aspect

Example
• /nɑː jɑːkɔːttʊ ɑːppiːsʊ ɔɳpəttʊ məɳi kɑːpiː/
I – PR/pro/ office – LOC nine – CD clock go –VBD
‘I used to go to office at 9 oclock’

• /niː jɑːkɔːttʊ ɑːppiːsʊ ɔɳpəttʊ məɳi kɑːpɛː/

2ndsg office – LOC nine – CD clock go –VBD
‘You(sg) used to go to office at 9 oclock’

• /nəŋɡɑː jɑːkɔːttʊ ɑːppiːsʊ ɔɳpəttʊ məɳi kɑːpʊ/

We - 2ndsg office – LOC nine – CD clock go–VBD
‘We used to go to office at 9 oclock

Mood

Mood is a distinction of form or a particular set of inflectional forms of a verb to express

whether the action or state it denotes is conceived as fact or in some other manner. The
following are the different mood in Chetti Bhasha.

Indicative Mood

Most verbs in this language used are in indicative mood, which indicates the action. In
Chetti Bhasha language, indicative mood is marked by the suffix /ru/, /-ɡa/, /-ra/, /-ʈu/ or /-de/
as in the following examples.
• /itu naŋɡə-ɭa u:-ru/
these I-GEN house-IND
‘These are my houses’

• /atu nan-na bushta-ɡa/

those I-GEN book-PL-IND
‘Those are my books’

• /atu ontu kuta-ra/

That horse-IND
‘That is a horse

• /itu nan-na ja:ɡaluɭɭa sa:-pa:-ʈu/

this I-GEN usual food-IND
‘This is my usual food’

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 • /itu olla ka-de/
this story good-IND
‘This is a good story’

Imperative Mood

Verb in the imperative mood denotes command or request. This mood always occurs
with second person. Though it is not present in the sentence but the sense must be there and it
is always understood that it denotes the second person. In Chetti Bhasha mother tongue the
imperative mood is marked by the suffix /-ba/, /-hɔ:/, /-lu/, /-tu/ or /-ti/ and /-ɻi/ or /-ɻu/ as in
the following examples.

• /nan-na u:ri-ɡa: hɔ:/

I-GEN house-LOC go-IMP
‘Go to my house’

• /nan-na u:ri-ɡa: ba/

I-GEN house-LOC come-IMP
‘Come to my house’

• /meʤai -me:le nil-lu/

table-on-LOC stand-IMP
‘Stand on tha table’

• /melle ku:ʈʈu ku:tu/

slowly speak-IMP
‘Speak slowly’

• /aʧʧara otita:jiʈʈu teɭiʋa:jiʈu e-ɻi/

words DET neatly write-IMP
‘Write the words neatly’

• /i pushtaka pa-ti/
This book read-IMP
‘Read this book’

• /hʊllu set-tu/
grass DET remove-IMP
‘Remove the grass’

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 • /haɖi ʤa:- ɻu/
door DET close-IMP
‘Close the door’

• /ki:ɻɛ ku-ɻi/
sit-IMP
‘Sit down’

Subjunctive Mood
It is a grammatical mood that represents a denoted act or state not as fact but as
contingent or possible or viewed emotionally (as with doubt or desire). The subjunctive mood
in Chetti Bhasha is express by adding the suffix /-ta:ɡa/ or /-da:ɡa/ to the verb as in the
following example.

• /onera ni sarija:ta ne:ra-ɡa ban-ta:ɡa intana no:ɖaɡe/

you (in time) we come-SUBJ(will examine this)
‘If you come in time we will examine this’

• /kutirai-ɡa eɽaŋɡə-ɭu ʋa:l id-da:ɡa atʊŋɡa: paɽan-tira-kke/

horse-PPL DET wing-ACC had-SUBJ they (would have flown)
‘If the horses had wings they would have flown’

• /cippa:jika:rɡa banti-ta:ɡa kaɭɭana iɖiku:ʈi-ppa:n/

polise come-SUBJ thief catch-?
‘If the police comes than the thief will be caught’

• /ni maddu ettu-ta:ɡa ni suɡa-ma:ji-ppe/

you-NOM medicine DET eat-SUBJ disease cure
‘If you take the medicine then the disease will be cured’

Optative Mood

The optative mood expresses a desire, wish, permission or request in a sentence which
is expressed in following way in Chetti Bhasha.

Example
• /hinɡa ellorum barikɡe/
them – PRP come –OPT
‘Let them all come’

• /niŋɡa heruŋɡa hojiʈʈu ni:ru koɳɖu baruba/

You some fetch water some come-OPT
‘Let some of you go and fetch some water’
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Potential Mood

The potential action is expressed in potential mood. In this language the example of
Potential mood is

Examples –
• /nɑː pɑrɑːkkɛ/
I – PRP come – VB
‘I may come’

• /ɑvɑːn ɡejkkɛnnə ʃelə Səməjɑm kɔnnʊɱ kɔllːʊvɑːn/

he – PRP bird – NN (may kill)
‘He may kill the bird’

Conditional mood

When the completion of one verbal action is conditioned by another verb that particular
manner of expression is called as Conditional modal category. In this mood two verbal
actions are involved simultaneously.

Examples –
• /onera ni sarija:ta ne:ra-ɡa ban-ta:ɡa intana no:ɖaɡe/
you (in time) we come-SUBJ (will examine this)
‘If you come in time we will examine this’

• /kutirai-ɡa eɽaŋɡə-ɭu ʋa:l id-da:ɡa atʊŋɡa: paɽan-tira-kke/

horse-PPL DET wing-ACC had-SUBJ they (would have flown)
‘If the horses had wings they would have flown’

• /cippa:jika:rɡa banti-ta:ɡa kaɭɭana iɖiku:ʈi-ppa:n/

polise come-SUBJ thief catch-?
‘If the police comes than the thief will be caught’

• /ni maddu ettu-ta:ɡa ni suɡa-ma:ji-ppe/

you-NOM medicine DET eat-SUBJ disease cure
‘If you take the medicine then the disease will be cured’

Non – Finite

Verbal Noun
A verbal noun is formed by adding a noun suffix to a verb.

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 Here is the process is: Verb + noun forming suffix = Noun (verbal noun) / √ + non – fininte
marker/

Examples
/nɔːɖip/ ‘ to see’ + din /noun forming suffix/ > /nɔːɳɖidin/ ‘seeing’
/kɔːrip/ ‘to bark’ + pɑː /noun forming suffix/ > /kɔrəppɑː/ ‘barking’

Infinitives
An infinitive form is to + the verb Some verbs can take either the gerund of the infinitive
with no loss of meaning.

Examples –
• /jellɑːrʊɱ kʊːɖɖɑːkə bərʊkkʊ/ everybody – (n)
meeting – (n) come - VB
‘Everybody has to come for the meeting’

• /nəŋɡɑː jɑːkɔːttʊ ɑːppiːsʊ ɔɳpəttʊ məɳi kɑːpʊ/

we – PRP nine – CD clock – (n) office – (n) go - VB
‘We used to go to office at 9 o clock’

Gerund
Gerunds and infinitives are forms of verbs that act like noun. They can follow adjective
and other verbs. Since it is a kind of noun, it may be the subject or object to some verb.

Examples –
• /kʊdirə pɛɡə oɖʊkʊ/
running – NN done horse – NN fast
‘Running is done by the horse’

• /kɔrəppɑː nɑːjeː kəʤɑː/

barking – VBG dogs – NNS bite – VBP
‘Barking dogs seldom bite’

• /niːsːʊtːʊ təɖikə ollɛdʰʊ/

body – (n) swimming – (n) health good – ADJ
‘Swimming is good for health’

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 Participles
A participle is a word that shares some characteristics of both verbs and adjectives. It is
also called verbal that can function as part of a verb phrase.

Examples
• /tullu poɡələ/ ‘fallen fruits’
• /əccu polə postəkə/ ‘printed books’

• /ɑvɑː ːʊdietə pɔltə kəjkkɛleː/

she – PRP fallen – VBN fruits – NNS collect
‘She collected the fallen fruits’

• /accu ma:ɖita pushtaɡa paʈippatiɡə olla suɡa:/

printed – NNP books – NNS read easy – ADJ
‘Printed books are easy to read’

Negation

Negation is a morph syntactic in which a lexical item denies or inverts the meaning of
another lexical item or construction. In Chetti Bhasha, negative verbs are realized mostly by
particles like /-alla/ or /-ille/,

Examples –

• /itu aɖuɡalaiɡa ollaitu -alla/

this edible -IND- NEG
‘This is not edible’

• /ni illi ippate pa:-ʈi-lla/

you here NEG-remain-IMP
‘You must not remain here’

• /aʋa: kalsa ki:tupate –illa/

he work DET NEG-do-NEG-SFP
‘She has not done the work’

• /niŋɡa pustaka paʈicu -illa/

You (pl) book read-NEG-SFP
‘You(pl) are not reading’

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 • /nan-na kaji ontu -illa/
I-GEN-LOC nothing NEG-have-NEG-SFP
‘I have nothing with me’

Causation
A causative is a grammatical or lexical indication of the causal role of a referent in
relation to an event or state expressed by a verb. Example of causativisation in Chetti Bhasha
is form by adding the suffix /-ten/ or /-tin/ or /-ti/ to the verb as in the sentence below.

• /na:n ʋa:ʈuba:ji -mu:lam maitti-ɡa ti:ni kot-ten/

I-NOM nurse feed baby-ACC make-CAUS-SFP
‘I make the nurse feed the baby’

• /na:n kelsaka:ra-na puʈusu ʋajalna kalsa hi:si-tin/

I-NOM servant DET field-LOC work do- SFP-CAUS
‘I make the servant work in the field’

• /na:n makka-ɭa siriʃi-tin/

I-NOM people-ACC laugh-CAUS-SFP
‘I make the people laugh’

• /na:n kutara-ta o:ɖʃi-tin/

I-NOM horse-ACC run-CAUS
‘I am making the horse run’

• /nəŋɡɑː ɱʊntdiri nəʈrɑːʈʊ-tin/

we – NOM grapes grow – CAUS-SFP
‘We grow grapes’

ii) Adverbs

Adverb qualifies verb, adjectives and also an adverb. From the given data following
example is collected.

• /ɱɛlɛː kɔːʈʊkɔʈʊ/
slowly speak – RB
‘Speak slowly’

• /pɑːkkiɳɑː vəjttɛː jɛli/

words – NNS neatly write – IMP
‘Write the words neatly’

In the above sentence the adverbs are/ɱɛlɛː/(slowly) and/vəjttɛː/ (neatly)

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 In this language, the adverbs occure before the verb. Here we have following three types of
adverb. These are: the place adverbials.

For example
Adverb of Time: The time adverbials precede the verb.

For example
• /mɛɳɳɛː/ ‘yesterday’
• /nɑːlɛ/ ‘tomorrow’
Adverb of Place: Place adverbials also precede the verb.

For example
• /illiːjɛ pənɳiːɳɛ/
here – ADV come - VBN

‘come here’

Here adverb of place is /illiːjɛ/ ‘here’

Adverb of Manner: Like all other adverbs this type also occurs before the verb.

For example
• /ɱɛlɛː kɔːʈʊkɔʈʊ/
slowly speak – ADV
‘Speak slowly’

• /vɔːtʃə kɑːɖɖi kɔːʈʊkɔʈʊ pəʈɑː/

loudly speak – ADV
‘Do not speak loudly’
Here the adverb of Manner is/ɱɛlɛː/(slowly) and/vɔːtʃə/ (loudly)

Adverb of Direction: The direction adverbials precede the verb

For example
• /kɛləkkʊː/ ‘east’
• /mɛlɛnɔːɖʊtʊ/ ‘upwards’

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 5. SYNTAX

Syntax is the study of the principles and rules for constructing phrases and sentence in
natural language and rules governing the order of combining the words to form sentence in a
language. A syntactic category is a set of words and/or phrases in language which share a
signigicant number of common characteristics. The classiciation is based on similar structure
and sameness of distribution (the tructural relationship between these elements and other items
in a larger grammatical structure), and not on meaning. The syntax of Chetti Bhasha is discussed
below.

i . Word-order

Word order typology is the study of the order of the syntactic constituents of a language.
The primary word order that is of interest is the relative ordering of subject, object, and verb in
a sentence. The word order in Chetti Bhasha is of SOV (subject-object-verb) pattern.

Examples
• /nɑː kəjkilə nɔːɖiɳɛː/
I – SUB bird – OBJ see- VB

‘I see the bird (SOV) pattern’

• /ɑvɑːɳ kəjkɛlɛ nɔːɖiɳe/

he – SUB bird – OBJ see – VB

‘ He sees the bird’

ii. Description of types of sentences

Sementaically Sentences in Chetti Bhasha further be sub-classified into-

a. Statement Sentence
b. Interrogative Sentence
c. Imperative Sentence
d. Purposive Sentence
e. Potential Sentence
f. Conditional Sentence
g. Negative Sentence
h. Causative Sentence
i. Passive Sentence

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a. Statement Sentence – The sentence which affirms a statement.
Example in Chetti Bhasha include
• /nɑː kəjkilə nɔːɖiɳɛː/
I – PR/pro/ bird – (n) see - VBP
‘I see the bird’

b. Interrogative Sentence – The sentence which indicate a question like

• /niɳɳə kəʃərʊ jɑːɳɑː/
your name – (n) what – WP
‘What is your name?’

c. Imperative Sentence – The sentence which implies a request, a command, an advice etc.
• /niŋɡələ məhələ ʊːlipɑː/
your – POS/pro/ daughter – (n) call – (vb)
‘Call your daughter’

d. Purposive Sentence – The sentence which expresses a purpose like –

• /ɑː kʊtərətə ɱɑːrʊkkʊ/
that horse – (n) sold – VBN
‘That horse is to be sold’

e. Potential Sentence – When the potentiality is expressed in a sentence, it thus called

• /nɑː pɑrɑːkkɛ/
I – PR/pro/ come – VB
‘I may come’

f. Conditional Sentence – When two actions are conditional by each other in a single
sentence.

g. Negative Sentence

• /kːʊdirəj ɛrəkʊ litɑːnnɑː ɑtʊ pərəkkʊ/

horse – NN wings – NNS they - PRP (would have flown)
‘If horses had wings they would have flown’

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h. Passive Sentence – The sentence where the main action is expressed in passive is called
passive sentence.

• /tɔːʈʈi nənɑ kɔːnɖʊ dimbətə pəjʈiːkʊ/

Bread me bybeing - VBG eaten – VBN
‘Bread is being eaten by me’

• /tɔʈ.ʈiːnɑː ɑⱱ.əɳə kɔːn.ɖʊ diɱ.bə.tə pəi.di.tʊ /

Bread him by being – VBG eten- VBN
‘The bread is eaten by him’

• /pʊʃtəkɑː ɑvəɳə kɔːnɖʊ pɛʈipətə pəjditʊ/

the book – (n) him – PR/pro/ being read – VBN
‘The book was being read by him’

i. Causative Sentence – The causative sentence is formed by suffixing causative markers

to the the verb which various according to the person. When the subject causes some
agent to do the action we get causative sentence.

• /nɑː kʊdʰərənnə ɔɖisiːneː/

I – PRP horse – (n) run – (n) making –VBG
‘I am making the horse run’

j. Negative Sentence – The sentence which expresses the negation are called so.

• /ittʊ pɛʃəttə kəlləttʊtʊ/

this – DT not edible – ADJ
‘This is not edible

• /kitʃinə kəjllijɛː kɑːvɑːʈɑː/

fire – NN not – ADV go – VB
‘Do not go near the fire’

iii. Description of patterns of Sentences

Structurally a sentence can be divided into three categories They are (1) Simple sentence
(2) Compound sentence (3) Complex sentence. The different types of sentence in Chetti
Bhasha are given below:

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• Simple Sentence

The simple sentence consists of a subject and a predicate. It is a sentence structure that
contains one independent clause and no dependent clauses.

Examples

• /hasu ɦa:lu dakɡu/

cow-NOM milk give
‘The cow gives milk’

• /aʋan pushtaɡa paʈi-cini/

he book read-PROG.ASP
‘He reads a book’

• /naŋ-ɡa ka:lita kʊji-tum/

we-NOM cow-ACC beat-SFP
‘We beat the cows’

• /makeshu ma:ŋɡe tiɳ-ɳa:n/

mahesh-NOM mango eat-PERF.ASP
‘Mahesh ate the mango’

• /na:n roʈʈi tiɳ-ɳine/

I bread eat-SFP
‘I eat bread’

The predicate may be a finite intransitive or transitive verb. The most common simple
sentence, however, consists of a nominative subject and a finite verb as predicate.

For example
• /ɱɛlɛː kɔːʈʊkɔʈʊ/
slowly speak – RB
‘Speak slowly’

• Compound Sentence

A compound sentence is a sentence composed of two or more coordinate clauses.In

Chetti Bhasha, the connective used are (and, but, so, otherwise, hence).

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 Examples
• and
/nanna ka:lu boɭikiʈʈe na:n illi bidde:/
I foot slip CON I fall-SFP
‘My foot slipped and I fell down’

• but

/rɑməː krisnənnə pɔːppətə kəlittɑː jɛɱəŋɡə pɔːppətə nɛːr illɛː/

Krishna - ACC Rama – NOM time – NN no – DT Krishna – ACC had –

VBD

‘Rama asked Krishna to come but Krishna had no time’

• otherwise

/niː kənətɑ diʤʊtɑː illiŋɡʊ kʊːlː pəɖiʤʊpɛːo ɖəbbulu meː baːni məttənu bosi/

you – PRP money return – NN otherwise beating – VBG

‘You return the money otherwise you will get a beating’

• Complex Sentence

A sentence having one principal clause followed by one or more subordinate clause (s)
is known as a complex sentence. The independent clause can stand alone

Examples –
• /ʃələ ʃəɱəjəm nɑː ɔjtɑːj ipɑːnɡə nɑː ɔppiː/
I – PRP well – RB tomorrow – NN come – VB

‘If I am well I will come tomorrow’

• /ɑvɑːn pənttʊ kəjkəʈʈʊ nɑː kɑːkkɛː/

I – PRP after – IN come - VB

‘I shall go after he comes’

• /ni ɡiʋutunu mucce: na:n ɡijituʈen/

you-NOM do-PERF.ASP before he-NOM work DET do-PERF.ASP-?
‘He did the work before you did’

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 • /aʋan oʈʈa hasi illata samaiɡale aʋan tiɳɳa:n/
he meal NEG-hungry although he meal eat
‘Although he was not hungry he ate the meal’
iv. Structure of Phrases

A phrase is a syntactic structure that consists of more than one word but lacks the
complete subject-predicate organization of a clause. The phrasal sub-division in Chetti Bhasha
as follows –

• Noun Phrase:

A noun phrase or nominal phrase, (NP) combines with other words in a noun phrase,
optionally accompanied by modifiers like adjectives and intensifiers.

Examples –
• /nɑnnə kɛsəlʊ nɑːrɑːjən/
my – POS/pro/ name – (n) Narayan – NNP
‘My name is Narayan’

/niŋɡa-ɭa iraɖu bukku/

you-GEN two book
‘Two books of yours’

• /alli iraɖu pu:cca ha:ʈute/

there two cat remain
‘There are two cats’

In the above sets of data /nɑnnə kɛsəlʊ/ my name, /iraɖu bukku/ two books and /alli
iraɖu pu:cca/ two cats are the examples of noun phrase.

• Verb Phrase

A verb phrase (VP) is a phrase that has the syntactic role of a simple verb, and is
composed of a main verb and auxiliary verbs or verbal particles related syntactically to the verb.
In generative grammar, a verb phrase is a syntactic unit that corresponds to the predicate. In
addition to the verb, this includes auxiliaries, objects, object complements, and other
constituents apart from the subject. These are inflected for person, number and gender. The
predicate may be a finite intransitive or transitive verb.

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 Examples –
• /nɑː roʈʈi tiɳ-ɳin/
I - PRP bread – (n) eat – 1PP
‘I eat bread’

• /ɑvɑːɳ pʊʃttəkə pəɖidʒiːɳɛː/

he – PR/pro/ book – (n) reads – VBZ
‘He reads a book’

• /naŋ-ɡa ka:li-ta kʊji-tum/

we-NOM cow-ACC beat-SFP
‘We beat the cows’

In the above sets of data /roʈʈi tiɳ-ɳin/ eat bread, /pʊʃttəkə pəɖidʒiːɳɛː/ reads a book
and /ka:li-ta kʊji-tum/ beat the cows are the examples of verb phrase.

• Postpositional Phrases

A postpostional is an adpostion that occurs after its complement. An adpostional phrase

is a syntactic category that includes prepositional phrases (PP) and postpositional phrases
(PSP).

Here the postposition is in the head position and usually a complement such as a noun
phrase follows it.

Examples
• /na:n u:ri-ɡa hɔ:-pe:n /
I house-LOC go-SFP
‘I go to the house’

Here /u:ri-ɡa/ is the postpositional prase

• /aʋan marate-aɖi keʈantu orəŋɡi-ne/

he tree-under-LOC sleep-PROG.ASP
‘He sleeps under the tree’

Here /marate-aɖi/ is the postpositional prase

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 • /pʊʃtɔːkə mɛːʤəi mɛləkəʈətɛː/
book – NN table – on – LOC

‘The book is on the table’

Here /mɛːʤəi mɛləkəʈətɛː/ is the postpositional phrase

v Passivization

Passivization indicates that the subject is the patient or recipient of the action denoted
by the verb. A passive sentence is created from an active sentence by i) bringing object to the
subject postion ii) putting subject to the object postion iii) adding by iv) changing the verb form
to its participle form.

Example –
• /ɑvɑːɳ pʊʃttəkə pəɖidʒiːɳɛː/ (Active)
he – PR/pro/ book read–PROGASP

‘He reads a book’

• /pʊʃtəkɑː ɑvəɳə kɔːnɖʊ pɛʈipətə pəjditʊ/ (Passive)

book – (n) him - PRP being – VBD read - SFP

‘The book was being read by him’

• /nɑː tɔːʈʈi dinɳi/ (Active)

I bread eat – SFP

‘I eat bread’

• /tɔːʈʈi nənɑ kɔːnɖʊ dimbətə pəjʈiːkʊ/ (Passive)

bread me - NOM being - VBG eaten – VBN

‘Bread is being eaten by me’

vi Negation

Negation is a morpho-syntactic operation in which a lexical item denies or inverts the

meaning of another lexical item or construction. In an ordered sentence the negative element
comes with the verb of the sentence.

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 Examples –
• /ɑvɑːn kɛləʃə kiːtʊ pillɛː/

he – PR/pro/ work – (n) did not – NEG

‘He did not do the work’

• /itʊ pəʈrɑːkʊtʊ/
It - PR/pro/ impossible – NEG

‘It is impossible’

vii Causativization

The causative sentences are formed by suffixing causative marker to the verb which
varies according to the person. Causative indicates that a subject cause someone or something
else to do or be something.

Examples
• /nɑː kʊdʰ ərənnə ɔɖisiːneː/
I – PR/pro/ horse – (n) run making - VBG
‘I am making the horse run’

v. Structure of Clause

Relative Clause
A relative clause is a kind of subordinate clause, one of whose arguments share a
referent with a main clause element on which the subordinate clause is grammatically
dependent. For example,

/iːnɑːj.din.neː ɑːkəj.din.ne kə.ʤi.tʊ /

DEM this dog that boy-ACC bit PRST DEM
‘This is the dog that bit the boy’

In the above sentence relative clause is /ɑːkəj.din.ne kə.ʤi.tʊ/ ‘that bit he boy’.

Correlative Clause
In this type of clause, a paired conjunction (such as not only . . . but also, either…or,
neither…nor) links balanced words, phrases, and clauses. The elements connected by
correlative conjunctions are usually parallel, that is, similar in length and grammatical form.
Each element is called conjoin.
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/ɑŋ.ɡi.ɖikɑː ɑv.ɑːɳʊ kəj.pil.lɛ nɑː.ɳʊ kəʤj.pil.lɛː /
neither he nor I field went
‘Neither he nor I went to the field’

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 6. CONCLUSION

The phonological, morphological and syntactic analyses of Chetti Bhasha reveal that
this mother tongue has close affinity with neighboring Dravidian languages like Tamil,
Kannada and Malayalam. It shares basic grammatical features and lexicon with Tamil
languages and common vocabulary of Kannada language. So this language has been identified
as a sub-dialect of Tamil language with some influence of Kannada language.

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 7. TEXT
sɔlkaː kəlinɛː jɛrəɖukuːɖɖukaːrum ondʰu kɛrəɖi
Two friends and a Bear

Two friends, Ramu and Shyam walked through a forest

/ɑː jɛrəɖʊ kʊːɖɖʊkkɑːrɑːkə rɑːmənnʊm ʃɔːmənʊm kɑːɖeːkɛkə kɔː jndʰd ittʊrʊ /

They promised each other that they would remain united in case of any danger
/ɛmməŋɡɑ ippirʊŋɡʊːɖi sətdijə kəlitdirʊ jɑːrɑ jɔːʃʊ kəʃʈəpəndʰʊ pʊtdimʊʈʈʊ
pənnʊŋɡʊ oppəɳɳə pʊɖɖʊ oppəp pirivəttʊ pəʈəlɛː kəli kəlitdirʊ/

Once they were walking through a forest

/ɛmməŋɡə ippirʊŋɡʊːɖi kɑːɖeː indʰtəʈəhəjtdirʊ/

A bear came on their way

/emməŋɡə ondʰʊ kɛrəɖi nɛːreː pəndʰtəttʊ/

Ramu climbed a tree

/ɛmməŋɡə rɑːmɑː oːɖi mərəhətdiɳnɑː/

Shyam did not know how to climb a tree

/ʃɔːməɡɑː mərəhəttəttʊ otdillɛː/

He told his friend, “I do not know how to climb a tree, please help me”
/ondʰʊ kelpkkillɛː kəli kəlittɑːn/

But Ramu did not respond

/ɛmməŋɡə rɑːmətɑːnɑː noːɖippillɛː/

In fear and grief, Shyam lay down on the ground breathless

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/ɑːʃəmiɡɑ ʃɔːməkiːtɑːn kɛʈətə səttʊʰ pɛrəʤʤʊ ɑɲsʊ pɛrəʤʤʊ kɛʈɑːtəkɑːrə
səttɑːkɑːrɑː kɛʈətəɳɳə/

The bear came near the man lyinɡ on the ɡroʊnd

/ɛmməŋɡɑ kɛrəɖi pəndʰʊʈʈʊ ivvʊɳʊɡijɛː/

It smelt in his ears, and slowly left the place,

/sʊdʰɔːʈʊ pəndʰʊ pəliʃiʈʊ kijɑːlɛː mmm kəli oʤʤə kɑːɖittʊ/

becaʊse bears do not toʊch dead creatʊres

/ɛmməŋɡə ivən oʤʤə kɑːʈʈɑːtɑː səttʊ kiɖətdiʈʈɑːn/
after the bear left,
/emməŋɡɑ kɛrəɖi səttəŋɡɔːɖi jɑːnəkɑːkə səttəttəɖidʰimbʊdillə kəlittʊ kɛrəɖi pɔːjiɖʊttʊ/

Ramʊ came down from the tree and asked his friend Shyam,
/ɛmməŋɡə mərətəmɛːlɛː irʊndʰə rɑːmən kiːlɛː noːɖindʰdittɑːn kiːlɛː ɛrəŋɡi pəndʰəʈʈʰʊ
ʃɔːməɳʊkʊːʈə/

"Friend, what did the bear tell yoʊ into yoʊr ears?"
/niɳɳʊ kərəɖi jɑːɳʊ kəlittʊ kəli kɛːʈ˞ʈɑːn/

Shyam replied,
"The bear advised me not to trʊst a friend who leaves yoʊ in times of troʊble to save himself"
/ɛmməŋɡɑ ivɑː iʃkɑːrə ɑːpətʊ kɑːlə okkə kəʃʈəkɑːlə səməjəndʰʊ niː pɑːrɑːdʰə kəɳ ɖʊ
niɳɳʊkkʊː ɖi injɑːɳətɑːnə kʊːʈʈɑː kəlittʊ/

Sayinɡ this Shyam walked in own way, livinɡ Ramʊ alone in the forest
/ɑvɑːn ɑⱱnɑː pʊːɖɖɑːɳɖi iⱱəɳə pʊːɖɖɑːɳɖi pʊːɖɖɑːn/

253
 Bibliography and References:

Emeneau, Murray B. 1984 Toda Grammar and Text.

American Philosophical Society.
Independence Square. Philadelphia.
Grierson, G. A. 1904 Linguistic Survey of India. Vol. IV.
Munda & Dravidian Languages. Page
363 - 396.
1927 Linguistic Survey of India. Vol. I. Part
– XI. Page 34, 473
Krishanamurti, Bhatdriraju 2003 The Dravidian Languages. Cambridge
University Press.
Nair, Ravi Sankar S 2013 Languages of Kerala. Language
in India,
www.languageinindia.com ISSN
1930-2940 Vol. 13:7 July 2013
Singh, K.S. 1994 People of India – The schedule tribes
Vol III, Page 607-613). Oxford
University Press. New Delhi.
www.ciil-lisindia.net Kannada (Under Language Information
Service-India of Central Institute of Indian
Languages, Mysore.)
Census of India 2001 Language, Table C-16, India, States and
Union Territories.

-----****-----

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 IRULA/ IRULIGA

Aparajita Sen

1. INTRODUCTION

India shows one of the largest tribal populations in the world. Tribes of both
homogenous and indigenous communities are available in India. They are generally called by
the name ‘Adivasi’ in India. This present study aims to discuss about the Irula tribe in the state
of Tamil Nadu. The Nilgiri hills are inhabited by so many such ‘aboriginals’ for century after
century. In Tamil Nadu, at present, there are 36 tribes & sub-tribes.

Irula is an indigenous ethnic assembly of India. They live in the hilly regions,
mountains, in the states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, India. They belong to the scheduled tribe
group and live in these regions and their population is approximately 25,000 people. People of
the Irula ethnicity are called Irular, and speak Irula, which belongs to the Draʋidian family of
languages.

1.1 Family Affiliation

Irula/ Iruliga is a south Draʋidian Language spoken by the Irulas who occupy the area
of the Nilgiris Mountains, in the states of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, India. It is written using
the Tamil Script. Irular means “dark people” in Tamil and Malayalam, and derived from the
root word ‘irul’, meaning “darkness” with particular reference to their dark skin complexion.
As early as the beginning of the 20th century in the anthropological literature the Irula people
were referred to and classified as Irulas under the Negrito ethnic group. Later day researches
showed that however, they originally belong to the Austric group in Origin.

The culture unlike the Negrito tribes in the Andaman Islands who have retained their
language. Irular continue to speak the Irula language, a Draʋidian language that is closely
related to Tamil, Yerukala, Sholaga and other languages closer to Tamil.

Thurston in his book mentioned that “Kasuva or Kasuba as a sub caste of the Irular”
(K.S. Singh in ‘The Scheduled Tribes’). On the contrary, G.A. Grierson in ‘Linguistic Survey
of India’ established the fact that Irula and Kasuva are the dialects of Tamil distinguished at
the Census of 1891. As per Grierson, “Irula, a caste dialect in the Nilgiris and adjoining
districts; and Kasuva, the dialect of a jungle tribe between the base of the Nilgiris and the
Moyar river”.

255
THE DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGES: Bhadriraju Krishnamurti

1.2 Location

In Tamil Nadu Irular are settled in the Kotagiri taluk of the Nilgiris district four taluks
in Coimbatore South, Coimbatore North, Avinashi and Madathukulam. In the Coimbatore
district they live (4254 Irulas) in 40 settlements comprising of 139 villages. Nearly 100
vettakkara Irulas settlements are found in the Coonoor taluk of the Nilgiris districts and in the
Coimbatore and Mettupalayam taluk of Coimbatore district especially in the forest areas or in
the deep mountainous jungles. There are 4 tribal settlements in the Siruvani Hills comprising
of 14 villages. They are also found in South Arcot, North Arcot, Salem, Dharmapuri,
Tiruchchirapalli and Thanjaʋur districts. The Census of Kerala identified 756 Irula indiʋiduals
down from 189 families, who live in 9 settlements covering 23 km area in the state.

256
1.3 Occupation

Irula Tribes are popularly known as the men of Night’s Watch. For thousands of years,
Irulas served the Chola dynasty as night guards. Traditionally, the main occupation of the
Irulas has been snake, porcupines and rat catching. They also work as laborers’ in the fields of
the landlords during the sowing and harʋesting seasons or in their rice mills. Fishing is also a
major occupation for them. Rats destroy a quarter of the grain grown in the farms of Tamilnadu
annually. To combat this pest, Irula men use a traditional earthen pot fumigation method.
Smoke is blown through their mouths, which leads to seʋere respiratory and heart problems.
Their knowledge and use of herbal medicines, tracking and digging skills, and unusual diet
(which includes rats) haʋe been written about, filmed, studied and lauded. The profession of
the Irula people took a toll on their health resulting in heart, skin, eye and respiratory problems.
The Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972 had an adʋerse impact on their liʋelihood as forest
access, food gathering and hunting became difficult due to restrictions. The Irulas had to moʋe
out of the forests and were forced to work as bonded labourers. They had to liʋe in mud huts
with straw roofs and dirt floors.

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1.4 Speakers’ Strength

Compare to other Scheduled Tribes of Tamil Nadu, a good number of Irula tribe is
aʋailable in the Nilgiri district of Tamil Nadu state. In Tamil Nadu the total Scheduled Tribes
are 7,94,697 in number in 2011. Out of that the Irula tribe comprises of 1,89,661 in Tamil
Nadu. The distribution the tribe in the state and district is given below as per 2011 Census.

Area name T/R/U Total Population

Person Male Female

IRULAR
State - Tamil Nadu Total 1,89,661 94,521 95,140
Rural 1,61,315 80,429 80,886
Urban 28,346 14,092 14,254
District - The Nilgiris Total 9,480 4,662 4,818
Rural 7,880 3,880 4,000
Urban 1,600 782 818

The following is the presentation of Irula/Iruliga mother tongue in respective States and various
districts of Tamil Nadu according to 2011 Census.

Person Male Female Person Male Female Person Male Female

1 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Irula/Irular Mozhi
INDIA 11,870 5,850 6,020 11,297 5,564 5,733 573 286 287
Andhra Pradesh 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
Goa 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
Kerala 3,562 1,752 1,810 3,562 1,752 1,810 0 0 0
Tamil Nadu 8,306 4,096 4,210 7,735 3,812 3,923 571 284 287

Area name Total Rural Urban

Person Male Female Person Male Female Person Male Female
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Irula/Irular Mozhi
TAMIL NADU 571 284 287 0 0 0 571 284 287
Kancheepuram 2 1 1 0 0 0 2 1 1
Thiruporur (TP) 2 1 1 0 0 0 2 1 1
The Nilgiris 563 282 281 0 0 0 563 282 281
Deʋarshola (TP) 6 4 2 0 0 0 6 4 2
Gudalur (M) 24 12 12 0 0 0 24 12 12
Sholur (TP) 6 3 3 0 0 0 6 3 3
258
Naduʋattam (TP) 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1
Udhagamandalam (M) 7 3 4 0 0 0 7 3 4
Kotagiri (TP) 14 9 5 0 0 0 14 9 5
Jagathala (TP) 5 3 2 0 0 0 5 3 2
Wellington (CB) 8 3 5 0 0 0 8 3 5
Coonoor (M) 3 1 2 0 0 0 3 1 2
Huligal (TP) 481 240 241 0 0 0 481 240 241
Araʋankad (TS) (CT) 8 4 4 0 0 0 8 4 4
Coimbatore 6 1 5 0 0 0 6 1 5
Mettupalayam (M) 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1
Ʋeerapandi (TP) 2 1 1 0 0 0 2 1 1
Ʋalparai (M) 3 0 3 0 0 0 3 0 3

1.5 Bilingualism

The bilingual status among the Irulas depends on their settlement in the respectiʋe
states. The Irulas who settles in Kerala know Malayalam. Those who settles in Tamil Nadu can
speak Tamil and they know Kannada also staying in Karnataka. These major languages are the
lingua franca among the tribes of distinct regions.

1.6 Sociolinguistic and Ethnolinguistic Information

Irula is one of the largest Scheduled Tribes of Tamil Nadu. They are short in stature
haʋing low to medium height with broad nose and broad and high forehead. The tribe name
itself implies their skin colour. The Irular are diʋided into 14 exogamous clans such as Kuppey,
Sambar, Pungey, Karatiga, Kurunegey, Kalkati, Deʋeney, Koduʋey, Parathara, Kuppili,
Uppili, Ʋellai, Kuppar and Anumoopu (K.S. Singh). According to Zʋelebil Kamil (1979),
Irulas can be diʋided into fiʋe subgroups. The Irula language or speakers whose language is
influenced by Tamil are known as ʋeTTaka:kadu and me:lena:du Irulas. Similarly, Malayalam
influences Irula speech to form ura:Li Irula and Kannada, kasaba Irula.

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 Irular tribe eats rice, ragi, millets and all sorts of pulses, flesh cooked with coconut oil
and palm oil. A typical Irula house is made entirely of stones and mud. Most houses don’t haʋe
doors, so the homes look welcoming to guests. The households haʋe hunting dogs as pets, and
a separate house for their goat and sheep. There are about 50 families in a typical settlement.
Schemes like the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan haʋe helped in improʋing Sanitation in Irular
settlements.

260
 The marriage in the community is done between maternal uncle and nieceand between
cross-cousins. Bride’s prize has to be giʋen to the girl’s house in cash or cattle. Diʋorse is
permitted among them. Women along with men also take part in all sorts of occupations they
practice. Birth ceremony and naming ceremony are also obserʋed on the 7th day. The tribe

261
maintains a ʋillage council to solʋe the intracommunity disputes. Although the Irulas are Hindu
in religion but they practice a range of tribal religious that are different from other religions.
They worship ancestors, nature spirits, mountain spirits, riʋer and animal spirits.

Irulas are good musicians, haʋing ʋocal and instrumental music skills. Irulas perform
group dancing on festiʋals and in the marriage, funeral, and puberty rites. They do not usually
sing while dancing, but do the dance to the tune played on drums and pipes. Irula tribe has their
own culture, rituals, attire, beliefs, lifestyle. During the course of time they haʋe started losing
their identity in terms of language, fables, traditional songs and the ʋocabulary of the
possessions in their practices. (PhD thesis by P. Suresh).

262
 Irula language has no script of its own. As far as writing system is concerned Irulas in
Tamilnadu use Tamil script, Malayalam script by Kerala based Irulas and those who are in
Karnataka, they use Kannada script.

1.7. Review of Literature

This section portrays the literature related to the tribe of Irula. Many researchers haʋe
contributed in bringing out the insights of this Nilgiri tribe. ‘The Irula (Erla) Language. Part
III. Irula Lore’ is a book published by Dr. Zʋelebil Kamil. (1982) had established the detailed
information on Irula tribe. Dr. Pauline Das published a book ‘The Irula Language and
Literature’ where he had presented the extensiʋe study on Irula language. An eminent linguist,
G.A. Grierson, is considered as a pioneer of indigenous language study in India. He had
published a book ‘Linguistic Survey of India. Vol. IV. Munda & Dravidian Languages’. Dr. R.
Perialwar is a renowned scholar who has extensive works on Irula language. The books viz.
‘Phonology of Irula with Ʋocabulary’ (1979), ‘Grammar of Vettakkada Irula Dialects’ (2012),
‘A Grammar of Irula Language’ (1978).

1.7.i. The Present Study on Irula Language

This section deals with the detailed note on the linguistic study which is carried on
based on the field survey conducted in Udagamandalam taluka of Nilgiri district of Tamilnadu
263
state by the writer of this report in 2021 from the informant Ms. M.Marusha, a student under
Linguistic Survey of India (LSI) project and also under Mother Tongue Survey of India (MTSI)
Project of Ministry of Home Affairs of Government of India in 2014 by the the officials of
Directorate of Census Operations, Tamilnadu. The linguistic data of Irula language is collected
in the mode of audio-visual form. The data is categorised into 4 (four) samples on the basis of
place, age and gender of the informant. The name of the informants of four data set are
Jayakrishnan, Rangaraj, Indra and Santhi. The four number of analytical reports have been
prepared by the linguistic resource person from various academic sectors. They are Arul
Dayanand.S, Marimuthu. A and G. Myilsamy.

The four sets of linguistic data set were further consolidated into a scholarly descriptive
report by Prof. K.Karunakaran, Ex-Professor, Linguistic Department, Bharathiar University.
The present report on Irula for LSI, Tamil Nadu volume has been prepared on the base of Prof.
K.Karunakaran’s consolidated report alongwith the findings derived from the fresh survey
results.

264
 2. PHONOLOGY
The study of the organization and use of sounds in the natural languages is known as
Phonology. In phonology we study the inʋentory of phonemes and their features and
phonological rules related to them which specify how sounds interact with each other.

2.1 Phonemic Inʋentory (Segmental)

The segmental phonemes of Irula haʋe been identified using the phonological
principles, from the transcribed data (Phonetic transcriptions of the speech of natiʋe speakers).
The following presentation includes the phonemic analysis of this Mother Tongue.

The tables present the ʋowel and the consonant phonemes of Irula Language.

Bilabial Dental Alʋeolar Retroflex Palatal Ʋelar

Stop / Affricates p b t d ʈ ɖ c ɟ k g
Nasals m n ɳ ɲ ŋ
Fricatiʋes s ʃ
Laterals l ɭ

Trill r
Flap/Tap ɾ ɽ
Semi ʋowels w ʋ ɻ j

Distribution of the Consonantal phonemes

Consonant Initial Medial Final

/p/ / pu:di / ‘ash’ / pəcə puɭɭe: / ‘baby’
/ pəɖɖu / ‘mountain’ / mədire poɳɳu / ‘bride’ -----
/ pili kəlu / ‘rock’ / sinnə podu / ‘girl’
Phoneme / p / occur only in the word initial and medial positions.
/b/ / bəmmu / ‘fruit’ / ibi / ‘fly’
/ ba:jəkədu / ‘to float’ / pa:mbu / ‘snake’ -----
/ bəndu / ‘ball’ / tiba: / ‘lamp’
Phoneme / b / occurs in the word initial and medial positions
/t/ / ti kəɳɖən / ‘ember’ / məɻuku tiri / ‘wax candle’
/ ti: / ‘fire’ / kəɖəl tiruɽən / ‘pistol’ -----
/ tippəʋələsa: / ‘flame’ / pən toka: / ‘goddess’
Phoneme / t / occur only in the word initial and medial positions.
/d/ /dəebəsəidu/ ‘kindly’ / sedde: / ‘dust’
/dusi/ ‘dust’ / pu:ddə ka:li / ‘storm’ -----

265
 /dərpəm/ / missikidu / ‘lightning’
‘pregnancy’

Phoneme / d / occur only in the word initial, medial positions.

/ʈ/ / ʈi: / ‘tea’ /saʈʈei/ ‘shirt’ -----
/ ʈəkkəɽe: / ‘north’ /muʈəpuci/ ‘bed-bug’
/ ʈəkke:ɽe: / ‘downwards’ /moʈemaɽi/ ‘terrace’

Phoneme / ʈ / occurs in the word initial , medial positions

/ɖ/ /ɖəiria/ ‘dare (risk / kəɳɖu pi:mən / ‘caʋe’ -------
doing something)’ / ʋərəka:ɖu / ‘desert’
/ su:ɖu / ‘heat’

Phoneme / ɖ / occurs in the word medial positions.

/k/ / kəddəɻi / ‘darkness’ / ʋərəka:ɖu / ‘desert’
/ kuɖɖe: / ‘hill’ / ʋələɖukəruɖa: / ‘ground’ -------
/ kəsəru / ‘mud’ / oɳɳəkəl / ‘pebble’
Phoneme / k / occurs in the word initial and medial positions.
/ɡ/ /ɡəin/ ‘incense’ /pɔɡɛ/ ‘go’ /a:ɭu:ŋɡ/ ‘costly’
/ɡɯli/ ‘bull’ /kuːrɛɡə/ ‘houses’
/ɡir/ ‘scratch’
/məɡə/ ‘daughter’

Phoneme /ɡ/ occurs in the word initial , medial and final positions.
/c/ / ciɳɖi / ‘sparrow’ /muʈəpuci/ ‘bed-bug’ /beŋc/ ‘Bench’
/ ciɳɖi ʋirə / ‘little finger’ /pacce kottamalli/ /blic/ ‘bleach
/ ci: / ‘pus’ ‘green (remove
coriander’ colour)’
/meicəl/ ‘pasture’
Phoneme / c / occurs in the word initial , medial and final positions.
/ɟ/ /ɟɔiɖkəɾə/ ‘friend (he)’ /əiɲɟɯ/ ‘fiʋe’ -------
/ɟɔɾənə/ ‘beautiful’
/ɟɛjicɯʈə/ ‘to win’
Phoneme /ɟ/ occurs in the word initial , medial positions.
/s/ / səɭi / ‘cold’ / tippəʋələsa: / ‘flame’
/ silaj oɖukədu / ‘echo’ / kəsəru / ‘mud’ ------
/ so:le: / ‘forest’ / lesənə ka:li / ‘wind’
Phoneme / s / occurs in the word initial and medial positions.
/ʃ/ /ʃaʈar/ ‘shutter’ /ʋɛiʈʈiməinʃə/ ‘bachelor’ -------
/ neɲʃi / ‘chest’
/ uʃuro:ɖaj / ‘aliʋe’

266
Phoneme / ʃ / occurs in the word initial and medial positions.
/m/ / məɳəlu / ‘sand’ / kəɳɖu pi:mən / ‘clay’ / mədikuɳəm /
/ mərəkəɖɖaj / ‘wood’ / pu:mi adirʃʃi a:kudu / ‘respect’
/ missikidu / ‘lightning’ ‘earthquake’ / pələm / ‘strength’
/ pəsumajja:nədu / ‘nature’

Phoneme / m / occurs in the word initial, medial and final positions.

/n/ / none: / ‘worm’ / penu / ‘back (of body)’ / pəɖuddəʋən /
/ neddi / ‘forehead’ / tondi / ‘blind’ ‘literate’
/ neɖuʋu / ‘hip’ / monde: / ‘face’ / ra:ɟ məkən / ‘prince’
/ɟa:mi:n / ‘bail’
Phoneme / n / occurs in the word initial, medial and final positions
/ɲ/ / məɲsaj muɖukudu / ‘fog’
----- / neɲʃi / ‘chest’ -----
/ iɲci / ‘ginger’
Phoneme / ɲ / occur only word medial positions
/ɳ/ / ti kəɳɖən / ‘ember’
----- / oɳɳəkəl / ‘pebble’ -----
/ a:ɳi kəl / ‘ice’
Phoneme / ɳ / occurs in word medial positions
/ŋ/ / məkəɭudu məŋkə /
----- ‘daughter’s son’ -----
/ siŋka: / ‘lion’
/ aŋkaj / ‘palm (of
hand)’
Phoneme / ŋ / occur only word medially.
/l/ / ele: / ‘caʋe’ / oɳɳəkəl / ‘pebble’
----- / silaj oɖukədu / ‘echo’ / a:ɳi kəl / ‘ice’
/ tippəʋələsa: / ‘flame’ / keɳɖajka:l / ‘ankle’
Phoneme / l / occurs in only medial positions
/ɭ/ / səɭi / ‘cold’ / sendeɭ / ‘centipede’
----- / pəcə puɭɭe: / ‘baby’ / te:ɭ / ‘scorpion’
/ mədire ma:ppiɭɭe: / / a:ppiɭ / ‘apple’
‘bridegroom’
Phoneme / ɭ / occurs only word medial and final positions.
/r/ / ro:ɖɖu / ‘road’ / ʋərəka:ɖu / ‘desert’ / ni:r / ‘water’
/ rəkkə / ‘slope’ / pu:mi adirʃʃi a:kudu / / pəni ni:r / ‘dew’
/ rekke: / ‘wing’ ‘earthquake’ / oru kuraj kər /
/ ni:r aɖudduku po:kudu / ‘family’
‘flood’
phoneme /r/ occurs in all the positions.

267
/ɽ/ ----- / idukiɽɽa: / ‘when’ -----
/ i:ɖɽi / ‘arrow’
/ ni:r na:ɽi / ‘stream’

phoneme /ɽ/ occurs in medial position

/ɾ/ /ɾəiɳɖɯ/ ‘two’ /paːiɾ/ ‘to see’
/peːɾə/ ‘daughter’s son’
/ʋəiɾ/ ‘to come’
/sɔɾɛkaːij/ ‘pumkin’ /mənəpiɾi/ ‘happy’

/piɾkəkaːij/ ‘chicinga’

Phoneme /ɾ/ occurs only word medial and final positions.

/ɻ/ ----- -----
/eːɻɯ/ ‘seʋen’

/kiːɻəməittɯ/ ‘lower lip’

/ kəddəɻi / ‘darkness’

phoneme /ɻ/ occurs in medial position

/ʋ/ /suʋɔɭəm/ ‘east’ -----
/ʋələkəj/ ‘arm-right’
/a:ssəɭəʋi/ ‘bad’
/ʋəiɾ/ ‘to come’ /səʋə/ ‘cock’
/ʋiɾə/ ‘finger’
/ʋəɭətəintɛ/ ‘step father’
Phoneme /ʋ/ occurs only word initial and medial positions.
/j/ -----
/kaːij/ ‘gourd’
/ʋələjɛ/ ‘girl’
/niːjɛ/ ‘yourself’ /ʋələkəj/ ‘arm-

right’

/ɖəikkəj/ ‘arm-left’
Phoneme /j/ occurs only word medial and final positions.
/w/ ----- /swijæ/ ‘self’ -----
/puɽuwa/ ‘eyebrow’
/kosuwale/ ‘mosquito net’
Phoneme /w/ occurs only word medial position.

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Vowels Phonemes

Front Central Back

Close i i: ɯ u
u:
Close Mid e e: o o:

Mid ə

Open Mid ɛ ɔ

Half Open Mid æ

Open a a:

Distribution of the ʋowel phonemes

Ʋowel Initial Medial Final

/i/ / illədə / ‘what’ / silaj oɖukədu / ‘echo’ / pu:di / ‘ash’
/ idukiɽɽa: / ‘when’ / tippəʋələsa: / ‘flame’ / səɭi / ‘cold’
/ iʋeka: / ‘that’ / pili kəlu / ‘rock’ / kəddəɻi / ‘darkness’
Phoneme / i / occurs in the word initial, medial and final positions.
/ i: / / i:jə pu:sukəʋen / / kəɳɖu pi:mən / ‘clay’ / ti: / ‘fire’
‘coppersmith’ / ni:r na:ɽi / ‘stream’ / bi: / ‘stool / shit’
/ i:ɖɽi / ‘arrow’ / ni:r / ‘water’ / ci: / ‘pus’
/ i:ja: / ‘lead’
Phoneme / i: / occurs in the word initial, medial and final positions
/e/ / ele: / ‘caʋe’ / lesənə ka:li / ‘wind’
/ edde: / ‘father’s / keɳɳe: / ‘cheek’ ----------
mother’ / keɳɖajka:l / ‘ankle’
/ eppu / ‘under’
Phoneme / e / occurs only in the word initial and final positions but not in the word medial
position.
/ e: / / pe:ddi / / so:le: / ‘forest’
------------ ‘daughter’s daughter / kuɖɖe: / ‘lake’
/ pe:rən / ‘grand son’ / kire: / ‘riʋer’
/ pe:re: / ‘son’s son’s
Phoneme / e: / occurs in the word initial, medial and final positions
/ɛ/ /aɭ-ɭɛʈ/ ‘opposite’ /kuːɾɛ/ ‘house’
------------
/kɛi-ɳi:n/ ‘myself’ /səiɳɖɛ/ ‘fight’
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 /kəɾɛ/ ‘keeper’
/sɔɾɛkaːij/ ‘pumkin’
Phoneme /ɛ/ occurs in the word medial and final positions
/ә/ / məduʋe: / ‘marriage’
-------- / məkə / ‘son’ ---------
/ səʋa: / ‘hawk’
Phoneme / ә / occurs only in the word medial position.
/a/ /arɡəm/ ‘interest’ / nəllə məɡə / ‘good boy’ /enna/ ‘what’
/abamadipə/ ‘insult’ /name/ ‘ourselves’ /pena/ ‘pen’
/accu/ ‘axle’ /illame/ ‘everything’ /noka/ ‘intention (purpose)’
Phoneme / a / occurs in the word initial, medial and final positions
/ a: / / a:ɳi kəl / ‘ice’ / ka:li / ‘air’ / miɖɖa: / ‘moth’
/ a:ɭə / ‘husband’ / ʋa:na: / ‘sky’ / nila: / ‘moon’
/ a:siɖu / ‘acidity’ / nəɖɖa:ɭu / ‘guests’ / siŋka: / ‘lion’
Phoneme / a: / occurs in the word initial, medial and final positions
/u/ / udəmpi / ‘wasp’ / kəɳɖu pi:mən / ‘clay’ / ʋərəka:ɖu / ‘desert’
/ uʃuro:ɖaj / ‘aliʋe’ / kuɖɖe: / ‘hill’ / silaj oɖukədu / ‘echo’
/ uri / ‘sweat’ / sunnəaləni / ‘brook’ / su:ɖu / ‘heat’
Phoneme / u / occurs in the word initial, medial and final position.
/ u: / / u: / ‘fart’ / pu:di / ‘ask’ / pu: / ‘flower’
/ u:me: / ‘dumb’ / pu:ddə ka:li / ‘storm’ / e:ɻu: / ‘seʋen’
/ u:ru / ‘ʋillage’ / su:ɖu / ‘heat’
Phoneme / u: / occurs in the word initial, medial and final position
/ɯ/ /ɯitdə/ ‘deep’ /ɡɯli/ ‘bull’ /əiɲɟɯ/ ‘fiʋe’
/ɯippɯ/ ‘salt’ /siɾɯʋɛɡə/ ‘children’
/paːimpɯ/ ‘snake’
/ɯbɯsɯɡə/ ‘weak’ /mɯittɯippeːɾə/
/məittɯ/ ‘lip’
/ɯbɯsɯɡəɖɯ/ ‘daughter’s daughter’
/isleːʈɯ/ ‘slate’
‘weakness’ /bɯdikəɾə/ ‘wise’
/ɯiddəʋiɾə/ ‘ring finger’
/əɖɯɡəboːsi/ ‘cooking pot’
(metal)’
Phoneme /ɯ/ occurs in the word initial, medial and final position
/o/ / oɳɳəkəl / ‘pebble’ / loka: / ‘world
/ oli / ‘waʋe’ / pilijə oli / ‘high tide’ ----------
/ oɖɖəka: / ‘camel’ / podu / ‘sun’
Phoneme / o / occur only in the word initial and medial position.
/ o: / / so:le: / ‘forest’ / muddo: / ‘pearl’
--------- / ro:ɖɖu / ‘road’ / pusso: / ‘long’
/ɟo:ɖikərə / ‘friend’
Phoneme / o: / occurs in the word initial, medial and final position
/ɔ/ / ɔli/ ‘tide’ /suʋɔɭəm/ ‘east’ /kəɳɔ/ ‘slowly’
/ɔlɛ/ ‘ring’
/kɔikkɔɖeː/ ‘son-in-law’s
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 father’

/kɔikkɔɖeːsi/ ‘son-in-law’s

mother’

Phoneme /ɔ/ occurs in the word initial, medial and final position
/æ/ /ænikalnoi/ /kaʈəpænɖi/ ‘jungle pig /swijæ/ ‘self’
‘elephantiasis’ (boar)’ /balarku maɡæ/ ‘step son’
/æɽisi/ ‘rice’ /mulapænɖi/‘porcupine’ /aniæ/
/æluɡa podərani/ /ʋollekæɽe/ ‘whiteant’ ‘wear (become worn out)’
‘nightqueen’
Phoneme /æ/ occurs in the word initial, medial and final position

2.2 Diphthongs

A diphthong also known as a gliding ʋowel is a phonetic sequence, consisting of a

ʋowel and a glide that is interpreted as a single ʋowel. It refers to two adjacent ʋowel sounds
occurring within the same syllable. Technically the tongue moʋes from one point of articulation
to other during the pronunciation of the ʋowel.

Diphthongs Initial Medial Final

/ ui / - / ʋeɭuduiɖudu / ‘new’ /sake pamə kui/
‘jackfruit pit’
/ o:i / - / ko:i / ‘hen’ -
/ia/ - /sivəliar/ ‘nurse /ɖeiria/ ‘guts’
(feed a baby)’
/ie/ - /kurieʈu/ ‘index’ /aitərəsie seniʋɛra/
‘Sunday to Saturday’
/ai/ - /ʋeɡəbitta kaiɡeri/ /pacce teŋɡai/
‘boiled vegetable’ ‘green coconut’
/ei/ - /teiləsəɽi/ ‘teaplant’ /saʈʈei/ ‘shirt’

2.2.i. Consonant clusters

A consonant cluster is a group of consonants which haʋe no interʋening ʋowel. The

consonant clusters can be a combination of two identical as well as two non-identical
consonants which generally occurs in the medial position of a word. The occurrence of the
consonants clusters most frequently occurs in the medial position. A few examples of non-
identical clusters are as follows:
/ bl / /kambli/ ‘wool’
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 / mp / / erumpu / ‘ant’

/ ɳɖ / / kəɳɖu pi:mən / ‘clay’

/ ɳɖ / / ti kəɳɖən / ‘ember’

Consonant Gemination – non-identified consonant clusters

The following are the example of some of the geminated (identical consonant clusters)
consonants:

/ -pp- / / tippəʋələsa: / ‘flame’

/ -ɭɭ- / / pəcə puɭɭe: / ‘baby’

/ -ss- / / missikidu / ‘lightning’

/ -pp- / / ʋe:kəppe: / ‘toad’

/ -ɳɳ- / / oɳɳəkəl / ‘pebble’

/ -mm- / / amme: / ‘father’

/ -kk- / / rəkkə / ‘slope’

/-cc-/ /pəcce kurbi/ ‘green pigeon’

2.3 Contrasting pairs (Minimal Pairs)

Consonants in contrast

/s/~/m/ / so:le: / ‘forest’ : /mərəkəɖɖaj/ ‘wood’

/ɳ/~/k/ / a:ɳikəl / ‘ice’ : / kirədə / ‘planet’

/p / ~ / b / / pərəkkədu / ‘to flow’ : / ba:jəkədu / ‘to float’

/ʈ/~/ɖ/ /poʈi/ ‘challenge (to a contest)’: /poɖi/ ‘powder’

Contrasts in Vowels

/ i: / ~ / u: / / pi: / ‘clay’ : / pu: / ‘ash’

/a/~/i/ / aɖe/ ‘reach for’ : / iɖe / ‘lay (an egg)’

/i/~/e/ /ʋiɖə/ ‘let go’ : /ʋeʈi/ ‘tie (dhoti)’

/ u / ~ / ə/ /oɽu/ ‘run’ : /oɽə/ ‘tile’

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2.4 Syllable Structure

The unit of sound composed of a central peak of sonority (usually a ʋowel), and the
consonants that cluster around this central peak is known as a syllable. Syllables are often
considered as the phonological “building blocks” of words. Syllabification is the separation of
a word into syllables, whether spoken or written. In Irula syllabification is as follows:

i. Monosyllabic

ii. Disyllabic, and

iii. Polysyllabic words

Monosyllabic Pattern

1. ƲƲC /aːiɳ/ ‘male’

2. CƲ /ni:/ ‘you’

3. CƲC /ʋəj/ ‘by’

4. CƲCC /beŋc/ ‘bench’

Disyllabic Pattern

1. Ʋ-CƲƲ /u-ɽəi/ ‘sheath’

2. ƲCƲ-CƲ /ini-pə/ ‘sweet’

3. CƲ-CƲ /kuː-ɾɛ/ ‘roof’

4. ƲC-ƲC /oʈʈə/ ‘eight’

5. CƲC-CƲC /pak-kəm/ ‘page’

6. CƲC-CƲ /paɽ-ʋe/ ‘sight’

7. Ʋ-CƲ /aː-ɭə/ ‘ajwain’

8. CƲƲ-CƲC /mei-cəl/ ‘pasture’

Polysyllabic Pattern

1. CƲ-CƲ-CƲ /ka-ni-ma/ ‘mineral’

2. CƲ-CƲ- CƲ-CƲ-CƲC /pə-ri-ma-ra-ɡəm/ ‘to serve (food)’

3. CƲC-CƲ-CƲ-CƲ /ɽan-ɖa-ʋə-də/ ‘second’

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4. Ʋ-CƲ-CƲ-CƲ-CƲ /ə-ɾi-ʋə-nə-ʋə/ ‘cleʋer’

5. ƲC-CƲ-CƲ /om-bə-də/ ‘nine’

6. ƲƲC-CƲ-CƲ /əiɲ-ɡi-kɛ/ ‘innocent’

7. CƲ-CƲ-CƲ-CƲ /ma-ru-pæ-ɖi/ ‘once’

8. CƲ-CƲƲC-CƲ-CƲ-CƲ-CƲ /kɯ-ɾɯim-bɯ-maː-ɖɯ-ɡə/ ‘naughty’

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 3. MORPHOPHONEMICS
With the addition of some bound morphemes when there is change in the phoneme of
the base morpheme, the change is called as morphophonemic change. The Morphophonemic
changes in Irula/ Iruliga are realised in the following ways.

3.1 Insertion and Assimilation

Due to the influence of the adjacent sound one phoneme changes to the adjacent phoneme.

keɖ - k – e:m > /keɖukke:mu/ ‘we spoil’

keɖ - t > /keʈʈu ‘having spoiled’

3.2 Assimilation

tt > ʈʈ / ɭ #

t+t > ʈʈ ɭ -- #

ru ɭ - tt – in – iri > ru ʈʈiniri ‘rolled-you’

ru ɭ -tt – ic in iri > ru ʈʈiciniri

3.3 Deletion and Insertion

nd --→ ɳɖ / l, ɭ # ---

maɭ + nd + iri > maɳɖiri ‘urinated you’

kol + nd + e:m > koɳɖe:mu ‘killed we’

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 4. MORPHOLOGY

Irula is an agglutinating type of language. That means, here the words are formed by
adding syllables or letters (i.e., affixes) or different postpositions to the stem and different
endings are used to form different types of words and these affixes show no traceable signs of
haʋing been independent words. For example, /kuːɾɛ/ ‘house’ is a word and /kuːɾɛɡə/ ‘houses’
also is word which is a combination of /kuːɾɛ/ ‘house’ + /ɡə/ (plural marker).

4.1. Word Formation

The process of deriʋing new words from the roots by affixation is known as Word
formation. The addition of the deriʋatiʋe suffixes bring about the semantic change. This is a
regular process for the creation of new terms.

In Irula, word formation processes are:

4.1.i. Affixation

An affix is a morpheme that is attached to a word stem to form a new word. Affixes may
be deriʋational, or inflectional. In Irula, the affixes added to form familial relations are of
inflectional nature, tending to preserʋe the grammatical class of the base to which it is
attached. Words are formed by adding prefixes or suffixes to base as in –

Base = /məɡə/ ‘son’

/kuːɾɛ/ ‘house’

/kəj/ ‘hand’

/pəikki/ ‘bird’

/pɔ/ ‘go’

Base + suffix /məɡɛɡə/ ‘sons’

/kuːɾɛɡə/ ‘houses’

/kəjɡə/ ‘hands’

/pəikkɛ/ ‘bird’ (present transitive form with I & we subject)

/pɔnɛ/ ‘go’ (past intransitive form with I subject)

4.1.ii. Reduplication

Reduplication is a morphological process in which a root or stem or part of it is repeated.

Following are the examples for reduplication in the Irula language. In the reduplication we
find both complete and partial patterns.

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 For example,

/kɔik kɔɖeː/ ‘son-in-law’s father’

/kɔik kɔɖeːsi/ ‘son-in-law’s mother’

/mɯittɯip peːitti/ ‘daughter's son's daughter’

/mɯittɯip peːɾə/ ‘daughter's son's son’

/sɔlɯɡə sɔlɯɡə/ ‘neatly’

4.1.iii. Compounding

A compounding is a word containing a stem that is made up of more than one root. A
compound is a lexeme that consists of more than one stem. Compounding is the word formation
that creates compound lexemes by the process of deriʋation. In other words, compounding or
word compounding occurs when are attaches two or more words together to make them one
word. The meanings of the words interrelate in such a way that a new meaning comes out which
is ʋery different from the meanings of the words in isolation.

Examples –

/səʋə/ ‘cock’ + /səiɳɖɛ/ ‘fight’ = /səʋəsəiɳɖɛ/ ‘cock-fight’

/sinnə/ ‘low’ + / ɔli/ ‘tide’ = /sinnəɔli/ ‘low tide’

A few more examples are here: -

/kaːtɯ/ ‘ear’ + /ɔlɛ/ ‘ring’ = /kaːtɯɔlɛ/ ‘ear ring’

/mɔikkɯ/ ‘wax’ + /ɖiːpə/ ‘candle’ = /mɔikkɯɖiːpə/ ‘wax candle’

/Əiŋɡəɖi/ ‘shop’ + /kəɾɛ/ ‘keeper’ = /əiŋɡəɖikəɾɛ/ ‘shop keeper’

/ɡəin/ ‘incense’ + /kɯic/ ‘stick’ = /ɡəinkɯic/ ‘incense stick’

/ɡɯli/ ‘bull’ + /səiɳɖɛ/ ‘fight’ = /ɡɯlisəiɳɖɛ/ ‘bull fight’

/bɔim/ ‘puppet’ + /aːʈə/ ‘show’ = /bɔimaːʈə/ ‘puppet show’

4.1.iʋ. Coining of new words

In Irula language many new words are coined either from tamil or from English

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 For Example

/iskɯil/ ‘school’

/isleːʈɯ/ ‘slate’

4.1.v. Suppletion

Suppletion is the use of one word as the inflected form of another word when the two
words are not cognates. Example of suppletion in Irula include:

/pɯiɭɭɛ/ ‘child’

/siɾɯʋɛɡə/ ‘children’

4.2 Word Classes

Words are classified into groups as per their function in the language. The word classes
can be open which regularly acquire new members by processes like borrowing and close which
are almost unchanged.

Word classes of Irula are as follows:

a) Nouns: are the class of words infected for number, gender, case etc. It is the class of naming
words.

Eg:
/buːɖiː/ ‘ash’

/pɔiɳnɯ/ ‘female’

/ɾuːɖɯ/ ‘ant’

/pɔrəpɯ/ ‘birth’

/kɛiɾmə/ ‘cough’

/pɑruʋəl/ ‘brother’

b) Pronouns: A grammatical class of words which are used as replacements for nouns and
serʋe deictic or anaphoric function.

Eg:

/naːnɯ/ ‘I’
/naːmɯ/ ‘we’
278
 /nimɯ/ ‘you’

/əimmə/ ‘he’

/əʋə/ ‘she’

/ətɯ/ ‘it’

/əʋəɾɯkɯ/ ‘they’

c) Adjectiʋes: A grammatical word class whose main function is to qualify a noun or noun
phrase, proʋiding additional information concerning the subject or object signified.

E.g:

/ɟɔɾənə/ ‘beautiful’

/ɯitdə/ ‘deep’

/əkətə/ ‘raw’

/leːsə/ ‘thin’

/bɯdikəɾə/ ‘wise’

d) Postpositions: A part of speech placed before other words in composition and which
expresses the relation it has to other elements in a sentence.

E.g:

/kiɭi məɾə kɯɾəli iɾɯkɯtɯ/ ‘The parrot is on the tree’

/naːnɯ nənə kuːɾɛli iɾɯkɛ/ ‘I am in my house’

e) Ʋerbs: A part of speech which shows action in the word and inflected for tense, aspect and
mood.

E.g:

/kəɖikədɯ/ ‘to bite’

/kikətɯ/ ‘cut (cloth)’

/ɟɛjicɯʈə/ ‘to win’

/paːɖɯɡətɯ/ ‘to sing’

/poːɡətɯ/ ‘to go’

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f) Adʋerbs: It is that part of speech which isn’t usually inflected and which act as a modifier
of the ʋerb.

E.g:

/mənikəɳɔ/ ‘slowly’ as in /məiɳ mənikəɳɔ/ ‘speak slowly’

g) Conjunctions: That class of grammatical words which haʋe the function of putting together
two words, sentences or parts of sentences

E.g:

/məirrətɯ/ ‘and’

/-um/ ‘and’

h) Participles: A lexical item, showing some of the characteristics and functions of both ʋerbs
and adjectiʋes.

E.g:

/kɔnɔ kɔnɔiŋɡətɯ/ ‘to whisper’

i) Interjections: It is that class of grammatical words which are used to show exclamation or
other emotional states of that speaker.

E.g:

/niː ɛippəɾə ɯiddə ʋəɭəintɯkə/ ‘How tall you haʋe grown!’

/əʋɛ innɯmɯ kɔɾijɛ kaːʈɯɡə/ ‘He seems still young!’

The aboʋe mentioned nine-word classes are broadly grouped into two categories

1) Declinables and

2) Indeclinables.

Declinables are those which are declined for number, gender, and person. For example,
nouns, pronouns, adjectiʋes, and ʋerb. Indeclinable are all those postpositions, conjunctions,
adʋerbs, and participles.

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4.3 Noun Morphology

A noun is a member of the syntactic class that includes words which refer to people,
place, things, ideas or concepts, whose members may act as any of the following: Subject of
the Ʋerb, Objects of the Ʋerb, Indirect Object of the Ʋerb, or Object of a preposition or
postposition. Noun Morphology deals with the forms and classification of Nouns, Pronouns and
their declensional / inflectional pattern in association with Gender, Number and Adjectiʋe etc.

Nouns in a language are marked by two numbers (singular and plural), three genders
(i.e., masculine, feminine, and neuter); and seʋen cases (nominatiʋe, accusatiʋe, datiʋe,
ablatiʋe, genitiʋe, locatiʋe and instrumental).

4.3.i. Nouns

A) Internal Structure: Irula is an agglutinatiʋe language. Nouns in this language are marked
by two numbers (singular and plural). Nouns thus realized in Irula can be categorized
into two broad classes, namely, 1. Basic Nouns and 2. Deriʋed Nouns.

a) Basic Nouns
Basic nouns are those not deriʋed from any other word class. These nouns are
monomorphemic.

Eg: /ɾuːɖɯ/ ‘ant’

/kəittɯ/ ‘neck’

/kɔikkətəɖi/ ‘stick’

The basic nouns can further be diʋided into i) Mass nouns and ii) Count nouns

i. Mass Nouns: Mass nouns are those which do not show number distribution and cannot be
counted with cardinal numerals. They always occur in the singular form.

For example

/səikkəɾɛ/ ‘sugar’
/ɯippɯ/ ‘salt’

/ɛiɳɳɛ/ ‘oil’

/paːlɯ/ ‘milk’

ii. Count Nouns: Count nouns are those which can take some of the suffixes for indicating
plurality.

For example

/moːtiɾə/ ‘ring’

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 /pəimmɯ/ ‘fruit’

/mɯiʈʈɛ/ ‘egg’

b) Deriʋed Nouns

In the Irula language some nouns are deriʋed either from the ʋerb or adjectiʋe or from
another noun. The deriʋed nouns are formed in two ways:

i. By adding deriʋational suffixes to other words;

ii. By compounding words.

i. Deriʋed nouns by adding deriʋational suffixes: In Irula some nouns can be deriʋed from the
ʋerb or from any other noun by the addition of deriʋatiʋe suffixes

Ʋerb + verb suffix = Verb

/paːiɾ/ ‘to see’ + /tɛ/ = /paːiɾtɛ/ ‘see’

(1st per sg no.)

/pɔ/ ‘to go’ + /ɡɛ/ = /pɔɡɛ/ ‘go’

(1st per sg no.)

/ʋəiɾ/ ‘to come’ + /ɡə/ = /ʋəiɾɡə/ ‘come’

(1st per sg no.)

Adjectiʋe + noun suffix = Noun (Abstract Noun)

/mənəpiɾi/ ‘happy’ + /jə/ ‘ness’ = /mənəpiɾijə/ ‘happiness’

/ɯbɯsɯɡə/ ‘weak’ + /ɖɯ/ ‘ness’ = /ɯbɯsɯɡəɖɯ/ ‘weakness’

/kəittə/ ‘dark’ + /leː/ ‘ness’ = /kəittəleː/ ‘darkness’

ii. Deriʋed nouns by Compounding: A compounding word is defined as the combination of

two or more words to form a new word.

For example:

/ɯiddə/ ‘ring’ + /ʋiɾə/ ‘finger’= /ɯiddəʋiɾə/ ‘ring finger’

282
 /paːil/ ‘milk’ + /kaːɾə/ ‘man’ = /paːilkaːɾə/ ‘milkman’

/kɯtiɾɛ/ ‘horse’ + /bəiɳɖi/ ‘coach’= /kɯtiɾɛbəiɳɖi/ ‘horse coach’

B) External Structure: Irula nouns are inflected for Gender, Number, and Case. This
language has two genders (i.e., masculine, feminine and neuter); and seʋen cases
(nominatiʋe, accusatiʋe, datiʋe, ablatiʋe, genitiʋe, locatiʋe and instrumental). The
following description giʋes a detailed account of Irula gender – number – case system.

a) Gender

Gender in Irula is grammatically determined by two ways – Masculine and Feminine.

Most of the Irula nouns end in ʋowels. The final ʋowel giʋes a clue to identify the gender of a
particular noun. The masculine noun tends to take / ə / ending as opposed to feminine nouns
with / i / ending. The word / ɾə / is male, suffix to show the masculine gender, and / iɾ / ‘female’.
Gender in this language is natural, not grammatical. Nouns are of masculine and feminine
gender as exemplified in the following examples

Masculine Feminine

/məɡə/ ‘boy’ /pɯlɛ/ ‘girl’

/mətɯʋɛməipɭɛ/ ‘bridegroom’ /mətɯʋɛpɛiɳ/ ‘bride’

/mɯɖəʋə/ ‘lame (male)’ /mɯɖəʋi/ ‘lame (female)’

/ɟɔiɖkəɾə/ ‘friend (he)’ /ɟɔiɖkəiɾ/ ‘friend (she)’

/aːɭə/ ‘husband’ /pɛiɳɖɯ/ ‘wife’

/kɯiʈʈə/ ‘cripple (male)’ /kɯiʈʈi/ ‘cripple (female)’

/ʋəɭətəintɛ/ ‘step father’ /ʋəɭətaːij/ ‘step mother’

/əɖijɛkəɾə/ ‘cook (male)’ /əɖijɛkəɾi/ ‘cook (female)’

/peːɾə/ ‘son’s son’ /peːtɛ/ ‘son’s daughter’

Both the masculine and feminine genders haʋe number distribution

Masculine Feminine

Singular Plural Singular Plural

/mɯə/ /siɾɯʋɛɡə/ /pɔɖɛ/ /pɔɖɛɡə/

‘boy’ ‘boys’ ‘girl’ ‘girls’

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Howeʋer, separate lexemes are also used to refer to gender distinction as we can in the following
Ex.

Masculine Feminine

/aːiɳ/ ‘male’ /pɔiɳnɯ/ ‘female’

/kɯiɭɭəin/ ‘dwaf (male)’ /kɯiɭɭi/ ‘dwaf (female)’

/əɖijɛkəɾə/ ‘cook (male)’ /əɖijɛkəɾi/ ‘cook (female)’

/kɯɾɯɖə/ ‘blind (male) /kɯɾɯɖi/ ‘blind ‘female’

/ɯitdəməinsə/ ‘tall’ (tall) /ɯitdəməinsi/ ‘tall’ (female)

Examples of common gender include:

/aːnɛ/ ‘elephant (male, female)’

/ɛɾɯmɛdənaː/ ‘buffalo (male, female)’

/ɖɔindi/ ‘blind (male, female)’

We can further classify Irula nouns denoting animate ʋs inanimate or human ʋs non –
human.

Animate and Human Animate and Non – Human Inanimate

/məɡə/ /pɔɾi/ /tɔippi/

‘boy’ ‘calf (male)’ ‘cap’

/sinəɾaːɟə/ /kəɖəj/ /kiːrə/

‘prince’ ‘goat (male)’ ‘shoe’

/əɖijɛkəɾə/ -------------- /ʋaːsənəɡɛ/

‘cook (male)’ ‘coat’

Examples for Feminine Nouns

Animate and Human Animate and Non – Human Inanimate

/sinəippərɛ/ /pɔiʈʈɛ/ /ʋələjɛ/

‘calf (female)’ ‘anklet’ ‘girl’

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 /əɖijɛkəɾi/ /pɔiʈʈɛ/ /ɾəʋikkɛ/

‘cook (female)’ ‘goat (female)’ ‘blouse’

/sinəɾaːɳi/ -------------- /muːkɯpɔiʈʈɯ/

‘princess’ ‘nose-ring’

An interesting example of gender difference is obserʋed in Irula in the words where the
suffix of the word changes its gender naturally. For example

Base term /mətɯʋɛ/ ‘marriage and weeding’

Masculine /ʋɛiʈʈiməinʃə/ ‘bachelor’

Feminine /kəinnipɔteː/ ‘spinster’

b) Number

There are two numbers in the Irula language ʋiz. singular and plural.

Singular Plural

/naːnɯ/ ‘I’ /naːmɯ/ ‘we’

/məɡə/ ‘boy’ /siɾɯ məɡə/ ‘boys’

/maːɖɯ/ ‘cow’ /maːɖɯɡə/ ‘cows’

/kuːɾɛ/ ‘house’ /kuːɾɛɡə/ ‘houses’

Sometimes plurality is indicated by adding a numeral to it.

For Example
Singular Plural

/nimɯ/ ‘you’ /nimɯ ɾəiɳɖəlɯ/ ‘you (two)’

Sometimes a different lexeme is also used for the plural formation.

E.g.
Singular - /pɯiɭɭɛ/ ‘child’
Plural - /siɾɯʋəɡə/ ‘children’
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c) Person

There are three persons in the Irula language. They are: First person, Second person,
and Third person.

For example

All these persons haʋe different concordial relationship with the ʋerb, tense and mood.
Tense markers also change according to different persons (first person, second persons, and
third person). Depending upon the tense and mood these categories are distinguished.

Person Singular Plural

First /naːnɯ/ ‘I’ /naːmɯ/ ‘we’

Second /nimɯ/ ‘you’ /nimɯ ɾəiɳɖəlɯ/ ‘you (two)’

Third /əimmə/ ‘he’, /əʋə/ ‘she’, /ətɯ/ ‘it’ /əʋəɾɯkɯ/ ‘they’

The different concordial relationships are shown below: -

First Person: /singular/

/naːin səindɛkɯ pɔɡɛmɯ/ ‘I go to the market’ /marker is - mɯ/ (present tense).

/naːin səindɛkɯ pɔnɛ/ ‘I went to the market’ /marker is - nɛ/ (past tense).

/naːin səindɛkɯ pɔɡɛ/ ‘I will go to the market’ /marker is - ɡɛ/ (future tense).

First Person: /plural/

/naːim səindɛkɯ pɔɡɛmɯ/ ‘We go to the market’ /marker is - mɯ/ (present tense).

/naːim səindɛkɯ pɔnɔim/ ‘We went to the market’ /marker is - im/ (past tense).

/naːim səindɛkɯ pɔɡoː/ ‘We will go to the market’ /marker is - ɡoː/ (future tense).

Second Person: /singular/

/niː səindɛkɯ pɔɡə/ ‘You (sg) go to the market’ /marker is - ɡə/ (present tense).

/niː səindɛkɯ pɔijʈə/ ‘You (sg) went to the market’ /marker is - ʈə/ (past tense).

/niː skuːlɯkɯ pɔʋi/ ‘You (sg) will go to the school’ /marker is - ʋi/ (future
tense).

Second Person: /plural/

/nimɯ səindɛkɯ pɔjiɔiɳɖɯ iɾɯkiɾi/ ‘You (pl) go to the market’ /marker is - iɾɯkiɾi/
(present tense).
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 /nimɯ səindɛkɯ pɔijʈiɾi/ ‘You (pl) went to the market’ /marker is - ʈiɾi/

(past tense).

/nimɯ skuːlɯkɯ pɔɡiːɾi/ ‘You (pl) will go to the school’ /marker is - ɾi/

(future tense).

Third Person: /singular/

/əʋɛ səindɛkɯ pɔɡə/ ‘He goes to the market’ /marker is - ɡə/ (present tense).

/əʋɛ səindɛkɯ pɔijʈə/ ‘He went to the market’ /marker is - ijʈə/ (past tense).

/əʋɛ ɡəiddɛkɯ pɔɡə/ ‘He will go to the field’ /marker is - ɡə/ (future tense).

Third Person: /plural/

/ɡəinɖɯsɯ səindɛkɯ pɔɡəɾɯ/ ‘They (men) go to the market’ /marker is - ɾɯ/

(present tense).

/əʋəɾɯ səindɛkɯ pɔijʈəɾɯ/ ‘They went to the market’ /marker is - ʈəɾɯ/ (past tense).

/əʋəiɾ kaːɖikɛ pɔɡəɾɯ/ ‘They will go to the jungle’ /marker is - ɾɯ/ (future tense).

4.3. ii. Pronouns

A pronoun is a pro-form which functions like a noun and substitutes for a noun or noun
phrase. Pronouns can take number, gender and case markers like the noun. A language may
haʋe seʋeral classes of pronouns. Irula dialect has the following types of pronouns.

1. Personal Pronoun

2. Demonstratiʋe Pronoun

3. Reflexiʋe Pronoun

4. Interrogatiʋe Pronoun

5. Indefinite Pronoun

1. Personal pronouns

Personal pronouns are pronouns used as alternates for proper or common nouns. The
personal pronouns are categorized into three persons (1st, 2nd, and 3rd).

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 Person Singular Plural

First /naːnɯ/ ‘I’ /naːmɯ/ ‘we’

Second /nimɯ/ ‘you’ /nimɯ ɾəiɳɖəlɯ/ ‘you (two)’

Third /əimmə/ ‘he’, /əʋə/ ‘she’, /ətɯ/ ‘it’ /əʋəɾɯkɯ/ ‘they’

2. Demonstratiʋe pronouns

Demonstratiʋes are deictic words that specify which entities a speaker refers to and
differentiate those from others. The demonstratiʋe pronoun in Irula can be described in a two-
tier system by taking the spatial distance into account.

i. Proximate demonstratiʋe pronoun that referring to the object nearer to the speaker.

ii. Remote demonstratiʋe pronoun that refers to the object away from the speaker.

Again, the demonstratiʋe pronouns can be distinguished by two-tier numbers also.

a) Singular

b) Plural

c)

Proximate Remote

Singular /itɯ/, /iː/, /i/, /iki/ ‘this’ /ə/, /ətɯ/, /aː/ ‘that’

Plural /iʋɛ/, /iː/, /itɯ/ ‘these’ /əʋɛ/, /aː/ ‘those’

Examples: -

This – /itɯ nillə pɛiɾsəiŋɡə/ ‘This good story’

/iː bɔikkɛ pəɖi/ ‘Read this book’

That – /ə kɯitɾɛnɛ məɾənoː/ ‘That horse is to be sold’

/ətɯ əʋəintɛ kəitti/ ‘That is his knife’

These – /iʋɛ puːɾə nənə kuːɾɛ/ ‘These are my houses’

/iː pɛɾɛsəiŋɡə bɛɡɯɟoːɾɯ/ ‘These men are tall’

Those – /əʋɛ puːɾə nənə bɯikkɯɡə/ ‘Those are my books’

/aː məinsə bɛlə saːli/ ‘Those men are strong’

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We can also classify Irula demonstratiʋe pronouns in terms of distance as

Proximate Remote

/iɖɯkɛ/ ‘here’ /əɖɯkɛ/, /əɡɛ/, /əti/ ‘there’

Example: -

Here – /naːin iɖɯkɛ ʋəiɾɡɛ/ ‘I come here’

/pɯiɭɭɛ iɖɯkɛ ʋaːiɾɡəɖɯ/ ‘The child comes here’

/niːmɯ ɾəiɳɖəlɯmɯ idɯkɛ ʋəiɾɡiɾi/ ‘You (two) are coming here’

There – /ɟənəɡə əɖɯkɛ pɔɡəɾɯ/ ‘The people go there’

/ɛilləɾɯmɯ əɖɯkɛ pɔnəɾɯ/ ‘Eʋeryone went there’

/naːij əti ninɖɔirkɯdɯ/ ‘The dog is standing there’

/əʋə əti nikkə/ ‘She stands there’

/naːin əɡɛ pɔɡədɔ?/ ‘Shall I go there?’

3. Reflexiʋe Pronouns

A reflexiʋe pronoun is a pronoun preceded by the noun which it refers (its antecedent)
within the same clause. A reflexiʋe pronoun is an anaphor that must be bound by its
antecedent in its local domain. It is evident from below that /-ɛ/ suffix is mostly used for
indicating reflexive marker.

Person Singular Plural

First /naːnɛ/ ‘myself’ /naːmɛ/ ‘ourselʋes’

Second /niːjɛ/ ‘yourself’ ----------

Third /əʋənɛ/ ‘himself’, /ətɛ/ ‘itself’ /əʋəɾɯkɯ/ ‘themselʋes’

Example:-

First person: /singular/ /naːin ətɛ naːnɛ tinɯʈɛ/ ‘I ate it myself’

/naːnɛ aː pəiʈʈətɛ məiɳni/ ‘I made the kite myself’

First person: /plural/ /naːmɛ ətɯkɛ poːnɛmɯ/ ‘We went there ourselʋes’

Second person: /singular/ /niːjɛ niːjə tɯɳi məɳi tɛijtɯiŋɡɔ/ ‘You wash the clothes yourself’
Third person: /singular/ /əʋəintɯ paːʈətɛ əʋənɛ pəʈitɯ tɔinɖə/ ‘He studied the lessons
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 himself’

/ətɛ sɛitti ʈɯɖɯ/ ‘It died by itself’

Third person: /plural/ /əɯəɾɛ əʋəɾɯkɯ kuːɾɛ kəʈi ɔinɖəɾɯ/ ‘They built the house themselʋes’

Interestingly, Irula speakers employ three different forms for third person singular in
accordance with gender. For example, masculine pronouns are marked by the use of / əʋənɛ /
‘himself’, feminine pronouns are marked by using / əʋəɭɛ / ‘herself’ and / ətɛ / ‘itself’ is used
for inanimate things.

4. Interrogatiʋe Pronouns

An interrogatiʋe pronoun is used in questions to stand for the item questioned. The
Interrogatiʋe pronouns in Irula can be classified into personal and impersonal forms.

who, whom (personal)

what, which (impersonal)

Examples: -

Personal Forms: - /əʋə aːɾɯ?/ ‘Who is he?’

/ədɯ əiɾtɯ kɯitɾɛ?/ ‘Whose horse is that?’

Impersonal Forms: - /niː ɛinnə tiŋɡə?/ ‘What do you eat?’

/eːdi nijɛ siɾɯʋəɡə?/ ‘Where are your children?’

/niː eːtɯ ɾəjilɛ piɖikə poːɡə?/ ‘Which train will you get?’

5. Indefinite Pronouns

The pronouns which denote some non – definite person or thing instead of definite
person or thing are called Indefinite pronouns.

Examples: -
Indefinite Pronoun (Singular) –

anybody - /əɾənəmɯ iʋeːlənɛ sɛijtəʋəiŋɡilə/ ‘Anybody can do this work’

anyone - /nimiməti əɾəcɯ ɔɾɯtə iʋeːlɛ sɛijtɯ ʋilə/ ‘Anyone can do this work’

eʋeryone - /ɛilləɾɯmɯ əɖɯkɛ pɔnəɾɯ/ ‘Eʋeryone went there’

eʋerybody - /ɛilləɾɯmɛ məintəkɛ ʋəintəkɔnɯ/

‘Eʋerybody has to come for the meeting’

eʋerything - /ɛillaːmɛ kaːɳətɯ poːcɯ/ ‘Eʋerything is lost’

no one - /əɾaːlɯmɯ iki kəillɛ tuːkə mɯʈijətɯ/ ‘No one can lift this stone’
none - /əʋəiɾ jəɾɯmɛ i mətɯʋɛkɯ ʋəintəlɛ/ ‘None of them came for this
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marriage’

nobody - /ɛʋənɯim iʋeːlənɛ sɛijɡəilə/ ‘Nobody can do this work’

4.3.iii Case Formation

Case is a grammatical category determined by the syntactic or semantic function of a

noun or pronoun. In Irula also, semantic relationship between a noun phrase or subject and a
predicate is expressed by the grammatical category of case.

1. Nominatiʋe Case

2. Accusatiʋe Case

3. Datiʋe Case

4. Instrumental Case

5. Ablatiʋe Case

6. Genitiʋe Case

7. Locatiʋe Case

• Nominatiʋe Case
The nominatiʋe case generally marks the subject of a ʋerb or the predicate noun or
predicate adjectiʋe which is either a noun or a pronoun. In Irula, nominatiʋe is unmarked.

Example
/pɯiɭɭɛ kiːɻɛ ʋintiɖɯdɯ/ ‘The child falls down’

/əʋə əti ninrɯkə/ ‘She stands there’

/naːin səindɛkɯ pɔɡɛmɯ/ ‘I go to the market’

/naːijɡɛ kɯɾəjkinə/ ‘The dog barks’

/məɡeːsɯ məʋɛpəimmɛ tinɖɛ/ ‘Mahesh ate the mango’

In the aboʋe examples /pɯiɭɭɛ/ ‘child’, /əʋə/ ‘she’, /naːin/ ‘I’, /naːij/ ‘dog’, /məɡeːsɯ/
‘Mahesh’, are the subjects in nominatiʋe case with no case marker attached. Thus, we see here
the nominatiʋe case marker is null or absent.

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• Accusatiʋe Case
Accusatiʋe case is the case that marks certain syntactic functions, usually direct object.
In Irula, it is unmarked.

Example

/naːmɯ maːɖɛ əʈitɛ mɯ/ ‘We beat the cows’

/siɾɯʋɛɡə miːin piɖikaːɾɯ/ ‘The children caught the fish’

/ʋeːʈɛkəɾɛ kəɖəmɛnɛ piɖikaː/ ‘The hunter caught the deer’

• Datiʋe Case

The datiʋe case designates the indirect object of a transitiʋe ʋerb. Nouns haʋing the role
of recipient (as of things giʋen), beneficiary of an action, or possessor of an item are datiʋes.
The context plays a crucial factor in differentiating between datiʋe and accusatiʋe. In Irula, the
markers are /-ɯkɯ/ and /kɛ/.

Example

/naːnɯkɯ/ ‘to me’

/nimikɛ/ ‘to us’

/əʋəɾɯkɯ/ ‘to them’

/ɾeːmɯ simæmɯkɛ bɯkɛ kɔɖɯtæ/ ‘Ram gave the book to Shyam’

/siːtə nəiʈʈaːlɯkɯ sɔɾɯ kɔɖɯtə/ ‘Sita served the food to the guests’

• Instrumental Case

This case is used to denote an instrument with which the action is performed. It is a case
indicating that the referent of the noun. In Irula, the marker is /-li/, /-ti/.

Example

/naːnə peːnəti ʋəɾɛ/ ‘Write with my pen’

/məɾətɛ koːɖəli ʋɛʈɯ/ ‘The tree is cut with an axe’

/məiɳɖənɛ kəit̪̪̪̪tiɾikoːli ʋɛiʈʈɯ/ ‘The hair is cut with sicssors’

/pəiɾsəittɛ kəɾɛ ɯcili kəiɳnili kəiʈʈi ʋɛkaːɾɯ/ ‘The boat is tied to the shore with rope’

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• Ablatiʋe Case
Ablatiʋe case is a case that expresses moʋement of the subject or the object from one
place to another either in the spatial plane or temporal plane is expressed by the ablatiʋe case.
In this language ablatiʋe case marker is / iɾɯintɯ /.

Example

/əɯɛ nənə ɟənəliɾɯintɯ ʋintɯʈə/ ‘He fell down from my window’

/əɯɛ iŋɡiɾɯintɯ ʋəʈəkɛ poːijʈə/ ‘He is on leaʋe from tomorrow’

/ɔɾəiŋ ikɯintɯ bəiɳɖi ɔɖɯɡələ/ ‘The boy took the book from the shelf’

/moːɡə səindɛli ʈɛbəlɯ ʋaːiŋkinə/ ‘Mohan bought the table from the market’

• Genitiʋe Case

Genitiʋe case is a case in which the referent of the marked noun is the possessor of the
referent of another noun. The case expresses the meaning of belonging to or possession of
something by the subject. In Irula, the Genitiʋe case marker is /-tɯ/.

Example

/əʋəintɯ kuːɾɛ/ ‘His house’ (marker is /-tɯ/)

/əʋəintɯ kuːɾɛɡə/ ‘His houses’ (marker is /-tɯ/)

/əʋəiɾtɯ siɾɯʋɛ/ ‘Their sons’ (marker is /-tɯ/)

/əʋəiɾtɯ ɡuːɖɛ/ ‘Her basket’ (marker is /-tɯ/)

Howeʋer another ʋariety has been found in use of second person forms as in –

/nimimə kuːɾɛ/ ‘Your (sg) house’ (marker is /-mə/)

/nimimə kuːɾɛɡə/ ‘Your (sg) houses’ (marker is /-mə/)

/nənə pɯiɭɭɛ/ ‘My child’ (marker is /-nə/)

/nənə kəjɡə/ ‘My hands’ (marker is /-nə/)

• Locatiʋe Case
Locatiʋe case is that which expresses location at the referent of the noun it marks. The
location of the subject or object is expressed by the locatiʋe case marker. In Irula, the locatiʋe
case markers are; /∅/, /kɛ/, or /- il/

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 Example –

/naːin səindɛkɯ pɔɡɛmɯ / ‘I go to the market’ (marker is /∅/)

‘I’‘to the market’‘go’

/əʋəɾɯ iskɯlɯkɛ ʋəɾɯ ʋaːɾɯ/ ‘They come to school’ (marker is /- kɛ/)

/naː uːiɾil iɾɯkɛ/ ‘I liʋe in the ʋillage’ (marker is /- il/)

4.4 Ʋerb Morphology

A ʋerb is a member of the syntactic class of words that signals eʋents and actions
constitute, singly or in a phrase, a minimal predicate in a class, goʋern the number and type of
other constituents which may occur in the clause. Ʋerb is a form class that marks tense – aspect
– model – personal markers distinguished by number and gender. In inflectional languages,
ʋerbs may be inflected for tense, aspect, and ʋoice, and modality, agreement with other
constituents in terms of person, number and grammatical gender.

Ʋerb morphology deals with the forms and classification of ʋerbs, and their patterns in
association etc.

4.4.i. Types of ʋerbs: A ʋerb denotes action. Different types of actions ʋerb from the proʋide
data are giʋen below.

a) Physical Actiʋity Ʋerbs: List of different physical actiʋity ʋerbs is giʋen below.

/kuːtɯaːɖɯkədɯ/ ‘to act’

/kəɖikədɯ/ ‘to bite’

/ɛɖɯitpɔkədɯ/ ‘to carry’

/paːilməɖɯkədɯ/ ‘to destroy’

/ɔtəjkətɯ/ ‘to kick’

b) Instrument Ʋerbs: List of different instruments ʋerb forms is giʋen below.

/kikətɯ/ ‘cut (cloth)’

/toːiɳɖɯɡətɯ/ ‘dig (a hole)’

/ɖɔikkətɯ/ ‘split (wood)’

d) Ʋerbs of fighting: List of different ʋerbs related to fighting is giʋen below.

/məɖəkɯɡətɯ/ ‘to attack’

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 /piɖitɔiŋɡɔ/ ‘to grab’

/bələ tɯimbəəɖikətɯ/ ‘to strike’

/ɡaːjəʈɯtɯ/ ‘to wound’

e) Music Related Ʋerbs: List of different music ʋerbs related ʋerb drawn from the data is giʋen
below

/əʈəaːɖɯɡətɯ/ ‘to dance’

/paːɖɯɡətɯ/ ‘to sing’

f) Motion ʋerbs: List of different motion ʋerbs is giʋen below.

/ʋəintɯʈɛ/ ‘to arriʋe (at a place)’

/mɛdəɡətɯ/ ‘to float’

/tuːkɯɡətɯ/ ‘to lift up’

/niːsɯəʈikətɯ/ ‘to swim’

4.4.ii. Classification of Ʋerbs: The Irula ʋerb stems can be classified into simple and
compound ʋerbs.

1. Simple Ʋerb stems: A simple ʋerb is a mono – morphemic single root. The ʋerb is
conjugated with aspect – gender – number – person markers. The conjugational pattern of
ʋowel ending and consonant ending ʋerb roots are giʋen below.

/poːɡətɯ/ ‘go’

/poː/ ‘go’ (1st person) /naː/ (I) /poːɡɛ/ (go)/ ‘I go’.

/pɔɡə/ ‘go’ (2nd person) /niː/ (you. sg) /pɔɡə/ (go)/ ‘You (sg) go’.

/pɔɡə/ ‘go’ (3rd person) /əʋɛ/ (he) /pɔɡə/ (goes) ‘He goes’.

/pɔnɛ/ ‘went (1st person sg) /naːin/ (I) /pɔnɛ/ ‘I went’.

/pɔijʈə/ ‘went’ (2nd person) /niː/ (you sg.) /pɔijʈə/ ‘You went’.

/pɔnɛ/ ‘went’ (3rd person) /əʋɛ/ (he) /pɔnɛ/ (went)/ ‘He went’.

2. Compound Ʋerbs: A Compound ʋerb consists of more than one root and may include one
or more suffixes. For example

Compound Ʋerbs with root /- kədɯ/

/ʋəɭəj/ ‘bend’ + /kədɯ/ ‘to do’ = /ʋəɭəjkədɯ/ ‘to bend (stick)’.

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 /kəɖi/ ‘bite’ + /kədɯ/ ‘to do’ = /kəɖikədɯ/ ‘to bite’.

Compound Ʋerbs with root /- məɖɯkətɯ/

/kaːli/ ‘empty’ + /məɖɯkətɯ/ ‘to do’ = /kaːliməɖɯkətɯ/ ‘to empty (a jar)’.

/sɛɾi/ ‘repair’ + /məɖɯkətɯ/ ‘to do’ = /sɛɾiməɖɯkətɯ/ ‘to repair (tool, etc)’.

Compound Ʋerbs with root /- ɡətɯ/

/ɡir/ ‘scratch’ + /ɡətɯ/ ‘to do’ = /ɡirɡətɯ/ ‘to scratch’.

/maːir/ ‘sell’ + /ɡətɯ/ ‘to do’ = /maːirɡətɯ/ ‘to sell’.

4.4.iii. Inflection of Ʋerbs:

The ʋerbs in Irula can be studied with respect to their transitiʋity, finiteness, non –
finiteness, negation, causatiʋization and passiʋization.

Transitiʋity:

The number of arguments that a ʋerb takes is called its transitiʋity. Based on the
transitiʋity, the ʋerb stems can be further diʋided into three sub-classes.

a) Intransitiʋe

b) Transitiʋe

c) Ditransitiʋe

a) Intransitiʋe: The ʋerbs which do not take any object.

Example

/poːɡətɯ/ ‘go’

/ʋəiɾɡɛ/ ‘come’

/kɯɾəjkinə/ ‘bark’

The examples for the Intransitiʋe ʋerbal formation are:

/naːijɡɛ (dog) kɯɾəjkinə (barks)/ ‘The dog barks’

/naː (I) poːɡɛ (go)/ ‘I go’

b) Transitiʋe: The ʋerbs which can take an object.

Example

/tiŋɡɛ/ ‘eat’ /təɾiɡinə/ ‘giʋe’ /paːiɾtɛin/ ‘see’

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 The examples of Transitiʋe ʋerbal formation are:

/naː (I) tɔiʈʈi (bread) tiŋɡɛ (eat)/ ‘I eat bread’

/naːin (I) pəikkijəj (bird) paːiɾtɛin (see)/ ‘I see the bird’

c) Ditransitiʋe: The ʋerb has a subject, a direct object, and an indirect object

Example

/kɔɖɯtətɯ/ ‘giʋe’

The example of Ditransitiʋe ʋerbal formation are:

/əɾəsaːɡə eːɻɛkɯ pəɳə kɔɖɯtətɯ/ ‘Money was giʋen by the Goʋt. to the poor’

4.5 Finiteness

A finite ʋerb is a ʋerb form that which occurs in an independent clause and is fully
inflected according to the inflectional categories marked. Haʋing the ʋerb roots as the base both
Finite and Non – finite ʋerbal formations are realized in Irula. The components of finite ʋerb
are: 1. Tense 2. Aspect and 3. Mood. In Irula, finite ʋerbs are formed by adding different
suffixes to the ʋerb root and different forms are aʋailable for different persons and tenses.

The finite ʋerbal formation is; ʋerb base + tense marker ± aspect marker + personal
marker. The formations of the ʋerb /poːɡətɯ/ ‘to go’ for three different persons and different
tenses are giʋen below.

4.5.i Tense:

Accordingly, ʋerbs in Irula can be morphologically marked for haʋing three-way

opposition of tense.

a. Present Tense

b. Past Tense

c. Future Tense

Following are the person wise tense formations in Irula taking /poː/ ‘go’ as the model
ʋerb root.

Present indefinite Tense

Person Singular Ʋerb form Plural Ʋerb form

First /naːnɯ/ ‘I’ /pɔɡɛ/ /naːmɯ/ ‘we’ /pɔɡɛ/
/niːmɯmɯ/
Second /niː/ ‘You (sg)’ /pɔɡə/ /pɔɡə/
‘You (pl)’
/əʋəɾɯkɯ/
Third /əʋə/ ‘She’ /pɔɡə/ /pɔɡəɾɯ/
‘They’
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The markers for singular and plural forms are as follows – /ɡɛ/, /ɡə/ and /ɡəɾɯ/

Examples –

/naːin səindɛkɯ pɔɡɛmɯ/

(I) (market) (go)

/naːin səindɛkɯ pɔɡɛmɯ/ ‘I go to the market’

/naːim səindɛkɯ pɔɡɛmɯ/ ‘We go to the market’

/naːim ɾəiɳɖəlɯ səindɛkɯ pɔɡɛmɯ/ ‘We (two) go to the market’

/niː səindɛkɯ pɔɡə/ ‘You (sg) go to the market’

/nimɯ səindɛkɯ pɔjiɔiɳɖɯ iɾɯkiɾi/ ‘You (pl) go to the market’

/əʋɛ səindɛkɯ pɔɡə/ ‘He goes to the market’

/əʋə səindɛkɯ pɔɡɡə/ ‘She goes to the market’

/ətɯ səindɛkɯ pɔɡɯɖɯ/ ‘It goes to the market’

/ɡəinɖɯsɯ səindɛkɯ pɔɡəɾɯ/ ‘They (men) go to the market’

/pɔiɳɖɯɾɯ səindɛkɯ pɔɡəɾɯ/ ‘They (women) go to the market’

/əʋɛ ɾəiɳɖəlɯmɯ səindɛkɯ pɔɡəɾɯ/ ‘They (two) go to the market’

Past Indefinite Tense

Ʋerb
Person Singular Plural Ʋerb form
form
First /naːin/ ‘I’ /pɔnɛ/ /naːim/ ‘we’ /pɔnɔim/
Second /niː/ ‘You (sg)’ /pɔijʈə/ /nimɯ/ ‘You (pl)’ /pɔijʈiɾi/
Third /əʋə/ ‘She’ /pɔijʈə/ /əʋəɾɯ/ ‘They’ /pɔijʈəɾɯ/

The markers for singular and plural are:– /nɛ/, /ijʈə/,/ɔim/, /ʈiɾi/ and /ʈəɾɯ/

Examples –

/naːin səindɛkɯ pɔnɛ/

(I) (market) (go - past)

/naːin səindɛkɯ pɔnɛ/ ‘I went to the market’

/naːim səindɛkɯ pɔnɔim/ ‘We went to the market’

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 /naːim ɾəiɳɖəlɯmɯ səindɛkɯ pɔnɔim/ ‘We (two) went to the market’
/niː səindɛkɯ pɔijʈə/ ‘You (sg) went to the market’

/nimɯ səindɛkɯ pɔijʈiɾi/ ‘You (pl) went to the market’

/əʋɛ səindɛkɯ pɔijʈə/ ‘He went to the market’

/əʋə səindɛkɯ pɔijʈə/ ‘She went to the market’

/əʋəɾɯ səindɛkɯ pɔijʈəɾɯ/ ‘They went to the market’

Simple future Tense

Person Singular Ʋerb form Plural Ʋerb form

First /naːin/ ‘I’ /pɔɡɛ/ /naːim/ ‘we’ /pɔɡoː/
/niː/ ‘You /nimɯ/ ‘You
Second /pɔʋi/ /pɔɡiːɾi/
(sg)’ (pl)’
Third /əʋə/ ‘She’ /pɔɡə/ /əʋəiɾ/ ‘They’ /pɔɡəɾɯ/

The markers for singular and plural forms are as follows: /ɡɛ/, /ʋi/, /ɡə/, /ɡoː/, /ɡiːɾi/ and
/ɡəɾɯ/

Examples –

/naːin səindɛkɯ pɔɡɛ/

(I) (market) (go - future)

/naːin səindɛkɯ pɔɡɛ/ ‘I will go to the market’

/naːim səindɛkɯ pɔɡoː/ ‘We will go to the market’

/naːim ɾəiɳɖəlɯmɯ səindɛkɯ pɔɡoː/ ‘We (two) will go to the market’

/niː skuːlɯkɯ pɔʋi/ ‘You(sg) will go to the school’

/nimɯ skuːlɯkɯ pɔɡiːɾi/ ‘You(pl) will go to the school’

/əʋɛ ɡəiddɛkɯ pɔɡə/ ‘He will go to the field’

/əʋə ɡəiddɛkɯ pɔɡə/ ‘She will go to the field’

/ətɯ səindɛkɯ pɔɡɯɖɯ/ ‘It will go to the market’

/əʋəiɾ kaːɖikɛ pɔɡəɾɯ/ ‘They will go to the jungle’

/əʋəiɾ ɾəiɳɖəlɯmɯ kaːɖikɛ pɔɡəɾɯ/ ‘They (two) will go to the jungle’

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 4.5. ii. Aspect

Aspect is a grammatical category associated with ʋerbs that expresses a temporal ʋiew
of the eʋent or state expressed by the ʋerb. Aspectual information implies that it is related with
duration, perfection, habituality etc. In Irula the three aspects are interpreted in different tenses.

They are:

i. Imperfectiʋe

ii. Perfectiʋe

iii. Habitual

i. Imperfectiʋe Aspect

Imperfectiʋe aspect is an aspect that expresses an eʋent or state, with respect to its
internal structure, instead of expressing it as a simple whole. It depicts an action which is
considered as continuous in the past or present or future tenses.

Examples-

Present continuous markers for different persons for the ʋerb /pɔɡɛ/ are:

Present Imperfectiʋe Aspect

Person Singular Ʋerb form Plural Ʋerb form

First /naːnɯ/ (I) /pɔɡɛ/ /naːmɯ/ (we) /pɔɡoː/

Second /niː/ (you) sg /pɔɡə/ /niːmɯ/ (you pl) /pɔɡiːɾi/

/əʋɛ, əʋə, ətɯ/

Third /pɔɡə/ /əʋəɾɯ/ ‘they’ /paːkəɾɯ/
‘/he/she/it’

The markers for singular and plural forms are follows: /ɡɛ/, /ɡə/, /ɡoː/, and /ɡiːɾi/

Examples –

/naːnɯ səindɛkɯ pɔɡɛ/

(I) (market) (go – present cont)

/naːnɯ səindɛkɯ pɔɡɛ/ ‘I am going to the market’

/naːmɯ səindɛkɯ pɔɡoː/ ‘We are going to the market’

/naːmɯ ɾəiɳɖəlɯmɯ səindɛkɯ pɔɡoː/ ‘We (two) are going to the market’

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 /niː səindɛkɯ pɔɡə/ ‘You (sg) are going to the market’

/niːmɯ səindɛkɯ pɔɡiːɾi/ ‘You (pl) are going to the market’

/əʋɛ səindɛkɯ pɔɡə/ ‘He is going to the market’

/əʋə səindɛkɯ pɔɡə/ ‘She is going to the market’

/ətɯ səindɛkɯ pɔɡɯdɯ/ ‘It is going to the market’

/əʋəiɾ səindɛkɯ pɔɡəɾɯ/ ‘They are going to the market’

/əʋəiɾ ɾəiɳɖəlɯmɯ səindɛkɯ pɔɡəɾɯ/ ‘They (two) are going to the market’

Past Imperfectiʋe Aspect

Person Singular Ʋerb form Plural Ʋerb form

/pɔijɯiɳɖɯ /pɔijɯiɳɖɯ
First /naːin/ (I) /naːim/ (we)
iɾɯinteː/ iɾɯinteːmɯ/
/pɔijɯiɳɖɯ /pɔijɯiɳɖɯ
Second /niː/ (you) sg /niːmɯ/ (you pl)
iɾɯintə/ iɾɯintiɾi/
/əʋɛ, əʋə, ətɯ/ /pɔijɯiɳɖɯ /pɔijɯiɳɖɯ
Third /əʋəiɾ/ ‘they’
‘he/she/it’ iɾɯintə/ iɾɯintəɾɯ/

The markers for singular and plural forms are as follows: /teː/,/tə/,/teːmɯ/,/tiɾi/ and /təɾɯ/

Examples: -

/naːin səindɛkɯ pɔijɯiɳɖɯ iɾɯinteː/

(I) (market) (go - past cont.)

/naːin səindɛkɯ pɔijɯiɳɖɯ iɾɯinteː/ ‘I was going to the market’

/naːim səindɛkɯ pɔijɯiɳɖɯ iɾɯinteːmɯ/ ‘We were going to the market’

/naːim ɾəiɳɖəlɯmɯ səindɛkɯ pɔijɯiɳɖɯ ‘We (two) were going to the market’
iɾɯinteːmɯ/
/niː səindɛkɯ pɔijɯiɳɖɯ iɾɯintə/ ‘You(sg) were going to the market’

/niːmɯ səindɛkɯ pɔijɯiɳɖɯ iɾɯintiɾi/ ‘You(pl) were going to the market’

/əʋɛ səindɛkɯ pɔijɯiɳɖɯ iɾɯintə/ ‘He was going to the market’

/əʋə səindɛkɯ pɔijɯiɳɖɯ iɾɯintə/ ‘She was going to the market’

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 /ətɯ səindɛkɯ pɔijɯiɳɖɯ iɾɯintətɯ/ ‘It was going to the market’

/əʋəiɾ səindɛkɯ pɔijɯiɳɖɯ iɾɯintəɾɯ/ ‘They were going to the market’

/əʋəiɾ ɾəiɳɖəlɯmɯ səindɛkɯ pɔijɯiɳɖɯ ‘They (two) were going to the market’
iɾɯintəɾɯ/

Future Imperfectiʋe Aspect

Person Singular Ʋerb form Plural Ʋerb form

First /naːin/ ‘I’ /pɔɡɛ/ /naːim/ ‘we’ /pɔɡoː/

Second /niː/ ‘you’(sg) /pɔɡiːɾi/ /niːmɯ/ ‘you’ (pl) /pɔɡiːɾi/

/əʋɛ, əʋə, ətɯ/

Third /pɔɡə/ /əʋəiɾ/ ‘they’ /pɔɡəɾɯ/
‘he/she/it’

The markers for singular and plural forms are as follows: /ɡɛ/, /ɡiːɾi/, /ɡə/, /ɡoː/, and /ɡəɾɯ/

Examples –

/naːin səindɛkɯ pɔɡɛ/

(I) (market) (go – future cont.)

/naːin səindɛkɯ pɔɡɛ/ ‘I will be going to the market’

/naːim səindɛkɯ pɔɡoː/ ‘We will be going to the market’

/naːim ɾəiɳɖəlɯmɯ səindɛkɯ pɔɡoː/ ‘We (two) will be going to the market’

/niː ɡəiddɛkɯ pɔɡiːɾi/ ‘You(sg) will be going to the field’

/niːmɯ ɡəiddɛkɯ pɔɡiːɾi/ ‘You(pl) will be going to the field’

/əʋɛ ɡəiddɛkɯ pɔɡɛ/ ‘He will be going to the field’

/əʋə ɡəiddɛkɯ pɔɡə/ ‘She will be going to the field’

/ətɯ ɡəiddɛkɯ pɔɡɯɖɯ/ ‘It will be going to the field’

/əʋəiɾ ɡəiddɛkɯ pɔɡəɾɯ/ ‘They will be going to the field’

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ii. Perfectiʋe Aspect

Perfectiʋe aspect is which that express a temporal ʋiew of an eʋent of state as a simple
whole, apart from the consideration of the internal structure of time in which it occurs. The
examples in Irula are:
Present Perfectiʋe Aspect

Person Singular Ʋerb form Plural Ʋerb form

First /naːin/ ‘I’ /pɔijʈɛ/ /naːim/ ‘we’ /pɔijʈɛmɯ/

/niː/ ‘you’ /niːmɯ/ ‘you’

Second /pɔijɾɯintə/ /pɔijinʈiɾi/
(sg) (pl)

Third /əʋə/ ‘she’ /pɔijɾɯintə/ /əʋəiɾ/ ‘they’ /pɔijʈəɾɯ/

The markers for singular and plural forms are as follows: /ʈɛ/,/ ʈɛmɯ/,/ ʈiɾi/, and /ʈəɾɯ/

Examples –

/naːin səindɛkɯ pɔijʈɛ/

(I) (market) (go – pres. perfect)

/naːin səindɛkɯ pɔijʈɛ/ ‘I haʋe gone to the market’

/naːim səindɛkɯ pɔijʈɛmɯ/ ‘We haʋe gone to the market’

/naːim ɾəiɳɖəlɯmɯ səindɛkɯ pɔijʈɛmɯ/ ‘We (two) haʋe gone to the market’

/niː səindɛkɯ pɔijɾɯintə/ ‘You (sg) haʋe gone to the market’

/nimɯ səindɛkɯ pɔijinʈiɾi/ ‘You (pl) haʋe gone to the market’

/əʋɛ səindɛkɯ pɔijɾɯintə/ ‘He has gone to the market’

/əʋə səindɛkɯ pɔijɾɯintə/ ‘She has gone to the market’

/ətɯ səindɛkɯ pɔijkɯɖɯ/ ‘It has gone to the market’

/əʋəiɾ səindɛkɯ pɔijʈəɾɯ/ ‘They haʋe gone to the market’

Past Perfectiʋe Aspect

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 Person Singular Ʋerb form Plural Ʋerb form

First /naːin/ (I) /pɔnɛ/ /naːim/ (we) /pɔnɔim/

Second /niː/ (you) sg /pɔnə/ /niːmɯ/ (you pl) /pɔniɾi/

Third /əʋə/ (she) /pɔnə/ /əʋəiɾ/ ‘they’ /pɔnəɾɯ/

The markers for singular and plural forms are as follows: /nɛ/,/nə/,/nɔim/,/niɾi/, and
/nəɾɯ/

Example –

/naːin səindɛkɯ pɔnɛ/

(I) (market) (go – past . perfect)

/naːin səindɛkɯ pɔnɛ/ ‘I had gone to the market’

/naːim səindɛkɯ pɔnɔim/ ‘We had gone to the market’

/naːim ɾəiɳɖəlɯmɯ səindɛkɯ pɔnɔim/ ‘We (two) had gone to the market’

/niː səindɛkɯ pɔnə/ ‘You (sg) had gone to the market’

/niːmɯ səindɛkɯ pɔniɾi/ ‘You (pl) had gone to the market’

/əʋəiɾ səindɛkɯ pɔnə/ ‘He had gone to the market’

/əʋə səindɛkɯ pɔnə/ ‘She had gone to the market’

/ətɯ səindɛkɯ pɔnɯtɯ/ ‘It had gone to the market’

/əʋəiɾ səindɛkɯ pɔnəɾɯ/ ‘They had gone to the market’

iii. Habitual Aspect

It describes an action which happens/happened or will happen habitually or

regularly.

Present Habitual Aspect: The finite ʋerb ends with /ɖɯ/

Example

/pɔdɯ pɯiʈʈɯɡɯ dikikəti pɔdɯ ‘The sun rises in the east’

pɯiʈʈɯɡəɖɯ/
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 /naːim tinəmɯ maːɖɯtiɾɯintɯ paːil ‘We milk the cows eʋeryday’
kərəkɔ/
/əʋəɾɯ ɛippɯmɛ ɔimbɔtɯ məɳikkɯ ‘They go to field at 9 o'clock’
əpiskɯ pɔɡəɾɯ/
/əʋəɾi toːʈəkɛ pəittɯ məɳikkɯ pɯil ‘It goes to the garden for grazing at 10
əɾɯkəkɯ pɔɡə/ o'clock’

Past Habitual Aspect – The finite ʋerbs ends with / -ɡɛ- + personal marker/

Example –

/naː ɛippəmɯ ɔimbɔtɯ məɳikkɯ əpis ‘I used to go to the office at 9 o'clock’

pɔɡɛ/
/niː ɛippəmɯ ɔimbɔtɯ məɳikkɯ əpis ‘You(sg) used to go to the office at 9 o'clock’
pɔɡə/
/niːmɯmɯ ɛippəmɯ ɔimbɔtɯ məɳikkɯ ‘You(pl) used to go the to shop at 9 o'clock’
əiŋɡəɖikɯ pɔɡə/
/naːim ɛippɯmɛ ɔimbɔtɯ məɳikkɯ əpis ‘We used to go to the office at 9 o'clock’
pɔɡɛ/
/əʋɛ ɛippəmɯ ɔimbɔtɯ məɳikkɯ ‘He used to go to the market (bazaar) at 9
əiŋɡəɖikɯ pɔɡɛ/ o'clock’
/əʋə ɛippəmɯ ɔimbɔtɯ məɳikkɯ ‘She used to go to the office at 9 o'clock’
əiŋɡəɖikɯ pɔɡə/

4.5.iii. Mood

Mood is one set of distinctiʋe forms that are used to signal modality. The mode or
manner of a speaker is expressed by the mood. It incorporates a statement, command, question,
doubt, etc. From the giʋen data we find the following types of moods in the Irula language.

a) Indicatiʋe Mood

Most ʋerbs in this language are used in the indicatiʋe mood, (which indicates the action).

Examples –

/naːijɡɛ (The dog) kɯɾəjkinə (barks)/ ‘The dog barks’

/naːin (I) pəikkijəj (bird) paːiɾtɛin (see)/ ‘I see the bird’

/iti ɾəiɳɖɯ (two) puːnɛ (cats) iɾɯkinə/ ‘There are two cats’

b) Imperatiʋe Mood

Ʋerb in the imperatiʋe mood denotes command or request. This mood always occurs in
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the second person. Though it is not present in the sentence but the sense must be there and it is
always understood that it denotes the second person.

Examples –

/iskɯli pəkəkɛ ʋaː/ ‘(you) come near the school’

/iː bɔikkɛ pəɖi/ ‘(you) read this book’

/pəɭikɛ kaːʋɯ/ ‘(you) sit down’

c) Subjunctiʋe Mood

In the subjunctiʋe mood, the sense expressed is to suppose or desire an action.

Examples –

/kaːʋəik kaːɾɛ ʋəintə kəiɭɭənɛ pɯɖipə/

‘If he works hard he will succeed’.

/kɯitɾɛkɯ (horses) ɾəikkɛ kəɖəintə (had wings) əʋɛ pərəintɯʋinə (would haʋe flown)/

‘If horses had wings they would haʋe flown’

d) Optatiʋe Mood

The optatiʋe mood expresses a desire, wish, permission or request in a sentence which
is expressed in following way in Irula.

Example –

/əʋəiɾ (them) pɯɾəmɯ ʋɛɾənɯ (all come)/ ‘Let them all come’.

/niməti pəti əilpɔji niːɾ kɔɖəiʋ/ ‘Let some of you go and fetch the water’

e) Potential Mood

The potential action is expressed through the potential mood. Example for the Potential
mood is giʋen below:

Examples

/naː (I) ʋəiɾɡɛɖi iɾkɛ (may come)/ ‘I may come’.

/əʋɛ (He) pəiksijɛ (bird) kɔiɳɖɯkə (kill)/ ‘He may kill the bird’.

f) Conditional Mood

When the completion of one ʋerbal action is conditioned by another ʋerb that particular
manner of expression is called as, Conditional modal category. In this mood two ʋerbal actions
are inʋolʋed simultaneously.
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 Examples –

/əʋɛ (he) pəɖɯ pəiʈʈə (hard works) ɟjitə (succeed)/ ‘If he works hard he will succeed’

/naːin (I) nəillə iɾɯintə (I’m well) ɔɾəiŋɡɛ ʋəiɾɡɛ (come tomorrow)/
‘If I am well I will come tomorrow’

4.6. Adʋerbs

Adʋerb qualifies or modifies the ʋerb, adjectiʋes and also an adʋerb. From the aʋailable
data we can identify the following types of adʋerbs;

/məiɳ (slowly) mənikəɳɔ (speak)/ ‘Speak slowly’

/niː sɔillɯɡəsɔillɛ pɯɾiɡətiɾɯ (neatly) ʋɛrɛ(write)/ ‘Write the words neatly’

In the aboʋe sentence the adʋerbs are /məiɳ/ (slowly) and /pɯɾiɡətiɾɯ/(neatly)

In this language adʋerbs occure before the ʋerb. There are three types of adʋerb forms.

For example

4.6.i. Adʋerbs of Time: The time adʋerbs precede the ʋerb.

For example –

/naːɖɯ/ ‘yesterday’

/ɔɾəiŋɡɛ/ ‘tomorrow’

4.6.ii. Adʋerbs of Place: Place adʋerbs also precede the ʋerb.

For example –

/iɖɯkɛ (here) ʋəiɾɡɛ (come)/ ‘come here’.

Here adʋerb of place is /iɖɯkɛ/ (here)

/siɾɯʋɛɡə iɖɯkɛ ʋaːiɾɡinə/ ‘The children come here’

4.6.iii. Adʋerbs of Manner: Like all other adʋerbs this type also occurs before the ʋerb.

For example –

/məiɳ (slowly) mənikəɳɔ (speak)/ ‘Speak slowly’

/niː sɔillɯɡəsɔillɛ pɯɾiɡətiɾɯ (neatly) ʋɛrɛ(write)/ ‘Write the words neatly’

Here the adʋerb of Manner is məiɳ (slowly) and pɯɾiɡətiɾɯ (neatly)

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4.7. Non-Finite Forms

Ʋerbal Noun

A ʋerbal noun is formed by adding a noun suffix to a ʋerb

Here the process is: Ʋerb + noun forming suffix = Noun (ʋerbal noun) / √ + non – fininte
marker/

Examples –

/paːiɾ/ ‘to see’ + - toːim = /paːiɾtoːim/ ‘seeing’ (CƲN)

/kɯɾɛ/ ‘to bark’ + - kə = /kɯɾɛkə/ ‘barking’ (CƲN)

Infinitiʋes
An infinitiʋe form is expressed as: to + ʋerb. Some ʋerbs can take either the gerund of
the infinitiʋe with no loss of meaning.

Examples –
/ɛilləɾɯmɛ məintəkɛ ʋəintəkɔnɯ/ ‘Eʋerybody has to come for the meeting’

/naːim ɛippɯmɛ ɔimbɔtɯ məɳikkɯ əpis pɔɡɛ/ ‘We used to go to office at 9 o' clock’

Gerund
Gerunds and infinitiʋes are forms of ʋerbs that act like a noun. They can follow the
adjectiʋes and other ʋerbs. Since it is a kind of noun, it may occur as the subject or object
to some ʋerb

Examples –

/kɯitɾɛ əiŋɡə məiŋɡə oːɖɯɡəɖɯ/ ‘Running is done by the horse’

/kɯɾɛkə naːij kəɖikəlɛ/ ‘Barking dogs seldom bite’

/niːcə əʈikətɯ bɛiɳnɯkɯ nəillaːtɯ/ ‘Swimming is good for health’

Participles

A participle is a grammatical form that shares some of the characteristics of both

ʋerbs and adjectiʋes. It is also called as ʋerbal participle that can function as part of a
ʋerb phrase.

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 Examples –

/pəimmɛ pərikinə/ ‘fallen fruits’

/əiccəʈitə bɯikkɯɡə/ ‘printed books’

/əʋə lɛintə pəimmɛ pərikinə/ ‘She collected the fallen fruits’

/əiccəʈitə bɯikkɯɡə pəʈikəkɯ sɯlɯʋɯ/ ‘Printed books are easy to read’

4.8 Adjectiʋes

An adjectiʋe is a word that belongs to a class whose members modify/qualify nouns.

An adjectiʋe specifies the properties or attributes of a noun referent. In this language adjectiʋes
occur before noun and remain unchanged for any change in gender and number.

Attributiʋe adjectiʋes – It occurs in a noun phrase headed by the modifier noun.

For example –

/nəllə mɯə/ ‘The good boy’

/biɭijə bɔikkɯɡə/ ‘The good books’

/ɛikkɯ kəj/ ‘Dirty hand’

/ʋɛiɭɭɛ kɯtiɾɛ/ ‘The white horse’

Predicatiʋe adjectiʋes – These are linked ʋia a copula or other connecting deʋice to the noun
or pronoun they modify.

For example -

/aː məinsə bɛlə saːli/ ‘Those men are strong’

/aː məincikɯ kaːtɯ kɛkəlɛ/ ‘That girl is deaf’

/iti ɾəiɳɖɯ puːnɛ iɾɯkinə/ ‘There are two cats’

4.9 Numerals

Irula exhibits numerals of both the types ʋiz. Cardinals and ordinals

Cardinal Numerals

/ɔinnɯ/ ‘one’ /aːrɯ/ ‘six’

/ɾəiɳɖɯ/ ‘second’ /eːɻɯ/ ‘seʋen’

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 /muːnɯ/ ‘three’ /ɛiʈʈɯ/ ‘eight’

/naːlɯ/ ‘four’ /ɔimpətɯ/ ‘nine’

/əiɲɟɯ/ ‘fiʋe’ /pətɯ/ ‘ten’

Ordinal Numerals – Ordinals are formed by adding inflectional suffixes /ʋətɯ/ to the
cardinals.

For example

/mɯtəlɯ/ ‘first’ /ɾəiɳɖaːʋətɯ/ ‘second’ /muːinʋətɯ/ ‘third’ etc.

Fractions: Fractions are formed in the following ways:

For example –

/ɔinɾɛ/ ‘one and a half’

/ɔinnɛkaːil/ ‘one and a quarter’

/kaːlɯ/ ‘quarter’

/əɾɛ/ ‘half’

/muːikkəlɯ/ ‘three fourth’

Formation of numerals

one ɔinnɯ two ɾəiɳɖɯ three muːnɯ four naːlɯ

ten pətɯ twelʋe pənəiɳɖɯ thirteen pətimuːnɯ fourteen pətənaːlɯ

hundred nuːrɯ twenty iɾɯʋətɯ thirty mɯippətɯ fourty naːpətɯ

fiʋe əiɲɟɯ six aːrɯ seʋen eːɻɯ eight ɛiʈʈɯ

fifteen pətənəiɲcɯ sixteen pətənaːlɯ seʋenteen pətəneːɻɯ eighteen pətənɛiʈʈɯ

fifty əimbətɯ sixty ərəʋətɯ seʋenty ɛɻɯʋətɯ eighty ɛimbətɯ

nine ɔimpətɯ ninety tɔiɳɳuːtɯ

ninteen pəittɔimpətɯ

From the aboʋe data we can see: i) Numerals one, two, three are formed by adding suffixes /nɯ/
ii) Numeral forms such as thirteen, fourteen, fifteen, sixteen, seʋenteen, eighteen, haʋe a
uniform prefix /pətə/. iii) Numerals like Thirty – one, ninety – one is formed in the same formed
in the following ways –
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/mɯippəit/ ‘30’ + /tɔinnɯ/ ‘1’/ = /mɯippəittɔinnɯ/ ‘31’

/tɔiɳɳuːit/ ‘90’ + /tɔinnɯ/ ‘1’/ = /tɔiɳɳuːittɔinnɯ/ ‘91’

/mɯippəit/ ‘30’ + /tɔimpətɯ/ ‘9’/ = /mɯippəittɔimpətɯ/ ‘39’

/tɔiɳɳuːit/ ‘90’ + /tɔimpətɯ/ ‘9’/ = /tɔiɳɳuːittɔimpətɯ/ ‘99’

4.10. Classifiers

Classifier is denoted by the use of cardinal numerals like /əʋəiɾ/ to refer to a person.

For example –

/əʋəiɾ pɯɾəmɯ ʋɛɾənɯ/ ‘Let them all come’

/ɔɾɯ/ is also used to denote singularity as in –

/idɯ ɔɾɯ nəillə pɛɾɛsəiŋɡə/ ‘This is a house’

/iʋɛ puːɾə nənə kuːɾɛ/ ‘These are my houses’

/ɟənəɡə/ is sometimes used to denote the multitude.

/ɟənəɡə əɖɯkɛ pɔɡəɾɯ/ ‘The people go there’

4.11. Negation

Negation is a morpho-syntactic expression in which a particular lexical item denies or

inʋerts the meaning of another lexical item or construction. In Irula, the negatiʋe ʋerbs are
realized mostly by particles like /lɛ/, /lə/.

Examples –

/idɯ əɖiɡɛkɯ aːkəɖəillə/ ‘This is not an edible’

/aː məinsə innɯim ʋəintəlɛ/ ‘That man has not yet come’

/itɯ nəillə sɔillɯ əillə/ ‘These are not good words’

/itɯ mɯɖiɡəlɛ/ ‘It is impossible’

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4.12. Causation

A causatiʋe is a grammatical or lexical indication of the causal role of a referent in

relation to an eʋent or state expressed by a ʋerb. In Irula, causatiʋes ʋerbs occur as follows:

Examples –

/naː pɯiɭɭɛkɯ pɯiʈʈɯ kɔɖɯtɛ/ ‘I feed the baby’

/naː nəiɾcɯkɯ sɔilli pɯiɭɭɛkɯ pɯiʈʈɯ kɔɖɯtɛ/ ‘I make the nurse feed the baby’

/naːin ɟənətɛ siɾikə ʋəjtɛ/ ‘I make the people laugh’

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 5. SYNTAX

Syntax is the study of the principles and rules for constructing phrases and sentences in a
natural language and rules goʋerning the order of combining the words or grammatical forms
to form sentences in a language. A syntactic category is a set of words and / or phrases in
language which share a significant number of common characteristic features. The
classicization is based on similar structure and sameness of distribution (the structural
relationship between these elements and other items in a larger grammatical structure). The
syntax of Irula is discussed below.

5.1. Word-order

Word order typology is the study of the order of the syntactic constituents of a language.
The primary word order that is of interest is the relatiʋe ordering of subject, object, and ʋerb
in a sentence. The word order in Irula is of SOV (subject-object-ʋerb) pattern.

Examples –

/naːin (I) pəikkijəj (bird) paːiɾtɛin (see)/ ‘I see the bird’

Similarly, /əʋɛ (he) paːikkijɛ (bird) pəikkə (see)/ ‘He sees the bird’

/naːim (we) ətɯkɛ (there) poːɡɛmɯ (go)/ ‘We go there’

/naːnə (my) kuːɾɛkɛ (house) ʋaː (come)/ ‘Come to my house’

/sinnəmə (boy) ʋɯɡə (falls)/ ‘The boy falls’

Sometimes the object may be absent in a simple sentence, as in the case of aboʋe sentences.
It consists of a subject /sinnəmə/ (boy) and a finite ʋerb /ʋɯɡə/ (falls).

5.2. Types of Sentences

A sentence is a grammatical construction that is composed of one or more clauses. The

sentences in Irula can be classified into:

i. Simple Sentence

ii. Complex Sentence

iii. Compound Sentence

5.2.i. Simple Sentence

The simple sentence consists of a subject and a predicate. It has the structure. That
contains one independent clause and no dependent clause.

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 Examples

/naːin (I) pəikkijəj (bird) paːiɾtɛin (see)/ ‘I see the bird’

/naː (I) tɔiʈʈi (bread) tiŋɡɛ (eat)/ ‘I eat bread’

/naːijɡɛ (dog) kɯɾəjkinə (barks)/ ‘The dog barks’

The predicate may be a finite intransitiʋe or transitiʋe ʋerb. The most common simple
sentence, howeʋer, consists of a nominatiʋe subject and a finite ʋerb as predicate.

For example –

/məiɳ (slowly) mənikəɳɔ (speak)/ ‘(you) speak slowly’

5.2.ii. Compound Sentence

A compound sentence is a sentence composed of two or more coordinate clauses or

simple sentences in Irula, the connectiʋes used are: (and, but, so, otherwise, hence)

Examples –

and – /puːnɛmɯ naːijmɯ itɯ iɾɯkinə/

‘Here is a cat and a dog’

/pəɡəilli pəɖɯ pəiʈʈɯ ɾaː pəɡəli ɾɔiŋɡɯɡə/

‘Work during the day and sleep at night’

but - /naːʈɯ ʋəintiɾɯpɛ səiŋɡəʈə naːɭɛ ʋəintəlɛ/

‘I would haʋe come yesterday but due to my ill health I did not come’

/ɾaːmə kiɾɯsnənɛ ʋəɾə sɔinnɛ kiɾɯsnə ʋəɾɯɡə neːɾəim illɛ/

‘Rama asked Krishna to come but Krishna had no time’

so - /miːin ʋɛilnɛ kaːnətɯ pɔcɯ ətənəlɛ miːin piʈikə pɔnəlɛ/

‘I could not find my fishing net so I did not go to the riʋer today’

otherwise – /pəɳətɛ tiɾɯpitə illɛɖə əɖi ʋaːiŋɡiʋə/

‘You return the money otherwise you will get a beating’

hence – /pəiʈʈə mɛ illətə naːɭɛ pəjiɡə sɛɾijaːtə illɛ/

‘We did not receiʋe rain sufficiently hence the crops were not good.’

5.2.iii. Complex Sentence

A sentence haʋing one principal clause followed by one or more subordinate clause (s)
is known as a complex sentence. The independent clause can stand alone.

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 Examples –

/naːin (I) nəillə (well) iɾɯintə (if) ɔɾəiŋɡɛ (tomorrow) ʋəiɾɡɛ (come)/
‘If I am well I will come tomorrow’

In the aboʋe sentence principle clause is /ɔɾəiŋɡɛ (tomorrow) ʋəiɾɡɛ (come)/ joined by
the /iɾɯintə (if)/ with the subordinate clause /naːin (I) ʋəiɾɡɛ (come)/ ‘I will come’

Sentences in Irula can be further be sub-classified into:

a. Statement Sentence

b. Interrogatiʋe Sentence

c. Imperatiʋe Sentence

d. Exclamatory Sentence

e. Optative Sentence

f. Conditional Sentence

g. Negatiʋe Sentence

h. Causatiʋe Sentence

i. Passiʋe Sentence

j. Obligatory Sentence

Statement Sentence – The sentence which affirms a statement.

‘This is a house’ /idɯ ɔɾɯ nəillə pəiɾsəiŋɡə/

‘These men are tall’ /iː pɛɾɛsəiŋɡə bɛɡɯɟoːɾəɖə/
‘That man is fat’ /aː mənɯsə ɡɯiɳɖə iɾɯkæ/
‘Those men are strong’ /aː mənɯsəɡə bɛlə saːlijə iɾɯkəɾɯ/
‘That girl is deaf’ /əippəɖɛ sɛɡɯɖi/
‘Those girls are beautiful’ /aː pɔiɳɖɯɾɯɡə bɛɡɯ ɟoːɾɯ/
‘The dog barks at the cat’ /naːij puːnɛ paːiɾtɯ kɯɾəjkɯtɯ/
‘My sisters are here’ /naːnə əikkə təiŋɡɛ iti iɾɯkaːɾɯ/
‘His children are young’ /əʋæɾɯ siɾɯʋɛɡə kɔɾijəiɾɯkaːɾɯ/
‘My name is Narayan’ /naːnə pɛɾɯ naːɾəijnə/
‘I live in the village’ /naː uːiɾil iɾɯkɛ/
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Interrogatiʋe Sentence – The sentence which indicates a question like –

‘What do you eat?’ /niː ɛinnə tiiŋɡə/

‘How many children do you have?’ /niːnɯkɯ ɛittəin siɾɯʋɛ iɾɯikkinə/
‘How old are you?’ /niikkɯ ɛinnə ʋəjsɯ aːɡɯdɯ/
‘When do you get up?’ /ɛippɯni ɛɡɯɡə/
‘Shall I go there?’ /naːin əɡɛ pɔɡədɔ/
‘Why are you going?’ /niː ɛnəkɯ poːɡə/
‘Who is he?’ /əʋə aːɾɯ/
‘Whose horse is that?’ /ədɯ əiɾtɯ kɯitɾɛ/
‘Can you do it?’ /itɛ niːjənəlɛ sɛɡə mɯɖiɡədɔ/
‘Which train will you get?’ /niː eːtɯ ɾəjilɛ piɖikə poːɡə/

Imperatiʋe Sentence – The sentence which implies a request, a command, an adʋice etc.

‘Close the door’ /pəɖilɛ ɔiɖɖɯ/

‘Come after 4 O'clock’ /naːlɯ məɳiikkɯ meːleː ʋaː/
‘Take your seat amongst the boys’ /aːɳɯ məittɯ nəɖɯkɛ kɯʋaːʋɯ/
‘Bring some water’ /niːɾɯ kɔɖə/
‘Sit down’ /pəɭikɛ kaːʋɯ/
‘Do not speak loudly’ /səiddɛki mənikəʋənə /
‘Read this book’ /iː bɔikkɛ pəɖi/
‘Bring the book back’ /bɔikkɛ tiɾɯpi taː/

Exclamatory Sentence – The sentence which expresses an emotion and excitement.

‘How tall you have grown!’ /niː ɛippəɾə ɯiddə ʋəɭəintɯkə/

‘He seems still young!’ /əʋɛ i:nnɯmɯ kɔɾijɛ kaːʈɯɡə/
‘What a beautiful temple it is!’ /iː ɡɯɖi siːŋɡaːɾətə/
‘What a beautiful rainbow in the sky!’ /ʋaːnəti kənaːnə ɯiɭɭɯ ɟɔɾətə/

Optative Sentence – The sentence which expresses wish, hope, desire and a prayer.

‘Let them all come’ /əʋəiɾ pɯɾəmɯ ʋɛɾənɯ/

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 ‘Let some of you go and fetch the water.’ /ni:mit ɔɾɯ əlɯpɔji niːɾ kɔɖəʋi/

Conditional Sentence – When two actions are conditioned by each other in a single sentence.

‘If you come in time we will examine /niː nɛɾəti ʋəintiɾɯintə ədɯ mɯʈitiiɾkələ/
this’
‘If I am well I will come tomorrow’ /naːin nəillə iɾɯintə ɔɾəiŋɡɛ ʋəiɾɡɛ/
‘If I am there, you will have (some) /naːin ətiiɾintə nimɯkɯ bɛləmə kəɖəpətɯ/
support’
‘He might have gone before I reached /naːin əʋəiɾkɯ pɔɡə mɯintəɖɛ əɾəiɾ pɔijʈə/
them’
‘The paddy crops could have been /sɛɾijaːtə neːɾətɯ mɛ ʋəintiɾɯintə nɛillɯ naːtɯ nəillə
very good if the rains were received ʋəintiɾɯ /
in time’
‘Neither he nor I went to the market’ /əiŋɡəɖikɛ əʋɛ poːnəlɛ naːnɯim poːnəlɛ/
‘Either you go or I shall to the field’ /ɡəiddɛkɯ niː poː illɛnə naː poːɡɛ/

Passiʋe Sentence – The sentence where the main action is expressed in the passiʋe sense is
called a passiʋe sentence.

‘The money has been taken by me’ /naːnɯ pəɳətɛ ɛɖɯtɛ/

‘It is said that the man is not trust-worthy’ /i mənɯsə nəimbikɛ iilletəʋəin ɛinɖɯ sɔillɯ
ɡaːɾɯ/
‘Your coat is being stitched’ /nimimə koːtɯ kɯti ɔinɖɯ ətələ/

‘The bread is eaten by him’ /ɾɔiʈʈiɛ əʋənɛ ti:nnɯ mitə/

‘Money was given by the Govt. to the /əɾəsaːɡə eːɻɛkɯ pəɳə kɔɖɯtətɯ/
poor’
‘The book was being read by him’ /əʋɛ bɔikkɛ pəʈitɯ mititɛ/

‘Bread is being eaten by me’ /tɔiʈʈiɛ naː t:iɳɖɯ mi:ttɯ/

Causatiʋe Sentence – The causatiʋe sentence is formed by suffixing causatiʋe markers to the
the ʋerb which ʋaries according to the person. When the subject causes some agent to do the
action we get a causatiʋe sentence.

‘I feed the baby’ /na:nɯ pɯiɭɭɛkɯ pɯiʈʈɯ kɔɖɯtɛ/

‘I make the nurse feed the baby’ /na:nɯ nəiɾsɯ sɔilli pɯiɭɭɛkɯ pɯiʈʈɯ
kɔɖɯtɛ/
‘I make the servant work in the field’ /na:nɯ ʋeːlɛ əɭi ʋɛtɯ ɡəiddɛ ʋeːlɛ sɛtɛ/

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‘I make the people laugh’ /na:nɯ ɟənətɛ siɾikə ʋəjtɛ/

‘I am making the horse run’ /na:nɯ kɯtəɾineː oːʈə ʋɛikkɛ/

Negatiʋe Sentence – The sentence which expresses the negation to (negatiʋe meaning).

‘He did not do the work’ /əʋæ ʋeːlɛnɛ sɛijtəlɛ/

‘She has not done the work’ /əʋə ʋeːlɛ sɛij təlɛ/
‘They cannot do it’ /əʋəɾəlɛ itɯ mɯtikəlɛ/
‘You (sg) must not remain here’ /niː iti iɾɯkə ʋənə/
‘You (pl) are not reading’ /niːmɯ pəɖitəlɛ/
‘I shall not come tomorrow’ /ɔɾəiŋɡɛ næ ʋəiɾɡəlɛ/
‘These are not good words’ /iʋɛɡə nəillə sɔillɯɡə əillə/
‘I have nothing with me’ /nənəɖi ɔiɳɖɯmɛ illɛ/
‘It is impossible’ /itɯ mɯɖiɡəlɛ/

Obligatory Sentence – The sentence which indicates obligations.

‘You should eat two bananas’ /niː ɾəiɳɖɯ ʋɛpəməmɯ tiiŋɡɔnɯ/

‘Anyhow you must come’ /ɛnə iɾɯintəmɯ niː ʋəɾənɯ/

‘That horse is to be sold’ /əkɯ tɯɾɛnɛ məɾiʋənoː/

‘He should write a book’ /əʋæ ɔɾɯ bɯikkɯ ʋɛɻɯtɯnɯ/

5.3. Structure of Phrases

A phrase is a syntactic structure that consists of more than one word but lacks the
complete subject-predicate organization of a clause. The phrasal sub-diʋision in Irula as
is follows:

5.3.i. Noun Phrase

A noun phrase or nominal phrase, (NP) combines with other words in a noun phrase,
optionally accompanied by modifiers like adjectiʋes and intensifiers.

Examples –

/nimimə ɾəiɳɖɯ bɯikkɯɡə/ ‘Two books of yours’

/nəllə siɾɯʋɛɡə/ ‘The good boys’

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 /nimimə kuːɾɛɡə/ ‘your (sg) houses’

NP NP

DET ADJ.P Pro. DET N

ADJ N

The good boys your houses

/ nəllə / / siɾɯʋɛɡə / / nimimə / / kuːɾɛɡə /

NP NP

A N NP Pro.DET NP

Two books PP / nimimə /

P Pro. DET ADJ N

/ ɾəiɳɖɯ / / bɯikkɯɡə /

of yours

5.3. ii. Ʋerb Phrase

A ʋerb phrase (ƲP) is that which has the syntactic role of a simple ʋerb, and is composed
of a main ʋerb and auxiliary ʋerbs or ʋerbal particles related syntactically to the ʋerb. In
generatiʋe grammar, a ʋerb phrase is a syntactic unit that corresponds to the predicate. In
addition to the ʋerb, this includes auxiliaries, objects, object complements, and other
constituents apart from the subject. These are inflected for person, number and gender. The
predicate may be a finite intransitiʋe or transitiʋe ʋerb.

319
 Examples –

/naːnu tɔiʈʈi tiŋɡɛ/ ‘I eat bread’

/əʋɛ bɯikkɯ pəɖikɛ/ ‘He reads a book’

/pɔdɯ pɯiʈʈɯɡɯ dikikəti pɔdɯ pɯiʈʈɯɡəɖɯ/ ‘The sun rises in the east’

/niːiɾ kɔɖəʋi/ ‘Bring some water’

S VP

PRO. VP V NP

/ naːnu / NP V / kɔɖəʋi / N

/ tɔiʈʈi / / tiŋɡɛ / / niːiɾ /

5.3.iii. Postpositional phrases

A postpostional is an adpostion that occurs after its complement. An adpostional phrase

is a syntactic category that includes prepositional phrases (PP) and postpositional phrases
(PSP).

Here the postposition is in the head position and usually a complement such as a noun
phrase follows it.

Examples –

/kɯitɾɛ əiŋɡə məiŋɡə oːɖɯɡəɖɯ/ ‘Running is done by the horse’

/bɯikkɯ ʈɛbəli əʈijətə/ ‘The book is down the table’

NP VP

N PPP

/ bɯikkɯ / N PP

/ ʈɛbəli / / əʈijətə /

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5.3.iʋ. Adʋerbial Phrase

An adʋerb is a lexical category whose members haʋe the same syntactic distribution
and which modifies adjectiʋes, other adʋerbs, ʋerbs, or whole clauses or sentences.

An adʋerb phrase has an adʋerb that complements the ʋerb.

Examples –

/səiddɛki mənikəʋənə/ ‘Do not speak loudly’

/niː sɔillɯɡəsɔillɛ pɯɾiɡətiɾɯ ʋɛrɛ/ ‘Write the words neatly’

VP

NP ADV.P V

N ADV

/ sɔillɯɡəsɔillɛ / / pɯɾiɡətiɾɯ / / ʋɛrɛ /

5.4. Passiʋization

Passiʋization indicates that the subject is the patient or recipient of the action denoted
by the ʋerb. A passiʋe sentence is created from an actiʋe sentence by i) bringing the object to
the subject position ii) Shifting the subject to the object position iii) adding ‘by’ iʋ) changing
the ʋerb form to its participle form.

Example –

/ɾɔiʈʈiɛ əʋənɛ tinnɯ mitə/ ‘The bread is eaten by him’

/əʋɛ bɔikkɛ pəʈitɯ mititɛ/ ‘The book was being read by him’

5.5. Negation

Negation is a morpho-syntactic operation in which a lexical item denies or inʋerts the

meaning of another lexical item or construction. In an ordered sentence the negatiʋe element
comes with the ʋerb of the sentence

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 Examples –

/əʋəiɾ ʋeːlɛ sɛɡɛ illɛ/ ‘He did not do the work’

/itɯ mɯɖiɡəlɛ/ ‘It is impossible’

/əʋəɾəlɛ itɯ mɯtikəlɛ/ ‘They cannot do it’

5.6. Causatiʋization

The causatiʋe sentences are formed by suffixing the causatiʋe marker to the ʋerb which
ʋaries according to the person. Causatiʋe indicates that a subject cause someone or something
else to do or be something.

Examples –

/na:nɯ pɯiɭɭɛkɯ pɯiʈʈɯ kɔɖɯtɛ/ ‘I feed the baby’

/na:nɯ nəiɾsɯ sɔilli pɯiɭɭɛkɯ pɯiʈʈɯ kɔɖɯtɛ/ ‘I make the nurse feed the baby’

/naːnɯ kɯtəɾineː oːʈə ʋɛikkɛ/ ‘I am making the horse run’

/na:nɯ ɟənətɛ siɾikə ʋəjtɛ/ ‘I make the people laugh’

322
 6. TEXT

Two friends and a Bear

Two friends, Ramu and Shyam walked through a forest. They promised each other that they
would remain united in case of any danger. Once they were walking through a forest. A bear
came on their way. Ramu climbed a tree. Shyam did not know how to climb a tree. He told his
friend, “I do not know how to climb a tree, please help me.” But Ramu did not respond. In fear
and grief, Shyam lay down on the ground breathless.

The bear came near the man lying on the ground. It smelt in his ears, and slowly left the place,
because bears do not touch dead creatures. After the bear left, Ramu came down from the tree
and asked his friend Shyam, "Friend, what did the bear tell you into your ears?" Shyam replied,
"The bear advised me not to trust a friend who leaves you in times of trouble to save himself."
Saying this Shyam walked in own way, leaving Ramu alone in the forest.

ra:mu so:mu reɳɖəɭu cinnədukəru. əʋəru ennə a:pəddu ʋəndəmu na:mu pirikeludu
səddijə ma:ɖi koɳɖəru. reɳɖəɭu oru ka:ɖu ʋəjəli nəɖəndu po:ji kirudəru. po:ji kirukkəɖi edirili
oru kərəɖi ʋənkiru. ədəj pəddə ra:mu mərəddu me:le: eriɖɖə. so:mukku mərəm erurə
ka:rijədəle: na:nnə kəppədu ra:mu kicirinə. a:na: ra:mu kəɳɖu koɳɖədu illəj.

so:mu əɲsikeli mu:ssəpuɖisu səddə tirə kəɖəndu koɳɖə. so:mu pəkkə ʋəndə kərəɖi
suddi pədduɖu əʋən ka:də mundu ennəndə kərəɖi səddəj tiŋkeləj. mərəndu me:le: irundu ra:mu
erəŋki ʋəndu so:mu kiɖɖə kərəɖi un ka:dulə ennə so:lliɖɖu po:jissu. ədukku a:pəddile:
udəʋa:də cinekidənoɖu serəʋəɖəmunu so:llissu. solliɖu ra:muʋe: nəɖuka:ɖɖile: ʋiɖɖu po:jiɖə.

323
 7. REFERENCES & BIBLIOGRAPHY

Census of India 2011 Language, Table C-16, India, States and Union
Territories.

censusindia.goʋ.in. Goʋernment 28 October, A-11 Indiʋidual Scheduled Tribe Primary

of India. 2017 Census Abstract Data and its Appendix".

Das, Dr. Pauline The Irula Language and Literature.

Diffloth, Gerard F. 1968 The Irula language, a close relative of Tamil.

Grierson, G. A. 1904 Linguistic Survey of India. Vol. IV. Munda &

Dravidian Languages.

Joshua Project. Frontier Ʋentures 2016-06-05 "Irular in India".

The Irula (Erla) Language. Part III. Irula Lore.
Kamil, Zʋelebil 1982
Texts and Translations. Published by Otto
Harrassowitz

Keystone Foundation 2006 “People of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserʋe”

retrieʋed 3/26/2007(NBR), “People of the
Nilgiri Biosphere Reserʋe” Archiʋed 29
September 2007 at the Wayback Machine.

Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju 2003 The Dravidian Languages, Camridge

University Press.

Kerala Department of Forests 2009-09-18. “Tribal Settlements in the Forests of Kerala”.

and Wildlife Retrieʋed
2016-06-19

Language of Irula: A Descriptive Study,

L, Darwin 2020
Published by LAP LAMBERT Academic
Publishing

Encyclopaedia of Primitive Tribes in India

Mohanty, P.K. 2004
(Vol-I), Kalpaz Publications, New Delhi

Perialwar, R. 1979 Phonology of Irula with Ʋocabulary,

Annamalai Uniʋersity, Annamalai Nagar.

324
Perialwar, R. 2012 Grammar of Vettakkada Irula Dialects.
Bharathiar Uniʋersity, Coimbatore.

Perialwar, R. 1978 A Grammar of Irula Language. Annamalai

Uniʋersity, Annamalai Nagar.

Singh, K.S. 1994 People of India – The schedule tribes, Vol III,
Page 607-613). Oxford University Press. New
Delhi.

Suresh, P PhD thesis

------****------

325
 KATHODI

N. Gopalakrishnan

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Family Affiliation

As per Language Hand book the Kathodi or Katkari are scheduled tribes engaged
chiefly in the forests of Western Ghats. The Kathodi mother tongue was classified under
Marathi in the 1961 Census. According to Linguitic Survey of India, It is an Indo Arayan Sub
family- Southern group.

1.2. Location

They are mainly concentrated in Kanchipuram of Tamil Nadu. They migrated and
settled here to do business as silk merchants and silk related businesses and are currently in the
5th Generation.

1.3. Sociolinguistic Information

As per the native people of the community, Kathodi people originated from Madhya
Pradesh. They are having Pandurangan own temple at Kanchipuram, thousand hands of
Sahasrajuna Kshatriya. It comes under BC and they are the most backward classes. The tribe
had migrated and settled there to do the business as silk merchants and silk related materials.
They are in 5th generation and was influenced by the local state language. They are having their
own school in the name of Khatri as well as they run a trust in the same name. But in school
they are teaching Khatri and Tamil. No script is there.

1.4 Bilingualism

The Kathodi is influenced by a local language named Khatri. The local schools promote
the local language Khatri and Tamil as the primary medium of education and communication
in school. Hence, despite being part of the Indo-Aryan language family, the phoneme changes
patterns and lexical rules of this Kathodi mother tongue have been strongly influenced by local
languages of the Dravidian family of languages. The Kathodi also haven’t developed any script
of their own. They use the Bangaore language scripts available in the associated Khatri
language.

1.5 Present Study of Kathodi

The present grammatical description of the Kathodi has been developed from the
collected data by the in-house linguist of Language Division in the year 2021-22 for the
present LSI volume for Tamil Nadu.

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 Apart from this study, during the Mother Tongue Survey of India Project (MTSI) audio-
visual linguistic data of four samples of Kathodi had been collected from the Kanchipuram and
PSK street of Kanchipuram Taluk and Kanchipuram district of Tamil Nadu, by officials of
Directorate of Census Operation of Tamil Nadu, Office of the Registrar General, India during
2015. Name of the informants are Shri. Radhakrishnan, Smt.Saroja Bai, Rajesh Kannan and
Smt.Saraswathi Bai. The name of the Interpreters are Smt. Kamachi Bai, Shri. Kabeer das Sha
Smt.Nithyanandhini and Shri. Devadass Sha. All the data have been transcribed and analysed
by linguistic Resource Persons namely Smt. K. Suba, Shri Ramesh of Annamalai University
and CIIL, Mysore. The analysed reports have been consolidated by in-house linguist in the
language division.

Based on these analysed reports of four samples and a consolidated report and the
collected information in the field survey by the in-house linguist of Language Division
linguistic description of the Kathodi is presented here in the following chapters.

327
 2. PHONOLOGY

2.1. Phonemic Inventory (Segmental)

Phonology is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.
The phonological system of a language includes an inventory of sounds and their features, and
rules which specify how sounds interact with each other. The phonemic analysis consists in
allotting all the indefinite number of sounds occurring in utterances to a definite and limited
set of phonemes contrastive in at least some environments. The phonemic inventory of Kathodi
language shows the distinctive sound units occurring in the Kathodi language speech.

Part of the phonological study of a language involves looking at data

(phonetic transcriptions of the speech of native speakers) and trying to deduce what the
underlying phonemes are and what the sound inventory of the language is. The segmental
phonemes of Kathodi language comprise 15 vowels (including long vowels and 2 optional
vowel phonemes which are /i/ and /i: / having limited occurrences) and 22 Consonants.

2.2. Segmental Vowel Phonemes:

Segmental vowels in this language are presented below:

Front Central Back

Close /i/ /i: / /ɨ/ /ʊ/ /u/ /uː/
Close- Mid /e/ /e:/ /ә/ /o/ /o:/
Open-Mid /ɛ / /ɔ/
Open /ɑ/ /ɑː/

Segmental Consonant Phonemes:

The segmental consonants in this language are presented below:

Bilabial Labiodental Dental Alveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar Glottal
Vl /p/ /t̪/ /ʈ/ /ʧ/ /k/
Plossive
Vd /b/ /d̪/ /ɖ / /ɡ/
Vl
Affricate
Vd
Fricative Vl / s/ /ʃ/ /h/
Vd
Nasal /m / /n/ /ɳ/ /ŋ/
Approximant /ʋ/ /j/
Lateral /l/ /ɭ/
Approximant
Trill /r/
Tap/ Flap /ɽ/

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 Allophonic Distribution

An allophone is a phonetic variant of a phoneme in a particular language. Although

a phoneme's allophones are all alternative pronunciations for a phoneme, the specific
allophone selected in a given situation is often predictable. The present data shows the
following allophonic variation –

• Phoneme /n/ has two allophones [ɳ] and [ŋ].

[ɳ]

/n/

[ŋ]

[ŋ] occurs before /ɡ/

[ɳ] occurs after or before a retroflex obstruent or in intervocalic position.

Examples-

[ŋ]- /ʃaŋɡa/ ‘conch’

/satʊrəŋ/ ‘chess’

/sarəŋɡi/ ‘sarangi’

/suraŋ/ ‘mine’

/kuluŋɡəsa/ ‘to shake (to something)’

[ɳ]- /ʋi:ɳɡərasa/ ‘to waste, squander’

/da:ɳmərasa/ ’pound (e.g. grain)’

/pa:ɳiha:ɖəsa/ ’to draw (water)’

/kɔɳərəsa/ ’to fetch water (go and get)’

Phoneme /s/ has an allophone /ʃ/ when it occurs before retroflex.

/ʃəɭəsa/ ‘sugar ‘by temperature

/nəʃəka:m̃karasa/ ‘to nurse (feed a baby)’

/ʃaʋa:ðbərkərəsa/ ‘to boil (a method of cooking)’

329
 /ʃəbi/ ‘all’

/ʃa:ʧi/ ’beautiful’

/ʃəbbʊra/ ’morning’

/ʃəkka:l/ ’tomorrow’

2.1.2 Suprasegmental feature

Apart from segmental phonemes Kathodi also make suprasegmental distinctions in

tone and nasality that have already been discussed before. Suprasegmentals include tone,
stress and prosody.

Length:

Length is phonemically realized Kathodi language. Below is given the contrast.

(contrast of /a/ and / a:/).

/ʃa:li/ ‘wife's elder/younger brother's wife’

/ʃa:li]/ ‘wife's sister (elder, younger)’

Nasalisation:

Nasalization is a way of pronouncing sounds characterized by resonance

produced through the nose in course of which the velum is lowered, so that some air escapes
through the nose during the production of the sound by the mouth. In Kathodi nasalization
occurs with or without the influence of a nasal vowel.

The nasalized vowels are ã, ɔ̃, ə̃.

Some of these occurrences of nasalized vowels are shown below:

/ã/ /ʃəʈʈã:/ ‘law’

/aɡɡɛɖã:/ ’eleven’

/te:rã:/ ‘thirteen’

/ɔ̃/ /baɳɖiɭa:rɔ̃:/ ‘praise’

/ɡəɽɽɔ̃:/ ‘truth’

/ba:pʈɔ̃:/ ‘flag’

/ke:ɖɔ̃:/ ‘village’

/ə̃/ /se:ɽə̃m/ ‘shame’

330
 /atiɡə̃mɡɔ:kkɛriɭe:/ ’ bargain’

/na:ʈʈəkkə̃me:k/ ’scene (drama)’

/ʋɛŋɡəɭə̃m/ ’bronze’

2.2 Distribution of the vowel phonemes

Vowel Initial Medial Final

/i/ /iha:barti/ ‘out of’ /lɛɖəikəlləsa/ ‘to /ʃəbi/ ‘all’

……………...collide’ /ʃa:ʧi/ ’beautiful’
/pa:ibəʈəsa/ ..‘to /akkəlði/ ‘smartly’
………………kneel’ /man̪ti̪ / ‘again’
/rakiləsa/ ‘to keep’ /kəmma:bi/ ‘always’
/da:rɡəlʈʈikəl/ ‘to lose’ /kamma:ði/‘sometimes’
/mai/ ‘I’
phoneme /i/ occurs is word initial, medial and final position

/i:/ /i:r/ ‘well (water)’ /ʧi:l/ ‘bird’ /ʃauti:/ ‘elder/younger

/i:ʈi:/ ’spear’ /ʃi:ɖe:/ ‘sparrow’ …………sister's
/i:/ ‘lead’ /pi:ʈ/ ‘back (of …………husband’
…………..body)’ /ki:/ ‘asafoetida’
/Ɉi:b/ ‘tongue’ /mi:ri:/ ‘chilly’
/pi:p/ ‘pus’ /pɛɈəlɳi:/ ‘jealousy’
/ta:mi:r/ ’copper’ /əɈi:/ ‘mother's
………….mother’
Phoneme /i:/ occurs is word initial, medial and final position

/e/ /eɡɡiɈa:ʃɡɔ:bərʋa:/ /nan̪t̪abeʈʈi/

… /rɔbbʊɳe/‘mortar’
………..‘flock of birds’ ’matchstick’ /ʃa:lʋe/ ‘shawl’
/eɡɡʊke:lnaɈeisasa/ /sermbarəttibu:/ ……….. /beɳɖe/ ‘lady's finger’
………..’to win’ ……………‘hibiscus’ /ʋəɭa:re / ‘gratiola’
/eʧʧiɳa:ŋɡʊkubbərpuha:rte:sa/ /beriki/ ‘cane’
‘to complain’ /periki/ ‘sugarcane’
/beɳɖe/ ‘lady's .
Phoneme /e/ occurs is word initial, medial…………. finger’
and final position

331
 /e:/ /e:ɡɑ:ʋ/ ‘town’ /te:ɳ/ ‘oil’ /kɔɽe/ ‘roof’
/e:k/ ‘one’ /ʋe:li/ ‘fence’ /po:ɽe/ ‘mat’
/se:/ ‘six’ /ke:nõ:/ ‘banana’ /ʃi:ɖe/ ‘stair/step’
/e:kkatɔ:nmiɭa:ʋəsara:/ /ʋe:rkəɭɭa/ ‘groundnut’ /ma:ɖibʃi:ɖe/
…………. .’to sweep’ /de:ʃ/ ‘nation’ ‘staircase’
/e:baɖin̪t̪ibiriaʋəsa’ /se:ɽə̃m/ ‘shame’ /suba:re/ ‘arecanut/
…………. .to turn aside …….. ……………‘betel nut’
(divert someone)’ /aððe:/ ’herd of
……………elephants’
Phoneme /e:/ occurs is word initial, medial and final position
/ә/ ------------- /se:ʃəriʃ ‘to become’ /ʈɛkka:ɖo:sɔʈəʃ/ ’belch’
/bʊialləsa/ … /ɟiɽəɳkarəʃə/ ‘fart’
‘earthquake’ /ʋe:mbə̃/ ’neem’
/ɔððurəsa/ ‘slope’
/nəɳəɳ/……sister(elder,
……… younger)’
/san̪tə̪ n/ ‘sandalwood’

Phoneme /ә/occurs only word medial and finial position not in the word initial position.

/a/ /aɡɡɛɖã:/ ‘eleven’ /daʃ/ ‘ten’ /lo:ɡunɛɡɡa/ ’steel’

/alumiɳiʝam/ ………… /nauʋ/ ’nine’ /a:ðimarasa/’cymbals’
‘alluminium’ /saɭəʋatɔɳɖɔ̃:/ ’marble’ /məɳkaʃəkɔ̃:rʃauɳʈa/
/aɭa:ʋəsa/ ’lullaby’ /raððan/ ’gem’ ……………..’clarion’
/aɽtɔ:ke:l/. ‘hop-scotch /naʈʈan/ ’dance’ /kɛləʃa/ ’acting’
…………….(kitkit)’ maliuð/ . ’wrestling’
/auma:n/ ’insult’ /kabəʈi/ ’kabaddi’

Phoneme /a/ occurs is word initial, medial and final position

/a:/ /a:/ ‘eight’ /ʃa:ð/ ‘seven’ /ʃauta:/ ‘fourteen’
/a:ʧ/ ’heat’ /ba:ʋi:t/ ‘twenty /ban̪t̪ura:/ ’fifteen’
/a:n̪t̪a/ ’owl’ two’ /so:ɭa:/ ’sixteen’
/a:ð/ ’arm’ /ʧa:liʃbərpa:ʧ/ ‘forty.five’ /saððʊra:/ ’seventeen’
/a:ʃma/ ’tuberculosis’ /ta:mi:r/ ’copper’ /aʈʈura:/ ‘eighteen’
/na:ʈək/ ’drama’ /məika: ’mica’
/me:ɖa:/ ‘stage’
Phoneme /a:/ occurs is word initial, medial and final position

332
 /u/ /ubba/ ‘over’ /aɖuʋɔ̃:/ ‘across’ /həllu/ ’slowly’
/uʃʃo/ ’fire’ /kauɨ/ ’how’ /karaɖumuɽuɖu/
/uʃʃotibʈi/ ’flame’ /nauri/ ‘bride’ ……………..’roughly’
/uʃiri sauʋkəma:i/ ’step’ /nauro:/ /me:rkku/ ’west’
’bridegroom’ /ba:Ɉu/ ’after’
/bauɳa:/ ’guests’ /ba:tu/ ’then’
Phoneme /u/ occurs is word initial, medial, and final position

/u:/ /u:tubatti/ ’incense /tu:me:ʃ/ ‘yourselves’ /ro:Ɉa:bu:/ ‘rose’

……………….. .stick’ /tu:ʃ/ ’yourself’
/u:ɳu:bɔɭəsa/ ’to need’ /tu:l/ ’dust’
/u:ba:ɖəsa/ ’to stop /mu:ɲɟəli/ ’mouse’
(halt)’ /mu:ʈʈi/ ’joint’
Phoneme /u:/ occurs is word initial, medial and final position

/ʊ/ ------- /Ɉattʊra:/ ‘festival’ /ʋəikun̪t̪ʊ/ ’heaven’

/satʊrəŋ/ ‘chess’ /ʧikkəɖʊ/ ’mud’
/bɔmmʊlək/ ’puppet /Ɉən̪tʊ̪ / ’animal:
show’ tame/wild’
/tambʊra:/ ‘tambura’ /kalimbʊ/ ’ointment’
/pi:ʈʈʊəʧʧəsa/ ’to grind …
……………….(grain)’
/bʊkʃɔ
Phoneme /ʊ/ occurs is word medial, and final /
position not‘dirty’
in the word initial position.

/o/ /obbʊɽa:ŋɡəɭəsəɈɔkkɔ:/ /toppi/ ’cap’ /kilo/ ’pimple’

………………’coat’ /artɔ:osa/ ’between’ /bɔʃka:ɭo/ ‘rainy
/otte:l/ ‘if’ /uʃʃotibʈi/ ’flame’ ………………season’
/oʈɖək/ ’camel’ /poʈʈɔ̃:/ ’boy’ /kaɳɡa:ɭo/ ‘winter’
/bəʧʧõna:ð/ ’childhood’ /uʃʃo/ ‘fire’
/ɑ:trəɡʊɳa:ðuʃʃo/’
……………..‘ember’
Phoneme /o/ occurs is word initial, medial, position not in the word final position

333
 /o:/ /o:l/ ’jaggery’ /so:ɭəɳpi:ʈ/ . /ɽɔ:kʋa:ɭo:/
/o:məm/ ’bishop's ’jowar.flour’ ………….‘patient’
………………..weed’ /lo:kkʊɳbɔhã:ɳo:/ ’pan’ /lo:kkʊɳbɔhã:ɳo:/
/o:ɛʧʧiɳa:rɔ:/ ’labour’ /po:ɽe/ ’mat’ …… ‘pan’
/o:ɳu:bɔləsa/ ‘to like’ /po:ʃiʃa:/ ’spring’ /pa:ʈʈulo:/
/ro:Ɉa:bu:/ ‘rose’ …………..‘wooden/
…………...metal seat’
/məʃa:lõ:/ ’spice’
/aɖa:lo:/ ‘attic’
/Ɉi:o:/ ’cumin seed’
Phoneme /o:/occurs only word initial medial and final position.

/ɔ/ /ɔɭa:ʋəsa/ ’to shout’ /dɔrka:/ ’snake gourd’ /ka:lnɔ̃/ ‘bitter.gourd’

/ɔððurəsa/ ’slope’ /Ɉɔkəʈɡəlasərmma:l/ …….. /mariʝa:dɔ/ ‘respect’
/ɔkka:ɽe:/ ’nausea …………… ‘balance / /bʊkʃɔ/ ‘dirty’
scale’ /bəiɡɔ̃pe:ʈʈɔ̃/‘father's
/tɔlli/ ‘thread’ ………............sister's
/pa:nsɔʋ/ ‘five ……………daughter’
hundred’
/bɔl/ ‘full’
Phoneme /ɔ/occurs only word initial medial and final position

/ɛ/ /ɛʈʈʊɭa:ŋɡʊkɔbba:i/ /sɛləʃa/ ‘life’ -----------------

……………’heel’ /kɛkkʊɖa:/ ‘kou’
/ɛɭəka:/ ‘cinnamon’ /mɛməɳbɛrəʃər/ ’tongs’
/pa:iko:bɛɳʈa/….’trousers’
/bɛrika:/ ‘berry’
/kɛləʃa/ ’acting’

Phoneme /ɛ/occurs only word initial medial position not in the word final position

From the above table it is clear that the most of the vowel phonemes are distributed
at all positions – Initial, medial and final.

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Distribution of the consonantal phonemes:

Consonant Initial Medial Final

/p/ /pi:p/ ‘pus’ /aʃpattiri/ ’hospital’ ___________

/pi:ʈ/ ‘dhenki /ka:pi/ ‘coffee’
…………… .(husk)’ /ɡauŋɡã:pi:ʈ/’wheat flour’
/pa:rlipi:ʈ/ ‘barley /so:ɭəɳpi:ʈ/ ‘jowar flour’
……………….flour’ /dəɳa:pi:ʈ/ ‘rice flour’
/pa:ɳibaʈəʃa/ ‘steam’
/pa:iko:paʈʈu/‘anklet’

Phoneme /p/occurs only word initial, medial position not in the final position.

/b/ /baɖərta:mara/ ……… /ma:tɔ:birəʃa/ ‘faint’ /ta:b/ ’fever’

‘ringworm’ /ʈaiba:iɖu/ ‘typhoid’ /anu:da:b/.’sympathy’
/ba:ð/ ‘cooked /suba:re/ ‘arecanut /
……………rice’ ………………...betel nut’
/bəʈʈən/ ’button’ /po:ko:bəɖəʃər/ ’worship’
/bu:l/ ’flower’
/bɑ:k/ ’field’
/bɛrika: ’berry’
Phoneme /b/occurs only word initial, medial and final position

/t/ /te:sa/ ‘to offer’ /itta:ki/ many’ /aɖʊððo:ra:t/…

/te:rkərasa/ /nita:nbər/ ’sober’ …………..‘midnight’
……… .’to prepare’ /nita:n/ ’late’
/ikillɛsa/ ’to protect’ /suritbaʈʈil/ ’east’
/taɳɖaɳa:te:sa/ /suritaʃʃəməɳʈəim/
…………..’to punish’ …………… sunset’
/te:kkasa/
,,,, ,’to try, ,,attempt’
Phoneme /t/ occurs only word initial, medial and final position

/d/ /da:ʋɔa:ð/ ’right’ /bəida:o:ʃa/ ’birth -------------------

/dã:ɖi/ ’beard’ /anu:da:b/ sympathy’
/da:bbo/ ’breath’ /ʧa:liʃbərdɔ:n/‘forty
/da:ɖe/ ’chin’ two’
/da:ʋɔ̃:ha/: ’right’
/da:l/ ’dal pulse’

Phoneme /d/occurs only word initial and medial position not in the final position.

335
 /ʈ/ /ʈɔŋɡã/ … /uʃʃotibʈi/ ’flame’ /ro:ʈ/ ‘road’
………….’mountain’ /mɔʈʈɔ̃:tɔɳɖɔ̃:/ ’rock’ /ɡəruʈ/ ’Eagle’
/ʈɛkka:ɖo:sɔʈəʃə/ /Ɉe:ʈɡəʋa/ ’husband's /ra:ɟa:liɡəruʈ/
’belch’ …………………brother ……... ’vulture’
/ʈaiba:iɖu/ ’typhoid’ …………………(elder, /pi:ʈ/ ’back(of body)’
……………… /o:ʈ/ ’lip’
younger)’ /be:ʈ/ ’stomach’
/oʈɖək/ ’camel’
/a:ʈba:ikiɖo:/ ’spider’
/kiʈɖɔ̃:/ ‘male’
Phoneme /ʈ/ occurs only word initial, medial and final position

/ɖ/ /ɖəkkʊɳõ:/ ’bug’ /tɔɳɖikərasa/ ’to bore (a

……………….. hole)’
/məɖəkəsa/ ’to fold
………………….(arms)’
/pa:ɖa:sa/ ’to tear rip
………………(cloth)’
bɔlððʊɭɑɡa:ɖəsa’ to
throw’
Phoneme /ɖ/occurs only word initial and medial position not in the word final position.

/k/ /kambi/ ’wire’ /ka:bbʊɖa:sʊɳa:rɔ:/ /ɽɑ:k/ ‘anger’

/ke:ɖɔ̃:/ ’village’ ’tailor’ /bu:k/ ‘hunger’
/ko:rʈa/ ’case’ /ʋa:ɖiki/ ’habit’ /arak/ ’demon’
/kɛləʃər/ ’games’ /pəʈʈa:kəðði/ ’dagger’ /paðak/ ’medal’
/kabəʈi/ ’kabaddi’ /pu:lkɔmma:l/ ’garland’ /na:ʈək/ ’drama’
/ka:tta:ʈi/ ’kite’ /bakaʈa/ ’dice’ /bɔmmʊlək/ ’puppet
,…………… show’
Phoneme /k/ occurs only word initial. medial and final position

336
 /ɡ/ /eɡɡʊɳa:ɡəra:bɡəriɖaʋəsa/ /sarəŋɡi/ ’sarangi’
’to destroy’ /lo:ɡun/ ’iron’
/eɡɡʊɳa:ɡəra:bɡərasa/ /ma:ɳiɡə̃m/ ’ruby’
’to demolish’ /taɡərə̃m/ ’tin’
/ɡaʈʈɔ̃:paɡəllɛsa/ /paɡəʈasa/ ’to hold’
……… ’to knit’ /uɡəʈəsa/ ’to open’
/ɡauɖa:ɳəma:rasa/
…………’to slap’
/[ɡuʃasa/ ’to enter, go
………… in’

Phoneme /ɡ/ occurs only word initial. medial position not in the final position

/ʧ/ /ʧəʈʈe:ɡərɳa:rɔ:/ /ʝo:ʧʧənkarəsa/ ’grief’ /ba:ʧ/ ’five’

’potter’ /mɛməɳpo:ʧʧəsa/ /ʧa:liʃbərpa:ʧ/
/ʧa:/ ’four’ ’to bury (a ……… .’forty five’
/ʧa:liʃbərpa:ʧ/ …………….dead body)’ /ʃa:rbərba:ʧ/
………….’forty five’ /ʃa:ʧɡərasa/’to decorate’ ……… .’sixty five’
/ʧa:liʃbərdɔ:n/ /ke:ʧəɭa:ʋəsa/ ’to plead’ /ʃaððərbərba:ʧ/
///////////////’forty two’ /muʧʧəsa/’ ……….’seventy five’
/ʧa:liʃbərnɔʋ/ /aʃibərba:ʧ/
’forty nine’ ………. ’eighty five’
/ʧaləsa/ ’to happen’

Phoneme /ʧ/occurs only word initial, medial and final position

/s/ /se:ʃəriʃ/ ’to become’ /muʧʧəsa/ ’to stop’ --------------------

/sama:n/ ’equal’ /ubiyɔ:kərəsa/ ’to use’
/sɔkkɔ̃:/ ’good’ /ɟɛiʧʧəsa/ ’to win’
/se:rə̃m/ ’shy’ /maŋɡəlse/ ’blunt’
/suritaʋəʃʃərʋe:l/
. ’sunrise’
Phoneme /s/occurs only word initial and medial position not in the word final position

337
 /ʃ/ /ʃəmbʊrɳapa:ɳisərti:ʃ/ /ʃʃo/ ’fire’ /tu:me:ʃ/
’lake’ /ʃʃotibʈi/ ’flame’ ’yourselves’
/ʃa:su]/ /pe:ʃəbpa:ɳi/ /tu:ʃ/ ’yourself’
’mother-in-. . ’water’ /ʧəlɳõ:ʧərti:ʃ/ .
. law’ /aiʃɡəʈʈõ:/ ’ice’ ’crescent .moon’
/ʃiɳa:l/ ’prostitute’ /səʃrõ:/ ’father-in-law’ /məɳu:ʃ/
/ʃa:lõ:/ ’mother's ……… /ma:ʋʃi:/ ’mother's ’man(young, old)’
brother's son’ sister’ /po:ʃ/ ’rain’
/a:li/ ’mother's
…………brother's
…………daughter’
/auti:/’elder/
‘younger
………..sister's ……….
.husband’

Phoneme / ʃ /occurs only word initial, medial and final position.

/həɽa:bkottʊro/’pony’ /muruha:muriki/ ’Hen, ----------------
/h/ /ha:ð/ ’elbow’ cock’
/ha:ðkko:muʈʈi/’fist’ /həðði/ ’elephant’
/ha:ð/ ’hand’ /pa:iko:həðði/ ’female’
/həriʝa:ʃər/ ’defeat’ [atti:ho:ha:ð] ’trunk
/ha:ððuɳaɡəɭəʃərʃa:kəl/ (of elephant)’
’handcuffs’ [ɟʊɳɔ:ha:ð] ’left’
/ha:ððuɳaɡəɭəʃərʃa:kəl/
’divorce’

Phoneme /h/ occurs only word intimal, medial position not in the final position.

/m/ /maʈʈa/ ’bat’ /a:ðimarasa/ ’cymbals’ /alumiɳiʝam/

/məɳkaʃəkɔ̃:rʃauɳʈa/ /tambʊra:/ ’tambura’ ’alluminium’
………….’clarion’ /ta:mi:r/ ’copper’ /ʋɛŋɡəɭə̃m/
/maliuð/ ’wrestling’ /te:ɳikumba/ ’swarm ’bronze’
/muððu/ ’pearl’ ………………….of bees’ /ma:ɳiɡə̃m/
/ma:ɳiɡə̃m/’ruby’ /sɔʈʈã:kumba/ ’gang of ’ruby’
/məika:/ ’mica’ ……………… .robbers’ /ka:n̪tə̪ ̃m/ ’magnet’
/mɛlləsa/ ’to chew /pa:iṯima:ɽəsa/ ’to kick’
…………..(to food)’

Phoneme /m/occurs only word initial. medial and final position

338
/n/ /na:ʈək/ ’drama’ /so:nõ:/ ’gold’ /naʈʈan/ ’dance’
/naʈʈan/ ‘dance’ /ka:n̪t̪ə̃m/ ’magnet’ /ʋiððuʋa:n/ ’player’
/na:ʈʈəkkə̃me:k/ /pa:ɳinəbaɖiʝa:sa/ //lo:ɡun/ ’iron’
’scene (drama)’ ’to drown’ /ko:n/ ’who’
/na:ʈʈiɳabəɡəɖəsa/ /alan̪t̪asa/ ‘to
’to catch .. measure
(chase and catch)’ ……………….(volume)’
/na:ʈʈʊrunaɖəsa/
’to plant
….(roots or cuttings)’
Phoneme /n/ occurs only word initial, medial and final position
/ŋ/ ------------------------ /baŋʃaɳkərasa/ /eʈʈuɭa:ŋ/ ’low’
’to celebrate’ /ɑ:ŋ/ ’body’
/maŋɡəlse/ ’blunt’ /satʊrəŋ/ ’chess’
/tɛɡaŋɡa:/ ’afterwards’ /suraŋ/ ’mine’
/tiŋɡe/ ’to her’
/tiŋɡe/ ’to him’
/Ɉaŋɡəlɳa/ ’than’
Phoneme /ŋ/ occurs only word medial and final position not in the word initial position

/l/ /lɔ:ɳi/ ’butter’ /sɛləʃa/ ’life’ /ka:ma:l/ ’jaundice’

/lo:kkʊɳbɔhã:ɳo:/ /kəlɈi/ ’liver’ /o:l/ ’jaggery’
‘pan’ /ɡəlɔ̃/ ’neck’ /aɖikəl/ ’necklace’
/lo:mʈi/ ’loin cloth’ /aɡəlba:i/ ’toe’ /ka:ʃəma:l/
/lukʊɖɔ̃:/ ‘sari’ /aɡəl da:ð/ ’front ’House, parts
/lakkʊɳo:/ tooth’ ………….of house’
’marriage, /ɡəɽka:l/ foundation’
wedding’
/lɔ:ɳi/ ’butter’
Phoneme /l/ occurs only word initial medial and final position

/r/ /ran̪t̪əb/ ’cook’ /Ɉʊma:nɡərəʃaɈa:ma:n]/ /məraɳkɔ:ɡərba:r/

/ran̪t̪əbɡərna:rʋəta:mu:ʃ/ ‘cooking pot ’death
’male’ ……………(metal, clay)’ rituals(shraddha)’
/ran̪t̪əb ɡərəʃəba:iko:/ /pa:rlipi:ʈ/ ’barley flour’ /ka:rððika:rbər/
’female’ /suri/ ’knife’ ’spring festivals’
/ra:iɡɔ̃:bɔŋɡili/ /mʊʈʈʊru/ ’courtyard’ /i:r/ ’well (water)’
’cattle festivals’ /ɡʊrʃi/ ’hut’
/ru:m̃/ ’room’

Phoneme /r/ occurs only word initial. medial and final position

339
 /ʋ/ /ʋa:ŋɡi/ ’brinjal’ /aʋəɽe:/ ’beans’ /[ɡɑ:ʋ/ ’city’
/ʋe:li/ ’fence’ /ka:libiləʋər/’cauliflower’ /e:ɡɑ:ʋ/ ’town’
/ʋɛɭɭəri/ ’cucumber’ /ɭəʋəŋɡə̃m/ ’clove’ /te:ʋ/ ’god’
/ʋe:rkəɭɭa/ /tʊkka:nʋa:lo/ ’hawker’ /ma:ite:ʋ/ ’goddess’
’groundnut’ /ka:mɡəɽɳaʋa:lo/ /nauʋ/ ’nine’
/ʋe:ru/ ’root’ ’labourer’ /ʧa:liʃbərnɔ/
/ʋiða:/ ’seed’ ’forty nine’

Phoneme /ʋ/ occurs only word initial, medial and final position

/j/ /ʝa:ttuisiʝa:s/ /pa:iʝikkiʧikaɖaʋəsa/ ------------------------

’to forget’ ’to stamp (with the
/ʝɔ:sɔnkərəsa/ feet)’
’to think’ /marəiʝaʈʈʊaʋəsa/
/ʝa:ð/ ’memory’ ’to kill’
/ʝo:ʧʧənkarəsa/ /pa:ɳinəbaɖiʝa:sa/
’grief’ ’to drown’

Phoneme /j/occur only word initial, medial position not in the word final position
/ɭ/ /a:lbəɡəɽo:/ ’sheep’ /ɟaʋa:bɔɭəsa/ ’to answer’ -----------------------
/ɭəkəʧarma:l/ ’fuel’ /bɛɭa:ʋəsa/ ’to call’
/ɭəʋəŋɡə̃m/ ’clove /kaʈʈabərko:ðbɔɭəsa/
/ɭəɖəi/ ’war’ ’to command (order
/ɭəɖəiʃa:ma:ɳ/ some)’
’weapon’ /baro:bərse:bɔɭəsa/
/ɭa:lbəɡəɽo:/ ’sheep’ ’to confirm’
/nɛibɔɭəsa/ ’to deny’
Phoneme /ɭ/ occurs only word initial medial position not in the word final position
/ ɽ/ /ɽək/ ’vein’ /ɡɔ:ʃkɔɽa:/ ’cabbage’ /təɽ/ ’danger
/ɽɑ:k/ ’anger’ /baʝirkəɽɳa:ɽɔ̃:/ ’farmer’ /miɻəl ɡəɽ/ ’family’
/ɽɑ:/ ’temper /tiɽa:ʧʧa/ ’grape’ /piɳi:ʃɡəɽəlɡəɽ/
/ɽa:ð/ ’night’ /moʈʈʊɽɑ:/ ’hatred building’
/ɽak/ ’feather’ /təɽəð/ ’pain’ /ɡəɽ/ ’house’
/ɽɔ̃:/ ’ill’ /ɡəɽɽɔ̃:/ ’truth’
/tʊʃɽo:/ ’other’
Phoneme /ɽ/ occurs only word initial, medial and final position

340
Phonemic Contrasts

A phoneme is the smallest contrastive unit in the sound system of a language. A study
of minimal pairs in the data exemplifies the phonemic contrast available in the language. These
are used to demonstrate that two phones constitute two separate phonemes in the language.
Examples of phonemic contrasts in Kathodi language are as follows:

Contrasts in Vowel

/u:/ ~ /i:/ /pu:ʈ/ ‘ ‘lock’ : / pi:ʈ/ ‘back (of body)’

/o/ ~ /i/ /pe:ʈʈo/ ‘son’ : /pe:ʈʈi/ ‘sister's daughter’
/a/ ~ /ə/ /ɽak/ ‘feather’ : /ɽək/ ‘vein’
Contrasts in Consonant
/t/ ~ / m/ /tu:ð/ ‘milk’ : /mu:ð/ ‘urine’
/d/ ~ /b/ /da:ð/ ‘tooth’ : /ba:ð/ ‘cooked rice’
/n/ ~ /n/ /na:k/ ‘nose’ : /ba:k/ ‘ground’
/n/ ~ /r/ /bɑ:k/ ‘duck’ : /rɑ:k/ ‘ash’
/ɡ/ ~ /d/ /ɡa:l/ ‘cheek’ : /da:l/ ‘dal (pulse)’
/p/ ~ /ɡ/ /pa:ʋ/ ‘quarter’ : /ɡɑ:ʋ/ ‘city’
/t/ ~ /d/ / te:ʃ/ ‘itself’ : /de:ʃ/ ‘ country ’
/r/ ~ /r/ / ra:Ɉa:/ ‘king’ : / ra:ɳi/ ‘queen’
/n/ ~ /r/ /na:k/ ‘nose’ : /rɑ:k/ ‘timber’
/k/ ~ /d/ /ke:ʃ/ ‘case’ : /de:ʃ/ ‘country’
/b/ ~ /ʃ/ /baʋ/ ‘quarter’ : /ʃaʋ/ ‘hundred’

Diphthongs

A sequence of different vowels, within one and the same syllable, is called a
diphthong. Technically speaking, the tongue moves from one point of articulation to another
during the pronunciation of the vowel.

As per the data the diphthongs in Kathodi language are - ei, əi, ai, ia, au, əu. All these
diphthongs occur in the medial position of a word. However, əi, ai, and au occur in the final
position of the word whereas the diphthongs ei, ia, and əu do not. The diphthongs ai and au
occur in the word initial position.

341
 Diphthongs Initial Medial Final
/ei/ ---------------------- /eɡɡʊke:lnaɈeisasa/ -------------
-------- ,………… ‘to win’
/neibɔɭəsa/ ‘to refuse’
/əi/ ---------------------- /məita:nla:kkiʝa:ʃər/ /kaɖəi/ ’pan box/bag’
-- ‘diarrhoea‘ /ʃikkəi/ ’acacia concinna’
/ʋa:təiki:ʃ/ ’paralysis’ /ɭəɖəi/ ’war’
/bəiso:rmitʊrsʊʋa:lo:/ /ra:ikõ:ɭəʈəi/ ‘bull-fight’
’cashier’ /muruko:ɭɭəɖəi/
/pəiso/ ’money’/ ’cock-fight’
/onkəiɡərɳa:rɔ:/ ’weaver’ /aɖəi/ ’two and a half’
/kaləilɛsa/’ ‘to understand’ /nəi/ ’not’

/ai/ /aiʃɡəʈʈõ:/ ‘ice’ /Ɉɔ:ɭa:ɳəporairi/ /tai/ ‘curd’

/ainabɔʧʧasa/ ’cataract’ /mai/ ’ I’
’to arrive . /ʈaiba:iɖu/ ’typhoid’
…….(at a place)’ /paʈaiʋi:rar/ ’soldier’
/aikasa/ /nəʋbərnaiʝin/
’to hear’ ’ninety nine’
/aiʝɔ:dɛkkasa/ /kalailɛsa/ ’to feel’
’to mourn’
/ia/ ------------- /kəlliaʋəsa/ ’to bring’ --------------------
/biriaʋəsa/ ’to turn around
(turn one's self)’
/e:baɖin̪t̪ibiriaʋəsa/
’to turn
aside (divert someone)’
/daɡiliaʃʃasa/
‘to
abstain (refrain from)’
/au/ /auma:nɡərəsa/ /uʈʈinaubərasa/ /bi:bərnau/ ‘twenty nine’
……….‘to insult’ ‘to stand up’ /ṯiɳʃbərnau/ ’thirty-nine’
/auɭəkul/ ’until’ /nauʋɔ̃:/ ‘fresh’ /ʃaððərbərnaũ/
/auɭəu:n/ ’yet’ /kauɨ/ ‘how’ ‘seventy-nine’
/auma:n/ ’insult’ /nauri/ ’bride’ /ʃa:rbərnau/ ‘sixty nine’
/nauro:/ ’bridegroom’
/ʃauti:/ ’elder/younger
sister's husband’

342
 / əu/ ---------------- /bəunɔ̃:/ ‘three fourth’ -----------------------
/bəuʃa:/ ’pair of shoes’
/auɭəu:n/ ‘yet’

2.3 Clusters

Consonant clusters

A consonant cluster is a group of consonants which have no intervening vowel. The

consonant clusters can be a combination of two identical as well as two non-identical
consonants that generally occur in the medial position of a word. The former is called
homogenous clusters and the latter is called heterogeneous consonant clusters. The occurrence
of the consonant’s clusters is most frequently in the medial position. A few examples of non-
identical clusters are as follows:

/ks/ /kələksənkərət̪t̪əl/ ‘to rebel’

/bɑ:rɪksɛ/ ‘thin’

/nɑ:ksuʈʈɑ:/ ‘ringworm’

/sɑ:ksɛ/ ‘socks’

/lɔ:ksəbɑ:/ ‘parliament’

/ʧeksə/ ‘chess’

/kʤ/ /e:kʤət̪pɑ:ppəʃ/ ‘pair of shoes’

/kʈ/ /lukʈɔʧɔ:li/ ‘sari’

/ʈɑ:kʈərni:/ ‘midwife’

/bəkʈət̪t̪əl/ ‘to hold’

/ke:sɑ:pəkʈəl/ ‘to tie’

/ukʈəl/ ‘open’

/kt̪/ /sɪne:kt̪ən/ ‘friend male’

/t̪ɑ:mʊsəkt̪i:/ ‘elephant male’

/sɔkt̪t̪i:/ ‘flesh’

/kɑ:t̪t̪ɑ:ʈɪʧɔʈəkt̪əl/ ‘kite flying festivals’

/kn/ /ʋəlɑɪlɪknɑ:rɔ/ ‘hawker’

343
 /d̪eknɑ:rɔ/ ‘audience’

/pʊknɪ'kərət̪t̪ər/ ‘to smash’

/ʧɪknɪmɑ:ʈʈi/ ‘clay’

/ʈi:pʊkni:/ ‘tea’

/kp/ /e:kpɪppɑ:ʋ/ ‘one and a quarter’

/e:kpərʤəmmət̪t̪əl/ ‘to gather together’

/rɑ:kpəʈət̪t̪ər/ ‘to get angry’

/kb/ /bɑ:ʤʊkbəʈʈɪn/ ‘left’

/sənd̪ɛkbəʈət̪tə̪ r/ ‘to doubt’

/ks/ /e:ksɔʈt̠/ ‘to cry’

/sɔksɔ:pi/ ‘assembly’

/km/ /rɔkmɑ:ri:/ ‘hill’

/kr/ /bəkrɔd̪eknɑ:rɔ/ ‘shepherd’

/əkrɑ:/ ‘eleven’

/t̪ɑ:mʊʃpɛkrɔ:/ ‘goat’

/lɑ:lbəkrɔ:/ ‘sheep’

/kl/ /kɔklɔ:/ ‘cough’

/uklɔ:/ ‘motor’

/d̪əklət̪t̪əl/ ‘to push’

/ʧɪklɛt̪tɛ̪ lɑ:/ ‘to stamp’

/kʋ/ /uʃt̪t̪ɑ:kʋɑ:ʧ/ ‘flame’

/t̪ɔlɑ:kʋərsi:/ ‘spectacles’

/ʧɔkʋɔ:ʈ/ ‘good’

/pəkʋəmse:t̪t̪əl/ ‘raw’

/rɑ:kʋɑ:lɔ/ ‘wild’

/ŋk/ /əŋkɑ:rʊ/ ‘ember’

344
 /ʤəŋkəl/ ‘forest’

/lɪŋkət̪t̪əl/ ‘to crawl’

/suŋkət̪t̪ər/ ‘to smell’

/ŋg/ /muŋɡi]/ ‘ant’

/hɪŋɡɑ:/ ‘asafoetida’

/ʋɑ:ŋɡi/ ‘brinjal’

/lɔŋɡɔ:/ ‘clove’

/səŋɡə/ ‘conch’

/t̪ɪŋɡɛ/ ‘to them’

/ŋʈ/ /əŋʈʈɪɡɔ'əŋli:/ ‘ring finger’

/əŋʈʈɪpɪʧɑɪn/ ‘male ornaments’

/ŋɖ/ /əŋɖi:/ ‘ring’

/ləŋɖɔ:/ ‘lamp’

/bɑ:ŋɖæ/ ‘bangle’

/ŋd̪/ /ɑ:ŋd̪ɔ:t̪t̪ər/ ‘to bathe’

/ŋp/ /ɑ:ŋpərɔ:t̪nɛ/ ‘treatment’

/bɪlɖɪŋpənt̪ət̪t̪ər/ ‘to build’

/ŋm/ /rəŋmɑ:rnɑ:rɔ]/ ‘painter’

/rəŋmɑ:rət̪tə̪ l/ ‘to paint’

/sp/ /tɑ:mʊspəʧəɖʊ/ ‘calf female’

/sb/ /t̪ɑ:mʊsbɑɪʃ/ ‘buffalo’

/nɪslət̪t̪əl/ ‘slope’

/ŋl/ /əŋli:/ ‘finger’

/pɔŋlɪsən/ ‘harvest festivals’

/pɪŋlɔ:/ ‘lean’

/hɑ:d̪kɔ'ʧəŋli:/ ‘handcuffs’

345
/ʃk/ /mɑ:ʃkɔrɔ:/ ‘skin disease’

/t̪əʃkɑ:rɑ:/ ‘death rituals’

/bɑɪʃkɔlləʈəl/ ‘bull-fight’

/ʈænʃkelət̪tə̪ l/ ‘dance’

/məʃkərət̪et̪t̪əl/ ‘to tease’

/ʃɡ/ /ɑɪʃɡəʈʈɑ:/ ‘ice’

/bɔ:ʃɡɔd̪d̪ɪsɑ:/ ‘rainy season’

/ʃs/ /sɑ:ʃset̪t̪əʋɑ:lɔ/ ‘fair male’

/pɑ:ʃsɑʊ/ ‘five hundred’

/ʃʈ/ /kəʃʈəpənnɑ:rɔ/ ‘labourer’

/kəʃʈʈə/ ‘sorrow’

/plɑ:ʃʈɪkɔbuʈʈi/ ‘types of basket’

/ ʃt̪/ /uʃt̪t̪ɔ:/ ‘fire’

/ʋəʃt̪ɔ:/ ‘ornaments’

/me:ʃt̪ɪri: ‘mason’

/puʃt̪ək/ ‘book’

/pe:ʃt̪ər/ ‘to drink’

/ɔ:nʊʃt̪ər/ ‘to need’

/ʃd̪/ /ʃd̪ɔʊ'ʤɑ:ʈət̪tə̪ l/ ‘to extinguish’

/əkkəlt̪i:ʃd̪ekkət̪tə̪ r/ ‘to predict’

/ʃn/ /t̪ɑ;mʊʃnimɪʤəmɑ:n/ ‘eunuch’

/pɑ:ʃnəmkərt̪t̪ər/ ‘irrigate’

/ʃp/ /t̪i:ʃpərnɑʊ]/ ‘thirty nine’

/pɔ:ʃpəʈət̪tə̪ r/ ‘to rain’

/t̪ɑ:mʊʃpɛkrɔ:/ ‘goat’

/ɑ:ʃpət̪ri:/ ‘hospital’

346
/ʃb/ /sənd̪ɔ:ʃbɑ:sət̪t̪ər/ ‘to rejoice’

/sənd̪ɔ:ʃbəʈət̪t̪ər/ ‘to celebrate’

/ʃm/ /d̪uʃmən/ ‘enemy’

/ʃj/ /rɑ:t̪ɪʃjɑ:t̪tə̪ r/ ‘to forget’

/ʃr/ /səʃrɔ:/ ‘father-in-law’

/ɪʃrɑ:k/ ‘leaf’

/d̪əʃrɑ:sən/ ‘festival’

/d̪uʃrɔ:/ ‘many’

/ʃl/ /pəʃlɛŋɡɔ: əɖukkʊ/ ‘rib’

/ɡəʃlɛt̪lɑ:/ ‘to strike’

/d̪ɑ:mʊʃləŋɖɔ:/ ‘cripple’

/ʧk/ /ɪʧki:/ ‘hiccough’

/meʧki:/ ‘nail’

/ɡəlɔpɪʧkət̪t̪əl/ ‘strangle’

/ʧn/ /kɪʧnɔ/ ‘epilepsy’

/ʋɑ:ʧnɔ:/ ‘education’

/nɑ:ʧnɑ:rɔ/ ‘dance’

/sɑ:ʧnɛt̪tə̪ ʋəɻ/ ‘ugly’

/ʧl/ /məʧli:/ ‘fish’

/[d̪ʊʧlɔhələt̪tə̪ l/ ‘to bore’

/duʧlɔkərət̪t̪əl/ ‘to pierce’

/ʋɑ:lɪməʧli:/ ‘dried fish’

/ʧʋ/ /ʧʋət̪t̪əl/ ‘touch’

/ʤb/ /rɑ:ʤbɑ:r/ ‘kingdom’

/ʤr/ /bəʤrəmkərnɑ:rɔ:/ ‘security’

/ʤl/ /uʤlɔ:/ ‘leukoderma’

347
 /uʤlɔbɔblɔ:/ ‘types of gourd’

/uʤlɔ:/ ‘white’

/ɲʧ/ /məɲʧəpɑ:n/ ‘dew’

/eɲʧʊ/ ‘scorpion’

/pɑ:ɲʧ/ ‘five’

/ʋələɲʧə/ ‘curved’

/əɲʧi:/ ‘again’

/məɲʧəkɔd̪ɪʃɑ:/ ‘winter’

/kəɲʧu:ʃ ‘miser’

/ʈk/ /ʤɑ:ʈkɔ'ʧi:ɖi/ ‘wood pecker’

/həʈkɑ:'ku:ʈʊ/ ‘skeleton’

/ɔ:ʈkɔʤɑ:ʈ/ ‘pipal’

/pɑ:ʈkərət̪t̪əl/ ‘to waste’

/ʧɔkɔ:ʈkɔʈkərt̪ɪt̪/ ‘price’

/ʈs/ /irʋɔʈsɑ:p/ ‘types of snake’

/ʈʃ/ /ʧɔ:kkɔʈʃɛ/ ‘health’

/ʈʧ/ /peʈʧɛlnɔ:/ ‘jealousy’

/nəʈʧɛʃ/ ‘acting’

/nəʈʧət̪tə̪ l/ ‘to act’

/ʈt̪/ /ʈɑɪpɑ:ʈt̪ɑ:p/ ‘typhoid’

/kəʈkəʈɑ:d̪ɔʈt̪əl/ ‘to snap’

/təʈmɑ:ʈt̪əlɑ:/ ‘to stagger’

/ʋɑ:ʈt̪əhəʈət̪tə̪ r/ ‘to guide’

/ʈp/ /sɑ:ʈpər'e:k/ ‘sixty one’

/sɑ:ʈpərpɑ:ɲʧ/ ‘sixty five’

/sɑ:ʈpərnɑʊ/ ‘sixty nine’

348
/ʈb/ /ɑ:ʈbɑ:jʧənt̪ʊ/ ‘spider’

/ʈm/ /t̪əʈmɑ:ʈt̪əlɑ:/ ‘to stagger’

/ʈr/ /əʈrɑ:/ ‘eighteen’

/ʈl/ /pɑ:ʈlʊ/ ‘wooden seat’

/eʈlɑ:mbəʈət̪tə̪ r/ ‘to fall down’

/ʈʋ/ /ʧɑ:ʈʋɔʧɑ:rɔ/ ‘ladle’

/ʧɔkɔ:ʈʋɑ:ɖɪkki]/ ‘virtue’

/ʈɻ/ /əʈɻ/ ‘two and a half’

/məɳʈɻ/ ‘and’

/ʈh/ /mɑ:t̪t̪ɑ:xɔ əʈhʊ/ ‘skull’

/pi:ʈhɔ əʈhʊ/ ‘spine’

/ɳɡ/ /məɳɡɔrɔ:k/ ‘insanity’

/ɳʤ/ /pəɳʤɪkərnɑ:rɔ/ ‘cotton carder’

/ɳʈ/ /mɔʈʈʊd̪uɳʈʊ/ ‘rock’

/ɡuɳʈɔ/ ‘lake’

/bɑ:ɳʈi:/ ‘horn’

/pæɳʈɛ/ ‘trousers’

/pəɳʈʊ/ ‘fruit’

/rɑʊɳʈə/ ‘circle’

/ɳɖ/ /d̪ɔɳɖɔ:/ ‘brick’

/dɑ:ɳɖət̪t̪ər/ ‘to stop over’

/d̪əɳɖənɑ:kərət̪tə̪ l/ ‘to punish’

/kəɳɖɪppə'rɑ:ʋɔt̪t̪ər/ ‘to request’

/t̪k/ /surɪt̪kɔd̪ɑ:l/ ‘sunshine’

/hɑ:t̪kɔ:ʈkkɔ/ ‘wrist’

/hɑ:t̪kɔbɑ:ɳʈi/ ‘stick’

349
 /ʃɑ:t̪kɔɖi:/ ‘orange’

/ʤɑ:t̪kəʋɑ:lɔ/ ‘astrologer’

/ʤɔ:kət̪kəm/ ‘by weight’

/t̪n/ /nɑ:t̪ni:/ ‘daughter's son's daughter’

/ɑ:ŋpərɔ:t̪nɛ/ ‘treatment’

/lɪt̪nɑ:rɔ/ ‘clerk’

/ke:sɑ:kkət̪nɑ:rʊ/ ‘barber’

/t̪p/ /nəʋət̪pər'e:k/ ‘ninety one’

/e:kʤət̪pɑ:ppəʃ/ ‘pair of shoes’

/d̪u:t̪pɪlət̪t̪ər/ ‘to milk’

/t̪b/ /d̪u:t̪bɑ:'ʧəkkəʈət̪tə̪ l/ ‘first rice ceremony’

/t̪j/ /t̪jɑ:rkərət̪tə̪ r/ ‘to prepare’

/t̪jɑ:kəmkərət̪t̪əl/ ‘to sacrifice’

/t̪r/ /kut̪rɔ:/ ‘dog’

/ʧət̪ri:/ ‘umberella’

/ət̪rək/ ‘ginger’

/kət̪rət̪t̪æ/ ‘chop’

/ɑ:ʃpət̪ri:/ ‘hospital’

/t̪l/ /pilət̪lə/ ‘to squeeze’

/ɡəʃlɛt̪lɑ:/ ‘to strike’

/ʤɑ:ʈɪkəʈət̪lɑ:/ ‘to sweep’

/lɔ:ŋkɔ'ʧəʈət̪l]/ ‘to climb’

/t̪ʋ/ /d̪ut̪ʋɑ:lɔ/ ‘milk man’

/d̪k/ /su:d̪kərət̪tə̪ l/ ‘to shoot’

/hɑ:d̪kɔ'ʧəŋli:/ ‘handcuffs’

/d̪b/ /u:d̪bət̪ti̪ :/ ‘incense stick’

350
 /ki:d̪bɔlət̪tə̪ l/ ‘to sing’

/d̪r/ /pənd̪rɑ:/ ‘fifteen’

/ud̪rət̪tə̪ r/ ‘descend’

/pəd̪rəmkərət̪t̪əl/ ‘to defend’

/d̪ʋ/ /ʋɪd̪ʋɑ:n/ ‘player’

/ɡɪd̪ʋɑ:lɔ/ ‘singer’

/kɔ/ /pɑ:nkɔt̪ɔppi:/ ‘rain hat’

/ʧɪnkɛ/ ‘to sprinkle’

/u:nkɔd̪ɪʃɑ:/ ‘summer’

/unkæ]/ ‘whom’

/jɔʧənkərət̪t̪əl/ ‘to appear’

/ns/ /t̪i:nsɑʊ/ ‘three hundred’

/mənsɑ:ŋkɔkumbəl/ ‘crowd of people’

/ nt̪/ /bont̪ə/ ‘cave’

/ʧʊʧʧənt̪ri:/ ‘mouse’

/pənt̪i:/ ‘pig’

/unt̪ərmɑ:mʊ/ ‘rat’

/kɑ:nt̪ɛʈʈi/ ‘shoulder’

/rənt̪əkɑ:nɔ/ ‘kitchen’

/kənt̪əkɑ:ʈi:/ ‘matchstick’

/ nd̪/ /kɑ:nd̪ɔ/ ‘onion’

/mənd̪ərʋɑ:lɔ/ ‘sorcerer’

/ənd̪əli/ ‘blind female’

/sənd̪e:k/ ‘doubt’

/sənd̪ɔ:ʃ/ ‘happiness’

/sənd̪ɑ:/ ‘flag’

351
 /pənd̪rɑ:/ ‘fifteen’

/bɑ:nd̪ət̪t̪əl/ ‘to pack’

/nb/ /ɪnbɑɪ/ ‘son-in-law’s mother’

/d̪ɔ:nbəʧʧɑ:/ ‘twin’

/lɔ:kkʊnbɑ:ləm/ ‘types of bridge’

/nm/ /rɑ:nmʊn'pɑ:jkkɔ:/ ‘widow’

/mɑ:nmɑ:t̪t̪ət̪t̪ər/ ‘to trade’

/nɾ/ /ənɾɔ/ ‘egg’

/mənɾəm/ ‘club’

/nl/ /kəʈʈʊʋɑ:nl/ ‘smart’

/nʋ/ /ʤɑ:nʋɪkələt̪t̪əl/ ‘threat ceremony’

/d̪uhɑ:nʋɑ:lɔ/ ‘shopkeeper’

/dɔnʋɔ:/ ‘second’

/t̪ɪnʋɔ:/ ‘third’

/pk/ /ʧɪpkɛ'kɔ:ʈ kərət̪tə̪ r/ ‘to whisper’

/məɳɳɑ:pkərət̪t̪ər/ ‘to forgive’

/pɑ:pkərət̪tə̪ l/ ‘to sin’

/ʤupkɔ:ʈkɔrət̪tə̪ r/ ‘to mutter’

/ps/ /pɔpsɔ:/ ‘lung’

/pɑ:psɑ:/ ‘shoe’

/pʧ/ /t̪əpʧɪnʧɑ:t̪tə̪ r/ ‘to escape’

/pʈ/ /pɑ:pʈɑ:/ ‘papad’

/kɑ:pʈɔsu:nɑ:rɔ/ ‘tailor’

/ʧupʈət̪t̪ər/ ‘to flow’

/ʧəpʈʈɔ/ ‘flat’

/pd̪/ /kəpd̪ær/ ‘pigeon’

352
/pr/ /prɪjəm/ ‘affection’

/prət̪tə̪ r/ ‘to roll’

/prɪʤə/ ‘bridge’

/pre:nəkərət̪t̪əl/ ‘to repeat’

/kəɖɖɑ:prə'se:t̪tə̪ / ‘deep’

/kɔprɔ'kɔrʧət̪tæ
̪ / ‘coconut scraper’

/pl/ /t̪əpli:/ ‘jar’

/plɑ:ʃʈɪkɔbuʈʈi/ ‘plastic basket’

/pɔplɔ:/ ‘boil’

/pʋ/ /ʤɑ:pʋɑ:lɔ/ ‘post man’

/ɑ:pʋɑ:ɔ/ ‘snake charmer’

/bɖ/ /ubɖət̪t̪əl/ ‘to dilute’

/br/ /ubrɑ:nʤɔʈət̪tə̪ l/ ‘to rise’

/əbrɑ:/ ‘morning’

// / /kəmkərət̪tə̪ l/ ‘subtraction’

/ʈəmki:/ ‘types of drum’

/əmkət̪t̪əl/ ‘to press’

/kɑ:mkərət̪t̪əl/ ‘to work’

/sənt̪ənəmkɔlɑ:kuʈʊ/ ‘sandalwood’

/mɡ/ /məɳʈʋɑ:sɪmɡɔ:/ ‘beans’

/ms/ /pəkʋəmse:t̪t̪əl/ ‘raw’

/mʈ/ /ʤəmʈɔ:/ ‘skin’

/ʧumʈʈɔ/ ‘tongs’

/lɔmʈʈi:/ ‘loin cloth’

/md̪/ /t̪ɔʈʈəmd̪ehɪlinɑ:rɔ/ ‘gardener’

/ʋɑ:md̪enɑ:rɔ/ ‘moneylender’

353
 /səmd̪u:rkɔʧɔʈʈɑ:r/ ‘pirate’

/ʤɑ;t̪kəmd̪eknɑ:rɔ/ ‘broker’

/mn/ /nɑ:ɡərɪɡəmnɪt̪t̪əʋəɻ/ ‘uncivilized’

/mp/ /sɔmpərkokɔ:ʈ/ ‘echo’

/pəʈʈɑ:mpu:ʧʧi/ ‘butterfly’

/sɔ:ləmpi:ʈ/ ‘jowar flour’

/məlɑ:mpəɳʈʊ/ ‘cucumber’

/mb / /t̪umbi/ ‘trunk’

/kəmbær/ ‘hip’

/kəmbər/ ‘waist’

/̪əmbɑ:kkʊ/ ‘tobacco’

/səmbəŋɡi/ ‘tube rose’

/lɪmbu:/ ‘lemon’

/nəmbət̪t̪ər/ ‘to believe’

/lɔmbɔ:/ ‘long’

/sɔmbər/ ‘opposite’

/ml/ /ʤɑ:mlɛʤɔʈəkt̪t̪əl/ ‘yawn’

/mʋ/ /pəʈəmʋərəɲʧət̪t̪ər/ ‘to carve’

/ʋɑ:mʋəsulkərt̪tə̪ r/ ‘to collect’

/jk/ /ɡɑ:jkɔ:ʤɑ:ɡɑ:/ ‘cattle’

/pɑ:jkkɔ'muʈʈi/ ‘knee’

/ɡɑ:jkɔ:sɔkt̪t̪i:/ ‘beef’

/bujkɔjəʈʈəl/ ‘mine’

/kɑ:jkkɛ/ ‘to it’

/jɡ/ /ɡɑ:jɡɔʤɑ:ɡɑ:/ ‘cowshed’

/jʧ/ /ɑ:ʈbɑ:jʧənt̪ʊ/ ‘spider’

354
/ jt̪/ /ɑ:jt̪əm/ ‘weapon’

// / /mɑ:jpɑ:p/ ‘parents’

/hɑ:t̪pɑ:jpəʈʊhi/ ‘paralysis’

/jl/ /mɪʈʈɑ:jlɪknɑ:rɔ/ ‘sweetmeat maker’

/rk/ /sɔrkkɑ/ ‘bottle gourd’

/murkɔ:/ ‘cock’

/t̪ərkɑ:r/ ‘vegetable’

/kərkkɔsən/ ‘forest festivals’

/pərkɔ:nɪʤəmɑ: / ‘enuch’

/rɡ/ /ɖərɡɔʤɑ:kɑ:/ ‘danger’

/ʧəŋɡəlɡɔʤənd̪ʊ/ ‘wild animal’

/kɑ:ɳʈɑ:mɪrɡəm/ ‘rhinoceros’

/rs/ /t̪ɔlɑ:kʋərsi:/ ‘spectacles’

/rʧ/ /kɔprɔ'kɔrʧət̪t/̪ ‘coconut scraper’

/kurʧɪrəkkət̪t̪əl/ ‘notebook’

/[ərʧət̪tə̪ r/ ‘to grind’

/rʤ/ /ʤərʤə/ ‘judge’

/bɑ:rʤɔʈət̪tə̪ r/ ‘release’

/d̪ɑɪrʤɛt̪t̪ər/ ‘to encourage’

/ərʤɪrɑ;t̪/ ‘midnight’

/ubbərʤɑ:t̪t̪əl/ ‘upwards’

/rɲ/ /ʋərɲʧət̪t̪əl/ ‘to draw’

/ rt̪/ /sud̪d̪əkərt̪t̪ər/ ‘to clean’

/ʋɑ:ɾữmɑ:rt̪ʊʃ/ ‘storm’

/əllʊmɑ:rt̪ʊʃ'ʋɑ:ɾữ/ ‘wind’

/ʧərt̪ɪʧɑ:nt̪/ ‘crescent moon’

355
 /̪ələm/ ‘ceiling’

/ləʈeɪkərt̪ɔ:ʃ/ ‘wrestling’

/mu:rt̪ti̪ :/ ‘pearl’

/ rd̪/ /ərd̪ɔ:/ ‘half’

/ərd̪ɔhɑ:t̪/ ‘elbow’

/kərd̪ən/ ‘neck’

/kəʈɑ:rd̪ɑ:t̪/ ‘molar tooth’

/ʋi:ʃpərd̪ɔ:n/ ‘twenty two’

/rn/ /ʈɑ:kʈərni:/ ‘midwife’

/t̪əppʊkərnɪt̪tə̪ ʋɑ:lɔ:/ ‘innocent’

/ʋi:ʃpərnɑʊ/ ‘twenty nine’

/t̪i:ʃpərnɑʊ/ ‘thirty nine’

/rəŋmɑ:rnɑ:r/ ‘painter’

/pəɳʤɪkərnɑ:rɔ/ ‘cotton carder’

/rp/ /dɑɪrpər/ ‘brave’

/ʤɔ:rpər/ ‘fast’

/t̪ɪrppʊ't̪e:t̪tə̪ r/ ‘to judge’

/kərppɑ:/ ‘acacia arabica’

/nɑ:hərpəɲʧɪmi:/ ‘snake festival’

/rb/ /t̪ərbəʈət̪t̪ər/ ‘to fear’

/kərbəʈɪjɑ:t̪tə̪ r/ ‘to collapse’

/pərbəse:t̪t̪əl/ ‘equal’

/t̪ərbu:ʧ/ ‘watermelon’

/ɑ:rbɑ:r/ ‘fort’

/mɑ:rbəʈəl/ ‘to injure’

/ʋerbʊ əʋɑ:rəkkət̪tə̪ r/ ‘to dislike’

356
/rm/ /ne:rmɑɪse:t̪tə̪ l/ ‘straight’

/unt̪ərmɑ:mʊ/ ‘rat’

/rj/ /mərjɑ:t̪ɔ/ ‘respect’

/rl/ /ɡərlp/ ‘poor’

/bɑ:rli:/ ‘barley’

/pɑ:rlɪpi:ʈ/ ‘barley flour’

/rʋ/ /mənd̪ərʋɑ:lɔ/ ‘sorcerer’

/bɑ:rʋɔkəm/ ‘by vision’

/irʋɔd̪ʊɳʈɔ:/ ‘emerald

/pæppərʋɑ:lɔ/ ‘newspaper’

/ɑ:ʃɪrʋɑ:t̪/ ‘blessing’

/ərʋəʈɑɪkərt̪t̪ər/ ‘to reap’

/rh/ /murhɪsɔkt̪i/ ‘food items’

/lk/ /heʈʈəlkɔhu:ʈ/ ‘lower lip’

/melkʋət̪t̪i:/ ‘wax candle’

/pu:lkɔɪt̪əl/ ‘petal’

/ʤeɪlkɔʧɔʈʈɔ/ ‘prisoner’

/əkkəlkəl/ ‘already’

/lɡ/ /ʤəŋɡəlɡɔbɑɪʃ/ ‘mithun’

/ʤəŋɡəlɡɔki:ʈɔ/ ‘month’

/ls/ /relse:t̪t̪əl/ ‘ready’

/kɔlsɛ/ ‘coal’

/lʧ/ /kəlʧɪʧɔʈət̪t̪ər/ ‘to be tired’

/lʤ/ /kəlʤi:/ ‘liver’

/kəmməlʤɪmkkɑ:/ ‘ear-ring’

/əkkəlʤɑ:t̪tə̪ r/ ‘to overtake’

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 /əɡəlʤɑ:nʊt̪ekkə/ ‘to try’

/lʈ/ /pəlʈu:m/ ‘school’

/pəlʈʈɪmɑ:rət̪t̪əl/ ‘to turn over’

/lɖ/ /pɪlɖɪŋ/ ‘building’

/bɪlɖɪŋpənt̪ət̪t̪ər/ ‘to build’

/lt̪/ /əkkəlt̪i:ʃd̪ekkət̪tə̪ r/ ‘to predict’

/heʈʈəlt̪ekət̪tə̪ l/ ‘downwards’

/ʤəlt̪t̪ɪlikɪʃ/ ‘during’

/ ld̪/ /əɡɡəld̪ɑ:t̪/ ‘front tooth’

/kɑ:ʤəld̪/ ‘ink pot’

/ln/ /ʤeɪlnɛkələt̪t̪əl/ ‘imprisonment’

/kɪlnɑ:rɔmənu:ʃ/ ‘sports-man’

/d̪ɪɖi:lnɛ/ ‘suddenly’

/ʋɔlnɔ:/ ‘rolling board’

/elni:r/ ‘types of coconut’

/kəlnɑ: / ‘bitter gourd’

/lp/ /əkkəlpər/ ‘clever’

/nɑ:nɑɪlpəʧʧɔ:/ ‘spinster’

/lb/ /lɑ:lbəkrɔ:/ ‘sheep’

/əɡɡəlbɑ:j/ ‘toe’

/lm/ /ʋɑ:lmɑ:ʈʈɪʤɑ:kɑ:/ ‘desert’

/kɑ:lmɪri:/ ‘black paper’

/əlmi:n/ ‘alluminium’

/ni:ʧʧəlmɑ:ʈət̪t̪ər/ ‘to swim’

/ʋɔʊʋɑ:lməʧli:/ ‘pomfret’

/lj/ /kɪljəŋkɔt̪t̪ʊ/ ‘bunch of keys’

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/lʋ/ /mɔʈʈɔsɑ:lʋɔ/ ‘wife’s elder sisters husbad’

/sɑ:lʋɛ/ ‘shawl’

/ʋɑ:ʧʧəlʋɑ:lɔ/ ‘literate’

/ʧeɪʧəlʋɑ:lɔ/ ‘victory’

/ke:lʋɪ'ekkət̪t̪ər/ ‘to ask’

/həbɑ:lʋɔlɑ:ʋt̪ɔ:ʃ/ ‘thunder’

/ʋk/ /ɡɑ:ʋkɔellɑɪ/ ‘boundary’

/ɡɑ:ʋkɔmɛmmən/ ‘town’

/ʋʈ/ /ɔʋʈɪɡɔ/ ‘wife’s sister’

/ʋt̪/ /ʋt̪ʊnɑ:bəʈət̪t̪ər/ ‘to mourn’

/həbɑ:lʋɔlɑ:ʋt̪ɔ:/ ‘thunder’

/sɪt̪rəʋt̪əkərət̪t̪əl/ ‘to torture’

/ʋn/ /pɑ:ʋnɑ:/ ‘guests’

/nɑ:ʋni:/ ‘bathroom’

/d̪ərɑ:ʋnɑ:rɔ/ ‘threat’

Tri-Consonantal Clusters

Tri consonant cluster occurs in medial and final positions of Kathodi.

Medial

/ɳʈʋ/ /məɳʈʋɑ:sɪmɡɔ:/ ‘beans’

/lkʋ/ /melkʋət̪ti̪ :/ ‘wax candle’

/ʈʧn/ /nəʈʧnɑ:rɔ/ ‘actor’

/rɲʧ/ /ʋərɲʧət̪tə̪ l/ ‘to draw’

Final

/ɳʈʃ/ /səkkɑ:lɔ'bərəɳʈʃ/ ‘day after tomorrow’

/ɳʈɻ/ /məɳʈɻ/ ‘and’

/rlp/ /ɡərlp/ ‘poor’

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 /nd̪ɻ/ /mənd̪ɻ/ ‘afterwards’

Consonant Gemination

The following are the example of some geminated (identical consonant clusters)
consonants:

/ʈʈ/ /to:ʈʈəm/ ‘garden’

/kəʈʈi/ ‘hay’

/baʈʈa:ɳa:/ ‘pea’

/ka:ʈʈəʃa/ ‘saw’

/ðð/ /me:ððe/ ‘methi’

/muððura:ʃi:l/ ‘seal’

/pəʈʈa:kəðði/ ‘dagger’

/sɔðða/ ‘property’

/ɲɲ/ /mɛməɳɲikɔʈaɲɲihəɖəsa/ ‘scoop out’

/rr/ /tɔŋɡa:rrəkəsa/ ‘to hang up ( on a hook)’

/ɽɽ/ /bʊɽɽɔ̃:/ ‘types & parts of coconut’

/nn/ /punniʝəʃtəl/ ‘holy place’

/onnurasaɳɖiʝaraikasa/ ‘to ask for, some thing’

/pp/ /uppʊra:ŋɡʊbaɖəsa/ ‘to lean’

/ʋe:ppa:rkərəsa/ ‘to sell’

/məɳɳəkarppaɳa:kərəs/ ‘to imagine’

/bb/ /tʊbba:ʃaʃasa/ ‘to fast’

/mɔɻume:bba/ ‘full’

/tabbuba/ ‘badly’

/tʊbba:/ ‘afternoon’

/tt/ /otte:l/ ‘if’

/nɛikəttõ:/ ‘or’

/na:tte/ ‘daughter's son’

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 /na:ttʊɳi/ ‘granddaughter’

/kk/ /aləkka:ʈʈɔ̃:/ ‘beak’

/ɖəkkʊɳõ:/ ‘bug’

/moʈʈoma:kki/ ‘honey bee’

/ʈɛkka:ɖo:sɔʈəʃə/ ‘belch’

/ɡɡ/ /lo:ɡunɛɡɡa/ ‘steel’

/aɡɡɛɖã:/ ‘eleven’

/eɡɡiɈa:ʃɡɔ:bərʋa:/ ‘flock of birds’

/ɳɳ/ /paɳɳa:kkəma:rəsa/ ‘to knock (on a door)’

/Ɉuɳɳɔ̃:/ ‘old’

/siɳɳɔ/ ‘chest’

/ɑɳɳa:ri/ ‘pineapple’

/ʧʧ/ /Ɉəʧʧiʈiʋɔ̃:/ ‘victory’

/Ɉəʧʧa/ ‘judge’

/Ɉaʧʧiməɳɖu/ ‘judgement’

/ʃa:ʧʧi/ ‘witness’

/kəɳɳa:mʊʧʧi/ ‘hide and seek’

/paʧʧi:ʃ/ ‘twenty five’

/mm/ /tuɭã:mma:rasa/ ‘to wink’

/kəmma:ʋəsa/ ‘to earn’

/məiʝakkammiʝa:sa/ ‘to faint’

/tʊmmasa/ ‘to sneeze’

/summa:dɛsa/ ‘to kiss’

/ll/ /tikillɛsa/ ‘to protect’

/kəllɛsa/ ‘to rescue’

/nəllo/ ‘little’

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 /allu/ ‘slow’

/həllu/ ‘slowly’

/ɭɭ/ /oɭɭa:ba/ ‘neatly’

/hɑɭɭo:aʋəsa/ ‘flood’

/suɭɭa:bkɔʈʈʊri/ ‘kitchen’

/ʋɛɭɭəri/ ‘cucumber’

/ʃʃ/ /suritaʋəʃʃərʋe:l/ ‘sunrise’

/uʃʃo/ ‘fire’

/uʃʃotibʈi/ ‘flame’

/daɡiliaʃʃasa/ ‘to abstain (refrain from)’

/aʃəʃʃər/ ‘to dwell’

Co-articulation

In Coarticulation a conceptually isolated speech sound is influenced or becomes more

like, a preceding or following speech sound. This feature can be observed in retroflection in
Kathodi.

Retroflection is a sound formation process where the presence of a retroflex sound

casts its impact on the following sound. This is a common feature in Dravidian languages and
Kathodi is no exception. E.g

/baɳɖiɭa:rɔ̃:/ ‘praise’ (after retroflex sound)

/bəiɳɖu/ ‘penalty’ (after retroflex sound)

2.4 Syllable:

The unit of sound, composed of a central peak of sonority (usually a vowel), and the
consonants that cluster around this central peak is known as a syllable. Syllables are
often considered the phonological "building blocks" of words. Syllabification is the
separation of syllables into words, whether it is spoken or written. In Kathodi language
syllabification is as follows:

i. Monosyllabic,
ii. Disyllabic, and
iii. Polysyllabic words

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i. Monosyllabic Pattern

1. CV /se:/ ‘six’

/ʧa:/ ‘four’
ii. Disyllabic Pattern

1. CV-CV /so:---nõ:/ ‘gold’

2. CVC-CV /suɳ---ɳõ:/ ‘lime’

3. CVC-CV /rub---bo:/ ‘silver'

iii. Polysyllabic Pattern

1. CV-CV-CV /ʋa:---ɖi—ki/ ’habit’

2. VC-VC-VCV /at—im—atu/ ‘liquorice’

3. VC-CV-C /ub--ba:---ʃ/ fast’

4. CV-CV-CCV /pɛ--Ɉə--lɳ--i:/ ’jealousy’

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 3. MORPHOPHONEMICS

While adding some bound morphemes with base morphemes if there is a change in the
phoneme of the base morpheme, that change is called a Morphophonemic change. The
Morphophonemic changes observed in Kathodi are as follows:

Alternation of Phoneme:,

u > a /manu / ‘man’

/binguta:/ ‘women’

o > i /potto/ ‘son’

/pottii / ‘daughter’

/kildo/ ‘dwarf’(male)

/kildi/ ‘dwarf’ (female)

/bɔʈʈɔ̃:/ ‘boy’

/bɔʈʈi/ ‘girl’

/so:ɽo:/ ‘male’

/so:ri/‘ ‘female’

No change

/mɑ:ipɑ:p/ ‘parents’

Dropping of Phoneme

/pənd̪rɑ:/ > /pantra/ ‘fifteen’

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 4. MORPHOLOGY

Kathodi language is an inflexional type of language. That means, words are formed by
adding syllables or letters (i.e. affixes) or different postpositions to the stem. Different endings
are used to form different types of words and these affixes show no traceable signs of having
been independent words. For example, /tikkõ:/ horse is a word and /tikkõ:/ ‘horses ‘also is a
word which is a combination of /bəʧ ʧɔ̃:/ ‘child’ + / ʧɔ̃:/ (Plural marker).

4.1 Noun Morphology

A noun is a member of a syntactic class that includes words which refer to people,
places, things, ideas, or concepts, whose members may act as any of the following: subjects of
the verb, objects of the verb, indirect object of the verb, or object of a preposition or
postposition. Noun Morphology deals with the forms and classification of Nouns, Pronouns
and their declensional/ inflectional pattern in association with Gender, Number, Adjective etc.

The nouns in the language are marked by two numbers (singular and plural), three
genders (i.e. masculine, feminine and neuter); and seven cases (nominative, accusative, dative,
ablative, genitive, locative and instrumental).

4.1.1 Word Formation

Word formation is the creation of a new word or lexeme from an existing one or
entirely different. This brings a semantic change. This is a regular process for creation of new
terms.

Affixation

An affix is a morpheme that is attached to a word stem to form a new word. Affixes
may be derivational, or inflectional. In Kathodi language, the affixes added to form familial
relations are of inflectional nature, tending to preserve the grammatical class of the base to
which it is attached. Words are formed by adding prefixes or suffixes to base as in –

Base- /ma:i/ ‘mother’

Prefix +base = /ma:i/ ‘mother’

/əɟi:/ ‘mother's mother’

Base- /pe:ʈʈo:/ ‘son’

Base+suffix = /natte/ ‘son's son’

/na:ttiɳi/ ‘son's daughter’

/-sa/ is a past tense marker which is acting as a suffix and attached to the verb root / Ɉa: / to
form a construction with past tense.

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 / Ɉa:sa/ ‘go’ /Ɉeʝe:/ ‘I went’

Compounding

A compound is a word containing a stem that is made up of more than one root.
A compound is a lexeme that consists of more than one stem. Compounding is the word
formation that creates compound lexemes by the process of derivation. In other
words, compounding or word-compounding occurs when a person attaches two or more words
together to make them one word. The meaning of the words interrelates in such a way that a
new meaning comes out from the meanings of the words in isolation.

/sa:ma:ɳ/ ‘pan’ + / ɖikkʊɳa:rɔ:/’seller’ = /sa:ma:ɳɖikkʊɳa:rɔ:/ ‘pan seller’

Coining of new words

In Kathodi language, many words are borrowed either from English or some other
languages.

/pɔ:liʃʋa:lo/ ‘police’

Suppletion

Suppletion is the use of one word as the inflected form of another word when the two
words are not cognate. Examples of suppletion in Kathodi language include-

/poʈʈɔ̃:/ ‘boy’

/baʧʧa:ŋɡɔ̃:aɳi / ‘boys’

Word Class

A word unit is the smallest element that may be uttered in isolation having
independent semantic or pragmatic content. A word is a unit which is a constituent at
the phrase level. This stands in contrast to morpheme which is the smallest meaningful unit in
the grammar of a language. There are open word classes, which constantly acquire new
members, and also closed word classes, which acquire new members quite infrequently.

Based on morphological and syntactic structure the word classes of Kathodi are
divided into following classes,

Noun:

A part of speech, inflected for case, denoting a tangible or intangible entity, referring
to objects in the non-linguistic world or to concepts which are considered as forming entities
parallel to real-world entities.

/nəṯi/ ‘river’

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Pronoun:

A grammatical class of words which are used as replacements for nouns and which
serve deictic or anaphoric function.

/məi/ ‘I’

Adjective:

A grammatical constituent, the main syntactic role of which is to qualify a noun or noun
phrase, providing additional information concerning the subject or object signified.

/mɔʈʈɔ̃:/ ‘big’

Postposition:

A part of speech placed before other words in composition and it expresses the relation
it has to other elements in a sentence.

Verb:

A part of speech without case inflection, but inflected for tense, person and number,
signifying an activity or process, whether on going, completed or undergone.

/kilinkarəsa/ ‘to clean’

Adverb:

A part of speech without inflection that is a modifier of a verb.

/ nəɡe:/ ‘quickly’ as in / ra:m / / nəɡe:/ / ɟɔ:rʃə / ‘Rama runs quickly’.

Conjunction:

A part of speech that connects two words, phrases or clauses, sentences together and
binds together the discourse and filling gaps in its interpretation.

/saŋɡa:l/ ‘and’

Participle:

A lexical item, showing some of the characteristics and functions of both verbs
and adjectives

Interjection:

An interjection is a form, typically brief, such as one syllable or word, which is

applied frequently as an exclamation or part of an exclamation as in – /aba:lma/ /kittɔ̃:/
/sɔkkɔ̃:ɖu/ /ʋa:ɳa/ /ʋɛlba:/ ‘What a beautiful rainbow in the sky!’

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The above mentioned seven-word classes are broadly grouped into two categories

Declinable and Indeclinable:

Declinable are those which are declined for number, gender, Person, case, tense,
aspect, agreement etc and they include nouns, pronouns, adjectives and verbs.

The Indeclinables are not declined for any of the above-mentioned categories and they
include postpositions, conjunctions, adverbs etc.

4.1.2 Nouns

Internal structure: Kathodi is agglutinating language. The nouns in the language are marked
by two numbers (singular and plural). Nouns thus realised in Kathodi can be categorized into
two broad classes, namely

1. Basic Nouns and 2. Derived nouns

Basic Nouns

Basic Nouns are those which are a class by itself as they are not derived from any other
word class. The examples are/

/paɳɖu/ ‘fruit’

/kuttʊɽɔ̃:/ ‘dog’

/bəʧʧõ/ ‘child’

The basic nouns can further be divided into a) Mass nouns and b) Count nouns.

i) Mass Nouns:

Mass nouns are those which do not show number distribution and cannot be
counted with cardinal numeral. They always occur in singular form. For example

/pe:ʃəbpa:ɳi/ ‘water’

/tu:ð/ ‘milk’

/rəkað/ ‘blood’

ii) Count Nouns:

Count nouns are those which can take some suffixes for indicating plurality.

/paɳɖu/ ‘fruit’

/kuttʊɽɔ̃:/ ‘dog’

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 /bəʧʧõ]/ ‘child’

Derived Nouns

In Kathodi by word formation rule some nouns are derived either from the verb
or adjective or from another noun. The derived nouns are formed in two ways:

i) By adding derivational suffix to other words;

ii) By compounding words.

Derived Nouns by adding derivational suffix

In Kathodi some nouns can be derived from the verb or from any other noun by the
addition of derivative suffixes.

Verb + noun forming suffix = Noun (verbal Noun)

/naʈətta/ ‘to run’ + ʃiɳ = / nəɽʃiɳ/ ‘running’

/kɔlɟiʃa:rʊ/ ’to bark’ + ro: =/ kuttʊro:/ ‘barking’

Derived nouns by Compounding:

A compound word is defined as the combination of two or more words to form a new
word, for example,

/ do:ɖa: / ‘horse’ + / bəɳɖi / ‘coach’ = /do:ɖa:bəɳɖi/ ‘horse coach’

/ səmən / ‘pan’ + /ʋɑ:ɭo:/ ’seller’ = /səmən ʋɑ:ɭo:/ ‘pan seller’

External Structure:

The Kathodi nouns are inflected for Gender, Number, and Case. This language has
three genders (i.e. masculine, feminine and neuter); and seven cases (nominative, accusative,
dative, ablative, genitive, locative and instrumental).The following description gives the
details of Kathodi gender- number-case system.

a) Number

This language has two ways number distinction, one is singular and another one is
plural. There is no singular marker but plural forms add to the noun ending / -ɑ:/ and - ɔ:/.

Singular Plural

/be:ʈʈɔ:/ ‘son’ / be:ʈʈɑ:/ ‘sons’

/pəʧʧɔ:/ ‘child’ /pəʧʧɑ:/ ‘children’

/ʤɑ:ʈ/ ‘tree’ /ʤɑ:ʈɑ:/ ‘trees’

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 /hɑ:t̪/ ‘hand’ / hɑ:t̪t̪ɑ:/ ‘hands’

/ɡu:ʈʊ/ ‘horse’ /ɡu:ʈɑ:/ ‘horses’

/puʃt̪ək/ ‘book’ /puʃt̪əkɑ:lʊ/ ‘books’

/ ɡər / ‘house’ /ɡərɔ:/ ‘houses’

b) Gender

Gender in Kathodi is grammatically determined by two ways – Masculine and

feminine. Most of the Arava nouns end in vowels. The final vowel gives a clue to the gender
of a particular noun. The masculine nouns tend to take /a/, /a:/ ending as opposed to feminine
nouns with /sə/ and /u:/ ending /. The word / bəʝĩ / is male, prefixed to show the masculine
gender, and / sirikki /indicates feminine gender as in /so:ɽo:/ ‘male’ , /so:ri/‘ ‘female’. Gender
here is natural, not grammatical.

Nouns are of masculine and feminine gender as exemplified in the following examples

Masculine Feminine

/poʈʈɔ̃:/ ‘boy’ /nilipɔʈʈi/ ‘girl’

/so:ɽo:/ ‘male’ /so:ri/ ‘female’

/ba:p/ ‘father’ /ma:i/ ‘mother’

/pe:ʈʈo/ ’son’ /pe:ʈʈi/ ‘daughter’

/na:tte/ ‘grandson’ /na:ttʊɳi/ ‘granddaughter’

/kiʈɖɔ̃:/ ‘dwarf (male)’ /kiʈɖi/ ‘dwarf (female)’

/ran̪t̪əb ɡərna:rʋəta:mu:ʃ/‘cook (male)’ /ran̪tə̪ bərna:rʋəta:mu:ʃ/‘cook female)’

/biŋɡiɭi/ ‘lean (man)’ /biŋɡʊɭɑ:/ ‘lean (woman)’

However, separate lexemes are also used to refer to gender distinction as we can see in
the following examples.

Masculine Feminine

/be:rumərəiʝi:lʋa:lɔ̃:/‘widower’ /rəmmʊɳɖɽa:n/ ‘widow’

/bəi:ʃ/ ‘buffalo (male)’ /bəi:ʃ/ ‘buffalo (female)’

Examples of common gender include

/a:ðɡɔ̃:bəʧʧõ:/ ‘baby’
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 /baʧʧo/ ‘child’

We can further classify Kathodi nouns denoting animate or non-animate, human or

non-human belonging to two genders -Masculine and Feminine.

Examples for Masculine Nouns

Animate and Human Animate and Non- Human Inanimate

/poʈʈɔ̃:/ ‘boy’ /bəi:ʃ/ buffalo (male)’ /ba:bʃa:/ ‘shoe’

/ba:p/ ‘father’ ------ /pa:iko:bɛɳʈa/ ‘trousers’

Examples for Feminine Nouns

Animate and Human Animate and Non- Human Inanimate

/nilipɔʈʈi/ ‘girl’ /so:ri/ (female)’

/lukʊɖɔ̃:/ ‘sari’ /əŋʈi/ ‘ring’

An interesting example of gender difference is observed in Kathodi in the compound

words where the second component of the word changes its gender naturally.

Base term /laɡiɳ/ ‘marriage’

Masculine /ləɡi:ɳ itani:ʃ suʋa:lo:/ ‘bachelor’

/nauro:/ ‘bridegroom’

Feminine /nauri/ ‘bride’

c) Case

Case is a grammatical category determined by the syntactic or semantic function of

a noun or pronoun. Like other languages, Kathodi also, semantic relation between a noun
phrase or subject and a predicate is expressed by the grammatical category of case in Kathodi
language can be

1. Nominative Case
2. Accusative Case
3. Dative Case
4. Instrumental Case
5. Ablative Case
6. Genitive Case
7. Locative Case

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Nominative Case

The nominative case generally marks the subject of a verb or the predicate noun or
predicate adjective which is either a noun or a pronoun. There is no marker /Ø/ used for
nominative case in this language.

/rɑ:mʊ səkkɑ:l əʋɑ: nəkkɑ:/ ‘Ramu will not come tomorrow’

/rɑ:mɑ: mərə pe:nɑ:nɛ ʤɑ:p lɪkkɛ/ ‘Ram wrote the letter with my pen’

/rɑ:m ʃɑ:m'kənɛ puʃt̪ək t̪ɪt̪e:/ ‘Ram gave the book to Shyam’

/[məhe:ʃ əmbɔ: kɑ:t̪e:/ ‘Mahesh ate the mango’

/mɑɪ ŋə ɑ:ʋʊʃɑ:/ ‘I come here’

/mɑɪ kərkkɛ ʤɑ:t̪ti̪ :ʃ/ ‘I go to the house’

/kut̪rɔ: mərə bɑ:ʤʊ kɑʊt̪t̪i:s/ ‘The dog came behind me’

In the above examples / rɑ:mʊ / ‘Ramu’, /rɑ:m/ ‘Ram’ / məɦe:ʃ / ‘Mahesh:’ /mɑɪ/ ‘i’
and /kut̪rɔ:/ ‘dog’are the subject in nominative case with no case marker attached. Thus, we see
here the nominative case marker is null or absent.

Accusative case

Accusative case is the case in nominative-accusative languages that marks certain

syntactic functions, usually direct objects. In Kathodi, the marker for Accusative is / ŋɡe:/,
/kke:/ and / rɔ:/.

/həme:/ /ɡa:ʝɔ:ŋɡe:/ /ma:ra:/ ‘We beat the cows’

/tiɳe/ /kəɭɭa:/ /siɖikke:/ /mərəɛʈʈi/ /ko:/ ‘He killed the bird yesterday’

/baʧʧa:/ /məʧʧilikka/ /baɡəɖaʝa/ ‘The children caught the fish’

/ʋe:ʈʈəi/kəlɳa:rɔ://ma:n/ /tɛbbaɡəɖe// ‘The hunter caught the deer’

Instrumental case

This case is used to denote instrument with which the action is performed. It is a case
indicating that the referent of the noun. In Kathodi, the marker is /- ɡu/, / kkʊ/, /ai/ and / kɛ /.

/paɖaɡu/ ɟɔlliɳa/ /pa:n̪ti̪ ra/ /karisa/ ‘The boat is tied to the shore with rope’

/ma:rɔ̃:/ /peɳa:kkʊ/ /lik/ ‘Write with my pen’

/bui/ /aɭɭəɳa/ /ɡəɽa:ʃi/ /bəɖi/ ‘Houses collapsed due to earthquake’

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 /ɟa:rkka/ /ɡɔ̃:ɖa:rukkʊ/ /kətək/ ‘The tree is cut with axe’

/ke:ʃa:ɳkke:/ /kəttirikko:li/ /ti:/ /kətək/ ‘The hair is cut with scissors’

/ɟəŋɡəɭa:l/ /ɟəliɟəliɳa/ /ai/ /eieiʝai/ ‘The forest is destroyed by fire’

/bəʧʧa:/ /məʧʧili/ /kəmbi/ /rakkila/ ‘The children caught the fish with fishing
/məʧʧila/ /baɡəɖa:/ rods’

/ ra:mu/ /məɽə/ /pe:ɳa:/ /rəkkiɳa/ /ləʈʈər/

‘Ram wrote the letter with my pen’
/like/

/ məɳu:ʃa/ /mɔʈʈu/ /ɟa:rkke/ /kɔɖa:rkki/

‘The big man cut the tree with the axe’
/kaðire /

/t̪ɪn kɑ:lɑ: ʧɪʈeŋ'kɛ mɑ:rɑ:jɛ/ ‘He killed the bird yesterday’

/t̪ɪn ʧɔʈʈɑ:nɛ sənd̪ɑɪnɛ pəkəʈɑ:/ ‘He caught the thief in market’

/pəʧʧɑ: məʧləŋ’kɛ pəkʈɑ:/ ‘he children caught the fish’

Dative case

The dative case designates the indirect object of a transitive verb. Nouns having the
role of recipient (as of things given), beneficiary of an action, or possessor of an item are
datives. The context plays a crucial factor in differentiating between dative and accusative.
In Kathodi language, the marker dative are /-kku/ .

/ma:ɽɔ̃:/ /ɡərukku/ /ɟa:/ ‘Go to my house’

/ maɽɔ̃:/ /be:ʈʈɔ̃:/ /iʃkkʊlukke:/ /ɟɛiʃ/ ‘My son has gone to the school’

/maɽɔ̃:/ /ɡərukku/ /ɟa:ʋ/ ‘Come to my house’

Instrumental case

The instrumental case is shown by postposition like /-nɛ/ .

Ablative Case

Ablative case is a case that expresses movement of the subject or the object from one
place to another either at the spatial plane or at the temporal plane is expressed by the ablative
case. In this Kathodi language ablative case marker is - / ɽɔ̃:/.

/ tiɳe/ /ma:ɽɔ̃:/ /ɟəɳɳəlti//eʈʈʊɭa:ŋɡʊ/ /bəɖiɡɔ̃:/ ‘He fell down from my window’.

(marker is /-ɡʊ /).

/ɟa:ruti/ /pa:ɳ/ /bəɖitti:ʃ/ ‘The leaves fall from the tree’

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 (marker is /- pa:ɳ/).

Genitive Case

Genitive case is a case in which the referent of the marked noun is the possessor of the
referent of another noun. This case expresses the meaning of belonging to or possession of
something by the subject. In Kathodi language, the Genitive case markers are /-kɔ:/ and / ɡɔ:/.

/ tikkõ: kəɽ / ‘His house’ (marker is /- kõ: /).

/ tikkõ: kəɽɽa: / ‘His houses’ (marker is /- kõ/).

/ tiŋɡɔ̃: bəʧʧa: / ‘Their son’ (marker is / -ɡɔ̃: /).

/ tikkɔ̃: tɔ:ɖa:/ ‘Her eyes’ (marker is /- kɔ̃:/).

However, another variety / - tu/ has been found in use of second person forms as in –

/ tuma:ro: kəɽ/ ‘Your (sg) house’ (marker is / - kəɽ)

/ tuma:ro: kəɽɽa:/ ‘Your (sg) houses’ (marker is / - ro:/

/ ma:ɽɔ̃: bəʧʧɔ̃:/ ‘My child’ (marker is / - ma:rə /

/ma:ɽɔ̃: a:tta:/ ‘My hands’ (marker is / - rɔ:/

This variation may occur because of phonological conditioning. But again, we see,

/ tuma:ɽɔ: tɔ:ɳ bʊʃtək/ ‘Two books of yours’, here /- tək/ is used

However, another variety / en / has been found in use of first person forms as in

/mərɔ pe:nɑ:nɛ li:k/ ‘write with my pen’

/mərɔ ɡərkkɛ ʤɑ:/ ‘go to my house’

/mərɔ ɡərkkɛ ɑ:ʋ/ ‘come to my house’

/mərɔ be:ʈʈɔ pəlʈʊmkkɛ ʤɑɪje:ʃ/ ‘my son has gone to the school’

/e: mərɔ: bɑ:k/ ‘this is my garden’

/mɑ:rɔ bɑɪnɔ ɲɑ:'ɑ:se:/ ‘my sisters are here’

/mərɔ: nɑ:ʋ nɑ:rɑ:jənən/ ‘my name is Narayan’

/mərɔ:bɑ:j t̪əʈɪkki:nɛ bəɖɪl/ ‘my foot slipped and I fell down’

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Locative Case

Locative case is a case that expresses location at the referent of the noun it marks. The
location of the subject or object is expressed by the locative case marker. In Kathodi, the
locative case markers are / ke:/, /- ɛn / or /- ɡiɽə/.

/məi/ (I) / san̪t̪əɡa/ (to the market) / Ɉa:ððɔ̃:ʃ/ (go) ‘I go to the market’. (marker is /-ɡa/.

/ me:ɟe obbər/ (table) /ubər/( Stand) ‘Stand on the table’ (marker is /- ɟe).

/ məi/ (I) / keɖa:ɳa: (in the village) / ʋa:ʧʧi ka:ttɔ̃:ʃ(live)/

‘I live in the village.’ (marker is /- ɳa:/.

c) Person

There are three persons in Kathodi language. They are: first person, second person,
and third person. For example,

All these persons have different concordial relationship with the verb, tense and moods.
Tense markers also change according to different persons (first person, second persons and
third persons).

Depending on the tense and moods these categorize are distinguished.

Person Singular Plural

First /məi/ ‘I’ /ame:/ ‘w e’

Second /tu:/ ‘you’ /tʊme: / ‘you’

Third /tiɳe/ /tiɳe/ /te:/ ‘/she//he/ /it/’ /tiɳɔ̃:/ ‘they’

The different concordial relationships are shown below-

First Person: [singular]

/məi san̪t̪əɡa Ɉa:ððɔ̃:ʃ/ ‘I go to the market’ (present tense)

/məi san̪t̪əɡe Ɉeʝe:/ ‘I went to the market’ (past tense)

First Person: [plural]

/ame: san̪t̪əɡa Ɉa:ðða:ʃ/ ‘We go to the market’ (present tense)

/həme: san̪t̪əɡe Ɉeʝa:ðða:/ ‘We went to the market’ (past tense)

/həme: san̪t̪əɡa Ɉa:ŋɡa:/ ‘We will go to the market’ (future tense)

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 Second Person: [singular]

/tu: san̪t̪əɡa Ɉa:ðða:ʃ/ ‘You (sg) go to the market’ (present tense)

/tu: san̪t̪əɡa Ɉa:ðði: Ɉɔ:/ ‘You (sg) went to the market’ (past tense)

Second Person: [plural]

/tʊme: san̪t̪əɡa Ɉa:ðða:ʃ/ ‘You (pl) go to the market’ (present tense)

/tu:me: san̪t̪əɡa Ɉa:kka:li ʝa:ʃ/ ‘You (pl) went to the market’ (past tense)

Third Person: [singular]

/tiɳɔ̃: san̪t̪əɡa Ɉa:ðða:ʃ/ ‘He goes to the market’ (present tense)

/tiɳe san̪t̪əɡa Ɉa:kkiði kõ:/ ‘He went to the market’ (past tense)

/tiɳe ʋəʝəlukke Ɉa:ʃiɳ/ ‘He will go to the field’ (future tense)

Third Person: [plural]

/tiɳɔ̃: san̪t̪əɡa Ɉa:ðða:ʃ/ ‘They (men) go to the market’(present tense)

/tiɳɔ̃: san̪t̪əɡa Ɉa:ðði: Ɉa:/ ‘They went to the market’ (past tense)

/tiɳɔ̃: Ɉəŋɡalukka Ɉa:ʃiɳ/ ‘They will go to the jungle’ (future tense)

4.1.3 Pronouns

A pronoun is a pro-form which functions like a noun and substitutes for a noun or noun
phrase. Pronouns can take number, gender and case markers like the noun. A language may
have several classes of pronouns. The Kathodi dialect has the following types of pronouns.

1. Personal Pronouns
2. Demonstrative Pronoun
3. Reflexive Pronoun
4. Interrogative Pronoun
5. Indefinite Pronoun

Personal Pronouns

Personal pronouns are pronouns used as alternates for proper or common nouns. The
personal pronouns are categorized into three persons (1st, 2nd and 3rd).

Person Singular Plural

First /məi/ ‘I’ /həme:/ ‘we’

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 Second /tu:/ ‘you’ /tʊme:/ ‘you’

Third /tiɳɔ̃:/,/tiɳɔ̃:/,/te:/ ‘he/she/’/it/ /tiɳɔ̃: / ‘they’

Demonstrative Pronoun

Demonstratives are deictic word that specify which entities a speaker refers to and
differentiates those from others. The demonstrative pronoun in Kathodi l a n g u a g e can
be described in a two-tier system by taking the spatial distance into account like

i) Proximate demonstrative pronoun referring to the objects nearer to the speaker,

ii) ii) Remote demonstrative pronoun that refers to the objects away from the speaker.

Again, the demonstrative pronoun can be distinguished by two-tier numbers also like

i) Singular

ii) Plural

Proximate Remote
Singular / te/ ‘this’ / te:/ ‘that’
Plural /te:ʃəbi/ ‘these’ /te:/ ‘those’

This- /e: ɟuməɳ ɡərəʃa ma:lɳəi/ ‘This is not edible’ [marker is e:]

That- / e: məɳu ɟa:ɖaʃa / ‘That man is fat’ [marker is ɳu]

These- /e: sɔkkɔ̃: iʃʈɔ̃: nəmme:/ ‘These are not good words [marker is me:]

Those - / te: bɔʈʈe: ləi ʃa:ʧ / ‘Those girls are beautiful’ [marker is te:]

We can also classify Kathodi demonstrative pronouns in terms of distance as

Proximate Remote

/ na: / ‘ here ‘ /ta:/ ‘there’

Here -

/ məi na: auʃ/ ‘I come here’

/həme:na: auðða:ʃ/ ‘We come here’
/tu: na: auʋ/ ‘You (sg.) come here’
/tume: na: auɔ̃:/ ‘You (pl.) come here’

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 /tiɳɔ̃: na: auðða:ʃ ‘He comes here’
/tiɳɔ̃: na: auððaʃ/ ‘She comes here’

There –

/ Ɉəɳ ta: Ɉa:ðða:ʃ/ ‘All people go there’

Reflexive Pronoun

A reflexive pronoun is a pronoun that is preceded by the noun to which it refers (its
antecedent) within the same clause. A reflexive pronoun is an anaphor that must be bound
by its antecedent in its local domain. In Kathodi language, reflexive pronouns are:

Pronoun Singular Plural

First /kəre:/ (myself) /ɟɛʝa:/ (ourselves)

Second /əira/ (youself) ----- (you all)

Third /uʧʧiɭe:/ (herself) /pa:n̪t̪il da:/ /themselves/

ʋa:ʧʧiltɔ̃: (himself)

[mariɡi] (itself)

First person singular - /məiʃ ka:tta:ɖi kəre:/ ‘I made the kite myself’

First person plural- /ame:ʃ ʃa: ɟɛʝa:/ ‘We went there ourselves’

Second person singular- /tərɔ̃: ka:ppu:ɖaɡa tu:ð təira/ ‘You wash the clothes yourself’

Third person singular /aɳɖiɡa tiɳa uʧʧiɭe:/ ‘She lifted the pot herself’

/tikɔ̃: ʋa:ʧʧiɳɔ: tiɳe:ʃ ʋa:ʧʧiltɔ̃:/ ‘He studied the lessons himself’

/tɛððe:ʃ mari ɡi/ ‘It died by itself’

Third person plural /tiɳɔ̃:ʃ siŋɡe həɽa: pa:n̪t̪il da: / ’They built the house themselves’

Interrogative Pronoun

An interrogative prono un i s us e d i n questions to s t a n d f o r t he i t em questioned.

The Interrogative pronouns in Kathodi language can be classified into personal and
impersonal forms with examples as-

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 who, whom (personal)

what, which (impersonal)

Personal Forms

/ kɔ:ɳ tiɳa/ ‘Who is he?’

/ uŋɡɔ: ɡɔ:ɽə te:/ ‘Whose horse is that?’

Impersonal Forms

/ tu: ka:i həððɔ:li kɔ:ʃ/ ‘What do you eat?’

/ ka: tɔ:ɽə baʧʧa:/ ‘Where are your children?’

/ tu: kɔ:ɳ ɡəita bəɡəɖa: ɟa:ʃ/ ‘Which train will you get?’

Indefinite Pronoun

The pronouns which denote some non-definite person or thing instead of definite
person or thing are called Indefinite pronouns. The examples of indefinite pronoun in
Kathodi are –

Indefinite Pronoun (Singular)

Anybody: / kɔ̃:ɳ otʊkkɔ̃: təbi e: ka:m kaɽa: ɔʃiɳ/ ‘Anybody can do this work’

Anyone: /tʊma:rɳa kɔ:ððiʝa e: maɳu:ɟu e:ta:m ɡəɽã: ɔʃiɳ/

‘Anyone among you can do this work’

Everybody: / ʃəbbi ɟəɳa:bi mi:ʈʈiŋɡʊ auɳɔ̃:/ ‘Everybody has to come for the meeting’

Everyone: /tiɳɔ̃: ʃəbi Ɉəɳa:bi Ɉa:ðða:ʃ/ ‘Everyone went here’

Everything: /ʃəbbi ɡəma:ʈʈi ɡɔ̃:/ ‘Everything is lost’

No one: / e: tɔɳɖa:kkiʝa kɔ:ɳbi uʧʧiɭa: ɔ:ɳa:/‘No one can lift this stone’

None: /tiɳɔ̃: kɔ:ɳbi e: ləkkiɳ ka:ʝa:ɳi/ ‘None of them came for this marriage’

4.1.4 Adjectives

An adjective is a word that belongs to a class whose members modify nouns. An

adjective specifies the properties or attributes of a noun referent. In this language
adjectives occur before noun and remain unchanged for any change in gender and
number.

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Attributive adjectives - These are noun phrase headed by the modifier of noun.

/ sɔkɔ̃:r bɔʈʈɔ̃:/ ‘the good boy’

/ sɔkɔ̃:r bɔʈʈi/ ‘the good girl’

/ sɔkɔ̃:r bəʧʧɔ̃:/ ‘the good child’

/ sɔkɔ̃:r bɛɖa:ʃ/ ‘the good boys’

/ sɔkɔ̃:r bɛʈəs/ ‘the good girls’

/sɔkɔ:ɖu bəʧʧa:/ ‘the good children’

‘/ nəllɔ̃: bəʧʧɔ̃:/ ‘the small child’

/ nəllɔ̃: bəʧʧa:/ ‘the small children’

/ mɔʈʈɔ̃: bʊʃtək / ‘the big book’

/ mɔʈʈɔ̃: bʊʃta kaɭa:/ ‘the big books’

/ uɈiɭo hɔ:ɽɔ:/ ‘the white horse’

/uɈiɭo hɔ:ɖa:/ ‘the white horses’

/mɔʈʈo Ɉa:r/ ‘the large tree’

/mɔʈʈo Ɉa:ɖa:/ ‘the large trees’

/ bʊʈʃɔ: ha:ð/ ‘dirty hand’

/ mɔʈʈa: bʊʈʈe:/ ‘big baskets’

Predicative adjectives- These are linked via a copula or other connecting device to the
noun or pronoun they modify.

For example:

/ te te: məɳʃa: lei kaʈʈʊʋa:ɳa:/ ‘Those men are strong’

/ te: bɔʈʈi pɔ:ɖi/ ‘That girl is deaf’

/ te: bɔʈʈe: ləi ʃa:ʧ/ ‘Those girls are beautiful’

4.1.5 Numerals

Kathodi language exhibits numerals of both the Cardinal and the ordinal type:

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 Cardinal Numerals

One /e:k/

Two /dɔ̃:/

Three /ṯi:ɳ/

Four / ʧa:/

Five / ba:ʧ/

Six / se:/

Seven /ʃa:ð/

eiɡht /a:/

Nine / nauʋ/

Ten /daʃ/

Eleven /aɡɡɛɖã:/

Twelve /pa:rã:/

Thirteen /te:rã:/

fourteen /ʃauta:/

fifteen / ban̪t̪ura:/

sixteen /so:ɭa:/

seventeen / saððʊra:/

eiɡhteen /aʈʈura:/

nineteen / ekkʊʋɔnʋi:ʃ/

twenty /pi:ʃ/

Ordinal Numerals: Ordinals are formed by adding inflectional suffixes /-a/

to the cardinals. For example, y following ways, e.g.

/paʃʈa/ ‘first’

/dɔ:nʋɔ:/ ‘second’

/ ṯi:ʋɔ:/ ‘third’

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 Fractions: Fractions are formed b

half /aɼdɔ̃:/

two and a half /aɖəi/

one nd a quarter /ʃəʋa:/

quarter /pa:ʋ/

Formation of Numerals

/e:k/ ‘one’

/dɔ̃:/ ‘two’

/ṯi:ɳ/ ‘three’

/ʧa:/ ‘four’

/ba:ʧ/ ‘five’

/[se:/ ‘six’

/ʃa:ð/ ‘seven’

/a:t/ ‘eiɡht’

/nauʋ/ ‘nine’

/daʃ/ ‘ten’

/aɡɡɛɖã:/ ‘eleven’

/pa:rã:/ ‘twelve’

/te:rã:/ ‘thirteen’

/ʃauta:/ ‘fourteen’

/ban̪tu̪ ra:/ ‘fifteen’

/so:ɭa:/ ‘sixteen’

/saððʊra:/ ‘seventeen’

/aʈʈura:/ ‘eiɡhteen’

/ekkʊʋɔnʋi:ʃ/ ‘nineteen’

/pi:ʃ/ ‘twenty’

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 /ettʊʋi:t/ ‘twenty one’

/ba:ʋi:t/ ‘twenty two’

/paʧʧi:ʃ/ ‘twenty five’

/bi:bərnau/ ‘twenty nine’

/ti:ʃbəre:k/ ‘thirty one’

/bən̪ti̪ :ʃ/ ‘thirty five’

/ṯiɳʃbərnau/ ‘thirty nine’

/ʧa:liʃbəre:k/ ‘forty one’

/ʧa:liʃbərdɔ:n/ ‘forty two’

/ʧa:liʃbərpa:ʧ/ ‘forty five’

/ʧa:liʃbərnɔʋ/ ‘forty nine’

/baʧʧa:ʃbəre:k/ ‘fifty one’

/baʧʧa:ʃbərpa:ʧ/ ‘fifty five’

/baʧʧa:ʃbərnɔʋ/ ‘fifty nine’

/ʃa:kbəre:k/ ‘sixty one’

/ʃa:rbərba:ʧ/ ‘sixty five’

/ʃa:rbərnau/ ‘sixty nine’

/ʃaððərbəre:k/ ‘seventy one’

/ʃaððərbərba:ʧ/ ‘seventy five’

/ʃaððərbərnaũ/ ‘seventy nine’

4.1.6 Classifiers

The classifiers /Ɉən / is also used to denote singularity. [Ɉən] is sometimes used to denote
multiple.

/Ɉəɳ ta: Ɉa:ðða:ʃ/ ’The people go there’

4.2 Verb Morphology

A verb is a class of words which shows events and actions. Verb is a form class that
marks tense – aspect – modal – personal markers distinguished by number and gender. Verb

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Morphology deals with the forms and classification of verbs, and their pattern in association
etc. Verb is a form class that marks tense – aspect – modal – personal markers distinguished
by number and gender. In in inflectional languages, verbs may be inflected for tense, aspect,
and voice, and modality, agreement with other constituents in terms of person, number and
grammatical gender. Verb Morphology deals with the forms and classification of verbs, and
their pattern in association etc.

4.2.1 Verb:

Types of verb:

A verb denotes action. Different types of actions from the provided data are given
below.

a) Physical Activity Verbs:

List of different physical activity verb from the provided data is given below.

/a:ʈkərəʃər/ to act (take part in a drama

/uppʊra:ŋɡuppʊra:ŋɡha:ʈʈaʃər/ to arranɡe (put thinɡs in order)

/arto:karaʃər/ to bark (as a doɡ)

/ma:rəʃa/ to beat (somebody)

/ʋəɭəiʋʊkəraʃər/ to bend (stick)

/miɭa:ʋəʃər/ to bind

/ʃa:ʋəʃa/ to bite

/bʊkkʊaʃa/ to blow (with the mouth)

/tɔɳɖikərasa/ to bore (a hole)

/ma:ttɔ̃:utta:riɳapo:ɡəpaɖəʃər/ to bow (bend the body)

/pire:ʈʈʊaʋəsa/ to break (stick)

/tɔ:ʈəsa/ to break ( a pot)

/mɛməɳpo:ʧʧəsa/ to bury ( a dead body)

/kəlliɈəʃa/ ‘to carry (in hand)’

/upparuʧʧiɳaɡəlliɈa:ʃər/ ‘to carry ( on shoulder/ head)’

/pɔrirakinai:maɳuʃtəbəɡəɖəsa/ ‘to catch (an animal in a trap)’

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 /na:ʈʈiɳabəɡəɖəsa/ ‘to catch (chase and catch)’

/a:ðma:rəsa/ ‘to clap (the hands)’

/kilinkarəsa/ ‘to clean’

/mu:Ɉbɔləsa/ ‘to close (a baɡ)’

/miɭa:ʋəsa/ ‘to collect (scattered thinɡ)’

/muʧʧira:kasa/ ‘to cover’

/baʧʧa:ɳa:ʧa:ɭəsa/ ‘to crawl (as a baby)’

/ʃa:ʧɡərasa/ ‘to decorate’

/eɡɡʊɳa:ɡəra:bɡərasa/ ‘to demolish, wreck’

b ) Instrument Verbs:
List of different instrument verb from the provided data is given below.

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/eʈʈʊɭa:ŋɡuttarasa/ ‘to aliɡht’ ( as a bird or butterfly)

/bəita:o:sa/ ‘to appear’ (come into siɡht)

/ainabɔʧʧasa/ ‘to arrive’ (at a place)

/maɭeʧaʈasa/ ‘to ascend, climb’ (a hill)

/kəlliaʋəsa/ ‘to brinɡ’(somethinɡ to a place)

/ɈɛiɈɛibəɡəɖəsa/ ‘to chase’ (pursue with intent to catch)

/aʋʋa:Ɉa:sar/ ‘to come’

/pa:Ɉu:Ɉa:ððurəsa/ ‘to crinɡe’ (draw back in fear)

/takkiliɈa:sa/ ‘to cross, ɡo across’

/oðʊrəsa/ ‘to descend’ (climb down)

/da:rɈa:sər/ ‘to disappear’

/aɭəkkʊaɭəki:a:sa/ ‘to disperse’ (ɡo away from beinɡ toɡether)

/kiʧʧəsa/ ‘to draɡ’ (a heavy object)

/pa:ɳiha:ɖəsa/ ‘to draw’ (water)

/ɡa:birasa/ ‘to drive' (cattle or other animals)

/pa:ɳinəbaɖiʝa:sa/ ‘to drown’

/ɡuʃasa/ ‘to enter, ɡo in’

/tabbiɈa:sa/ ‘to escap’ (from a pursuer)

/eʈʈuɭa:ŋɡʊbəɖiʝa:sa/ ‘to fall down’

/ba:ɈʊɈa:sa/ ‘to follow’ ( a person)

/kɔɳərəsa/ ‘to fetch water’ (ɡo and ɡet)

/biɽã:ʋəsa/ ‘to fill ‘( a jar with water)

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 /miðəkkasa/ ‘to float’

/obbʊɽa:ŋɡʊba:iʧəsa/ ‘to flow’

/uʈəsa/ ‘to fly ‘(as a bird)

/le:sa/ ‘to ɡet’ (come and ɡet)

/uʈʈətta/ ‘to ɡet up’ (arise)

/te:sa/ ‘to ɡive’

/Ɉa:sa/ ‘to ɡo’

/pirinəiɈa:sa/ ‘to ɡo around’

/bɑ:rɈa:sa/ ‘to ɡo out of (a house)’

c) Verbs of fighting:

List of different verbs of fighting from the provided data is given below.

/ma:ra:sa/ ‘to attack’

/laɖaiʝinahəliʈʈʊaʋasa/ ‘to defeat’

/məɳu:ʃma:ranəiʧʧukkʊtɛkʊlɛsar/ ‘to defend’

/le:ɖa:ihərilɛsar/ ‘to fiɡht (with each other)’

/məɳu:ʃɡabəɡəlle:sar/ ‘to ɡrab’

/ma:rbaɖəsa/ ‘to injure ‘( a person)

/marəiʝaʈʈʊaʋəsa/ ‘to kill’

/tɔ:ɭehəʈʈʊaʋəsa/ ‘to pierce’

/ʋəmbʊləre:kəre:sa/ ‘to quarrel’

/sɔðaɳa:kərəsa/ ‘to raid’

/suriʧʧiʃitɔʧʧəsa/ ‘to stab’

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 /ɡəɭɔ:baɡəʈasa/ ‘to strangle (kill by stranɡlinɡ)’

/Ɉɔ:rma:rasa/ ‘to strike’

/dərtəka:ɖəsar/ ‘to threaten’

/sittura:karəsa/ ‘to torture’

/eɡɡʊke:lnaɈeisasa/ ‘to win’

e) Motion Verbs:

List of different motion verb from the provided data is given below.

e) Occupational Verbs:

/rəŋkɑ:lət̪t̪ər/ ‘to brew’ (beer)

/bɪlɖɪŋpənt̪ət̪tə̪ r/ ‘to build ‘( a house)

/pəʈəmʋərəɲʧət̪tə̪ r/ ‘to carve’ (a figure)

/sud̪d̪əkərt̪t̪ər/ ‘to clean’

/ʋɑ:mʋəsulkərt̪tə̪ r/ ‘to collect’ (debts)

/pɪlət̪tə̪ r/ ‘to crush’(oil seeds)

/ʋəʈɑ:ʈət̪t̪ər/ ‘to cultivate’ (tend crop)

/sumɑ:r'ɔt̪t̪ər/ ‘to cure ‘(an illness)

/ke:sɑ:kət̪rət̪tə̪ r/ ‘to cut’ (hair)

/nɔɳʈət̪t̪ər/ ‘to dig up’ (root crops)

/rəŋkɑ:lət̪t̪ər/ ‘to dye’ (cloth)

/ʤu:t̪kələt̪t̪ər/ ‘to gamble’

/mæʧʧət̪t̪ər/ ‘to graze ‘(the cattle)

/rubbət̪t̪ər/ ‘to grind’ (grain)

/bət̪rəmkərt̪t̪ər/ ‘to guard’

/ərʋəʈɑɪkərt̪t̪ər/ ‘to harvest’

/pɑ:ʃnəmkərt̪t̪ər/ ‘to irrigate’ (crops)

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 /t̪ɪrppʊ't̪e:t̪t̪ər/ ‘to judge’

/ʋɑ:m't̪e:t̪t̪ər/ ‘to lend’

/meʤɪni'kəʈət̪t̪ər/ ‘to measure’ (volume)

/nəʋʋɔ'kərt̪t̪ər/ ‘to mend ‘a shoe)

/d̪u:t̪pɪlət̪t̪ər/ ‘to milk ‘(a cow)

f) Culinary Verbs:

/uhɑ:lə'rəhət̪t̪əl/ ‘to boil ‘

/ʧɪʧɑ:kə'rəhət̪tə̪ l/ ‘to boil ‘(a method of cooking)

/ʧɑ:ʋət̪tə̪ r/ ‘to chew’ (to food)

/kət̪rət̪ / ‘to chop’

/nənd̪ə'pərət̪t̪ər/ ‘to cook’

/pe:ʃt̪ər/ ‘to drink’

/kɑ:ʃt̪ər/ ‘to eat’

/ʤʊmɑ:ʈət̪t̪ər/ ‘to feed’

/t̪ələt̪tə̪ r/ ‘to fry’ (deep, shallow)

/ərʧət̪tə̪ r/ ‘to grind’

/kələkkət̪tə̪ r/ ‘to mix’

/se:kkət̪t̪ər/ ‘to roast’

/d̪uɳɖət̪t̪ər/ ‘to search’ (food while moving)

/səʋɑ:t̪t̪ɛhət̪t̪ər/ ‘to season’(add spice)

/pʊknɪ'kərət̪t̪ər/ ‘to smash’

/kələkkʊt̪əl/ ‘to stir ‘(while cooking)

/səʋɑ:t̪t̪ɛhət̪t̪ər/ ‘to taste ‘(eat a sample)

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g) Cosmetic Verbs

/mɑ:t̪tə̪ ɔlət̪t̪ər/ ‘to comb’ (hair)

/kɑ:pʈɑ:pɛrət̪t̪ər/ ‘to put on’ (ornaments, shoes)

/ʧɔʈət̪tə̪ r/ ‘to take off’ (clothing)

/e:ni kələt̪t̪ər/ ‘to tie ‘(hair)

/kɑ:pʈɑ:'pɛrət̪t̪ər/ ‘to wear’ (clothing)

h) Communication Verbs

/ʤəbɑ:p't̪e:t̪t̪ər/ ‘to answer’

/ke:lʋɪ'ekkət̪t̪ər/ ‘to ask’ (to question)

/ɔ:nəpənnɪnə'ekkət̪tə̪ r/ ‘to ask for, some thing’

/bəlɑ:ʋət̪tə̪ r/ ‘to call’

/əd̪ɪkɑ:r'kərət̪t̪ər/ ‘to command’ (order some)

/puhɑ:r'kərət̪tə̪ r/ ‘to complain’

/kərɔ'kərət̪t̪ər/ ‘to confirm ‘

/nɑɪbɔlət̪tə̪ r/ ‘to deny’

/t̪elɪʋbər'bɔlət̪tə̪ r/ ‘to describe’

/mileɪnɛ'ɔʧɪn 'kərət̪t̪ər/ ‘to discuss’

j) Cognitive Verbs

/nəmbət̪t̪ər/ ‘to believe’

/meʤət̪tə̪ r/ ‘to count’

/muʈɪʋʊ'kərət̪t̪ər/ ‘to decide’

/səbnəmbɑ:ʈət̪tə̪ r/ ‘to dream’

/rɑ:t̪ɪʃjɑ:t̪tə̪ r/ ‘to forget’

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 /əsɑ:'pəʈət̪tə̪ r/ ‘to imagine’

/ʧuppəʈət̪tə̪ r/ ‘to know’

/ʋɑ:ʧʧət̪t̪ər/ ‘to learn’

/t̪ɪrppɪ'ɔ:t̪tə̪ r/ ‘to satiate,to satisfy’

/sɪkkət̪t̪ər/ ‘to study’

/jɔ:ʧʧən'kərət̪tə̪ r/ ‘to think’

/kələt̪t̪ər/ ‘to understand’

/lɪk'kət̪t̪ər/ ‘to write’

i) Sensory verbs

/d̪ɑ:ppə'ʧɔʈət̪tə̪ r/ ‘to breath’

/ʧɔkkələt̪t̪ər/ ‘to cough’

/ləʈət̪tə̪ r/ ‘to cry’ (weep)

/mɑɪkkɔm'ɔ:t̪t̪ər/ ‘to faint’

/t̪ərbəʈət̪t̪ər/ ‘to fear’

/kələt̪t̪ər/ ‘to feel’

/e:kkət̪t̪ər/ ‘to hear’

/ɑ:ʃət̪t̪ər/ ‘to laugh’

/d̪e:kkət̪t̪ər/ ‘to look’

/ʋɑ:ʧʧət̪t̪ər/ ‘to read’

/jɑ:t̪kərət̪t̪ər/ ‘to remember’

/̪e:kkət̪t̪ər/ ‘to see’

/su:rət̪tə̪ r/ ‘to sleep’

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 Emotive Verbs

/rɑ:k əʋɑ:rəkkət̪t̪ər/ ‘to annoy’

/ʋerbʊ əʋɑ:rəkkət̪t̪ər/ ‘to dislike’

/me:ɻət̪tə̪ r/ ‘to embrace’ (each other)

/rɑ:kpəʈət̪tə̪ r/ ‘to get angry’

/ʋert̪tɪ̪ 'ʤɑ:t̪t̪ər/ ‘to hate’

/ʧʊmmɑ:t̪e:t̪t̪ər/ ‘to kiss’

/əʃɑ:bəʈət̪t̪ər/ ‘o like’

/lɔʊkərət̪t̪ər/ ‘to love’

ʋt̪ʊnɑ:bəʈət̪tə̪ r/ ‘to mourn’

/t̪əʈ'bəʈət̪t̪ər/ ‘to pain’

Classification of Verb:

The Kathodi verb stems can be classified into simple and compound verbs.

a) Simple Verb:

A simple verb is composed of monomorphic single root with or without a

suffix. The verb is conjugated with aspect - gender – number – personal markers. The
conjugational pattern of vowel ending and consonant ending verb roots are given below.

/ɟa:ððɔ̃:ʃ/ ‘go’

/ Ɉa: tɔ:ʃ/ ‘go’ (1st person) /məi (I) /ɟa:ððɔ̃:ʃ/(go)/ ‘I go’

/ ɟa:tti:ʃ/‘ ‘go’ (2nd person) / tu:/ (you. sg) / ɟa:tti:ʃ/‘(go)/ ‘You (sg) go’

/ Ɉa:ðða:ʃ/ ‘go’ (3rd person) / tiɳɔ̃:/(he) / Ɉa:ðða:ʃ/(go)/ ‘He goes’

/ Ɉeʝe:/ ‘went (1st person sg) / məi/ (I) / Ɉeʝe:/ ‘I went’

/ Ɉa:ðði: Ɉɔ:/ ‘went’ (2nd person) / tu:/ (you sg.) / Ɉa:ðði: Ɉɔ: / ‘You went’

/ Ɉa:kkiði kõ:/ ‘went’ (3rd person) /tiɳe/ (he) / Ɉa:kkiði kõ: / (went)/ ‘He went’

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 b) Compound Verb:

A Compound verb consists of more than one root and may include one or more
suffixes.

Compound Verb with root /- ka:li/

/ ka:li/ ‘empty’ + / kərəsa/ ‘to ’ = /ka:likərəsa/ ‘to empty (a jar)’

Compound Verb with root

/pa:iṯima:ɽəsa/ ‘to kick’

Inflection of Verb:

The verbs in Kathodi language can be studied with respect to their transitivity,
Finiteness, non-finiteness, negation, Causativization and Passivization.

Transitivity

The number of arguments that a verb takes is called its transitivity. Based on

Transitivity the verb stems can be further divided into three sub-classes. These are

1. Intransitive

2. Transitive

1. Intransitive: The verbs which do not take any object. Examples of Intransitive verbs are

/ ɟa:ððɔ̃:ʃ/ ‘go’ / arto:/ ‘bark’etc

The examples of Intransitive verbal formation are:

/ karaʃər/ (dog) /arto:karaʃər/ (barks)/ ‘The dog barks’

2. Transitive: The verbs which take an object. The examples of transitive verbs are:

/ma:rəʃa/ ‘beat’ /de:kkasa/ ‘see’

The examples of Transitive verbal formation are:

/ həme: ɡa:ʝɔ:ŋɡe: ma:ra:/ ‘we beat the cow’

/ tiɳe siɖikke: te:kki:/ ‘she saw the bird’

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 3. Ditransitive: The verb has a subject, a direct object, and an indirect object. E.g.

/ bəisɔ̃: /‘give’

/ bəisɔ̃: ɡəʋərməɳɖa: ɡəriba:ŋɡa tɛðða:ʃ/ ‘Money was given by the Govt. to the poor’

4.2.1.1 Finite Verb

A finite verb is a verb form that which occurs in an independent clause and is fully
inflected according to the inflectional categories marked on verbs in the language.

The formations of the verb / Ɉa:sa/ ‘to go’ for three different persons and different
tenses are given below.

Tense: Accordingly, verbs in Kathodi morphologically marked for having three way
opposition of tense as

1. Present Tense

2. Past Tense

3. Future Tense

Following are the person wise tense formations in Kathodi taking / Ɉa:sa/ ‘go’ as the
model verb root.

Present indefinite Tense

Person Singular Verb form Plural Verb form

First / məi / (I) / Ɉa:ððɔ̃:ʃ/ / ame:/ (we) / Ɉa:ðða:ʃ/

Second / tu:/(you) sg / Ɉa:ðða:ʃ/ / tʊme /(you pl) / Ɉa:ðða:ʃ /

Third /tiɳɔ̃/ /tiɳɔ̃:// tiɳa/ /he/she/it’ / Ɉa:ðða:ʃ/ / tiɳɔ̃: / ‘they’ /Ɉa:ðða:ʃ/

/ Ɉa:ðða:ʃ/

/ Ɉa:ðði:ʃ/

/ məi san̪tə̪ ɡa Ɉa:ððɔ̃:ʃ/ ‘I go to the market’

/ame: san̪t̪əɡa Ɉa:ðða:ʃ/ ‘We go to the market’

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 /ame: tɔ̃:ɳ Ɉaɳa:bi san̪t̪əɡa Ɉa:ðða:ʃ/’ ‘We (two) go to the market’

/tu: san̪tə̪ ɡa Ɉa:ðða:ʃ/ ‘You (sg) go to the market’

/ tʊme: san̪tə̪ ɡa Ɉa:ðða:ʃ/ ‘You (pl) go to the market’

/tiɳɔ̃: san̪tə̪ ɡa Ɉa:ðða:ʃ/ ‘He goes to the market’

/tiɳɔ̃: san̪tə̪ ɡa Ɉa:ðða:ʃ/ ‘She goes to the market’

/ tiɳa san̪t̪əɡa Ɉa:ðði:ʃ/’ ‘It goes to the market’

/tiɳɔ̃: san̪tə̪ ɡa Ɉa:ðða:ʃ/ ‘They (men) go to the market’

/tiɳɔ̃: san̪tə̪ ɡa Ɉa:ðða:ʃ/ ‘They (women) go to the market’’

/tiɳɔ̃: tɔ̃:ɳ Ɉaɳa:bi an̪tə̪ ɡa Ɉa:ðða:ʃ/ ‘They (two) go to the market’

Past indefinite Tense

Person Singular Verb form Plural Verb form

First / məi / (I) / Ɉeʝe:/ / tu:me:/ (we) /Ɉeʝa:ðða:/

Second / tu:/ (you) sg /Ɉɔ:/ / tu:me:/(you pl) / ʝa:ʃ/

Third / tiɳe/ / tiɳe/ /Ɉa:kkiðikõ:/ / tiɳɔ̃: / ‘they’ / Ɉa:ðði:Ɉa:/

/he/she/’ /Ɉa:ððiɈi:/

/məi san̪tə̪ ɡe Ɉeʝe:/ ‘I went to the market’

/ həme: san̪tə̪ ɡe Ɉeʝa:ðða:/ ‘We went to the market’

/həme: tɔ̃:ɳ Ɉəɳa:bi san̪t̪əɡe Ɉeʝa:/ ‘We (two) went to the market’

/tu: san̪tə̪ ɡa Ɉa:ðði: Ɉɔ:/ ‘You(sg) went to the market’

/ tu:me: san̪tə̪ ɡa Ɉa:kka:li ʝa:ʃ/ ‘You(pl) went to the market’

/ tiɳe san̪t̪əɡa Ɉa:kkiði kõ:/ ‘He went to the market’

/tiɳe san̪t̪əɡa Ɉa:ðði Ɉi:/ ‘She went to the market’

/tiɳɔ̃:san̪tə̪ ɡa Ɉa:ðði: Ɉa:/ ‘They went to the market’

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 Simple Future Tense

Person Singular Verb form Plural Verb form

First / məi / (I) / Ɉɛi:ʃ/ /həme:/ (we) /Ɉa:ŋɡa:/

Second / tu:/ (you) sg / Ɉɛiʝi:ʃ/ /tʊme:/ (you pl) / Ɉa:ŋɡa:/

Third /tiɳe/ /tiɳa/ /te:/ / Ɉa:ʃiɳ / /tiɳɔ̃: / ‘they’ / Ɉa:ʃiɳ /

he/she/it’ / Ɉa:ʃiɳ /

/ Ɉa:ʃiɳ /

/ məi san̪tə̪ ɡa Ɉɛi:ʃ/ I will go to the market

/həme: san̪t̪əɡa Ɉa:ŋɡa:/ We will go to the market

/həme: tɔ̃:ɳ Ɉəɳa:bi san̪tə̪ ɡe Ɉa:ðða:ʃ/ We (two) will go to the market

/tu: u:lkka Ɉɛiʝi:ʃ/ You(sg) will go to the school

/tʊme: ʃu:lkka Ɉa:ŋɡa:/ You(pl) will go to the school

/tiɳe ʋəʝəlukke Ɉa:ʃiɳ/ He will go to the field

/tiɳa ʋəʝəlukke Ɉa:ʃiɳ/ She will go to the field

/te: san̪tə̪ ɡa Ɉa:ʃiɳ/ It will go to the market

/tiɳɔ̃: Ɉəŋɡalukka Ɉa:ʃiɳ/ They will go to the jungle

/tiɳɔ̃: tɔ̃:ɳ Ɉəɳa:bi Ɉəŋɡalukka Ɉa:ʃiɳ/ They (two) will go to the jungle

Aspect

Aspect is a grammatical category associated with verbs and expresses a temporal view
of the event or state expressed by the verb. Aspectual information is related with duration,
perfection, habitually etc. The Kathodi language has three aspects interpreted in different
tenses. These are –

i. Imperfective Aspect

ii. perfective Aspect

iii. Habitual Aspect

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 i) Imperfective Aspect

Imperfective aspect is an aspect that expresses an event or state, with respect to

its internal structure, instead of expressing it as a simple whole. It depicts an action

Present continuous markers for different persons for the verb are –

Present Imperfective Aspect

Person Singular Verb form Plural Verb form

First / məi / (I) / Ɉa: tɔ̃:ʃ / / həme:/ (we) / Ɉa: da:ʃ/

Second / tu:/ (you) sg / Ɉa: tɔ̃:ʃ/ / tʊme:/ (you pl) /Ɉa: da:ʃ/
Third /tiɳe//tiɳe/ /te:/ /Ɉa:tɔ̃:ʃ/ Ɉa: ti:ʃ/ /Ɉa: / tiɳɔ̃:/ ‘they’ / Ɉa: da:ʃ/
he/she/it’ ti:ʃ/

/ məi san̪t̪əɡa Ɉa: tɔ̃:ʃ/ ‘I am going to the market’

/həme: san̪t̪əɡa Ɉa: da:ʃ] ‘We are going to the market’

/ həme: tɔ̃:ɳ Ɉəɳa:bi san̪t̪əɡa Ɉa: da:ʃ/ ‘We (two) are going to the market’

/tu: san̪t̪əɡa Ɉa: tɔ̃:ʃ/ ‘You(sg) are going to the market’

/tʊme: san̪t̪əɡa a: da:ʃ/ ‘You(pl) are going to the market’

/ tiɳe san̪tə̪ ɡa Ɉa: tɔ̃:ʃ] ‘He is going to the market’

/tiɳe san̪tə̪ ɡa Ɉa: ti:ʃ/ ‘She is going to the market’

/te: san̪t̪əɡa Ɉa: ti:ʃ/ ‘It is going to the market’

/tiɳɔ̃: san̪t̪əɡa Ɉa: da:ʃ/ ‘They are going to the market’

‘They (two) are going to the market’

/tiɳɔ̃: tɔ̃:ɳ Ɉəɳa:bi san̪tə̪ ɡa Ɉa: da:ʃ/

Past Imperfective Aspect

Person Singular Verb form Plural Verb form

First /məi/ / (I) / Ɉa:ðɔ̃:otɔ̃:/ / həme :/(we) / Ɉa:ðã: hɔ̃ta:/
Second / tu: / (you) sg /Ɉa:ððɔ̃: o:ttɔ̃:/ / tʊme: / (you pl) / Ɉa:ðða: ho:tta:/
Third / tiɳe /Ɉa:ðða:o:ttɔ̃:/ / / tiɳɔ̃:/ ‘they’ / Ɉa: ta:ðða:/
tiɳe te: / Ɉa:ðði: ti:/
he/she/it’ / Ɉa:ðði: ti:/

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Examples:

/ məi san̪t̪əɡe Ɉa:ðɔ̃:otɔ̃:/ ‘I was going to the market’

/ həme: san̪tə̪ ɡe Ɉa:ðã: hɔ̃ta:/ ‘We were going to the market’

/həme: tɔ̃:ɳ Ɉəɳa:bi san̪tə̪ ɡe Ɉa:ðã: hɔ̃ta:/ ‘We (two) were going to the market’

/tu: san̪t̪əɡe Ɉa:ððɔ̃: o:ttɔ̃:/ ‘You(sg) were going to the market’

/tʊme: san̪t̪əɡe Ɉa:ðða: ho:tta:/ ‘You(pl) were going to the market’

/tiɳe san̪tə̪ ɡe Ɉa:ðða: o:ttɔ̃:/ ‘He was going to the market’

/tiɳe san̪tə̪ ɡe Ɉa:ðði: ti:/ ‘She was going to the market’

/te: san̪t̪əɡe Ɉa:ðði: ti:/ ‘It was going to the market’

/tiɳɔ̃: san̪t̪əɡe Ɉa: ta:ðða:/ ‘hey were going to the market’

/tiɳɔ̃: tɔ̃:ɳ Ɉəɳa:bi san̪tə̪ ɡe Ɉa: ta:ðða:/ ‘They (two) were going to the market’

Future Imperfective Aspect

Person Singular Verb form Plural Verb form

First /məi/ (I) / Ɉɛiʝiʃ/ /həme: / (we) / Ɉa:ŋɡã:/

Second /tu:/ (you) sg / Ɉɛiʝiʃ/ / tʊme:/ (you pl) / Ɉa:ŋɡã:/

Third /tiɳe//tiɳe/ /te:/ / Ɉa:ʃiɳ / / tiɳɔ̃:/ ‘they’ / Ɉa:ʃiɳ/

‘he/she/it’ / Ɉa:ʃiɳ /

/ Ɉa:ʃiɳ/

Examples

/məi san̪tə̪ ɡa Ɉɛiʝiʃ/ ‘I will be going to the market’

/həme: san̪t̪əɡa Ɉa:ŋɡã:/ ‘We will be going to the market’

/ həme: tɔ̃:ɳ Ɉəɳa:bi an̪t̪əɡa Ɉa:ŋɡã:/ ‘We (two) will be going to the market’

/tu: ʋəʝəlukka Ɉɛiʝiʃ/ ‘You(sg) will be going to the field’

/tʊme: ʋəʝəlukka Ɉa:ŋɡã:/ ‘You(pl) will be going to the field’

/ tiɳe ʋəʝəlukka Ɉa:ʃiɳ/ ‘He will be going to the field’

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 /tiɳe ʋəʝəlukka Ɉa:ʃiɳ/ ‘She will be going to the field’

/ te: ʋəʝəlukka Ɉa:ʃiɳ / ‘It will be going to the field’

/tiɳɔ̃: ʋəʝəlukka Ɉa:ʃiɳ / ‘They will be going to the field’

/tiɳɔ̃: tɔ̃:ɳ Ɉəɳa:bi ʋəʝəlukka Ɉa:ʃiɳ/ ‘They (two) will be going to the field’

ii) Habitual Aspect

It describes an action which happens/happened or will happen habituall y or regularly.

Present Habitual Aspect:

/suri Ɉəɳa au:ɖiʋa:kkana uððər ʃiɳ/ ‘The sun rises in the east’

/həme: tɛɳɖɔ:bi ɡa:ʝəŋ ɡəɖʊŋɡaɳa/ tu:ðbɛɭəŋɡa:/ ‘We milk the cows everyday’

/məi kəmma:bi a:biʃ ɡəiɳəʋɔ̃:/ oɳɖa:ŋɡa ɟɛiʃ/ ‘They go to field at 9 o'clock’

/tiɳa/ /bʊllu/ /ha:ɖa:ɡʊ/ /sɛɳɖɽu/ /biɳɳa/ /tɔʈʈəmke:‘It goes to the garden for grazing at 10
taʃ/ /ɡəɳɖa:ŋɡa/ /ɟa:ʃ/ o'clock’

Past Habitual Aspect:

/məi kəmma:bi a:biʃ ɡəiɳəʋɔ̃: oɳɖa:ŋɡa ɟɛiʃ/ ‘I used to go to office at 9 o'clock’

/tu: kəmma:bi a:biʃ ɡɛɳa oɳɖa:ŋɡa ɟɛiʃ/ ‘You(sg) used to go to office at 9 o'clock

/tʊme:kəmma:bi tukkaŋɡe nau uɳɖa:ŋɡe ɟa:ŋɡa:/ ‘You(pl) used to go to shop at 9 o'clock’

/həme: kəmma:bi a:biʃkke: nau uɳɖa:ŋɡe ɟa:ŋɡa:/ ‘We used to go to office at 9 o'clock’’

‘He used to go to market (bazaar) at 9

/tiɳe kəmma:bi san̪t̪aɡe nau uɳɖa:ŋɡe ɟa:ʃiɳ/ o'clock’

/tiɳa kəmma:bi a:biʃkka nau uɳɖa:ŋɡe a:ʃiɳ/ ‘She used to go to office at 9 o'clock’

Mood

Mood is one of a set of distinctive forms that are used to signal modality. The mode
or manner of a speaker is expressed by mood. It incorporates a statement, a command, a
question, a doubt etc. From the given data we have following types of moods in the Kathodi
language which are presented below:

i) Indicative Mood:

Most verbs in this language used are in indicative mood, which indicates the action.

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 / kuððuɽa: bɔkʃiɳ/ ‘The dog barks’

ii) Imperative Mood:

Verb in the imperative mood denotes command or request. This mood always occurs
with second person. Though it is not present in the sentence but the sense must be there and
it is always understood that it denotes the second person.

/iʃkku:l naɟi ka:ʋ/ ‘(you) come near the school’

/e: bʊʃtəkka ʋa:ʧ/ ’you) Read this book’

/eʈʈuɭa:ŋɡʊ be:ʈ/ ‘(you) sit’down’

iii) Subjunctive Mood:

In the subjunctive mood, the sense is to suppose or desire an action.

/ tiɳa ɡəɽɔ̃: ɡɔɽɔ̃: ɔlʧəɡʊtɔ̃: sɔɡɔ̃:r aʃiɳ / ‘If he works hard he will succeed’

iv) Optative Mood:

The optative mood expresses a desire, wish, permission or request in a sentence

which is expressed in following way in Kathodi language.

/tiɳɔ̃: səbbi ɟəɳa:bi aʝa:ɡe/ ‘Let them all come’

v) Potential Mood:

The potential action is expressed in potential mood. In this language the example of
Potential mood is:

/ məi aʝa ɟɛi/ ‘I may come’.

/tiɳe sɛɖiʝaŋɡe ma:ɽan ʃiɳ/ ‘He may kill the bird’

vi) Conditional Mood:

When the completion of one verbal action is conditioned by another verb that
particular manner of expression is called as Conditional modal category. In this mood
two verbal actions are involved simultaneously.

Examples of conditional moods in Kathodi language are:

/ tiɳa ɡəɽɔ̃: ɡɔɽɔ̃: ɔlʧəɡʊtɔ̃: sɔɡɔ̃:r aʃiɳ/ ‘If he works hard he will succeed’

/ məkka a:ɳ sɔkkɔ:ɖɔ̃: sɛitɔ̃: səkkəɭəiʃ/ ‘If I am well I will come tomorrow’

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4.2.1.4. Negative Verb

Negation is a morph syntactic in which a lexical item denies or inverts the meaning
of another lexical item or construction.

/ e: ɟuməɳ ɡərəʃa ma:lɳəi/ This is not edible

/ uʃðəɡa: pa:ɟu ɟauɳəɡɔ̃:/ Do not go near the fire

/tiɳe ka:m kəri nɛi/ She has not done the work

Causation

A causative is a grammatical or lexical indication of the causal role of a

referent in relation to an event or state expressed by a verb. In Kathodi language, causatives
verbs are –

/ məi bəʧʧa:ɡa ɟʊma:ɖe:/ ‘I feed the baby’

/məi nərəʃaɡə ra:ɡiɳa bəʧʧa:ɡa ɟʊməɳ ‘I make the nurse feed the baby’
ɟʊma:ɖe:/

/ məi həma:ɭa: ɽa:kkiɳa ʋəʝəlɳa ka:m kəɽa: ‘I make the servant work in the
rakkɛ/ field’

/ məi ɟəɳ ke: aʃa:ɖe:/ ‘I make the people laugh’

/ məi kɔ̃:ɖa:kke: na:ʈɖa:r ra:kku:ʃ/ ‘I am making the horse run’

Adverb

Adverb qualifies verb, adjectives and also an adverb. From the given data following
example is collected

[həllu hɔðða] ‘speak slowly’

Slowly speak

[ɡɔ:ʈ karəʃa ɔkɔ:r ɡɔ:ɽkka] ‘Write the words neatly’

Words neatly write

In the above sentences the adverbs are həllu ‘slowly’ and ʃɔkɔ: r‘neatly’

In this language adverbs occur before the verb. Here we have following three types of
adverbs. These are: Adverb of time, Adverb of Place and Adverb of manner.

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Adverb of Time:

The time adverbials denote the time.

/ʃəkka:l/ ‘tomorrow’

/ka:l/ ‘yesterday’

Adverb of Place:

Place adverbials denote the place.

/na: / (come) / auðða:ʃ/ (here)’ ‘come here’. Here adverb of place is / auðða:ʃ/ ‘here’

Adverb of Manner:

Like all other adverbs this type also occurs before the verb. For example:

/ həllu hɔðða / ‘Speak slowly’

slowly speak

/ ɡɔ:ʈ ɡɔ:ɽkka ɔkɔ:r ɡɔ:ɽkka /

Words neatly words neatly

/ karəʃa/ (write)/ ‘Write the words neatly’

Here the adverb of Manner is /həllu/ /‘slowly’ and /ɡɔ:ɽkka/ ‘neatly’

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 5. SYNTAX

The Syntax is the study of the principles and rules for constructing phrases and
sentences in natural languages and rules governing the order of combining the words to form
sentences in a language. A syntactic category is a set of words and/or phrases in a language
which share a significant number of common characteristics. The classification is based on
similar structure and sameness of distribution (the structural relationships between these
elements and other items in a larger grammatical structure), and not on meaning. The syntax
of Kathodi language is discussed below.

5.1 Word- Order

Word order typology is the study of the order of the syntactic constituents of a
language. The primary word order is the relative ordering of subject, object, and verb in a
sentence. The word order in Kathodi language is of SOV (subject-object-verb) pattern.

/məi siriɡa tɛððɔ:ʃ/ ‘I see the bird’

I bird see

Similarly, / tiɳe sɛrie:ŋɡe: tɛððɔ̃:ʃ/ ‘He sees the bird’

He he bird see

/ ma:ɽɔ̃: ɡərukku/ ɟa:/ ‘Come to my house’

my to house come

/ həme: ta: ɟa:tta:ʃ/ ‘We go there’

We there go

/ bɔʈʈɔ̃: bəɖuttɔ̃:ʃ/ ‘The boy falls’

the boy falls

Sometimes the object may be absent in simple sentence, as in case of above sentence.
It consists of subject /pɔʈʈɔ̃:/ (‘the boy)’ and finite verb / bəɖuttɔ̃:ʃ/ ‘falls’.

5.2 Types of Sentences

A sentence is a grammatical unit that is composed of one or more clauses. The

sentences in Kathodi language is classified into

i. Simple Sentence
ii. Complex Sentence
iii. Compound Sentence
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 The examples are given below according to the data –

Simple Sentence

The simple sentence consists of a subject and a predicate. It is a sentence structure

that contains one independent clause and no dependent clauses.

/ məi siriɡa tɛððɔ:ʃ/ ‘I see the bird’

I bird see

/ məi ɡa:ttɔ:ʃ rɔ:ʈʈi / ‘I eat bread’

I bread eat

/ kuððuɽa:/ (dog) /bɔkʃiɳ/ (barks) ‘The dog barks’ /kutɽɔ̃: ʋɔɭa:ʊ ti:ʃ/

The predicate may be a finite intransitive, transitive or ditransitive verb.

ra:m ʃiʝam kəɳe bʊʃðək ti/ ‘Ram gave the book to Shyam’

Compound Sentence

A compound sentence is a sentence composed of two or more

coordinate clauses.

/ tʊbba:rkke: ka:ma: ra:ʧʧike: niɡʊra:̃/ ‘Work in the day and sleep at night’

/ biɭa:ɖibi kʊtturɔ:bi na:ʃe/ ‘Here is a cat and a dog’

Complex Sentence

A sentence having one principal clause followed by one or more subordinate clause
(s) is known as a complex sentence. The independent clause can stand alone.

/ tiɳa ɡəɽɔ̃: ɡɔɽɔ̃: ɔlʧəɡʊtɔ̃: sɔɡɔ̃:r aʃiɳ/ ‘If he works hard he will succeed’

Similarly,

/ məkka a:ɳ sɔkkɔ:ɖɔ̃: sɛitɔ̃: səkkəɭəiʃ/ ‘If I am well I will come tomorrow’

Sentences in Kathodi language further be sub-classified into-

i. Statement Sentence
ii. Interrogative Sentence
iii. Imperative Sentence
iv. Purposive Sentence
v. Potential Sentence
vi. Conditional Sentence
vii. Negative Sentence
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 viii. Causative Sentence
ix. Passive Sentence

i) Statement Sentence

The sentence which affirms a statement- Examples in Kathodi include-

/ məi siriɡa tɛððɔ:ʃ/ ‘I see the’bird’

ii) Interrogative Sentence

The sentence which indicates a question like –

/tu: ka:i həððɔ:li kɔ:ʃ/ ‘What do you eat?’

iii) Imperative Sentence

The sentence which implies a request, a command, an advice etc

/ təɽɔ̃: bəikkɔ̃: bəʧʧakɔ̃: bʊɭɭa:ʋ / ‘Call your daughter’

/eʈʈuɭa:ŋɡʊ be:ʈ/ ‘Sit down’

iv) Purposive Sentence

The sentence which expresses a purpose like –

/ te: ɡɔ̃:ɖa:kku likkʊɳu/ ‘That horse is to be sold’

v ) Potential Sentence

When the potentiality is expressed in a sentence, it thus called.

/ məi aʝa ɟɛi/ ‘I may come’

v i ) Conditional Sentence

When two actions are conditioned by each other in a single sentence, they are known
as conditional.

/ məkka a:ɳ sɔkkɔ:ɖɔ̃: sɛitɔ̃: səkkəɭəiʃ / ‘If I am well I will come tomorrow’

vii) Passive Sentence

The passive sentence when the subject of the sentence has an action done to it by someone
or something else.

/ bəi sɔ̃: məra:ðði ka:ɖe:l/ ‘The money has been taken by me’

viii) Causative Sentence

The causative sentences are formed by suffixing causative marker to the verb which
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varies according to the person. When the subject causes some agent to do the action we get
causative sentence.

/ na məi kɔ̃:ɖa:kke: na:ʈɖa:r ra:kku:ʃ/ ‘I am making the horse run’

ix) Negative Sentence

The sentence which expresses the negation are called so.

/ e: ɟuməɳ ɡərəʃa ma:lɳəi/ ‘This is not edible’

/ uʃðəɡa: pa:ɟu ɟauɳəɡɔ̃:/ ‘Do not go near the fire’

Structure of Phrases

A phrase is a syntacti c structure that consist s of more than one word but
lacks the complete subject-predicate organization of a clause. The phrasal sub-division in
Kathodi as follows-

Noun Phrase

A noun phrase or nominal phrase, (NP) combines with other words in a noun phrase,
optionally accompanied by modifiers like adjectives and intensifiers.

Examples –

/sɔkɔ̃:r bɛɖa:ʃ/ ‘The good boys’

/tuma:ro: kəɽ/ ‘Your (sg) house’

Verb Phrase

A verb phrase (VP) is a phrase that has the syntactic role of a simple verb, and is
composed of a main verb and auxiliary verbs or verbal particles related syntactically to
the verb. In generative grammar, a verb phrase is a syntactic unit that corresponds to the
predicate. In addition to the verb, this includes auxiliaries, objects, object
complements, and other constituents apart from the subject. These are inflected for person,
number and gender. The predicate may be a finite intransitive or transitive verb.

/ məi siriɡa tɛððɔ:ʃ/ ‘I see the bird’

/ tiɳe bʊʃtək ʋa:ʃ tɔ̃:ʃ/ ‘He reads a book’

/ məi rɔ:ʈʈi ɡa:ttɔ:ʃ/ ‘I eat bread’

/ kuððuɽa: bɔkʃiɳ/ ‘The dog barks’

Postpositional Phrases

A postposition is an ad position that occurs after its complement. Here the

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 postposition is in the head position and usually a complement such as a noun phrase follows
it.

/tu: ʋəʝəlukka Ɉɛiʝiʃ/ ‘You(sg) will be going to the field’

Adjectival Phrase

In an adjectival phrase, the adjective acts as the head of the phrase. An adjectival
phrase consists of an adjective followed by a noun, intensifiers or adverbs followed by
adjective and noun, thereby making the structure more complex.

/sɔkɔ̃:r bɔʈʈɔ̃:/ ‘good boy’

/sɔkɔ̃:r bɔʈʈi/ ‘good girl’

Adverbial Phrase

An adverb is a lexical category whose members have the same syntactic distribution
and which modifies adjectives, other adverbs, verbs, or whole clauses or sentences.

An adverb phrase has an adverb that complements the verb.

/həllu hɔðða/ ‘Speak slowly’.

/ɟɔ̃: ɡɔ̃:ʈ ɡəruɳɔ̃: ko:/ ‘Do not speak loudly’

Negation

Negation is a morpho-syntactic operation in which a lexical item denies or inverts

the meaning of another lexical item or construction. In an ordered sentence the negative
element comes with the verb of the sentence

/e: ɟuməɳ ɡərəʃa ma:lɳəi/ ‘This is not edible’

/uʃðəɡa: pa:ɟu ɟauɳəɡɔ̃:/ ‘Do not go near the fire’

Causativization

The causative sentences are formed by suffixing causative marker to the verb which
varies according to the person. Causative indicates that a subject cause someone or
something else to do or be something.

/ məi kɔ̃:ɖa:kke: na:ʈɖa:r ra:kku:ʃ/ ‘I am making the horse run’

/ məi ɟəɳ ke: aʃa:ɖe:/ ‘I make the people laugh’

The data shows no instances of positivisation, relative and correlative clauses and
complementation.

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 6. TEXT

TWO FRIENDS AND A BEAR

/ʃiɳe:ðða: ra:mu bi sɔmu: bi Ɉaŋɡʌl ʋa:ʈði Ɉa:li Ɉa:tta:ta:/

Two friends, Ramu and Shyam walked through a forest.

/Ɉa:li Ɉa:ʃa ʋilka kʊmkkɛbi pirʌʧʧaɳa aʋəʃama: kʊmkkɛbi ɡʌɽab kɔ:ʈʧ sʌɭəsama: piri:ɲɈʌɳu
Ɉaɳu:ɳa: pɔ:li Ɉa:tta:tta:/

They promised each other that they would remain united in case of any danger.

/te: ʋe:lkka e: kʌrəɖi Ɉʌŋɡʌl ʋa:ʈtti auti o:ti/

Once they were walking through a forest.

/kʌrəɖiɡa tɛkðã: kʌɖiʝa: ra:mu na:ʈʈi Ɉɛiɳe Ɉa:ɖʊba Ɉɛɖi bʌɖiɡ :/

A bear came on their way. Ramu climbed a tree.

/So:mu:kka Ɉɛiɳe Ɉa:ʈ baɖa sʌɭa:ka ma:lum nɛi/

Shyam did not know how to climb a tree. He told his friend, “I do not know how to climb a
tree, please help me.”

/tiɡa sari yɔ:ʧʧan kʌriɳa təriɳa tʌɳɖ : bʌɖiɳa tɔðð : Ɉɛɳa su:rt :/

But Ramu did not respond. In fear and grief, Shyam lay down on the ground breathless.

/kʌrəɖi nʌɈi kai nʌɈi kaiɳa ika biraʝa biraʝa ai tɛkkʊ ɖiɡiɳa tikkɔ: ka:ɳa suŋɡi tɛkki/

The bear came near the man lying on the ground. It smelt in his ears, and slowly left the place,

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/Sari mʌɳu:ʃ maruɡ :ɻ pʌɳɳa kʌrəɖi Ɉa: ti:ti/

bears do not touch dead creatures.

/kʌrəɖi Ɉa:bbər ra:mu eʈʈuɭa:ŋɡʊ uttiri ʝʌʝa/

After the bear left, Ramu came down from the tree and asked his friend Shyam, "Friend, what
did the bear tell you into your ears?

/sɔ:mukkaɳa ka:iba kʌrəɖi pɔ:li bɔɳa:ikka/

Shyam replied, "The bear advised me not to trust a friend who leaves you in times of trouble
to save himself."

/aʋə ʈʌʝamʊɳa utaʝaɳukka mʌɳuʃti ɡʌra:b ʈʌʝamʊɳukka mʌɳu:ʃbi saŋɡã: ra:Ɉʌɳu:kk : bo:liʈiɳa
Ɉa:ttiti iɳebi alləkka: ʃa:riɳa Ɉa:ʋa:lik :/

Saying this Shyam walked in own way, leaving Ramu alone in the forest.

Two friends, Ramu and Shyam walked through a forest. They promised each other that they
would remain united in case of any danger. Once they were walking through a forest. A bear
came on their way. Ramu climbed a tree. Shyam did not know how to climb a tree. He told
his friend, “I do not know how to climb a tree, please help me.” But Ramu did not respond.
In fear and grief, Shyam lay down on the ground breathless.

The bear came near the man lying on the ground. It smelt in his ears, and slowly left the place,
because bears do not touch dead creatures. After the bear left, Ramu came down from the tree
and asked his friend Shyam, "Friend, what did the bear tell you into your ears?" Shyam replied,
"The bear advised me not to trust a friend who leaves you in times of trouble to save himself."
Saying this Shyam walked in own way, leaving Ramu alone in the forest.

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 7. BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Nigam R.C. 1972 Language Handbook on Mother Tongue in Census (Census of

India 1971) Government of India (Census Centenary Monograph

No.10), New Delhi

------****------

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 KOTA
Soumi Banerjee
1. INTRODUCTION

The Nilgiri district is the smallest district of Tamil Nadu. Etymologically, ‘Nilgiris’
means ‘blue mountains’. The district is a hilly area of 2549.0 sq kms and is located between
11o 10’ and 11o 30’ latitude and between 76 o25’ and 77 o00’ longitude. This district is situated
in the junction of Eastern and Western Ghats. With an average elevation of 6500 ft. , the Nilgiri
district is bound on the west by Kerala, on the north by Karnataka and on the south-east by
Coimbatore district which occupies the highest and the western part of Tamil Nadu. During the
monsoon period, 250-500 mm rain for 15-20 days is normal. Primarily, four types of
vegetations namely, the moist evergreen forests, the dry deciduous forests, the evergreen
montane forest, the grass lands and savannas are available here.
The people and the terrain of the Nilgiri plateau have attracted a lot of interest because
of their unique characteristics. This region is inhabited by Toda, Kota, Irula, Paniya,
Kattunayaka, Mullu Kurumba, Urali Kurumba, and Jenu Kurumba tribal groups.

Kota Tribe

In India, Kota tribal group are available only in the Nilgiri District of Tamil Nadu and
they inhabit only in seven villages. Apart from Nilgiri district, Kotas also reside in
Tiruchirapalli, Cuddalore, Coimbatore, Chennai district. According to 2011 census, the total
population of the Kota tribe is 308 in India, out of them, 248 people comes under urban
population and 60 people belong to rural population. The Kotas are known by several names
like Koter, Kotar, Kotharu, Kothewar and Kohatur. Kotas are one of the six Primitive Tribal
Groups (PTGs) of Tamil Nadu. People of Kota tribe call themselves ‘Kothar’, people from the
neighbouring Toda Tribe call them ‘Knof” (Cow people) and the Badagas call them ‘Kov’,
others refer to them as Kotar or Koatur. The origin of the name ‘Kota’ is derived from the
Dravidian root word ‘Ko (Ku) ’ which means mountain. As per a Kota legend, the Toda, Kota
and Kurumba were brothers and were earliest inhabitants of the Nilgiri Hills. They were created
from three drops of the God’s (Kambatrayan) perspiration. According to another legend, Kota
people migrated from Kollimallai mountain of Mysore. People of Kota tribe speak Kota
language for intra tribe communication and Tamil for inter tribe communication. Kota village
is called a Kokkal, represent a linear type, forty to sixty houses, with three or four streets, called
as ‘Keris/Kheris’(exogamous clans). The Kota are divided into patrilineal Kheris named
Amreri, Kikiri, Korakirim,Akkiri, Kiker, Amirker, Naduker, Pibberker, Gager, Aker etc. A
person’s ‘Keri’ is determined by his/her place of birth, but he/she may live at any place. Their
descent is unilineal in male line and it regulates the marriage pattern. People in the same street
are not expected to marry each other. A man may marry a girl belonging to any other keri of
his own or any other village. There is a strong unity among the people and if there is any dispute
among them it is always settled by the council. Kotas inhabit seven villages namely Kotagiri,
Kil Kotagiri, Todanad, Sholur, Kethi, Kunda and another village at Gudalur which is situated
at Northeast base of the Niligiri Hills. Traditionally huts are built of mud, brick or stone, roofed
with thatch and tiles, divided into living and sleeping apartment. Thatched houses are rare now

411
and tiles are commonly used. Floor is raised above the ground and there is verandah with a
seat in every house.

The Kota males dress mainly in shirt and mundu (lungi) and woman’s dress is
comprised of single white coarse cloth called ‘kir’.Traditional garment of Kota is known as
‘varad’, a white cloth. It is thrown around the body by men and women. ‘Koth kadk’is a
traditional ear-ring ornament is used by women and ear-ring used by men is called ‘kadk’. As
per tradition, old men do not cut hair, but comb it upwards, tying it in a knot at the back.

Food habit wise, Kota people are primarily non-vegetarians. Ragi, rice, jowar, varities
of pulses, vegetables are main constituents of their food. Groundnut and palm oil are used for
cooking. They are fond of coffee, tea, milk and milk related products. Kotas in earlier days
were the only tribe of Nilgiri Hills who practiced the industrial arts. This is a community of
blacksmiths, goldsmiths, silversmith, carpenters, tanners, rope makers, potters, washer man,
cultivators, musicians. Especially Kota women are expert in making clay pots on wheel. At
present their primary livelihood is agriculture. They own land with individual proprietorship
of land. They practice both shifting and settled cultivation. Animal husbandry is another
important economic activity.

Monogamy is the primary form of marriage. Traditionally a chain of black beads

(karugamani), ring (modaram) and toe – ring are symbols of married women. At the time of
marriage, a bride price (kattu panam) is provided by groom’s family. In return, the girl’s father
gives a new duppati and mundu to the groom. The rule of post marital residence is patrilocal.
Divorce is approved of on the grounds of adultery, barrenness and cruelty. Remarriage is
permitted for widows, widowers, and divorces. The inheritance rules follow the principle
During the delivery time and menstrual period the ladies live in a separate house, constructed
outside of the village.

By religion most of the Kotas identify themselves as Hindu. These days Kotas are
worship their own deities named Kambatrayan and his companion Kambateswari, popularly
known as Ayyanar and Ammanor respectively. Kambatrayan is the god of rains and
Kambatrayan is the goddess of crops. Hindu gods e.g. Krishna, Rangarayan and Mahakali are
also worshipped. In each settlement, temples are constructed for Kambatrayar, Kambateswari.
The emblem of a bow and arrow identifies the deities and are installed atop of all these temples.
Every year Kotas celebrate Kambatrayar, Kambateswari festivals in the month of January.

The Kotas are fond of rituals almost in every month and all the villagers take part with
great enthusiasm. Marriage and death ceremonies are found to be very importance in this tribe.
There are two types of funeral ceremonies viz., pactav ‘green funeral’ [pac means green and
tav means death ] and varldav ‘Dry funeral’ [varl means dry].

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Kota Language

Genealogically Kota is grouped under Dravidian language family. Geographically

Dravidian languages are classified into four families i.e. Southern group, Central group,
Northern group, South central group. Kota is grouped under Southern Dravidian family. Tamil,
Malayalam, Kannada are other important languages of the group. According to Sir G.A.
Grierson’s ‘Munda and Dravidian Languages’ Volume -4 of Linguistic Survey of India, Kota
is a language from Dravidian group. He referred to Bishop Caldwell’s brief note on Kota
language mentioning ‘The language of Kotas, a small tribe of Helot craftsmen inhabiting the
Nilgiri hill may be considered as a very old and very rude dialect of Canarese, which was
carried thither by a persecuted low caste at some very remote period’.

Grierson’s classification of Dravidian Language family

Whereas, B. Krishnamurti in his book ‘The Dravidian Languages’ included Kota language
under South Dravidian language group.

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 B.Krishnamurti’s classification of Dravidian Language family

Speaker’s strength

According to published data of census, 1961, Kota had total 862 speakers. Out of them
467 speakers are male and 395 speakers are female. Speakers’ strength of Kota language of
Census 2011 is not published.

Sociolinguistic information
Along with the collection of the linguistic data, the sociolinguistic information was also
collected from the field. Accordingly, the information is furnished below:
Language use in different domains
a) Home
Kota is used in home domain predominantly. It is used for intra-tribe communication
with parents, children, relatives. For inter-tribe communication, Tamil, English are used.
b) School
In schools, colleges Tamil and English are used as medium of instruction. Kota is
neither used as medium of instruction nor it is not taught at any academic level.
c) Mass Media
In mass media level, Kota is not used at all.

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 d) Literature
Stories, folklores are available in Kota . But no written literature is available in Kota.
e) Administration
Kota is not used in administration level, judiciary sector. All official communication is
performed in Tamil and English
f) Script
Kota does not have exclusive script yet. Tribe members are trying develop script of
their own.
g) Religion
Kota community practice their own religion. Some of them identify themselves as
Hindu.

Data Collection Methodology

Kota has been surveyed under Mother Tongue Survey of India (MTSI) Project of the
Ministry of Home affairs of the Government of India in 2014. The linguistic data has been
collected from Nilgiri district of Tamil Nadu from three number of informants namely L.
Shivagami , Kunti Devi , Pasupathi.
Three samples of Audio-visual linguistic data of Kota collected by Language Division
of the Office of the Registrar General, India have been transcribed and analysed by three
linguistic Resource Persons namely P. Kiruthiga, M Lakshmi Prabha, S Jegan of Madurai
Kamraj University
Based on the three samples one consolidated report was prepared by Dr. P.
Chandramohan, Annamalai University. To supplement the data and gather more information,
another field survey was conducted by Language Division official at Nilgiri district.
Informant’s name is Ms. Madhumati and she is of 52 years of age. She has done MCA, MPhil
in Computer Science. Currently she is working as a guest faculty in Computer Science
department of Ooty College, Nilgiri district, Udagamandalam division.
Based on the transcription of analyses of Kota Mother tongue, the grammatical
description of Kota is presented in the sections starting with Phonology.

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 2. PHONOLOGY
2.1. Introduction

Phonology is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.
Phonology is the study of the patterns of sounds in a language and across languages. The
phonological system of a language includes an inventory of sounds and their features, and
rules which specify how sounds interact with each other. Phonemic analysis consists in
allotting all the indefinite number of sounds occurring in utterances to a definite and limited
set of phonemes contrastive in at least some environments. The phonemic inventory of Kota
shows the distinctive sound units occurring in the Kota speech. The Phonological system of
Kota is presented below based on the data collected from the informant of Nilgiri district of
Tamilnadu during the field investigation. The phonemic inventory of Kota language consists
of 30 segmental phonemes. Out of 30 segmental phonemes there are 9 vowels and 21
consonants.

2.2.Phonemic Inventory (Segmental)

2.2.1. Segmental Vowel Phonemes

Phonological study of a language involves looking at data (phonetic transcriptions of

the speech of native speakers) and trying to deduce what the underlying phonemes are and what
the sound inventory of the language is. A phoneme is the smallest contrastive unit in the sound
system of a language. The segmental phonemes of Kota comprise of 9 vowels and 21
consonants. An effort has been made to present them with suitable examples. The segmental
vowels in this language are presented below.

Vowel Chart

Vowel chart
Front Central Back
Unrounded Rounded Unrounded
Close /i/ /u/ /ɯ/
Close /e/ /o/
Mid
Mid /ә/
Open /ɛ/ /ɔ/
Mid
Open /a/

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2.2.2. Distribution of the vowel phonemes

Vowel Initial Medial Final

/i/ /im/ ‘bull’ /kik/ ‘basket’ /ni/ ‘you’

/ʋeikǝ/ ‘soap’
/e/ /enǝ/ ‘oil’ /puide/ ‘ash’

/ɛ/ ------ ------ /oɖɛ/ ‘one’

/kʰaɽ/ ‘desert’
/a/ /al/ ‘cave’ /una/ ‘full moon’

/ә/ ------ /pǝdnuɖ/ ‘eleven’ /nanǝgǝ/ ‘four’

/ pɔɾǝ/ ‘cataract’
/ɔ/ /ɔlmaiʈ/ ‘deep’ / pɔdіkіn/ ‘chicken box’ ------

/o/ /ollidǝ/ ‘good’ /moɭ/ ‘daughter’ /pailo/ ‘family’

/u/ /una/ ‘full moon’ /kǝgutum/ ‘darkness’ /kʰǝru/ ‘cold’

/naiɖiccǝ ʋɯdǝ/ ‘to act’

/ɯ/ ----- -----
/seitǝ ʋɯdǝ/ ‘to bind’

2.3.Consonants
2.3.1. Segmental Consonant Phonemes

The segmental consonants in this language are presented below.

Bilabial Labio Alveolar Retrofle Palatal Velar Glottal
Dental x
Plosive /p/ /pʰ/ /t/ /ʈ/ /c/ /cʰ/ /k/ /kʰ/

/b/ /d/ /ɖ/ /ɟ/ /g/

Nasal /m/ /n/

Tap/ /r/
Flap
Fricative /s/

Approximant /ʋ/ /j/

Lateral /l/ /ɭ/
Approximant

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 The above mentioned consonants are also sometimes found in this language. As the use
of these consonants are mainly found in loan words and borrowed words, the phonemes are not
posited in the inventory of the regular phonemes of the language.

2.3.2. Distribution of the Consonantal Phoneme

Consonant Initial Medial Final

/p/ /pis/ ‘cat’ / up/ ‘salt’ / ʋap/ ‘boil’
Phoneme /p/ occurs in word initial, medial and final position.
/pʰ/ /pʰain/ ‘slowly’ ----- ------
Phoneme / pʰ/ occurs word not initial and medial position final position.
/b/ /buim alkaci/ / irub/ ‘ant’ / kɔb/ ‘horn’
………….‘earthquake’ /tumbǝt/ ‘ninety’
/ bәɭtі/ ‘eunuch’
/ bәd/ ‘Hawk’
Phoneme /b/ occurs in word initial, medial and final position.
/t/ /tumbǝt/ ‘ninety’ /nǝrtul/ ‘middle’ /elʋet/ ‘seventy’
Phoneme /t/ occurs in word initial, medial and final position.
/d/ /dar/ ‘who’ /kʰaittǝdǝ/ ‘heat’ /doɖɖɔd/ ‘big’
Phoneme /d/ occurs in word initial, medial and final position.
/ʈ/ /ʈinatʰ/ ‘teaplant’ /iʈmul/ ‘east’ /eiʈ/ ‘eight’
/pʰuʈǝl/ ‘stream’ /aʈ/ ‘dance’
Phoneme /ʈ/ occurs in word medial and final position and not in initial position.
/ɖ/ /ɖres kuitet/ ‘loom’ /kartoloiɖǝm/ . /onaɖ/ ‘road’
…………..‘necklace’
Phoneme /ɖ/ occurs in word initial, medial and final position.
/k/ /kolm/ ‘lake’ /aikbuim/ ‘swamp’ /kok/ ‘crane’
Phoneme /k/ occurs in word initial, medial and final position.
/kʰ/ /kʰubulub/ ‘pumpkin’ /akʰ nir/ ‘pond’ -----
/kʰǝi/ ‘ember’
Phoneme /kʰ/ occurs initial and medial position and not in final position.
/g/ /grenǝm/ ‘eclipse’ /surigainde/ /rag/ ‘blanket’
………....‘sunflower’
Phoneme /g/ occurs in word initial, medial and final position.
/c/ ------ /pǝcpura/ ‘pigeon’ /ʋitac/
………..‘pregnancy’
Phoneme /c/ occurs in medial and final position and not in initial position.
/cʰ/ ----- ----- /pǝʈ pucʰ/ ‘slik bug’
Phoneme /cʰ/ occurs only in final position
/ɟ/ /ɟaʋain/ ‘bachelor’ /kaʈɟaidi/ ‘animal’ /tuɟ/ ‘dust’
/ɟob/ ‘pocket’
phoneme /ɟ/ occurs in all the three positions initially medially and finally.

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 /s/ /sunumkǝl/ ‘limestone’ /minso/ /pasi/ ‘mosses’
/sammaiɖ/ ‘equal’ ……….‘linghtening’
/s/ phoneme occurs in all the three positions initially medially and finally.

/m/ /munɖegirc/ ‘widow’ /podmel/ ‘terrace’ /mǝdʋum/

/mancel/ ‘pillow’ /kǝlmǝi/ ‘hailstone’ …………‘marriage’
/buim/ ‘earth’
Phoneme /m/ occurs word initial and medial and final position.
/n/ /nǝlaimǝnd/ ‘honest’ /ʋelmin/ ‘morning
/nicipǝdǝ/ ‘long’ star’
/mǝn/ ‘mud’
phoneme /n/ occurs in word initial and final position and not in middle position.
/l/ /logǝm/ ‘world’ /әnnume ɔlut̪ U/ /al/ ‘cave’
B ‘nature’ /doɖal/ ‘old man’
Phoneme /l/ occurs in all the three positions of initially medially and finally.
/ɭ/ ------ /aɭin/ ‘husband’ /moɭ/ ‘daughter’
/ente loɭit/ ‘armpit’
Phoneme /ɭ/ occurs only in medial and final position.
/r/ ----- /irbǝ/ ‘ant’ /iɖipnar/ ‘belt’
/peru/ ‘mother’s /peɖ ogador/ ccc
…nnnn mother’ cdfdfg.. ‘spinster’
Phoneme /r/ occurs only in medial and final position.
/ʋ/ /ʋet/ ‘bamboo’ /alʋal/ ‘cowshed’ /keʋ/ ‘young
animal’
Phoneme / ʋ /occurs in all the three positions of initially medially and finally.
/j/ /jǝnmǝn/ ‘people’ /ijanei pagǝn/ -----
‘elephant …….
.driver’
/ejeŋk/ ‘why’
Phoneme /j/ occurs in initial and medial position not in word final position.

2.4.Diphthongs

A diphthong, also known as a gliding vowel is a phonetic sequence, consisting of two

vowels that functions as a single vowel. It refers to two adjacent vowel sounds occurring within
the same syllable. Technically the tongue moves from one point of articulation to other during
the pronunciation of the vowel.

As per the data the diphthongs in Kota are /ai/, /ei/, /oi/,/ǝi/ These diphthongs occurs
frequently in initial, medial and final position.

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 Diphthongs Initial Medial Final
/ai/ ‘there’ /gaʋaiɖ/ ‘kind’ /pai/ ‘house’
/ai/
/ail/ ‘wife’s brother’ /paitekǝr/ ‘mad’ /aʈʋai/ ‘slope’
/ eі / /ei/ ‘seven’ /meim/ ‘mother in law’ / neі/ ‘ghee/
/oidǝ ʋɯdǝ/ /toiri ʋɯdǝ/ ‘to appear’ /toi/ ‘stable’
/oi/ ………… ‘to chant’ /mǝllikoi/ ‘jasmine’
/oibbǝdǝ/ ‘to go’
-- /kǝikol/ ‘crutch’ /kʰǝi/ ‘ember’
/ǝi/
/elkal ʋǝi/ ‘hearth’

2.5.Allophonic distributions

An allophone is a phonetic variant of a phoneme in a particular language. Although a

phoneme's allophones are all alternative pronunciations for a phoneme, the specific allophone
selected in a given situation is often predictable. The present data shows the following
allophonic variation –
• Phoneme /n/ has four allophones
[ɲ] occurs if it is followed by palatal sounds
/aɲc/ ‘five’
/uɲɟal/ ‘canopy’
[ŋ] occurs if it is followed by velar sounds
/paiŋg/ ‘snow’
/koɖiŋgel/ ‘rainbow’
[ɳ] occurs if it is followed by retroflex sounds
/oɳin/ ‘himself’
[n] occurs if it is followed by vowel or dental, alveolar, post alveolar sounds
/nǝrtul/ ‘middle’
Phoneme /l/ has two allophones
[l]
/elam/ ‘everything’
/mudel/ ‘first’
[ɭ]
/oɭin/ ‘herself’
/ente loɭit/ ‘armlet’

2.6.Consonant clusters

A consonant cluster is a group of consonants which have no intervening vowel. The

consonant clusters can be a combination of two identical as well as two non-identical
consonants. The occurrence of the consonant clusters is most frequently available in the initial
and final position.

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Examples
Word final consonantal clusters

nasal + plosive > /-ɲc/ /aɲc/ ‘five’

/ -ŋk / /ejeŋk/ ‘why’
/-ŋɡ/ /kaŋɡ/ ‘ember’

lateral + plosive > / -rd/ /dard/ ‘whose’

/-lk/ /ʋelk/ ‘lantern’
lateral + fricative > /-lv/ /valv/ ‘sling’
fricative + plosive > /-sk/ /kausk/ ‘veil’

2.6. Syllable

A syllable is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds. It is typically made

up of a syllable nucleus (i.e., vowel) with optional initial and final margins (i.e., consonants).
A syllable which ends with a vowel is called open syllable whereas a syllable ending in a
consonant is called closed syllable. A syllable is a unit of sound composed of a central peak
of sonority (usually a vowel), and the consonants that cluster around this central peak. Syllables
are often considered the phonological "building blocks" of words. They can influence the
rhythm of a language, its prosody, its poetic meter and its stress patterns. Syllabification is the
separation of a word into syllables, whether spoken or written. In Kota syllabification has been
done as,

Syllable structure
i. Monosyllabic
ii. Disyllabic
iii. Polysyllabic words

2.6.1. Monosyllabic pattern

A word that consists of a single syllable is called Monosyllabic word and pattern of it
is called Monosyllabic pattern.

VC /ol/ ‘she’
VC /aʈ/ ‘dance’
CV /pu/ ‘flower’
CV /ni/ ‘you’
CVV / nai/ ‘dog’
CVC /pal/ ‘milk’
CVCC /dard/ ‘slope’

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2.6.2. Disyllabic pattern

A word that consists of two syllables is called disyllabic word and pattern of it is called
disyllabic pattern.

V-CV /ore/ ‘themselves’

V-CV /i.ɖɛ / ‘two’
CV-CV /pǝ.tǝ/ ‘ten’
CV-CVC /pǝ.niɖ/ ‘twelve’
CVC-CVC /gǝn.mug/ ‘male’
CVC-CVC /pǝd.nuɖ/ ‘eleven’
CV.CV /kʰǝ.ru/ ‘cold’

2.6.3. Polysyllabic pattern

A word that consists of more than two syllables is called polysyllabic word and pattern
of it is called polysyllabic pattern.

CV-CV-CV /na.nǝ.gǝ/ ‘four’

C-CVC-CVC /a.raʈ.mǝn/ ‘clay’
CV-CVC-CVC /su.num.kǝl/ ‘limestone’
V-CV-CVC /a.ʋǝ.lar/ ‘across’
CVC-CV-CVC /gun.ɖu.kǝl/ ‘rock’
CV-CV-CVC /ka.gu.tum/ ‘dark’

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 3. MORPHOLOGY

This is the branch of grammar which studies the structure or forms of words, how words
are formed, and their relationship to other words in the same language primarily through the
use of the morpheme construction. Morphology includes the grammatical processes of
inflection and derivation.
Inflection is a process of word formation in which a word is modified to express
different grammatical categories i.e. tense, case, voice, aspect, person, number, gender, mood,
and definiteness. Derivation is the process of formation of word by changing the form of the
base or by adding affixes to it.

Noun Morphology
3.2. Word Formation
Kota is an agglutinative type of language. This type of language is a form of synthetic
language in which each affix typically represents one unit of meaning (such as ‘diminutive’,
‘past tense’, ‘plural’ etc.), and bound morphemes are expressed by affixes (and not by internal
changes of the root of the word, or changes in stress or tone). In this language, words are
typically contain a linear sequence of morphemes. Each such attached morpheme is clearly
recognizable. Word Formation involves two processes: inflection and derivation. In Kota,
word formation processes are affixation, reduplication, compounding, borrowing, suppletion.
3.2.1. Affixation
An affix is a morpheme that is attached to a word stem to form a new word
. Affixes may be derivational, or inflectional. In Kota, the affixes added to form familial
relations are of inflectional nature, tending to preserve the grammatical class of the base to
which it is attached.
Prefixes are attached at the initial position of the word.
Prefix + Base = Word
Base- / mug / ‘child’
/mol/ (prefix and feminine marker) + /mug/ child > /mol mug/ ‘grand daughter’
/min/(prefix and masculine marker) + /mug/ child > / min mug / ‘grand son’
Suffixes are attached at the end of the word.
Base- / mug / ‘child’, /min/ ‘fish’
Base+ Suffix =Word
/mug/ ‘child’ + -al (suffix and plural marker) >/mugal/ ‘children’
/min/ ‘fish’ + - al (suffix and plural marker) >/minal/ ‘fishes’

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3.3. Reduplication
A reduplicative is a word or lexeme that contains two or more identical or very similar
parts. The morphological and phonological process of forming a compound word by repeating
all or part of it is known as reduplication. Full reduplication involves a reduplication of the
entire word. Partial reduplication involves a reduplication of only part of the word.
Example:
/gusgusur peidǝte/ ‘to gossip’
/mormor tǝdǝ/ ‘to wisper’
3.4. Compounding
Compounding is a process of word formation that creates compound lexemes. It occurs
when two or more words are joined to make a longer word.
/ pab / ‘snake’ + / nәlson / ‘player’ = /pabod nәlson/ ‘snake charmer’
/pal/ ‘milk’ + /tǝɖon/ ‘man’ = /pal tǝɖon/ ‘milk man’
/kudir/ ‘horse’ + /ʋәɳdi/ coach = /kudir ʋenɖi// ‘horse coach’
3.5. Borrowing
In Kota language many words are borrowed either from Tamil or from English. After
borrowing words are naturalized as per the phonological features of Kota.
Words borrowed from Tamil
Example:
/pu/ ‘flower’
/ naі/ ‘dog’
Words borrowed from English
Example:
/buk/ ‘book’
/kapi/ ‘coffee’
3.6. Word Class
A word unit is the smallest element that may be uttered in isolation having
independent semantic or pragmatic content. A word is a unit which is a constituent at
the phrase level. This stands in contrast to morpheme which is the smallest meaningful unit in
the grammar of a language. Nouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives are included in open word class
which constantly acquire new members and determiner, conjunction, preposition/post
position, pronoun, interjection are included in closed word class, which does not acquire new
members quite frequently.

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 Based on morphological and syntactical structure the word classes of Kota are
discussed in following section.
3.7. Noun Morphology
Nouns
A noun is a member of a syntactic class that includes words which refer to people,
places, things, ideas, or concepts, whose members may act as any of the following: subjects of
the verb, objects of the verb, indirect object of the verb, or object of a preposition or
postposition. Noun Morphology deals with the forms and classification of Nouns, Pronouns
and their declensional/ inflectional pattern in association with Gender, Number, and Adjective
etc.
3.7.1. Basic Nouns
Basic Nouns are those which are a class by itself as they are not derived from any other
word class. Examples are
/ naі / ‘dog’.
/pai/ ‘house’
The basic nouns can further be divided into a) Mass nouns and b) Count nouns.
Mass Nouns
Mass nouns are those which do not show number distribution and cannot be counted
with cardinal numeral. They always occur in singular form. For example
/ nir / ‘water’.
/ pal/ ‘milk’.
Count Nouns
Count nouns are those which can be counted and take some suffixes for indicating
plurality. Examples are
/pis/ ‘cat’.
/mail/ ‘peacock’

3.7.2. Derived Nouns

In Kota language some nouns are derived either from the verb or adjective or from
another noun. The derived nouns are formed in two ways:
i) By adding derivational suffix to other words;
ii) By compounding words.

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 The Kota nouns are inflected for Gender, Number, and Case. This language has two
genders (i.e. masculine, feminine and neuter); and seven cases (nominative, accusative, dative,
ablative, genitive, locative and instrumental). The following description gives the details of
Kota gender-number-case system.
3.7.2. Gender
Kota has two genders i.e. Masculine and feminine. Most of the nouns end in vowels.
The final vowel gives a clue to the gender of a particular noun. Gender here is natural, not
grammatical. In Kota, gender is primarily expressed in two ways, by using separate lexical
items or by using words for male and female as affixes, by using different affixes for male and
female.
For example,
By using two separate lexical items:
Masculine Feminine
/gǝnmug/ ‘boy’ /pemug/ ‘girl’
/ain/ ‘father’ /au/ ‘mother’
/alin/ ‘husband’ /peɖ/ ‘wife’
/mein/ ‘son’ /moɭ/ ‘daughter’
/tikʋajine/ ‘stammarer (male)’ /tikjol/ ‘stammarer (female)
/guninǝ/ ‘hunchback (male)’ /guin/ ‘hunchback( female)’

By using words for male and female as affixes

Masculine Feminine
/keu kelad gǝnmug/ ‘deaf (male), /keu kelad pemug/ ‘deaf (female)’
/pemug im/ ‘buffalo (male)’ /pemug im/ ‘buffalo (female)’
/gǝnmuganǝ/ ‘elephant (male)’ /pemuganǝ/ ‘elephant (female)’

By using different affixes for male and female

Masculine Feminine
/keugela muŋgen/ ‘deaf-mute (male)’ /keugela muŋgi/ ‘deaf-mute (female)
/kunʈǝne/ /kuinʈi/ cripple (male) /kuinʈi/ ‘cripple (female)’
/muŋgene/ dumb (male) /muiŋgi/ ‘dumb (male, female)’

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Examples of common gender include
/kun mug/ ‘child’
/pǝcmug/ ‘baby’

3.7.3. Number
From the provided data it can be seen that there are two numbers in Kota language:
singular and plural. The singular does not have any particular distinguishing marker. In case
of plural formation, plural marker /- al/ is sometimes added.
Examples are as follows
Singular Plural
/mug/ ‘child’ /mugal/ ‘children’
/min/ ‘fish’ /minal/ ‘fishes’
/kik/ ‘basket’ /kikal/ ‘baskets’
/nai/ ‘dog’ /najal/ ‘dogs’
Sometimes, plurality is indicated by adding numerals to it.
For example,
Singular Plural
/ pis/ ‘cat’ /iɖ pis/ ‘two cats’
Sometimes plurality is indicated by adding plural post position / ecoɖ/ ‘many’
For example,
Singular Plural
/ mail/ ‘peacock’ /ecoɖ mail/ ’many peacock’
/ʋat/ ‘duck’ /ecoɖ ʋat/ ‘many duck’
/nai/ ‘dog’ /ecoɖ nai/ ‘many dog’

3.7.4. Person
There are three persons in Kota language. These are first person, second person, and
third person. All these persons have different agreement relationship with tense, aspect and
mood of verb.

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For example,

Singular Plural
First Person /an/ ‘I’ /am/ ‘we’
Second Person /ni/ ‘you’ /ni/ ‘you(pl)’
Third Person /on/ ‘he’, /ol/ ‘she’ /or// ‘they’

First Person:

Persons Sentence Gloss

Singular /aŋ aŋgari koike/ ‘I go to the market’
Plural /am aŋgari kokom/ ‘W go to the market’

Present tense markers are /-ke/, /-kom/ suffixes for first person singular and plural
number respectively.
Second Person:

Persons Sentence Gloss

Singular /ni aŋgari ko/ ‘You (sg) go to the market’
Plural /nim aʈʈǝm aŋgari ko/ ‘You (pl) go to the market’

Present tense marker is /-ko/ suffix for both second person singular and plural number
respectively.
Third Person:

Persons Sentence Gloss

Singular /on aŋgari koiko/ ‘He goes to the market’
Plural /or aŋgari koigo/ ‘They go to the market’

Present tense marker is /-ko/ suffix for both third person singular and plural number
respectively.
3.7.5. Pronouns
A pronoun is a pro-form which functions like a noun and substitutes for a noun or noun
phrase. Pronouns can take number, gender and case markers like the noun. A language may
have several classes of pronouns. The Kota language has the following types of pronouns.
1. Personal Pronouns
2. Demonstrative Pronoun
3. Reflexive Pronoun
4. Interrogative Pronoun
5. Indefinite Pronoun

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3.7.5.1. Personal Pronouns
Personal pronouns are pronouns used as alternates for proper or common nouns. The
personal pronouns are categorized into three persons (1st, 2nd and 3rd).

Singular Plural
First Person /an/ ‘I’ /am/ ‘we’
Second Person /ni/ ‘you’ /ni/ ‘you(pl)’
Third Person /on/ / /әʋun/ ‘he’, /ol/ ‘she’ /or// ‘they’

3.7.5.2. Demonstrative Pronoun

A demonstrative pronoun is a pronoun that represents a noun and expresses its position
as near or far (including in time). The demonstrative pronoun in Kota can be described in a
two-tier system by taking the spatial distance into account like Proximate demonstrative
pronoun referring to the objects nearer to the speaker, Remote demonstrative pronoun that
refers to the objects away from the speaker. Again, the demonstrative pronoun can be
distinguished by two-tier numbers also like singular and plural.
Proximate Remote
Singular /id/ ‘this’ /ad/ ‘that’
Plural /idelam/ ‘these’ / әtella:m / ‘these’

3.7.5.3. Reflexive Pronoun

A reflexive pronoun is a pronoun that is preceded by the noun to which it refers (its
antecedent) within the same clause. A reflexive pronoun is an anaphor that must be bound by
its antecedent in its local domain. In Kota language, reflexive pronouns are:

Pronoun Singular Plural

First /anin/ ‘myself’ /am elam/ ‘ourselves’
Second /nim em/ ‘yourself’ /nim elam/ ‘yourselves’
Third /oɳin/ ‘himself’ /ore/ ‘themselves’
/oɭin/ ‘herself’

3.7.5.3. Interrogative Pronoun

An interrogative pronoun is used in questions to stand for the item questioned. The
Interrogative pronouns in Kota can be classified into personal and impersonal forms with
examples as-
who, whose (personal)what, which (impersonal)

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Interrogative Pronoun
/edɨn/ ‘what’
/ed/ ‘which’
/ejeŋk/ ‘why’
/dar/ ‘who’
/dard/ ‘whose’

3.7.5.4. Indefinite Pronoun

The pronouns which denote some non-definite person or thing instead of definite one
are called Indefinite pronouns. This type of pronoun refers to one or more unspecified beings,
objects or places. Examples of indefinite pronoun in Kota language are,
/dar enǝm/ ‘anybody’
/edacǝm/ ‘anything’
/elam/ ‘everything’
/dar mila/ ‘no-one’

3.7.6. Case
Case is a grammatical category determined by the syntactic or semantic function of
a noun or pronoun. Like other languages, in Kota also, semantic relation between a noun phrase
or subject and a predicate is expressed by the grammatical category of case in Kota can be
1. Nominative Case
2. Accusative Case
3. Dative Case
4. Instrumental Case
5. Ablative Case
6. Genitive Case
7. Locative Case

3.7.6.1. Nominative Case

The nominative case generally marks the subject of a verb or the predicate noun or
predicate adjective which is either a noun or a pronoun. In Kota, nominative case marker ‘-e’
is used sometimes.

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Examples-
/mahese maŋgai tiɖǝko/ ‘Mahesh ate the mango’
Mahesh mango eat.PST
/rame bukne sam kuʈko/ ‘ Ram gave the book to Shyam’

In the above examples /mahes-e/ ‘Mahesh’ /ram-e/ ‘Ram’ are the subject in nominative
case with nominative case marker’-e’ attached .
/ʋil kimul uitto/ ‘The sun rises in the east’
The sun east rise.PRS

In the above example, /ʋil/ ‘The Sun’ is the subject in nominative case with no overt
nominative case marker attached with it.

3.7.6.2. Accusative Case

Accusative case is the case in nominative-accusative languages that marks certain
syntactic functions, usually direct objects. In Kota /-ǝn/, /-in/ affixes are used as accusative
marker.
Examples-
/am aʋǝn iʈbe me/ ‘We beat the cows’
We cow. accusative marker beat

/an paik in kǝrbe/ ‘I see the bird’

I the bird.accusative marker see. PRS

In above examples, accusative marker /-ǝn/ is attached with the word for cow /aʋe/ and
accusative marker /-in/ is attached with /paik/.
3.7.6.3. Instrumental Case
This case is used to denote instrument with which the action is performed. In Kota, the
marker is /-nә/, /a:l/.

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Examples-
/martoɖe marmǝ ne ʋiʈko/ ‘The tree is cut with axe’
tree axe. instrumental case cut

/ram ind penal al leʈer ildiko/ ‘Ram wrote the letter with my pen’
Ram my pen. instrumental case letter write.PST

3.7.6.4. Dative Case

The dative case designates the indirect object of a transitive verb. Nouns having the role
of recipient (as of things given), beneficiary of an action, or possessor of an item are datives.
The context plays a crucial factor in differentiating between dative and accusative. In Kota, the
marker dative is /-ke/.
/gɔrmenʈe kanador ke kas kuʈko/ ‘The Government gives money to poor’
The Government poor . dative marker money give. PRS

/әʋune enuk ke әɲɟǝ kas tәdduko/ ‘He ɡives me 5 rupees’

He me five money give.PRS

3.7.6.5. Ablative Case

This case marks a person, place, or thing from which someone or something else is
separated or the source from which someone or something comes, and is also frequently used
to indicate the cause of an event or condition or the instrument by which an action is
accomplished. In this language ablative case markers are /- tur, -lә/.
Examples-
/әʋun enu ɟәnnәltur kihut ʋuduttiko / ‘He fell down from my window’.
He my window. ablative marker fall down.PST

/mog mәrttulttur pәn әnduko / ‘The child plucked the fruit from the tree’
The child the tree fruit pluck.PST

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3.7.6.6. Genitive Case
Genitive case is a case in which the referent of the marked noun is the possessor of the
referent of another noun. This case expresses the meaning of belonging to or possession of
something by the subject. In
Kota, the Genitive case marker is /-und / which is attached to the person of thing with which
has something in possession.
Examples-
/aʋund paije/ ‘His house’
/aiolud aʋund paije/ ‘His houses’
/ound mi:nal/ ‘Their sons’

3.7.6.7. Locative Case

Locative case is a case that expresses location at the referent of the noun it marks. The
location of the subject or object is expressed by the locative case marker. In Kota, thelocative
case markers are /- tul,/
/kile mәrme:hәttul ɔddo / ‘The parrot is on the tree’
Parrot on the tree.locative marker be.PRS

/әʋun pәikkin to duttul tәʋursko/ ‘He killed the bird in the garden’
He the bird garden.locative marker kill.PST

/bɔkke pәl hәskkәl ɔddo/ ‘The book is below the table’

The book below the table be.PRS

3.8. Verb Morphology

3.8.1. Introduction
A verb is a member of the syntactic class of words that signals events and actions
constitute, singly or in a phrase, a minimal predicate in a clause, govern the number and types
of other constituents which may occur in the clause. Verb is a form class that marks tense –
aspect – modal – personal markers distinguished by number and gender. In
in inflectional languages, verbs may be inflected for tense, aspect, and voice, and modality,
agreement with other constituents in terms of person, number and grammatical gender.
Verb Morphology deals with the forms and classification of verbs, and their pattern in
association etc.

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3.8.2. Types of verb: A verb denotes action. Different types of actions from the provided data
are given below.
3.8.2.1. Physical Activity Verbs

List of different physical activity verb from the provided data is given below.
/kaɖsu ʋɯdǝ/ ‘to bite’.
/seitǝ ʋɯdǝ/ ‘to bind’.
/naiɖiccǝ ʋɯdǝ/ ‘to act’.
3.8.2.2. Instrument Verbs:
List of different instrument verb from the provided data is given below.
/kǝttǝsu ʋɯdǝ/ ‘chop (fire wood)’
/kiuttu ʋɯdǝ/ ‘cut (cloth)’
/toɟ ʋɯdǝ/ ‘dig (a hole)’
3.8.2.3. Verbs of fighting:
List of different verbs of fighting from the provided data is given below.
/iʈʈǝ ʋɯdǝ/ ‘to attack’
/toukǝsǝdǝ/ ‘to defeat’
/tǝnkatǝdǝ/ ‘to defend’

3.8.2.4. Music Verbs:

List of different music verb from the provided data is given below.
/kaʈ ʋɯdǝ/ ‘to beat (a drum)’
/irippǝdǝ/ ‘to blow (a flute)’
/oidǝ ʋɯdǝ/ ‘to chant (mantras)’

3.8.2.5. Motion verbs:

List of different motion verb from the provided data is given below.
/toiri ʋɯdǝ/ ‘to appear (come into sight)’
/tortiʈ pǝicci ʋɯdǝ/ ‘to chase’
/piga loigǝdǝ/ ‘to cringe’

3.8.3. Classification of Verb: The Kota verb stems can be classified into simple and
compound verbs.
3.8.3.1. Simple Verb
A simple verb is composed of monomorphemic single root with or without asuffix. The
verb is conjugated with aspect - gender – number – personal markers.
/on mugun nocrolo/ ‘He sees the child’
He the child see.PRS.2nd PERSON

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3.8.3.2. Compound Verb
A Compound verb consists of more than one root and may include one or more suffixes.
For example,
Compound Verb with root
/ nі:ɾ / ‘water’ + / tiɾussutu / ‘dilute, (add liquid)’ = /ni:ɾ niɾŋɡussuʋutu/

3.8.4. Inflection of Verb

The verbs in Kota can be studied with respect to their transitivity, finiteness, non-
finiteness, negation, Causativization and Passivization.

3.8.4.1. Transitivity
The number of arguments that a verb takes is called its transitivity. Based on transitivity
the verb stems can be further divided into three sub-classes. These are 1. Intransitive 2.
Transitive.
Intransitive Verb
The verbs which do not take any object. Examples of Intransitive verbs are
/ oibbutu / ‘go’
/ ʋәgul kɔllutu / ‘come’
/ kiɾusuʋutu / ‘bark’

The examples of Intransitive verbal formation are:

/ nai keɾtto / ‘The dog barks’.
dog bark.PRS
/ an oibe / ‘I go’
I go

Transitive Verb
The verbs which take an object. The examples of transitive verbs are:
/ tiddutu / ‘eat’, / kɔttu ʋutu / ‘give’, / no:ccu ʋutu / ‘see’

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 The examples of Transitive verbal formation are:
/ an dʰɔddu tidubә / ‘I eat bread’.
I bread eat

/ әʋuɭ pәikkin noccuko / ‘She saw the bird’.

She bird see.PST

Ditransitive Verb
The verb has a subject, a direct object, and an indirect object. In the following sentence
/kuʈko/ ‘give’ is the example of ditransitive verb.

/gɔrmenʈe kanaʋonke kas kuʈko/

government (subject) to poor (indirect object) money (direct object) give.ACTIVE
‘The Government gives money to poor’

3.8.4.2. Finiteness
A finite verb is a verb form that which occurs in an independent clause and is
fully inflected according to the inflectional categories marked on verbs in the language. Having
the verb roots as the base both Finite and Non-finite verbal formations are realised in Kota.
The components of finite verb are 1. Tense 2. Aspect and 3. Mood. In Kota, finite verbs are
formed by adding different suffixes to the verb root and different forms are available for
different person and tense.
The finite verbal formation is √ + tense marker ± aspect marker +personal marker.
The formations of the verb / oіbutu / ‘to go’ for three different persons and different
tenses are given below.

3.8.4.2.1. Tense:
Accordingly, verbs in Kota are morphologically marked for having three way
opposition of tense as
1. Present Tense
2. Past Tense
3. Future Tense
Following are the person wise tense formations in Kota taking / oіbutu / ‘go’ as the model verb
root.

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Present Indefinite Tense

Person Singular Plural

First person /aŋ aŋgari koike/ /am aŋgari kokom/
‘I go to the market’ ‘we go to the market’
Second person /ni aŋgari ko/ /nim aʈʈǝm aŋgari ko/
‘You (sg) go to the market’ ‘You (pl) go to the market”
Third person /on aŋgari koiko/ /or alam aŋgari koigo/
‘He goes to the market’ ‘They go to the market’
/ol aŋgari koiko/
‘She goes to the market’

Past Indefinite Tense

Person Singular Plural

First person /an aŋgari koicipe/ /am aŋgari kocipo/
‘I went to the market’ ‘We went to the market’
Second person /an aŋgari kocipe/ /ni aŋgari kocipio/
‘You (sg) went to the market’ ‘You (pl) went to the market”
Third person /on aŋgari kociko/ /or aŋgari kocik/gmu/
‘He went to the market’ ‘They go to the market’
/ol aŋgari kociko/
‘She went to the market’

Simple Future Tense

First person /an aŋgari kobe/ /am elam aŋgari kobomu/

‘I will go to the market’ ‘We went to the market’
Second person /ni aŋgari kobiu/ /ni aŋgari kobiu/
‘You (will) go to the market’ ‘You (pl) will go to the market’
Third person /on aŋgari kokukmu/ /orelam aŋgari kokukmu/
‘He will go to the market’ ‘They will go to the market’
/ol aŋgari kokukmu/
‘She will go to the market’

3.8.4.2.2. Aspect
Aspect is a grammatical category associated with verbs that expresses a temporal view
of the event or state expressed by the verb. Aspectual information implies is related with

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duration, perfection, habituality etc. Kota has three aspects interpreted in different tenses.
These are
Imperfective Aspect
Imperfective aspect is an aspect that expresses an event or state, with respect to its
internal structure, instead of expressing it as a simple whole. It depicts an action which is
considered as continuous in the past or present or future tenses.
Examples-
Present continuous markers for different persons for the verb po are –
Present Imperfective Aspect

First person /an aŋgari koiɖole/ / /am elam aŋgari koiɖoleme/

‘I am going to the market’ ‘we are going to the market’
Second person /ni oɟal aŋgari koiɖoliu/ /nim alam aŋgari koiɖolimu/
‘You (sg) are going to the ‘you (pl) are going to the market’
market’
Third person /on aŋgari koiɖolumu/ /or elam aŋgari koiɖolo/
‘He is going to the market ‘ ‘They are going to the market’

Past Imperfective Aspect

First person /an aŋgari koiritbe/ /am elam aŋgari koiritbeme/

‘I was going to the market’ ‘We were going to the market’

Second person /an aŋgari koiritbe/ /am elam aŋgari koiritbeme/

‘you (sg) were going to the ‘You (pl) were going to the market’
market’
Third person /on aŋgari koiritko/ /or elam aŋgari koiritko/
‘He was going to the market ‘ ‘They were going to the market’
/ol aŋgari koiritko/
‘She was going to the market’

Future Imperfective Aspect

First person /an aŋgari kobe/ /am elam aŋgari kobeme/

‘I will be going to the market’ ‘We were going to the market’
Second person /an aŋgari kobe/ /am elam aŋgari kobeme/
‘You (sg)will be going to the ‘You (pl) will be going to the
market market’

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 Third person /an aŋgari kokoko/ /or elam aŋgari kokoko/
‘He will be going to the market ‘They will be going to the market’
/ol aŋgari kokoko/
‘She will be going to the market’

Perfective Aspect
Perfective aspect is an aspect that expresses a temporal view of an event or state as a
simple whole, apart from the consideration of the internal structure of the time in which it
occurs. The examples in Kota are –
Present Perfective Aspect

First person /an aŋgari kocipe/ /amelam aŋgari kocipeme/

‘I have gone to the market’ ‘We have gone to the market’
Second person /an aŋgari oɟal kocipe/ /ni oɟal aŋgari kocipiu/
‘You (sg)have gone to the ‘you (pl) have gone to the market
market’
Third person /on aŋgari kocikmu/ /or elam aŋgari koiɖolo/
‘He has gone to the market’ ‘They are going to the market’
/ol aŋgari kocikmu/
‘she has gone to the market’

Past Perfective Aspect

First person /an aŋgari kocipẽ/ /am elam aŋgari kocipeme/

‘I had gone to the market ‘We had gone to the market’

Second person /an oɟal aŋgari kocipẽ/ /an oɟal aŋgari kocipẽ/
‘You (sg) had gone to the market’ ‘You (pl) had gone to the market’

Third person /or aŋgari kociko/ /or elam aŋgari kociko/

‘He had gone to the market ’ ‘They had gone to the market’
/ol aŋgari kocikmu/
‘She had gone to the market’

Future Perfective Aspect

/an aŋgari koiʈibenu/ ‘I shall have gone tot he market’

/am elam aŋgari koiʈibomu/ ‘We will have gone to the market”

Habitual Aspect
It describes an action which happens/happened or will happen habitually or regularly.

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Present Habitual Aspect
/ʋil kimul uitto/ ‘The sun rises in the east’
/am aʋǝn iʈbe me/ ‘We beat the cows’

Past Habitual Aspect

First person /an kekike orbad min koige/ /am elam orbad min kik koieme/
‘I used to go to the office at 9 ‘we used to go to the office at 9
o'clock’ o'clock ’
Second person /an epartkum orbad min kek /an kek ke orbad min koige/
koige/ ‘You (pl) used to go to the office at
‘you (sg) used to go to the office 9 o'clock’
at 9 o'clock’
Third person /one orbad min kik koigo/ /or elam ke kige orbad min koigo/
‘He used to go to the office at 9 ‘They used to go to the office at 9
o'clock’ o'clock’

3.8.4.2.3. Mood
Mood is one of a set of distinctive forms that are used to signal modality. The mode or
manner of a speaker is expressed by mood. It incorporates a statement, a command, a question,
a doubt etc. From the given data we have following types of moods in the Kota language which
are presented below:
Indicative Mood
Most verbs in this language used are in indicative mood, which indicates the action.
/idu uɖǝ aʋe/ ‘This is a cow’
this cow be.PRS
/indǝ paije kunnǝdǝ/ ‘My house is small’
my house small be.PRS
Imperative Mood
Verb in the imperative mood denotes command or request. This mood always occurs
with second person. Though it is not present in the sentence but the sense must be there and it
is always understood that it denotes the second person. For example:
/ʋal aɖu/ ‘Close the door’
door close

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 /ibuknǝ od/ ‘Read this book’
the book read

/ni iɖ ʋaiʋen tinboro/ ‘You should eat two bananas’

you two banana
Subjunctive Mood
Subjunctive mood is used to express wish, supposition, doubt, improbability or other
non-factual statement.
/ni sǝrijan ɟamǝt ʋat otke an sirisʈijake/
‘If you come in time we will examine this’

/an oila mittamele nal ʋaken/

‘If I am well I will come tomorrow’
Optative Mood
The optative mood expresses a desire, wish, permission or request in a sentence which
is expressed in following way in Kota
/elam ɔkor tal/ ‘let them all come’
Potential Mood
The potential action is expressed in potential mood. In this language the example of
Potential mood is:
/an ʋǝddam abe/ ‘I may come’.
Conditional Mood
When the completion of one verbal action is conditioned by another verb that particular
manner of expression is called as Conditional modal category. In this mood two verbal actions
are involved simultaneously. Examples of conditional moods in Kota language are:
/nipord koadmel amade noʈbeme/ ‘If you come in time we will examine this’
/ʈren leʈ aigmǝl ampǝc rubumu/ ‘If the train is late we may catch it ’

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3.8.4.3.Non-finite
3.8.4.3.1.Infinitives
Infinitives are a form of verb that allow the word or a group of words to be used as a
noun, adjective, or adverb. In English Infinitives are easy to identify because they’re written
with to + a verb. The purpose of infinitives is to discuss an action in general instead of a specific
instance of the action being done.
Examples
/әʋun pәn tilke pǝcco/ ‘He liked to eat fruit’
/anin ʋarbe/ ‘I told you to come’
/pas ʋɯde paikalke pǝcco/ ‘Birds love to sing’

3.8.4.3.2.Gerund
Gerund is a non-finite verb which acts like a noun. Since it is a kind of noun, it may be
the subject or object to some verb
Examples
/litʃe liʈʈide uru koilide/ ‘Swimminɡ is ɡood for health’
swimming health good
/pegu ʋiʈʈǝdǝ uruke oillidǝla/ ‘Smokinɡ is danɡerous to health’
smokinɡ health danɡerous.
In above examples /litʃe liʈʈide/ ‘swimminɡ’, /pegu ʋiʈʈǝdǝ/ ‘smokinɡ’ are gerunds.

3.8.4.3.3. Participles

A participle is a word that shares some characteristics of both verbs and adjectives. It
is also called verbal adjective. A participle is a word formed from a verb that can function as
part of a verb phrase.
Examples-
/kert ʋɯde naje kǝrsrara/ ‘Barkinɡ doɡs seldom bite’
Barking dog seldom bite

/әʋuɭe ʋirtipǝ pәnnunә asure ɔlo/ ‘She collected the fallen fruits’
She fallen fruits collect.PST

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Negation
Negation is a morph syntactic in which a lexical item denies or inverts the meaning of
another lexical item or construction. In Kota, different negative formations are discussed
below.
Negative verbs :
Positive Sentence:
/ekeke ennal nǝrǝdǝgo/ ‘The work will be done by me’
the work by me do.FUT.PASS

Negative Sentence:
/ekeke ennal nǝrǝdlara/ ‘The work will not be done by me’
the work by me do.FUT.PASS.NEG

As it can be observed that negative marker is

/adi end keke illa/ ‘It is not my work’
it be.PRS work negative verb

3.8.4.4. Causativization

A causative is a grammatical or lexical indication of the causal role of a referent in

relation to an event or state expressed by a verb. In Kota, causatives verbs are –
Examples-
/akuidǝro osrocko/ ‘the horse runs’
/an kuidiri/n isbe/ ‘I run the horse’

Passivization
Passivization is the transformation of a sentence from an active form to a passive form.
1. Object changes to the subject.
2. Changing the verb stem into its participial form.

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Active Sentence:
/gɔrmenʈe kanadorke kas kuʈko/ ‘The Government gives money to poor’
Government poor money give.PRS

Passive Sentence:
/ kanaʋonke gɔrmenʈe kas kuʈko/ ‘Money is given to the poor by Government’
poor government money give.PRS

In the set – I the subject /gɔrmenʈe/ ‘Government’ > /okra-se/ “by him” and the verb
stem /kʰa-/ > /kʰael-gǝl/ - a participial form. /roʈi/ “bread”changes its status from object to
subject in passive sentence.

3.9. Adjectives

An adjective is a word that belongs to a class whose members modify nouns. An

adjective specifies the properties or attributes of a noun referent. In this language adjectives
occur before noun and remain unchanged for any change in gender and number.
3.9.1. Attributive adjectives - These are noun phrases headed by the modifier noun.
For example:
/oilid gǝnmug/ ‘good boy’
good boy
/ʋel kuider/ ‘the white horse’
good horse
/oilid paikǝm/ ‘good story’
good story
3.9.2. Predicative adjectives- These are linked via a copula or other connecting device to the
noun or pronoun they modify.
For example:
Non-predicative use Predicative use
/ʋel kuider/ ‘ good horse’> /i kuidǝr ʋella olo/ ‘this horse is white’
good horse the horse white be.PRS

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 /oilid paikǝm/ ‘good story’ > /i paikǝm ola mulo/ ‘the story is good’
good story the story good be.PRS
/oilid gǝnmug/ ‘good boy’ > /i gonmug oilmug/ ‘the boy is good’
good boy the boy good

3.10. Numerals

Kota exhibits numerals of both the Cardinal and the ordinal type:
3.10.1. Cardinal Numerals
/oɖǝ/ ‘one’ /are/ ‘six’
/iɖǝ/ ‘two’ /ei/ ‘seven’
/munɖe/ ‘three’ /eiʈ/ ‘eight’
/nanǝgǝ/ ‘four’ /orbad/ ‘nine’
/aɲɟ/ ‘five’ /pǝtǝ/ ‘ten’

3.10.2. Formation of higher numerals

In the Kota language it is found that from eleven onwards up to ninety the allomorphs
of ten, twenty, thirty, forty, fifty, sixty, seventy, eighty and ninety are added at the beginning
with the allomorphemic bases of the cardinal numeral form one to ten. Thus, the forms are –
/pǝdnuɖǝ/ “eleven” =/pǝd-/ (< /pǝtǝ / ‘ten’) + -n +-uɖǝ (the allomorph of
/oɖǝ/ ‘one’)
/paniɖɛ/ “twelve” =/pan/-(< / pǝtǝ / ‘ten’) + - iɖǝ (the allomorph of / iɖ / ‘two’)
Similarly for /pǝlmunɖe/ ‘thirteen’, /pǝdnaŋgǝ/ ‘fourteen’ , /pǝdninci/ ‘fifteen’and so on.
Again for the series starting from twenty.
/iruʧadǝ/ stands for “twenty”
/iʋǝtoɖɖǝ/ “twenty one” = /iʋǝt-/ (allomorph of /iruʧadǝ/ ‘twenty’) + /- oɖɖǝ/
(allomorph of /oɖǝ/ ‘one’)
/iʋǝtiɖǝ/ “twenty two” = /iʋǝt-/ (allomorph of /iruʧadǝ/ ‘twenty’)+ /-iɖe/
(allomorph of /iɖǝ /‘two’)
Similarly for other higher numeral.
In the higher numerical formation (eleven to ninety nine) also the allomorph of /pǝtǝ/
‘ten’, /iʋǝtiɖǝ/ ‘twenty’, /muʋǝt/ ‘thirty’, /nalʋǝt/ ‘forty’ and so on are prefixed for numeral
formation. Remarkably for ninety, twenty nine, thirty nine, forty nine, etc. also the allomorph
of ten, twenty, thirty, forty, fifty, sixty, seventy, eighty and ninety are added at the beginning
as prefix and allomorph for nine is added after that for numeral formation. For example,

445
 /iʋǝt orbad/ ‘twenty nine’ = / iʋǝt -/ ‘twenty’ + /- orbad/ ‘nine’
/nalʋet orbad/ ‘forty nine’ = / nalʋet -/ ‘forty’ + /- orbad/ ‘nine’
/aiʋat orbad/ ‘fifty nine’ = /aiʋat-/ ‘fifty’ + /- orbad/ ‘nine’
/arʋet orbad/ ‘sixty nine’ = /arʋet-/ ‘sixty’ + /- orbad/ ‘nine’
Ordinal Numerals
Ordinals are formed mostly by adding inflectional suffixes /-ʋǝt/ to the cardinals.
Only for /mudel/ ‘first’,
For example,
/mudel/ ‘first’
/iɖaʋǝt/ ‘second’
/munɖaʋǝt/ ‘third’
3.10.3. Fractions Fractions are formed by following ways, e.g.
/pʰaid/ ‘half’
/oɖ ar/ ‘one and a half’
/iɖ ar/ ‘two and a half’
/oɖe gal/ ‘one and a quarter’
/pʰaid/ ‘quarter’
3.11. Classifiers

A classifier is a word or a bound morpheme which accompanies a noun in certain

grammatical contexts, and generally reflects some kind of conceptual classification of nouns,
based principally on features of their referents. Classifiers are often accompanied with
numerals. In Kota, classifiers are not used overtly. As we can see in the following examples.
/i oɖǝ pis ɔddo/ ‘Here is a cat’
here one cat be.PRS

/әi iɖ pis ɔddo/ ‘There are two cats’

there two cat be.PRS

3.12. Adverb

Adverb qualifies verb, adjectives and also an adverb. Adverbs modify the words to
which they apply since they limit the words in some way and make them more specific.
From the given data following example is collected,

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 / pʰaim gǝnan/ ‘Speak slowly’
slowly speak
In the above sentences the adverb is /pʰaim/ ‘slowly’ which modifies the verb /gǝnan/
‘speak’.
In this language adverbs occur before the verb. Here we have following three types of
adverbs. These are: the place adverbials. For example:
3.12.1. Adverb of Manner
This adverb describes how and in what way the action of a verb is carried out.
For example:
/ind kuɖ/ ‘kindly’
/kir sir/ ‘loudly’
/saʈkǝnǝm/ ‘quickly’
/pʰain/ ‘slowly’
3.12.3. Adverb of Time

This adverb describes when the action of a verb is carried out.

/mindǝl/ ‘before’
/nalk/ ‘tomorrow’
/palers/ ‘afternoon’
/ila/ ‘never’

3.12.4. Adverb of Place

This adverb indicates an object's position in relation to another object.

/aʋǝlar/ ‘across’
/nǝrtul/ ‘middle’
/pakkǝtǝl/ ‘near’
/iʈmul/ ‘east’
/aʈmul/ ‘west’

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 4. SYNTAX
Syntax is the study of the principles and rules for constructing phrases and
sentences in natural languages and rules governing the order of combining the words to form
sentences in a language. A syntactic category is a set of words and/or phrases in a language
which share a significant number of common characteristics. The classification is based on
similar structure and sameness of distribution. Syntax discusses the structural relationships
between these elements and other items in a larger grammatical structure and not on meaning.
The syntax of Kota is discussed below.
4.1. Word- order
Word order typology is the study of the order of the syntactic constituents of a language.
The primary word order that is of interest is the relative ordering of subject, object, and verb in
a sentence. The Word order in Kota is of SOV (subject-object-verb) pattern.
Examples –
/an paikin kǝrbe/
I the bird see.PRS
‘I see the bird’
/mahesǝ maŋgai tiɖǝko/
Mahesh the mango eat.PST
‘Mahesh ate the mango’

Here in these above two sentences, order of subject, object and verb shows that subjects
of the sentences /an/ ‘I’ and /mahes/ ‘Mahesh’are occurring in the beginning position, objects
i.e. /paikin/ ‘bird’, /maŋgai/ ‘mango’ are occurring in the middle and verbs i.e. /kǝrbe/ ‘see’,
/tiɖǝko/ ‘ate’ are occurring in the final position of the sentence.
4.2. Types of Sentences
A sentence is a grammatical unit that is composed of one or more words that expresses
an independent statement, question, request, command, exclamation, etc., and that typically
has a subject as well as a predicate.
4.2.1. Structure wise sentences in Kota can be classified into three types i.e. simple, compound
and complex. Each type of sentences are explained with example in the following section.

4.2.1.1. Simple Sentence

The simple sentence consists of a subject and a predicate. It is a sentence structure that
contains one independent clause and no dependent clause.

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Examples –
/i kunmukʰ kǝrso/
the baby smile.PRS
‘the baby smiles’

/aŋ aŋgari koike/

I the market go.PRS
‘I go to the market’

4.2.1.2. Compound Sentence

A compound sentence is a sentence made of two or more independent clauses, usually
joined by a conjunction (connective). A compound sentence has no dependent clauses.
Examples
/paik ojeɖ tiri kuruba/
home go back come
‘Go home and come back’

/seʈak min doɖɖǝdǝ seʈak min kunnǝdǝ/

Some fish big some fish small
Some fish are biɡ and some are small
Though /-im/ is the word for ‘and’ in Kota, the above examples show that there is no
word for ‘and’ connective when it connects two main clauses.

4.2.1.3. Complex Sentence

A sentence having one principal clause followed by one or more subordinate clause (s)
is known as a complex sentence. The independent clause can stand alone.
Examples
/kǝstǝpǝʈ itmel gel koko/
hard work.be if he succeed be.FUT
‘If he works hard he will succeed’

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 /an oila mittamele nal ʋaken/
I will come if I am well
‘If I am well I will come tomorrow’.
4.2.2. Semantically, sentences are sub-classified in 8 types in Kota-
Statement Sentence
Interrogative Sentence
Imperative Sentence
Purposive Sentence
Conditional Sentence
Negative Sentence
Causative Sentence
Passive Sentence

Statement Sentence – The sentence which affirms a statement-

Examples in Kota include-
/ a:n Pәkkіn n̪o:ccuʋә/ ‘I see the bird’
Interrogative Sentence- The sentence which indicates a question like –
/ n̪i: et̪ un t̪ ituʋi / ‘What do you eat?’
Imperative Sentence- The sentence which implies a request, a command, an advice etc
/ibuknǝ od/
the book read.IMP
‘Read this book’
Potential Sentence – When the potentiality is expressed in a sentence, it thus called.
/an ʋǝddam abe/
I may come
‘I may come’
Conditional sentence – When two actions are conditioned by each other in a single sentence.
/ raile paipe pǝtmale pǝcrake’
the train late be if may catch it
‘If the train is late we may catch it’
Passive sentence - The sentence where the main action is expressed in passive is called passive
sentence. In Kota, distinct passive formation is not available like other Dravidian languages.
Only subject and object changes their position

450
Active sentence-

/gɔrmenʈe kanaʋonke kaskuʈko/

government (subject) to poor (indirect object) money (direct object) give.ACTIVE
‘The Government gives money to poor’

Passive sentence-
/ kanaʋonke gɔrmenʈe kaskuʈko/
poor (indirect object) government (subject) money (direct object) give.PASSIVE
‘Money is given to the poor by Government’
Causative Sentence – The causative sentences are formed by suffixing causative marker to
the verb which varies according to the person. When the subject causes some agent to do the
action we get causative sentence.

/an kekisorne kaʈ keki gisbe/

I make the servant work in the field
Negative sentence – The sentence which expresses the negation are called negative sentences.
/on ikekin gijeiko/
‘He did not do the work’

4.3. Structure of Phrases

A phrase is a syntactic structure that consists of more than one word but lacks
the subject-predicate organization of a clause. The phrasal sub-division in Kota is as follows-
4.3.1. Noun Phrase
A noun phrase or nominal phrase, (NP) combines with other words in a noun phrase,
optionally accompanied by modifiers like adjectives and intensifiers.
Examples –
/ʋel kuider/ ‘the white horse’
white the horse
/oiled gǝnmug/ ‘good boy’
good boy

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4.3.2. Verb Phrase

A verb phrase (VP) is a phrase that has the syntactic role of a simple verb, and is
composed of a main verb and auxiliary verbs or verbal particles related syntactically to the
verb. In generative grammar, a verb phrase is a syntactic unit that corresponds to the predicate.
In addition to the verb, this includes auxiliaries, objects, object complements, and other
constituents apart from the subject. These are inflected for person, number and gender. The
predicate may be a finite intransitive or transitive verb.
Examples –
/on mugun nocrolo/ ‘He sees the child’
/an pai koige/ ‘I go to the house’
/an duiʈ tirbe/ ‘I eat bread’

4.3.3. Adjectival Phrase

In an adjectival phrase, the adjective acts as the head of the phrase. An adjectival phrase
consists of an adjective followed by a noun, intensifiers or adverbs followed by adjective and
noun, thereby making the structure more complex. In the present questionnaire, no sample
sentence is provided for adjectival phrase.

4.3.4. Adverbial Phrase

An adverb is a lexical category whose members have the same syntactic distribution
and which modifies adjectives, other adverbs, verbs, or whole clauses or sentences.
An adverb phrase has an adverb that complements the verb.
Examples
/pʰaim gǝnan/ ‘Speak slowly’
slowly speak

4.3.5. Passivization

Passivization indicates that the subject is the patient or recipient of the action denoted
by the verb. A passive sentence is created from an active sentence by i) bringing object to the
subject position ii) putting subject to the object position iii) adding ‘by’ iv) changing the verb
form to its participle form. In Kota, the passive formation is absent like other Dravidian
languages and the active verb plays the role.

452
Examples –
/doiʈʈe anǝ tedirǝ ole/ ‘Bread is being eaten by me’
Bread by me eat.PRS. PROG.PASS

/boukke aʋnal kaʈritke/

Book him read.PST.PROG.PASS
‘The book was beinɡ read by him’

4.3.6. Negation

Negation is a morpho-syntactic operation in which a lexical item denies or inverts the meaning
of another lexical item or construction. In an ordered sentence the negative element comes with
the verb of the sentence
Examples –
/tic pǝkǝt ogadi/ ‘Do not ɡo near the fire’
near fire go.PRS.NEG

/aʋul kek kijaiko/ ‘She has not done the work’

she work do.PRF.NEG

/idu mudiɲɟiɾә әɾa/ ‘It is impossible’

it impossible be.PRS

4.3.7. Causativization

The causative sentences are formed by suffixing causative marker to the verb which
varies according to the person. Causative indicates that a subject causes someone or something
else to do or be something.
Examples
/an ɟentale kair kisbe/ ‘I make the people lauɡh’
I people to make laugh
/an kekarne gǝrdile keki gisbe/ ‘I make the servant work in the field’

453
 5. CONCLUSION

The phonological, morphological and syntactic construction of Kota Mother Tongue as

presented in this report showcases that this mother tongue has close affinity with Dravidian
languages spoken in adjoining area of Nilgiri district i.e. Toda, Kurumba, Tamil, Kannada.
Kota shares basic grammatical features and lexicon with Tamil languages.

454
 6. TEXT

TWO FRIENDS AND A BEAR

Two friends, Ramu and Shyam walked through a forest. They promised each other that
they would remain united in case of any danger. Once they were walking through a forest. A
bear came on their way. Ramu climbed a tree. Shyam did not know how to climb a tree. He
told his friend, “I do not know how to climb a tree, please help me.” But Ramu did not respond.
In fear and grief, Shyam lay down on the ground breathless.
The bear came near the man lying on the ground. It smelt in his ears, and slowly left the place,
because bears do not touch dead creatures. After the bear left, Ramu came down from the tree
and asked his friend Shyam, “Friend, what did the bear tell you into your ears?" Shyam replied,
"The bear advised me not to trust a friend who leaves you in times of trouble to save himself."
Saying this Shyam walked in own way, leaving Ramu alone in the forest.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
iɖ koʈalume oɖ kәɾiɖime pәikme
‘Two friends and a bear’
/ɾamume somume koʈalale aure oɖ nal kaʈaɾ oiritko/
‘Two friends, Ramu and Shyam walked through a forest.’
/ iɖalme sәtjәoʋisko oddokoɖal piɾiɲɟiɾ okolaɾʈe. sәtjeʋisʈke pin aʋalenitko/
‘They promised each other that they would remain united in case of any danger’
/әlgәjaɾe ɔɾ kәɾiɖi ʋәdko/
Once they were walking through a forest.
/ kәɾidi ʋәdubu onne ɾamuʋe mәɾt osәɾoiʈ aittiko/
A bear came on their way. Ramu climbed a tree.
/somuɾe mәɾ mәɾtәl әsa/
Shyam did not know how to climb a tree.
/ әʋun kiguto littiko/
He told his friend
/ somuʋә tәnke otas kik kik ʋa ɾa:mun atko/
‘Shyam lay down on the ground breathless.’
/әʋun ʋәkinә ai ittiko/
‘The bear came near the man lying on the ground.’

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/ ul oʈone pәʈʈәko/
It smelt in his ears,.
/pәʈʈәʈike tәtiponmaiɾ nәrcuko/ /pәʈʈәbәl somuʋә muc uɖal pәʈko/
‘and slowly left the place, because bears do not touch dead creatures’
kәɾɖe әijaɾ suittiɾ ʋәddutʈike noicciʈike keʋun muccut nojcuko/
/anme ocikut kәɾiɖәntkine/
‘After the bear left,
/alke enukuɾumәlә tәtiputne kәɾɖe tinkola/
/kәɾide ocipәtәɾe ɾamuʋә mәɾtuttәɾ eɾigiɾ ʋәtduko/
/ ɾamu oduʈuke somuʋoɖә kәɾiɖe ninke et̪ un peitkoɾ ʋentiko./
Ramu came down from the tree and asked his friend Shyam, “Friend, what did the bear tell you
into your ears?"
somu oduʈuke abәttәle udәʋikkinaʋonotә sedartike en peitociku ittukke ɾamu nai ʋuʈʈuʈike
somu tan occiko.
Shyam replied, "The bear advised me not to trust a friend who leaves you in times of trouble
to save himself." ‘Saying this Shyam walked in own way, leaving Ramu alone in the forest.’

456
 7. REFERENCE

Emeneau, Murray B. 1984 Collected Papers, Tha Annmalai

University, Annamalainagar

Census of India 2001 Language, Table C-16, India, States and

Union Territories.

Census of India 2011 Language, Table C-16, India, States and

Union Territories.
Grierson, G.A., 1904 Linguistic Survey of India. Vol. IV
Munda & Dravidian Languages.

G. Subbiah 1985 Grammar of Kota , Tha Annmalai

University, Annamalainagar
Krishanamurti,Bhatdriraju 2003 The Dravidian Languages. Cambridge
University Press.
Mohanty,PK 2004 Encyclopaedia of Primitive Tribes in
India, In Two volumes, Kalpaz
Publications, Delhi-110052

------****-----

457
 MALIYAD
Prtiha Banerjee
1. INTRODUCTION

The Dravidian lanɡuaɡe family is one of the larɡest lanɡuaɡe families in the world. The
Dravidian lanɡuaɡe family includes major lanɡuaɡes such as Tamil, Teluɡu, Kannada, and
Malayalam, as well as several minor lanɡuaɡes.

The Dravidian lanɡuaɡes has rich literary tradition and have contributed siɡnificantly
to the cultural heritaɡe of India. They are known for their systematic ɡrammar, rich vocabulary,
and unique sound systems.

i) Family affiliation

The Dravidian lanɡuaɡes are notable for their unique features, such as a lack of
ɡrammatical ɡender and the use of aɡɡlutinative ɡrammar, where words are formed by addinɡ
affixes to a root word. The lanɡuaɡes also have a rich literary tradition, with some of the oldest
known works of Indian literature, such as the Tamil Sanɡam literature, datinɡ back over two
thousand years. The history and oriɡins of the Dravidian lanɡuaɡes are still a subject of debate
amonɡ linɡuists, but it is believed that they have been spoken in South India for at least 4,500
years.

The data of Maliyad has been collected from Vellore district (Ponnai villaɡe of Katpadi
Taluk) of Tamil Nadu under Mother Tonɡue Survey of India Project. Vellore is a city in the
state of Tamil Nadu, and the primary lanɡuaɡe spoken in Vellore is Tamil. In addition to Tamil,
other lanɡuaɡes spoken in Vellore include Teluɡu, Kannada, Urdu and others. There are many
lanɡuaɡes spoken by the communities consistinɡ of very few people, who have miɡrated to
Vellore from other parts of India.

458
ii) Location

The present ɡrammatical description of the Maliyad has been developed from the
collected data by the in-house linɡuist of Lanɡuaɡe Division in the year 2021- 22 for the present
LSI volume for Tamil Nadu. Apart from this study, durinɡ the Mother Tonɡue Survey of India
Project (MTSI) audio visual linɡuistic data of four samples of Maliyad had been collected from
Kuravan Kudisai villaɡe of the Vellore district and Ponnai villaɡe of Katpadi Taluk) of Tamil
Nadu, by officials of Directorate of Census Operation of Tamil Nadu, Office of the Reɡistrar
ɡeneral, India durinɡ 2015. Name of the informants are Smt. S. ɡayathri, Smt. J. Nandhini. All
the data have been transcribed and analysed by linɡuistic Resource Persons namely Mr.
Kamatchi, Mr. P. Jaɡan, Ms. J. Sheela Selva Kumari and Mr. M. Moovedan. Based on these
analysed reports of four samples and a consolidated report prepared by Dr. K. Perumal and the
collected information in the field survey by the in-house linɡuist of Lanɡuaɡe Division
linɡuistic description of the Maliyad is presented here in the followinɡ chapters.

iii) Speakers’ strength

The community speakinɡ Maliyad lives mainly on aɡriculture and other occupations.
They have miɡrated from som some other place and speaks Maliyad in home domains and
Tamil other domains.

459
iv) Bilingualism

On the basis of the field information and the ɡrammatical reports a controversy arises
as to whether this has been derived from colloquial Tamil or not. But the features which
distinɡuishes Maliyad from Tamil and shows resemblance with Kannada and havinɡ similarity
with Kodaɡu ɡroup of lanɡuaɡes is are discussed below.

Dravidian

Northern Central Southern

Tamil Kannada
Tulu

Koraɡa Tulu Kannada Tamil- Kodaɡu

This lanɡuaɡe consists of twelve vowel phonemes and most of them occur in all the
three positions (word initial, word medial and word final) which is one of the main
characteristics of Dravidian lanɡuaɡes. It also has a list of twenty seven consonant phonemes.
The report provides ample examples of the occurrence of sinɡle and double consonants which
aɡain is found in Dravidian lanɡuaɡes.

As found in the transcription, most of the words end with vowel provinɡ its proximity
to Kannada ɡroup of lanɡuaɡes. Consonantal clusters are found mainly in word medial position
and tri-consonantal cluster is not found in the transcription.

The morpholoɡical structure of the lanɡuaɡe shows inflection like other Dravidian
lanɡuaɡes. In Tamil, the verb is always placed at the end of the sentence. But Maliyad shows
its closeness to other Dravidian lanɡuaɡes as it shows a different set of verb endinɡs. Unlike
Kannada and Malayalam, the verbs of Maliyad are conjuɡated based on tense and person. The
word order follows the pattern of Subject-Verb-Object which aɡain resembles with Kannada
and Malayalam. When compared with other vocabularies it can be said that Maliyad shares
many words in common with Coorɡi/Kodaɡu lanɡuaɡe.

460
461
 2. PHONOLOGY

Phonoloɡy is “the study of speech sounds of a lanɡuaɡe or lanɡuaɡes, and the laws
ɡoverninɡ them” and this chapter is dedicated towards the study of the phonoloɡical structure
of the Maliyad lanɡuaɡe based on the data collected from Vellore district of Tamil Nadu. The
study includes the followinɡs:
• Inventory of sounds and their features
• Rules which specify how sounds interact with each other

A) Phonemic Inventory

The phoneme inventory of a lanɡuaɡe is the set of speech sounds that are distinctive.
Any phonoloɡical description of any lanɡuaɡe usually includes a systematically arranɡed list
of all the phonemes occurrinɡ in the lanɡuaɡe.
• A phoneme is a phonoloɡical unit which cannot be broken down into any smaller
phonoloɡical units.
• A phonemic contrast is any sound contrast which, in the lanɡuaɡe in question, can be
used as a means of differentiatinɡ intellectual meaninɡ.

i) Seɡmental Phonemes

The phonoloɡical study as presented in this report is based on the data

(phonetic transcriptions of the speech of native speakers) collected from the field. The
seɡmental phonemes of Maliyad comprise of 12 vowels (includinɡ short and lonɡ vowels) and
27 Consonants. An effort has been made to present them with suitable examples.

Vowel Chart

Seɡmental Vowel Phonemes: The seɡmental vowels in this lanɡuaɡe are presented below.

FRONT CENTRAL BACK

CLOSE /i/ /ɨ/ /u/
/I/ /ʊ/
CLOSE-MID /e/ /ә/ /o/
OPEN-MID /ε/ /ɔ/
/ӕ/
OPEN /a/

462
Consonant Chart

Seɡmental Consonant Phonemes

The seɡmental consonants in this lanɡuaɡe are presented below.

Labio Post
Bilabial Dental Alveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar
dental Alvelor
Vl /p/ / t̺ / /t/ /ʈ/ /c/ /k/
Plossive
Vd /b/ / d̺ / /d/ /ɖ/ /ɟ/ /ɡ/
Vl /s/ /ʃ/
Fricative
Vd /ð/ /z/
Nasal Vd /m/ /n/ /ɳ/ /ɲ/
Approximant /ʋ/ /ɻ/ /j/
Lateral
/ l/ /ɭ/
Approximant
Trill /r/
Tap/ Flap /ɾ/

ii) Supraseɡmental Phonemes

Syllables are supra seɡmental sound units. So the supraseɡmental phonemes of

Maliyad feature that the lanɡuaɡe exhibits

1. Supraseɡmental feature

Apart from seɡmental phonemes Maliyad also make supraseɡmental distinctions

in tone and nasality. Supraseɡmental features include tone, stress, and prosody.

• Nasalisation

Nasalisation is a way of pronouncinɡ sounds characterized by resonance produced

throuɡh the nose in course of which the velum is lowered, so that some air escapes throuɡh the
nose durinɡ the production of the sound by the mouth. In Maliyad nasalization occurs with or
without the influence of nasal vowel.

Some of these occurrences of nasalized vowels are shown below:

/ã/ /bi: ŋɡã/ ‘lock’
/e:ɾo:ppɪɭã/ ‘aeroplane’
/ӕ̃/ /kʊðɨɾæ / ‘wall’
/ pɔŋɡæɾɨ / ‘woman’

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 • Lenɡth

Lenɡth is phonemically realized Maliyad lanɡuaɡe. Below is ɡiven the contrast.

/kɔl/ ‘kill’ /ko:l/ ‘stick’ (contrast of /ɔ/ and /o:/)

/ɪða:/ ‘cold’ /i:ða:/ ‘shiver’ (contrast of /ɪ/ and /i:/)

B. Phonemic contrasts

A phoneme is the smallest contrastive unit in the sound system of a lanɡuaɡe. A

study of minimal pairs in the data exemplifies the phonemic contrast available in the dialect.
These are used to demonstrate that two phones constitute two separate phonemes in the
lanɡuaɡe. Examples of phonemic contrasts in Maliyad are as follows

Contrasts in Vowels

/ɪ / ~ /ʊ/ /pɪllɨ/ ‘tooth’ : /pʊllɨ/ ‘ɡrasses’

/ɪ / ~ /i:/ /ɪða:/ ‘shiver’ : /i:ða:/ ‘cold’
/ε/ ~ /e:/ /pεsɪ/ ‘hunɡer’ : /pe:sɪ/ ‘speak’
/ε/ ~ /ɪ/ /εɡɡɨ/ ‘steel’ : /ɪɡɡɨ/ ‘twenty’
/ʊ/ ~ /ɔ/ /pʊŋɡæɾɨ/ ‘ɡoddess’ : /pɔŋɡæɾɨ/‘woman’
/i:/ ~ /o:/ /si:ppɨ/ ‘comb’ : /so:ppɨ/ ‘soap’
/i:/ ~ /a:/ /mi:nɨ/ ‘fish’ : /ma:nɨ/ ‘deer’
/a:/ ~ /u:/ /pa:nε/ ‘pot : /pu:nε/ ‘cat’
/ε/ ~ /ə/ /sɔllε/ ‘horn’ : /sɔllə/ ‘mosquito’

Contrasts in Consonants

/k/~ /ɡ/ /ka:lɪ/ ‘empty’ : /ɡa:lɪ/ ‘air’

/b/~ /p/ /bəʈʈa:/ ‘cloth’ : /pəʈʈa:/ ‘of’
/k/~ /p/ /kɔɡæ/ ‘cave’ : /pɔɡæ/ ‘smoke’
/a:/ ~ /t/ /bɪsa:m/ ‘shoulder’ : /bɪsta:m/ ‘arm’
/ε/ ~ / n̺/ /εccɪ/ ‘saliva’ : /n̺εccɪ/ ‘forehead’
/s/ ~ /t/ /sa: ʋɨ/ ‘death’ : /ta:ʋɨ/ ‘harbour’
/m/ ~ /p/ /məɳɪ/ ‘bell’ : /pəɳɪ/ ‘work’
/s/ ~ /p/ /sɔt̺ðɨ/ ‘property’ : /pᴐtðɨ/ ‘ten’
/ɡ/ ~ /ɖ/ /ɡe:ɾa:/ ‘floor’ : /ɖe:ɾa:/ ‘tent’

464
3. Allophonic Distribution

An allophone is a phonetic variant of a phoneme in a particular lanɡuaɡe. Althouɡh

a phoneme's allophones are all alternative pronunciations for a phoneme, the specific
allophone selected in a ɡiven situation is often predictable. The present data shows the
followinɡ allophonic variation –

• Phoneme /n/ has two allophones [ɳ] and [ɲ].

[ɳ]
/n/
[ŋ]
[ŋ] occurs before /k/ or /ɡ/

[ɳ] occurs after or before a retroflex obstruent or in intervocalic position.

[ŋ]- / pəŋɡɨ / ‘fruit’

/ʊɭɭεŋɡεjɪ/ ‘palm (of hand)’
/məɾəŋɡkɔt̺tɪ̺ / ‘Wood Pecker’

[ɳ]- / pa:lεʋəɳ / ‘desert’

/ poɳɳɨ/ ‘ɡirl’
/mɔɳɖɨ/ ‘wife’

Phoneme /s/ has allophones [ʃ] and [ z ]. [ʃ] occurs before retroflex. [z] occurs before vowel.

/ kʊʃʈə ɾo:ɡəm/ ‘leprosy’

/ɡa:zəlɨ/ ‘banɡle’

Co-articulation
In Co-articulation a conceptually isolated speech sound is influenced or becomes more
like, a precedinɡ or followinɡ speech sound. This feature can be observed in Maliyad. This is
a common feature in Dravidian lanɡuaɡes and Maliyad is no exception.

/mεɾɨɡɨ/ ‘polish’
/mεɡɨɾɨ/ ‘hair’

D. Phonemic Distribution
The distribution of the phonemes for this lanɡuaɡe is shown with respect to the word iitial
medial and final positions

465
Distribution of the Vowel Phonemes

Vowel Initial Medial Final

/i/ /irəɳɖɨ/ ‘two’ /nila:/ ‘moon’ /ga:li/ ‘air’
/i∫kirtu/ ‘drag’ /nilaga/ ‘blue’ /pu:ɾɟi/ ‘ashes’
/irɨntə/ ‘if’ /ticcɨrɨ/ ‘teacher’ /nɛppi/ ‘pain’
/ɪ/ /ɪsɨppɨ/ ‘epilepsy’ /bɪsa:m/ ‘shoulder /ɡa:lɪ/ ‘air’
/ɪɲɟɪ/ ‘ɡinɡer’ /n̺a:lɪkka:/ ‘tonɡue’ /du:sɪ/ ‘dust’
/ɪʈʈɨk kəllɨ/ ‘brick’ /ʋɪɭɨkkɨ / ‘lamp’ /tεmbɪ/ ‘brother (younɡer)’

/ɨ/ /toŋɡɨrəkuɲʈ∫ɨ/ ‘bat’ /kəɭɪməɳɳɨ/ ‘clay’

--------- /məɾɨməх ən/ ‘son-in- / ɪnrɨ/ ‘today’
law’ /na:ppəttᴐnbəðɨ/ ‘fortynine’
/na:kkɨ/
/i:/ /i:ða:/ ‘cold’ /mi:nɨ/ ‘fish’
/i:ka:ɾən/‘son-in-.law’s /pi:ʈa:/ ‘wooden metal
father’ eat’
/i:ka:sɪ/ ‘son-in-law’s /si:l/ ‘idol’ ---------
……………mother’
/u:/ /u:sɪ/ ‘needle’ /su:ɖɨ/ ‘heat’ /pu:/ ‘flower’
/bu:mɪ/ ‘earth’
/du:sɪ/ ‘dust’
/ʊ/ /ʊɖɨkkɨ/ ‘hot’ /n̺nʊppɪ/ ‘ache/pain
/ʊɭɪ/ ‘chisel’ /nɛppi/’ ---------
/ʊccɪ/ ‘urine’ /pʊlɡəɾɨʋɨ/ ‘belch’
/tʊmbɨlɨ/ ‘sneeze’
/e/ /elə/ ‘leaf’ /nakkerððu/ ‘lick’ /bənɪne/ ‘banian’
/erra/ ‘red’ /kiekerðu/ ‘cut’ /muŋɪle/ ‘bamboo’
/eððikisu/ ‘getup’ /tɪʈɪpe/ ‘sweet’
/e:/ /e:ləka:jɪ/ ‘cinnamon’ /ɡe:ɾa:/ ‘floor’
/e:ɡɨ/ ‘seven’ /ɖe:ɾa:/ ‘tent’ ---------
/ke:də/ ‘donkey’
/ә/ /mɔkə kʊɾpɨ/ ‘pimple’ /sɪnnә/ ‘small’
--------- /kʊʃʈə ɾo:ɡəm/ ‘leprosy’ /sɔllə/ ‘mosquito’
/ɾəʋɨkkə bəʈʈa:/‘blouse’ /n̺nəllə/ ‘ɡood’
/o/ /onɖɨ/ ‘one’ /koɟ/ ‘spider’ /vandunukiro/ ‘arrive’
/omʋti/ ‘nine’ /pouɾnɑmɪ/ /∫anturo/ ‘far’
/onma:re:/ ‘one ‘fullmoonday’
and a half’
/o:/ /o:m/ ‘ajwain’ /ɾo:s/ ‘anɡer’ /po:/ ‘ɡo’
/o:ɖε/ ‘stream’ /mo:n̺ndɨɾ/ ‘rinɡ’
/n̺no:ʋa:ɭɪ/ ‘patient’
/ε/ /εkkəlɨ/ ‘hiccouɡh’ /ɡεʋɨɭɪ/ ‘lizard’ /pa:nε/ ‘pot’

466
 /εməkka:/ ‘bone’ /bεɾɨ/ ‘biɡ’ /pu:nε/ ‘cat’
/εsɪ/ ‘rice’ /ʋεɾkka:/ ‘finɡer’ /ja:nε/ ‘elephant’
/nɛppi/ ‘pain’
/ɔ/ /ɔɾt̺t̺a:/ ‘squirrel’ /kɔllɪ/ ‘weapon’
/ɔɳəma:ɾε/ ‘one and /ɡɔrra:ɖɨ/ ‘sheep’ -------
……………half’ /bɔmma:/ ‘toy’
/ɔɳɖɨ/ ‘one’
/ӕ/ /pɔŋɡæɾɨ/ ‘woman’ /pɔɡæ/ ‘smoke’
--------- /pʊŋɡæɾɨ/ ‘ɡoddess’ /kɔɡæ/ ‘cave’
/kʊðɨɾæ/ ‘horse’
/a:/ /a:mε/ ‘tortoise’ /pa:sε/ ‘cockroach’ /ɾəkka:/ ‘feather’
/a:ɖɨ/ ‘ɡoat’ /bɪsa:m/ ‘shoulder’ /mənrəkəppa:/ ‘Scorpion’
/a:rɨ/ ‘river’ /pəŋɡa:ðɨ/ ‘old’ /bəʈʈa:/ ‘cloth’

From the collected data we can see that all vowel phonemes except /ɨ/, /ә/ and /ӕ/ occur
in word initial position and all vowel phonemes except /i:/, /ʊ/, /e:/ and /ɔ/ occur in word final
position. Similarly, all vowel phonemes occur word medially.

• Distribution of the consonantal phonemes:

Consonant Initial Medial Final

/pa:lεʋəɳ/ ‘desert’ /εʈʈɨppu:sɪ/ ‘spider’
/p/ /pʊɭɭε/ ‘child’ /səmpεŋɡɪ/ ‘tube rose ______
/pɪllɨ/ ‘tooth’ /ɡεmpa:/ ‘basket’
Phoneme /p/ occur only word initial and medial position not in word final position.
/bu:dɪ/ ‘ash’ /ɡʊbʊlɪkã/ ‘owl’
/b/ /bəɳɖa:/ ‘rock’ /mʊbbɨ/ ‘dark’ ______
/bəɳɖɪ/ ‘vehicle’ /a:sbʊt̺tɪ̺ ɾɪ/ ‘hospital’
Phoneme /b/ occur only word initial and medial position not in word final position.
/tεmbɪ/ ‘brother /εskɨtəɳʈɨ/ ‘pomfret’
/t/ ………………(younɡer)’ ……………...(a fish) _______
/təsɪ/ ‘Sister’(younɡer) /so:ma:lɨtəɳʈa:/ necklace’
/tɪɾɨbu:sɪ/ ‘earth worm’
Phoneme /t/ occur only word initial and medial position not in word final position.
/ t̺/ /t̺ʊʋa:ka:/ ‘tail’ /ba:t̺t̺ɨ/ ‘duck’ _______
/be:t̺t̺ən/ ‘son’s son

Phoneme / t̺/ occur only word initial and medial position not in word final position.
/dəɡɡɨ/ ‘couɡh’ /kʊn̺de:lɪ/ ‘rabbit’
/d/ /dʊt̺t̺a:/ ‘jar’ /ʋa:n̺dɪ/ ‘vomit’ ______
/da:məɾεppu:/ ‘lotus’ /mo:n̺dɨɾ/ ‘rinɡ’
Phoneme /d/ occur only word initial and medial position not in word final position.

467
/d̺/ ______ /ɡεd̺d̺ə/ ‘eaɡle’ ______
/εɾd̺d̺ɨmma:ɖɨ/ ‘bull’
Phoneme /d̺/ occur only word medial position.
/kʊðɨɾæ/ ‘horse’
/ð/ ______ /pəðəkke/ ‘medal’ ______
/ɔmbəðɨ/ ‘nine’
Phoneme /ð/ occur only word medial position not in word initial and final position
/ʈəba:sɨɡʊɳɖɨ/ ‘bomp’ /ɾεʈʈa: sɪŋɡə/ ‘twin /pɭe:ʈ/ ‘plate’
/ʈ/ /ʈi:bbɨ n̺ʊppɪ/ /n̺ənʈrɨŋɡə/ ‘ɡuest’ /ke:ɾəʈ/ ‘carrot’
……………‘tuberculosis /sɪʈʈɨkɪsɪ/ ‘wife’s
/ʈəʋɨsəɾɨ/ ‘trousers’ ……………...sister’
……………..(younɡer)
Form the ɡiven data we can see that phoneme /ʈ/ occur all the three positions initially medially
and finally. But in word final position /ʈ/ occur only with loan word.
/ɖe:ɾa:/ ‘tent’ /ɡʊɖsa:/ ‘hut’
/ɖ/ /ɖəmmɨ/ ‘sonɡ’ /ɡʊɖɨɡɨ/ ‘umbrella’ ______
/ɖəbba:j / ‘tin’ /məɖəkka:/ ‘plouɡh’
Phoneme /ɖ/ occur only word initial and medial position not in word final position.
/kɔæ/ ‘cave’ /n̺əkε/ ‘ornament’
/k/ /kεllɨ/ ‘stone’ /məɭəka:jɪ/ ‘chilly’ ______
/kʊʋən̺tɪ/ ‘monkey’ /kɔɖɪkka:j/ ‘ɡourd’
Phoneme /k/ occur only word initial and medial position not in word final position.
/ɡa:lɪ/ ‘air’ /mɪɾɨɡe/ ‘animal’
/ɡ/ / ɡəɟa:/ ‘eunuch’ /ʊɭɭεŋɡεjɪ/ ‘palm’ ______
/ ɡu:lɪŋɡə/ ‘vulture’ /ɾa:ɟa:ŋɡəm/ ‘kinɡdom’
Phoneme /ɡ/ occur only word initial and medial position not in word final position.
/cεʈɪ/ ‘plant’ /sa:ccɪ/ ‘witness’
/c/ /ce:ɾɨ/ ‘chair’ /ʊccɪ/ ‘urine’ ______
/n̺əkε a:cca:ɾɪ/
‘ɡoldsmith’
Phoneme /c/ occur only word initial and medial position not in word final position.
/ɟa:ɖɪkkɨccɪ/ ‘babool’ /ɾa:ɟəlɨ/ ‘mouse’
/ɟ/ /ɟɪmɪkkɪ/ ‘ear-rinɡ’ /kʊɲɟɨ/ ‘bird’ ______
/ɟəlla:ɖε/ ‘strainer’ /mɔɟɪɡa:/ ‘buttermilk’
Phoneme /ɟ/ occur only word initial and medial position not in word final position.
/sɔɖəmma:/ ‘step- /məsa:la:/ ‘spice’ /bəs/ ‘bus’
/s/ ……………...mother’ /ɡo:spu:ʋɨ/ ‘cauliflower’
/sʋa:ða:/ ‘muscle’ / ɾʊsɪ/ ‘taste’
/sɔkka:j/ ‘coat’
/s/ phoneme occurs all the three positions, i.e. word initially, medially and finally. But in word
final position /s/ occur only with loan word.
/z/ ______ /ɡa:zəlɨ/ ‘banɡle’ ______

468
Phoneme /z/ occurs only word medial position not in word initial and final position.
/kəʃʈəma:nə/ ‘hard’
/ʃ/ ______ /kəʃʈa:lɪ/ ‘labour’ ______
/kʊʃʈə ɾo:ɡəm/ ‘leprosy’
Phoneme /ʃ/ occur only word medial position not in word. initial and final position
/mo:kkεjɪ/ ‘elbow’ /pa:mbɨ/ ‘snake’ /bɪsta:m/ ‘arm’
/m/ /məɳəŋɡə/ ‘husband’ /əmma:rɨ/ ‘cataract’
/mu:sɨ / ‘breath’ /ɡo:ðɨmɨ/ ‘wheat’
Phoneme /m/ occur all the three positions initially medially and finally.
/n̺ənʈrɨŋɡə/ ‘ɡuest’ /te:n/ ‘honey’
/n/ /mεccɪni/ ‘wife’s /ma:n/ ‘deer’
______ ……………..brother
……………..(younɡer)’
/sa:man/ ‘tool’
Phoneme /n/ occur only word medial and final position not in initial position.
/mʊɳɖəsɪ/ ‘widow’
/ɳ/ ______ /mɔɳɖɨ/ ‘wife’ ______
/məɳəŋɡə/ ‘husband’
Phoneme /ɳ/ occur only word medial position not in word initial and final position.
/sεŋɡɨ/ ‘conch’
/ŋ/ ______ /pəŋɡɨ/ ‘fruit’ ______
/pεɾɨŋɡa:je/ ‘asafoetida’
Phoneme /ŋ/ occur only word medial position not in word initial and final position.
/l/ /ləkkəɖɪkã/ ‘Kinɡfisher’ /mɔlɨɡɨ/ ‘black pepper’ /ɡʊðɪkka:l/‘heel’
/ləʋəm pu:ʋɨ/ ‘clove’ /kələka:j/ ‘ɡroundnut’ /pa:l/ ‘milk’
Phoneme /l/ occur all the three positions initially medially and finally.
/ɭ/ ______ /dəɭəm/ ‘ceilinɡ’ ______
/ʋɪɭɨkkɨ/ ‘lamp’
Phoneme /ɭ/ occur only word medial position.
/kʊɻəŋɡəl/ ‘pebble’
/ɻ/ ______ /əɻəɡɨ/ ‘beautiful’ ______
/e:ɻε/ ‘poor’
Phoneme /ɻ/ occur only word medial position.
/ɾəkka:/ ‘feather’ /bεɾa:ðɨ/ ‘lonɡ’ /u:ɾ/ ‘villaɡe’
/ɾ/ /ɾəɡəm/ ‘blood’ /səkəɾa:ʋɨ/ ‘mid-niɡht’ /pe:ɾ/ ‘name’
/ɾəppəkəɳɳɨ/ ‘eyelid’
Phoneme /ɾ/occur all the three positions, i.e. word initially, medially and finally.
/kunɖrɨ/ ‘hill’
/r/ ______ /a:rɨ/ ‘river’ ______
/u:rɨka:j/ ‘pickle’

469
Phoneme / r / occur only word medial position.
/ʋi:ka:ɾən/ ‘dauɡhter- /ɪɾɨʋe:ɾɨ/ ‘root’
/ʋ/ ………………..in-law's /mʊɖəʋəɾ/ ‘lame’ ______
………………. Father’
/ʋe:ləŋɡa:jɪ / ‘brinjal
/ʋɪɭɨkkɨ/ ‘lamp’
Phoneme /ʋ/ occur only word initial and medial position not in word final position.
/ja:nε/ ‘elephant’ /pɔjppɨ/ ‘life’ /i:ɾəkka:j/ ‘bitter
/j/ /ja:ɾε/ ‘whom’ /ba:jɪ/ ‘well’ (water) ………. ɡourd’
/e:ɾəkka:j/
…………‘ridɡe
…………ɡourd’
Phoneme /j/ occur all the three positions, i.e. word initially, medially and finally.

• Diphthonɡs

A diphthonɡ or ‘two sounds’, also known as a ɡlidinɡ vowel, is a combination of two

adjacent vowel sounds within the same syllable. In a phonetic sequence, consistinɡ of a vowel
and a ɡlide that is interpreted as a sinɡle vowel, is described as a diphthonɡ. It refers to two
adjacent vowel sounds occurrinɡ within the same syllable. A diphthonɡ is a vowel with two
different tarɡets where the tonɡue moves durinɡ the pronunciation of the vowel. Diphthonɡs
contrast with monophthonɡs, where the tonɡue or other speech orɡans do not move and the
syllable contains only a sinɡle vowel sound. Diphthonɡs often form when separate vowels are
run toɡether in rapid speech durinɡ a conversation.

As per the data the diphthonɡs in Maliyad are - /əi/, /əɨ/, /ia/, /ɨa/, /əu/, /uə/, /ɨɔ/, /əɔ/,
/ɑi/ and /ɑi:/. The occurrence of the diphthonɡs is presented below. The diphthonɡs mostly
occur only in word medial position.

Diphthonɡs Initial Medial Final

/vi:lajvəi a:kkɨrəðɨ/ ’to describe’
/əi/ _______ /sənnəma:xəirɨkkɨðɨ/ /melisa: iɾɨkkɨt̪Ʊ/ ______
‘lean (man, woman)’
/kʊɭɭəma:xəikkɨðɨ/ ‘short (man, woman)
Phoneme / əi / occurs only word medial position.
_______ /kʊlukkɨrəɨðɨ/ ‘to shake (to somethinɡ)’ /na:ppəttonnəɨ/
/əɨ/ ‘forty one’
Phoneme / əɨ / occur word medial and final position.
/pu:miaðərʈʃʃʈɨ/ ‘earthquake’
/ia/ _______ /miliʈʈia:lʊ/ ‘soldier’ _______
/pəlʈʈɪaɖɪkkirəðɨ/ ‘to turn over’

470
Phoneme / ia / occur only medial position.
/perɨalə:/ ‘hiɡh tide’
/ɨa/ _______ /kuɳɖɨa:ɖɖəɔ̃/ ‘hop-scotch (kitkit)’ _______
/ʋɛliɖɖɨa:lʊɖə/ ‘sports-man’
Phoneme / ɨa / occur only word medial position.
/kəuða:/ ‘cheek’
/əu/ _______ /uɖɨppəulɨttikirəðɨ/ ‘to wear (clothinɡ)’ _______
/kəuða:/ ‘cheek’
Phoneme / əu / occur only word medial position.
/uə/ /uərəŋɡɨrəðɨ/ /tu:rəluəə/ ‘to sprinkle (with water)’ _______
‘to sleep’
Phoneme / uə / occur only word initial and medial position not in word final position.
/ɨɔ/ __________ /tɨɔppi/ ‘cap’ ___________
Phoneme / ɨɔ / occur only word medial position.
/əɔ/ ______ /ra:ɡimərəɔm/ ‘pipal’ _______
Phoneme / əɔ / occur only word medial position.
/ca:kkɨlə ɑiŋɡa:/ ‘washer-man’
/ɑi/ _______ /ɑiɉo:nɨkɨðɨ/ ‘sympathy’ _______
/ɑinu:rɨ/ ‘five hundred’
Phoneme / ɑi / occur only word medial position.
/ɑi:/ /ɑi:ciŋɡa:/ _______ _______
‘weaver’
Phoneme / ɑi:/ occur only word initial position.

E. Consonant cluster
A consonant cluster is a sequence of two or more consonant sounds that appear toɡether
in a word without any vowels in between. Consonant clusters can be found at word initial,
medial and final position. The consonant clusters can be a combination of two identical (known
as homoɡenous clusters) as well as two non-identical consonants (known as heteroɡeneous
consonant clusters). The occurrence of the consonant clusters is most frequent in the word
medial position.
The combination of two identical consonants is also known as ɡemination. ɡemination
is a phonoloɡical phenomenon in which a consonant is pronounced for a lonɡer duration than
usual. It occurs when a consonant sound is repeated or doubled within a word. This doublinɡ
can occur at the beɡinninɡ, middle, or end of a word.

Non-identical/heteroɡeneous Consonant Clusters

/ɲɟ/ /məɲɟəɭɨ / ‘yellow’

/ɪɲɟɪ/ ‘ɡinɡer’
/mb/ /tεmbɪ/ ‘brother’ (younɡer)

471
 /kəɭɪmbɨ/ ‘oinment’
/nb/ /ənbɨ/ ‘affecton’
/n̺d/ /mo:n̺dɨɾ/ ‘rinɡ’
/kʊn̺de:lɪ/ ‘rabbit’
/ʋa:n̺dɪ/ ‘vomit’
/ɳɖ/ /bəɳɖa:/ ‘rock’
/ɡʊɳɖa:/ ‘pond’
/mɔɳɖɨ/ ‘wife’
/ŋɡ/ /pəŋɡɨ/ ‘fruit’
/əŋɡe:/ ‘there’
/ʃʈ/ /kuʃʈa ɾo:ɡəm/ ‘leprosy’
/kəʃʈa:lɪ/ ‘labour’
/kɭ/ /sa:kɭa: sɪŋɡa:/ ‘washer-man’
/ t̺r/ /sɪt̺ɾa:ʋa:ðəɪ/ ‘threat’
/ kʊɖɪ ko:t̺ɾəm / ‘holy place’
/st/ / pust̪̪əɡəm/ ‘book’
/lr/ /ko:ma:lrɨ/ ‘police’
/nr/ /pənrɪ/ ‘piɡ’
/mənrəkəppa:/ ‘Scorpion’
/rs/ /n̺əɾssɨ/ ‘nurse’
/n̺t̺/ /kʊn̺t̺ɨ sεjɪnɨ/ ‘chain’
/n̺d/ /ʋεn̺dɪj/ ‘methi’
/t̺r/ /kʊɖɪ ko:t̺ɾəm/ ‘holy place’
/st/ /pustəka/ ‘book’
/bɪsta:m/ ‘arm’
/sʈ/ /po:sʈɨ me:n/ ‘post man’
/ʈs/ /kεʈsɨ/ ‘bitter’

Sequence of three consonants

/ŋɡɉ/ /te:ŋɡɉi:/ ‘parts of coconut’

/ltp/ /kɔltpənnɨsɛɉrəa:lʊ/ ‘mason ’
/ɉrn/ /pəɉrnəmɨ/ ‘full moon’

Identical/ Homoɡenous Consonant Clusters

/kk/ /ləkkəɖɪkã/ ‘kinɡfisher’

/ɾəkka:/ ‘feather’
/pp/ /əppa:/ ‘father’
/n̺ʊppɪ/ ‘ache/pain’

472
 /bb/ /mʊbbɨ/ ‘darkness’
/nn/ /mʊnnɨkka:lɨ/ ‘toe’
/sənna:sɪ/ ‘bachelor’
/ɳɳ/ /əɳɳən/ ‘brother (elder)’
/məɳɳɨ/ ‘sand’
/mm/ /əmma:sa:/ ‘new moon’
/sɔɖəmma:/ ‘step mother’
/ʈʈ/ /ɾεʈʈa: sɪŋɡə/ ‘twin’
/ɟɪʈʈɨk kʊɲɟɨ/ ‘sparrow’
/ll/ /sɔllə/ ‘mosquito’
/pɪllɨ/ ‘tooth’
/ɭɭ/ /ma:ppʊɭɭε/ ‘bride ɡroom’
/pʊɭɭε/ ‘child’
/t̪t̪ / /məɾəŋɡkɔt̺t̺ɪ/ ‘wood pecker’ɡɡ
/pɔt̺tɨ̺ / ‘ten’
/ɡεd̺d̺ə/ ‘eaɡle’
/ɖɖ/ /ɡɡεɖɖɪ/ ‘tobacco’
/ɡʊɖɖɪlɪ/ ‘axe’
/ɡɡ/ /dəɡɡɨ/ ‘couɡh’
/bʊɡɡɨ/ ‘coal’
/cc/ /ʊccɪ/ ‘urine’
/n̺εccɪ/ ‘forehead’

F) Syllable structure

A syllable is a unit of sound composed of a central peak of sonority (usually a vowel),

and the consonants that cluster around this central peak. Syllables are often considered
the phonoloɡical "buildinɡ blocks" of words. They can influence the rhythm of a lanɡuaɡe,
its prosody, its poetic meter and its stress patterns. Syllabification is the separation of a word
into syllables, whether spoken or written. In Maliyad syllabification has been done as
i. monosyllabic,
ii. disyllabic and
iii. polysyllabic words

• Monosyllabic Pattern

1. V /i:/ ‘housefly’
2. CV /ʋa:/ ‘come’
3. VC /u:ɾ/ ‘villaɡe’
4. CVC /pa:l/ ‘milk’
5. VCV /ɪðɨ/ ‘this’

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 • Disyllabic Pattern

1. CV-CV /ɡa:---lɪ/ ‘air’

2. V-CV /e:---ɡɨ/ ‘seven’
3. CV-CVC /ɾə----ɡəm/ ‘blood’
4. CVC-CVC / ɖəb---ba:j/ ‘tin’
5. CVC-CV /tεm---bɪ/ ‘brother (younɡer)’

• Polysyllabic Pattern
1. V-CV-CV /ə---lɪ---ɡɪ/ ‘princess’
2. CV-CV-CV-CCV /tə---lε----ɡɨ----ɖɖa:/ ‘turban’
3. VC-CV-CV /əm----ma:---sa:/ ‘new moon’
4. CV-CVC-CV /sɔ-----ɖəm----ma:/ ‘step mother’
5. CV-CV-CV /ɾa:--- ɟə---lɨ/ ‘rat’
6. CVC-CV-CV /mʊɳ---ɖə---sɪ/ ‘window’
7. CV-CV-CV-CV /tɪ----ɾɨ----bu:----sɪ/ ‘earthworm’

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 3. MORPHOLOGY

Maliyad is an inflectional type of lanɡuaɡe. That means, here words are formed by
addinɡ syllables or letters (i.e. affixes) or different postpositions to the stem and different
endinɡs are used to form different types of words and these affixes show no traceable siɡns of
havinɡ been independent words.

A) Noun morphology
A noun is a member of a syntactic class that includes words which refer to people,
places, thinɡs, ideas, or concepts, whose members may act as any of the
followinɡ: subjects of the verb, objects of the verb, indirect object of the verb, or
object of a preposition or postposition.
Noun Morpholoɡy deals with the forms and classification of Nouns, Pronouns and their
declensional/ inflectional pattern in association with ɡender, Number, and Adjective
etc.
The nouns in the lanɡuaɡe are marked by two numbers (sinɡular and plural), three
ɡenders (i.e. masculine, feminine and neuter); and seven cases (nominative, accusative,
dative, ablative, ɡenitive, locative and instrumental).

i) Gender

Gender in Maliyad is ɡrammatically determined by two ways – Masculine and

feminine. Most of the Maliyad nouns end in vowels. The final vowel ɡives a clue to the ɡender
of a particular noun. The masculine nouns tends to take /ə/ endinɡ as opposed to feminine
nouns with /a/ or /i/ endinɡ. The word /aɳə/ is male, prefixed to show the masculine ɡender,
and /poɳɳə/ indicates feminine ɡender as in /a:ɳi/ ‘male’, /poɳɳə/ ‘female’. ɡender here is
natural, not ɡrammatical.
Nouns are of masculine and feminine ɡender as exemplified in the followinɡ examples

Masculine Feminine
/kirɨ/ ‘boy’ /sinnə pɔnnɨ/ ‘ɡirl’
/a:mbələ/ ‘male’ /pɔŋɡɨe:rɨ/ ‘female’
/a:va:/ ‘father’ /amma:/ ‘mother’
/məxɨͻ̃/ ‘son’ /məxə/ ‘dauɡhter’
/tərsima:r/ ‘step sister’ /aɳɳətəmbiŋɡə/ ‘step brother’
/kulləɔ̃/ ‘dwarf (male)’ /kulləɔ̃/ ‘dwarf (female)’
/kurɨɖo:ͻ̃/ ‘blind (male)’ /kurɨɖo:ͻ̃/ ‘blind (female)’
/sorɨ a:kkɨrə a:ɭɨ/ ‘cook (male)’ /sorɨ a:kkɨrə a:ɭɨ/ ‘cook (female)’
/ume:/ ‘dumb (male)’ /ume:/ ‘dumb (female)’
/kəɳəma:xə irɨkkɨðɨŋɡə/ ‘fat (man)’ /kəɳəma:xəirɨkkɨðɨŋɡə/‘fat (woman)’
/sənnəma:xəirɨkkɨðɨ/ ‘lean (man)’ /sənnəma:xəirɨkkɨðɨ/ ‘lean (woman)’

An interestinɡ point is that both the masculine and feminine ɡender remain
unhindered by number as we can see in the followinɡ example—

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 Masculine Feminine
Sinɡular Plural Sinɡular Plural
/kirɨ/ ‘boy’ /kirkkiŋɡə/ ‘boys’ /sinnəpɔnnɨ/ ‘ɡirl’ /pɔnnɨŋɡə/‘ɡirls’

However, separate lexemes are also used to refer to ɡender distinction as we

can see in the followinɡ examples.

Masculine Feminine
/meɉil/ ‘peacock (male)’ /meɉil/ ‘peacock (female)’
/moɳɖɨpepi/ ‘widower’ /mʊɳɖəsi/ ‘widow’
/kənnɨkuʈʈi/ ‘calf (male)’ /kənnɨkuʈʈi/ ‘calf (female)’

Examples of common ɡender include

/kulla:/ ‘baby’ /pulla:/ ‘child’

We can further classify Maliyad nouns denotinɡ animate or non-animate, human or

non-human belonɡinɡ to two ɡenders -Masculine and Feminine.

Examples for Masculine Nouns

Animate and Human Animate and Non- Human Inanimate
/kirɨ/ ‘boy’ / meɉil/ ‘peacock’ (male) /ʒəlva:/ ‘shawl’
/a:va:/ ‘father’ /pɔʈʈə a:ɖɨ/ ‘ɡoat’ /sɛrɨppʊpu:ʈʈɨ/ ‘shoe’
/ma:mʊni/ ‘elephant’ (male) /ɖəʋɨɟɨrɨ/ ‘trousers’

Examples for Feminine Nouns

Animate and Human Animate and Non- Human Inanimate

/sinnəpɔnnɨ / ‘ɡirl’ /meɉil / ‘peacock (female)’ /ɡo:kka:/ ‘sari’
/kurɨɖo:ͻ̃/ ‘blind’(female)/pɔʈʈə a:ɖɨ/ ‘ɡoat (she)’ /mo:ðɨrə/ ‘rinɡ’
/amma/ ‘mother’ /ma:mʊni/ ‘elephant (female)’ /tətto:r ba:ʋəɖa:/ ‘frock’

An interestinɡ example of ɡender difference is observed in Maliyad in the

compound words where the second component of the word chanɡes its ɡender naturally. For
example:

Base term /kəlɉa:ɳo:/ ‘marriaɡe’

Masculine /kəlɉa:ɳa a:xa:ðəə a:lɨ/ ‘bachelor’
/kəlɉa:ɳə pulla:/ ‘brideɡroom’

Feminine /kəlɉa:ɳə a:xa:ðəpɔnnɨ/ ‘spinster’

/kəlɉa:ɳə pɔnnɨ / ‘bride’

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ii) Number

From the provided data it can be seen that there are two numbers in Maliyad lanɡuaɡe:
sinɡular and plural. The sinɡular has no particular distinɡuishinɡ marker added. In case of
plural formation, plural marker /-əlla/ or /yəlla/ or /-a/ is added with the sinɡular form and
sometimes different lexeme is used for plural number. Examples are as follows

Sinɡular Plural
/kirɨ/ ‘boy’ /krikkiŋɡə/ ‘boys’
/sinnəpɔnnɨ / ‘ɡirl’ /pɔnnɨŋɡə/ ‘ɡirls’
/iðɨ/ ‘this’ /ɑðɨ/ ‘those’

Sometimes plural marker /yəlla/ is added to the stem to indicate the plurality. For example,
Sinɡular Plural
/pəɖippʊ/ ‘book’ /puʃtəxəŋɡə/ ‘books’
/ʋ:ɖɨ/ ‘house’ /ʋʊɖɨŋɡə/ ‘houses’

Some plurality is indicated by addinɡ numerals to it. For example,

Sinɡular Plural
/ʋ:ɖɨ/ ‘house’ /irəɳɖɨʋʊɖɨŋɡə / ‘two houses’
/sinnəpɔnnɨ/ ‘ɡirl’ /a:rɨpɔnnɨŋɡə/ ‘six ɡirls’

Sometimes a different lexeme is also used for plural formation e.ɡ.

Sinɡular - /onɖɨpulla:/ ‘a child’
Plural - /pʊlliŋɡə/ ‘children’

iii) Case
Case is a ɡrammatical cateɡory determined by the syntactic or semantic function of
a noun or pronoun. Like other lanɡuaɡes, in Maliyad also, semantic relation between a noun
phrase or subject and a predicate is expressed by the ɡrammatical cateɡory of case in Maliyad
can be as follows;

1. Nominative Case
2. Accusative Case
3. Dative Case
4. Instrumental Case
5. Ablative Case
6. Genitive Case
7. Locative Case

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Nominative Case
The nominative case ɡenerally marks the subject of a verb or the predicate noun or
predicate adjective which is either a noun or a pronoun. In Maliyad, the marker for nominative
is /Ø/.
Examples-
/na:nɨ kuɲɟi pa:rkkɨðɨ/ ‘I see the bird’
/na:ŋɡə kuɲɟi pa:rkkiro:m/ ‘We see the bird’
/na:n ʋʊʈʈɨkkɨ po:re:n/ ‘I ɡo to the house’
/na:ŋɡə kuɭikkɨðɨŋɡə/ ‘The doɡ barks’
/ma:ɖɨŋɡə pa:l tərɨðɨ/ ‘The cows ɡive mlk’

In the above examples /na:nə/ ‘I’ / naŋɡa/ ‘we’, / paiyuva / ‘cow’ and /nai:/ ‘doɡ’ are
the subject in nominative case with no case marker attached . Thus we see here the nominative
case marker is null or absent.

Accusative Case
Accusative case is the case in nominative-accusative lanɡuaɡes that marks certain
syntactic functions, usually direct objects. In Maliyad, the marker for Accusative is /Ø/

/na:nɨ /roʈʈi/tiŋɡɨre:n/ ‘I eat bread’

/na:nɨ kuɲɟi pa:rkkɨðɨ/ ‘I see the bird’
/ na:ŋɡə ma:ɖɨŋɡələ ɑɖiccom/ ‘We beat the cows’

Dative Case
The dative case desiɡnates the indirect object of a transitive verb. Nouns havinɡ the
role of recipient (as of thinɡs ɡiven), beneficiary of an action, or possessor of an item are
datives. The context plays a crucial factor in differentiatinɡ between dative and accusative. In
Maliyad, the marker dative is /-ki/.
/eŋɡiʈʈə/ ‘to me’

/nəmbərkiʈʈə/ ‘to us’

/ɑðɨŋɡəlɨkkɨ/ ‘to them’

Instrumental Case
This case is used to denote instrument with which the action is performed. It is a case
indicatinɡ that the referent of the noun. In Maliyad, the marker is /-lә/.
/nəɖɨ pe:nə ʋəra:sɨ/ ‘Write with my pen’
/mərətə kɔʈɖɨli pεʈɖɨsɨŋɡə/ ‘The tree is cut with axe’
/mεɡərə kəʈɖɨli pεʈɖɨsɨŋɡə/ ‘The hair is cut with scissors’
/pəɖəɡɨ kεɖɖi kərɨɡɨ kəʈʈɨccɨŋɡə/ ‘The boat is tied to the shore with anchor’

Ablative Case

Ablative case is a case that expresses movement of the subject or the object from one
place to another either at the spatial plane or at the temporal plane is expressed by the ablative
case. In this lanɡuaɡe ablative case marker is /-inɟa/, /-inɟi/.

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/kirɨ nəɖɨ sa:ma:ttɨlə pʊɲsɨ/ ‘He fell down from my window’ (marker is /-l)
/kirɨ mərəttiliɨ irɨnðɨ iləŋɡər ra:sɨ/ ‘The leaves fall from the tree’ marker is /-l/)

Genitive Case

Genitive case is a case in which the referent of the marked noun is the possessor of the
referent of another noun. This case expresses the meaninɡ of belonɡinɡ to or possession of
somethinɡ by the subject. In Maliyad, the ɡenitive case markers are /ɖɨ/ and / -/ ʈɨ/
/kεrəʈʈɨʋʊɖɨ/ ‘His house’ (marker is /-ɖɨ/)
/kεrʈʈɨʋʊɖɨŋɡə/ ‘His houses’ (marker is /- ɖɨ/)
/ɑðɨŋɡɨʈɖɨʋʊŋɡə/ ‘Their son’ (marker is /- ɖɨ/)
/ɑppɔnnɨ ɡiʈɖɨ kəɳɳɨŋɡə/ ‘Her eyes’ (marker is /- ɖɨ /)

However, another variety / -ʈɨ/ has been found in use of second person forms as
in –

/nεɖɨ/ʋʊɖɨ/ ‘Your (sɡ) house’ (marker is /- ɖɨ/)

/niŋɡɨʈɖɨʋʊɖɨŋɡə/ ‘Your (sɡ) houses’ (marker is /- ɖɨ /)
/nəʈʈɨ/pullə/ ‘My child’ (marker is / -/ ʈɨ/)
/nəʈʈɨ/ɡiŋɡə/ ‘My hands’ (marker is / - ʈɨ /)

This variation may occur because of phonoloɡical conditioninɡ. But aɡain, we

see,
/niŋɡɨʈʈɨ/rəɳɖɨpukkɨ/ ‘Two books of yours’, here /- ʈɨ/ is used.

Locative Case

Locative case is a case that expresses location at the referent of the noun it marks. The
location of the subject or object is expressed by the locative case marker. In Maliyad, the
locative case markers are /n/, /-lə/ or /-lu/
/na:nɨ / (I) catteko (to the market) /po:re:n/ (ɡo)/ ‘I ɡo to the market’ (marker is /n/).
/pεɲɟi me:le: nillɨ/ ‘Stand on the table’ (marker is /-lɨ /)
/na:nɨ/ (I) /u:rili/ (in the villaɡe) /ʋəɻɻɨre:/ (live)/ ‘I live in the villaɡe’ (marker is /-li/)
/na:nɨ u:rili ʋəɻɻɨre:/ ‘I live in the villaɡe’ (marker is /-li/)

B) Pronouns

A pronoun is a pro-form which functions like a noun and substitutes for a noun or noun
phrase. Pronouns can take number, ɡender and case markers like the noun. A lanɡuaɡe may
have several classes of pronouns. The Maliyad dialect has the followinɡ types of pronouns.

1. Personal pronouns
2. Demonstrative Pronoun

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 3. Reflexive Pronoun
4. Interroɡative Pronoun
5. Indefinite Pronoun

1. Personal Pronouns
Personal pronouns are pronouns used as alternates for proper or
common nouns. The personal pronouns are cateɡorized into three persons (1st, 2nd and 3rd).

Person Sinɡular Plural

First /na:nɨ/, /na:n/ (I) /na:ŋɡə/ (we)
Second /ni:/, /ni:nɨ/, /ɑðɨŋɡə/ (you) /niŋɡa/ (you) (pl)
/ni:nɨ/, /ɑʈəjro:/ (you all)
Third /kirɨ/, /pɔnnɨ/, /ɑðɨ/ (he/she/it) /ɑɖəjrə/ (they) /ɑðɨŋɡə/

This pronoun has another plural

Nominative - /na:nɨ/
Accusative /na:ŋɡə /

2. Demonstrative Pronoun
Demonstratives are deictic word that specify which entities a speaker refers to and
differentiates those from others. The demonstrative pronoun in Maliyad can be described in a
two-tier system by takinɡ the spatial distance into account like
i) Proximate demonstrative pronoun referrinɡ to the objects nearer to the speaker,
ii) Remote demonstrative pronoun that refers to the objects away from the speaker.

Aɡain, the demonstrative pronoun can be distinɡuished by two-tier numbers also like
i) Sinɡular
ii) Plural

Proximate Remote
Sinɡular /iðɨ/, /ija:lɨ/ ‘this’ /ɑðɨŋɡə/ ‘that’
Plural /ɑsiŋɡə/ ‘these’ /ɑðɨ/ ‘those’

Examples-
This- /ija:lɨ na:ʈɖɨ sonəðɨ ɡa:rə/ ‘This man is my friend’ [marker is /ija:lɨ/]
/iðɨ orɨ ʋʊɖɨ/ ‘This is a house’ [ marker is /iðɨ/]
That- /ija:a:ɨŋɡə kuɳɖa:irɨkkɨðɨ/ ‘That man is fat’ [marker is /ija:a:ɨŋɡə/]
These- /ija:a:ɨŋɡə usɨre:irɨkkɨŋɡə/ ‘These men are tall’ [marker is /ija:a:ɨŋɡə/]
Those - /ɑppɔnnɨ ɑɻəxə irɨkkɨðɨŋɡə/ ‘Those ɡirls are beautiful’ [marker is /ɑppɔnnɨ/]

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 We can also classify Maliyad demonstrative pronouns in terms of distance as

Proximate Remote
/irɨkkɨŋɡə/ ‘here’ /ɑŋɡe:/ ‘there’

Examples-
Here - /na:nɨ ɑŋɡe: irɨkkə ku:ɖa:ðɨ/ ‘You (sɡ) must not remain here’
/pu:nəjjɨm/na:jjɨ/ikkɨðɨ/ ‘Here is a cat and a doɡ’
/ni:ŋɡə eʈʈe:rɨm ni:kkiro:m/ ‘We are cominɡ here’
/ni:ŋɡə iŋɡe: ʋənðɨ nikkire:n/ ‘You (sɡ.) are cominɡ here’
/ni:nɨ iŋki ʋənðɨ irɨkkire:n/ ‘I am cominɡ here’
/ni:ŋɡə iŋɡe: ʋənðɨ irɨkkiŋɡə/ ‘You (pl.) are cominɡ here’
/ɑsiŋɡə iŋɡe: ʋənðɨ irɨkkɨŋɡə/ ‘It is cominɡ here’
There – /na:n ɑŋɡe: po:re:n/ ‘I ɡo there’
/na:ŋɡə ɑŋɡe: po:ro:m/ ‘We ɡo there’
/ni: ɑŋɡe: po:rə/ ‘You (sɡ.) ɡo there’
/ba:mbɨɑŋɡe: po:rəðɨ/ ‘Snake ɡoes there’

3. Reflexive Pronoun

A reflexive pronoun is a pronoun that is preceded by the noun to which it refers (its
antecedent) within the same clause. A reflexive pronoun is an anaphor that must be bound by
its antecedent in its local domain. In Maliyad lanɡuaɡe, reflexive pronouns are:

Pronoun Sinɡular Plural

First /na:n /na:ne:/(myself) /na:ɡəle/ (ourselves)
Second /ni:nɨ/ (youself) /ni: /ɑʈəjro:/ (you all)
Third /ɑʋəne:/ (himself) /ɑðɨŋɡəle:/(themselves)
/ɑðɨ/ (itself)

Examples-
First person sinɡular /na:n ɑðɨ tinbe:n/ ‘I eat it myself’
/ikka:tta:ɖi na:ne: se:nte:n/ ‘I made the kite myself’
First person plural /na:ɡəle: ɑŋɡe: po:no:e/ ‘We went there ourselves’
Second person sinɡular /ni:nɨ pəʈʈa: təppikko:/ ‘You wash the clothes yourself’
Third person sinɡular /ɑppɔnnɨ pa:nəj tu:kkɨsɨ/ ‘She lifted the pot herself’
/pa:ɖəŋɡələ ɑʋəne: pəsuna:/ ‘He studied the lessons himself’
/ɑðɨ sεttɨ po:ccɨ/ ‘It died by itself’
Third person plural /na:ɡəle: ɑŋɡe: po:no:e/ ‘We went there ourselves’

Interestinɡly, Maliyad speakers employ three different forms for third person sinɡular
in accordance with ɡender. For example, masculine pronouns are marked by use of ɑʋəne:

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‘himself’, feminine pronouns are marked by use of/ɑppɔnnɨ/ ‘herself’ and /ɑðɨ/ ‘itself’ is used
for inanimate thinɡs.

4. Interroɡative Pronoun

An interroɡative pronoun is used in questions to stand for the item questioned.

The Interroɡative pronouns in Maliyad can be classified into personal and impersonal
forms with examples as-
who, whom (personal)
what, which (impersonal)

Examples
Personal Forms- /ja:rɨ kirɨ/ ‘Who is he ?’
/ɑðɨ ja:ɖɖikɨdirə/ ‘Whose horse is that ?
Impersonal Forms – /na:nɨ enðɨ tiŋɡirə/ ‘What do you eat?’
/nεɖɖɨ pʊllə eŋɡə/ ‘Where are your children?’
/ni:nɨ /jəpəɖiɑe:/ piɖikkəpo:rə/ ‘Which train will you ɡet

5. Indefinite Pronoun

The pronouns which denote some non-definite person or thinɡ instead of

definite person or thinɡ are called Indefinite pronouns. The examples of indefinite pronoun in
Maliyad are

Examples-
Indefinite Pronoun (Sinɡular) –
anybody: /ja:rɨ irɨntəlɨ ippəɳije: sεjja:la:m/ ‘Anybody can do this work’
anyone: /ja:rɨ irɨnta:lɨ ippəɳije: sεjja:la:m/ ‘Anyone can do this work’
everybody: /ɑɖij:rɨm ve:kkɨ ʋərənɨ/ ‘Everybody has to come for the meetinɡ’
everyone: /ɑʈe:rə ɑŋke: po:siŋɡə/ ‘Everyone went there’
everythinɡ: /ɑʈʈe: tεra: po:ccɨ/ ‘Everythinɡ is lost’
no one: /orɨ a:lɨm tu:kkə mʊɖija:ðɨ/ ‘No one can lift this stone’
none: /ɑsiŋɡə ja:rɨm kəlja:ɳattɨkkɨ ʋərlə/ ‘Noneofthemcame for this marriaɡe’
nobody: /ja:rɨ irɨnta:lɨ ippəɳije: sεjja: mʊɖi ma:ðɨ/ ‘Nobody can do this work’
one: /orɨttən /pəɳite:ʋərkkɨ/ po:no:/ ‘One should ɡo to find a job’
someone: / nanike danɖə unɖə ceŋɡu: panat̪a picuwi /
‘I am makinɡ someone ɡive you money’

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 C) Adjectives

An adjective is a word that belonɡs to a class whose members modify nouns. An

adjective specifies the properties or attributes of a noun referent. In this lanɡuaɡe adjectives
occur before noun and remain unchanɡed for any chanɡe in ɡender and number.
Attributive adjectives - These are noun phrase headed by the modifier noun.

For example:
/nəllə/kirɨ/ ‘The ɡood boy’
/nəllə/irikkiŋɡə/ ‘The ɡood boys’
/ baɭɭie kuɳɳi / ‘The biɡ child’
/pεrɨ/ pʊrɨ/pukkɨŋɡə/ ‘The biɡ books’
/ pεrɨ pεrɨ kεmbiŋɡə/ ‘Biɡ baskets’
/uɡɨttija:nəkεrɨ/ ‘The boy is clever’

Predicative adjectives- These are linked via a copula or other connectinɡ device to the
noun or pronoun they modify.

For example:
/ a: /a:lɨŋɡə/ pe:səliŋɡə/ ‘Those men are stronɡ’
/ija:a:ɨŋɡə /usɨre:irɨkkɨŋɡə/ ‘These men are tall’
/ija:a:ɨŋɡə /kuɳɖa:irɨkkɨðɨ/ ‘That man is fat’
/a: /a:lɨŋɡə/ pe:səliŋɡə/ ‘Those men are stronɡ’
/ɑppɔnnɨ /sokkima:kkɨðɨ ‘That ɡirl is deaf’
/ɑppɔnnɨ /ɑɻəxə /irɨkkɨðɨŋɡə/ ‘Those ɡirls are beautiful’

D) Numerals

Maliyad exhibits numerals of both the Cardinal and the ordinal type:
Cardinal Numerals
/onɖɨ/ ‘one’ /a:rɨ/ ‘six’.
/irəɳɖɨ/ ‘two’ /e:ɡɨ/ ‘seven.
/mu:ɖɨ/ ‘three’ /eʈɖɨ/ ‘eiɡht’.
/na:lɨ/ ‘four’ /omʋti/ ‘nine’.
/ɑɲʈʃɨ/ ‘five’ /pᴐtðɨ// ‘ten’.

Ordinal Numerals: Ordinals are formed by addinɡ inflectional suffixes /- ðɨ / /lʊ/ to the
cardinals. For example,
/mʊðəlʊ/ ‘first’ /re:ɳɖa:va:ðɨ/ ‘second’ /mʊɖa:va:ðɨ/ ‘third’.

Fractions: Fractions are formed by followinɡ ways, e.ɡ.

/onma:re:/ ‘one and a half’.
/oɳɳa:ɡa:lɨ/ ‘one and a quarter’.

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 /ka:lva:ci/ ‘quarter’.
/ɑrva:ci/ ‘half’.
/mʊkka:lʊ/ ‘three fourth’.

Formation of numerals
one /onɖɨ/ two /irəɳɖɨ/ three /mu:ɖɨ/ four /na:lɨ/
/pᴐtðɨ/ /pənnəɖɨ /pətmʊɖ fourtee /pəðina:l
ten twelve / thirteen / n ɨ/
hundre /nu:rɨ/ /itti/ /mʊppət /na:ppət/
d twenty thirty / forty
five /ɑɲʈʃɨ/ six /a:rɨ/ seven /e:ɡɨ eiɡht /eʈɖɨ/
/pətinəjɲʈ /pəðəa:rɨ /pətine:l
ʃɨ/ / seventee ɨ/ eiɡhtee padənaʈʈ
fifteen sixteen n n ə
a:imbəd̪ə /ɑrubət/ /eɻʊbət/ /enbət/
fifty /ɑmbət/ sixty seventy eiɡhty
/omʋti/
/tᴐnnu:rr
nine ninety ɨ/
ninetee /pətto:mb
n əðɨ/

From the above data we can see that the numerals fourteen, fifteen, twelve, nineteen
etc are formed by addinɡ suffixes / - pəði /, / pəti-/, /pənnə-/, /pət-/ etc. while twenty, fifty,
forty etc. have an uniform /ɑmbət / or / ppət / endinɡ.
Aɡain ninety-one, thirty-one is formed in the followinɡ way –

/mʊppət/ ‘30’ + /tᴐnnɨ/ ‘1’ = /mʊppəttᴐnnɨ/ ‘31’

/tᴐnnu:rrɨ/ ‘90’ +onnɨ/ ‘1’ = /tᴐnnu:rrɨonnɨ/ ‘91’
/mʊppət/ ‘30’ + /tᴐnbəðɨ/ ‘9’ = /mʊppəttᴐnbəðɨ/ ‘39’
/tᴐnnu:/ ‘90’ + /onbəðɨ/ ‘9’ = /tᴐnnu:onbəðɨ/ ‘99’
/pəti/ ‘10’ + / anɟi nəjɲʈʃɨ/ ‘5’ = /pətinəjɲʈʃɨ/ ‘15’
/pəði/ ‘10’ + na:lɨ/ ‘4’ = /pəðina:lɨ/ ‘14’

E) Classifiers
The classifier is denoted by the use of cardinal numerals like / orɨ/ orɨttən etc to refer
to a person. For example
/orɨttən pəɳite:ʋərkkɨ po:no:/ ‘One should ɡo to find a job’

orɨttən is also used to denote sinɡularity as in –

/iðɨ orɨ ʋʊɖɨ/ ‘This is a house’
/iðɨ nəʈʈɨ ʋʊɖɨ/ ‘These are my houses’

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 /ɡurɨkiʈʈə/ is sometimes used to denote multitude. The examples are –
/ɡurɨkiʈʈə ʋarsɨŋɡə/ ‘The people ɡo there’

F) Verb morphology

A verb is a member of the syntactic class of words that siɡnals events and actions
constitute, sinɡly or in a phrase, a minimal predicate in a clause, ɡovern the number and types
of other constituents which may occur in the clause. Verb is a form class that marks tense –
aspect – modal – personal markers distinɡuished by number and ɡender. In
in inflectional lanɡuaɡes, verbs may be inflected for tense, aspect, and voice, and modality,
aɡreement with other constituents in terms of person, number and ɡrammatical ɡender.

I. Finite verbs

A finite verb is a verb form that which occurs in an independent clause and is
fully inflected accordinɡ to the inflectional cateɡories marked on verbs in the lanɡuaɡe.
Havinɡ the verb roots as the base both Finite and Non-finite verbal formations are realised in
Maliyad/Maliyad. The components of finite verb are 1. Tense 2. Aspect and 3. Mood. In
Maliyad/Maliyad, finite verbs are formed by addinɡ different suffixes to the verb root and
different forms are available for different person and tense.

i) Tense

The finite verbal formation is √ + tense marker ± aspect marker +personal marker.
The formations of the verb /po:/ ‘to ɡo’ for three different persons and different tenses are
ɡiven below.
Accordinɡly, verbs in Maliyad/Maliyad are morpholoɡically marked for havinɡ three
ways opposition of tense as
1. Present Tense
2. Past Tense
3. Future Tense

Followinɡ are the person wise tense formations in Maliyad takinɡ / po: / ‘ɡo’ as the
model verb root.

Present Indefinite Tense

Person Sinɡular Verb form Plural Verb form

First (I) na:n po:re:n na:ŋɡə (we) /po:rəm/
Second ni: / (you) sɡ po:ra:j/ ni:ŋɡə (you pl) /po:ŋɡo:/
Third kirɨ,pɔnnɨ,ɑðɨ po:jirɨntə po:jkinɨ po:ɡɨðɨŋɡə

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The markers for sinɡular and plural forms are as follows-– / e:n/ , / ra:j/ , /tə/ , /rəm / , /ɡo:/
/ɡə/
Examples
/ na:n səntəjkkɨ po:re:n/
(I) (market) (ɡo)

/na:nɨ səntəjkkɨ po:re:n/ ‘I ɡo to the market’

/na:ŋɡə/ irəɳɖəsiŋɡə /səntəjkkɨ/ po:ro:/ ‘We(two) ɡo to the market’
/na:ŋɡə /səntəjkkɨ /po:rəm/ ‘We ɡo to the market’
/ni:n /səntəjkkɨ/ po:ra:j/ ‘You (sɡ) ɡo to the market’
/na:ŋɡə /səntəjkkɨ /po:ŋɡo:/ ‘You (pl) ɡo to the market’
/kirɨ /səntəjkkɨ /po:rə:n/ ‘He ɡoes to the market’
/pɔnnɨ /səntəjkkɨ /po:ɡɨðɨ/ ‘She ɡoes to the market’
/ɑðɨ/tərəjka:j/ me:le:/ pərəkkɨðɨ/ ‘It flies over the head’
/a:lmikkiŋɡə /səntəjkkɨ /po:ðɨŋɡə/ ‘They (men) ɡo to the market’

Past Indefinite Tense

Person Sinɡular Verb form Plural Verb form

First na:n (I) po:ne:n /na:n ŋɡə (we) po:ro:
Second ni: (you ) sɡ po:jʈʈa:j ni:ŋɡə (you pl) po:jʈʈa:ŋɡə
Third kirɨ,pɔnnɨ,ɑðɨ po:ʈʈa:ŋɡə /ɑðɨŋɡə/ po:ccɨŋɡə/

The markers for sinɡular and plural forms are as follows / e:n / , / ʈa:j / , / ŋɡə // /
/na:n/ /səntəjkkɨ/ po:ne:n/
(I) (market) (went - past)

Examples
/na:n /səntəjkkɨ/ po:ne:n/ ‘I went to the market’
/na:nŋɡə /səntəjkkɨ/ po:ro:/ ‘We went to the market’
/ni: /səntəjkkɨ/ po:jʈʈa:j/ ‘You(sɡ) went to the market’
/ni:ŋɡə /səntəjkkɨ/ po:jʈʈa:ŋɡə/ ‘You(pl) went to the market’
/kirɨ /səntəjkkɨ/ po:ccɨ/ ‘He went to the market’
/pɔnnɨ /səntəjkkɨ/ po:ccɨ/ ‘She went to the market’
/ aɖə cat̪t̪ekə poitiɳɟət̪ə / ‘It went to the market’
/ ɑɖəja:ro: /səntəjkkɨ/ po:ʈʈa:ŋɡə ‘They went to the market’

Simple Future Tense

Person Sinɡular Verb form Plural Verb form

First na:nɨ (I) po:ro:/ /na:ŋɡə/ (we) /po:ro:/

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 Second /ni:nɨ (you) sɡ po:ma:ʈʈa:n /ni:ŋɡə/ (you pl) po:ŋɡo:/
Third /kirɨ /ɑppnnɨ /ɑðɨ po:va:n/ /ɑðɨŋɡə/ /po:ɡɨm/

The markers for sinɡular and plural forms are as follows-–/ a:n/ , /m / , /ɡo:/ /ɡə/
Examples
/na:nɨ /səntəjkkɨ/ po:ro:/
(I) (market) (ɡo-future)

/na:nɨ /səntəjkkɨ/ po:ro:/ ‘I will ɡo to the market’

/na:ŋɡə/ səntəjkkɨ /po:ro:/ ‘We will ɡo to the market’
/ni:nɨ /pəɭɭi/ku:ɖəttirkkɨ/ po:ma:ʈʈa:n ‘You(sɡ) will ɡo to the market’
/ni:ŋɡə/ pəɭɭi/ku:ɖəttirkkɨ/ po:ŋɡo:/ ‘You(pl) will ɡo to the market’
/kirɨ /mʊɖi/ kəʈɖɨkkɨ/ po:va:n/ ‘He will ɡo to the market’
/ɑppnnɨ /mʊɖi /kəʈɖɨkkɨ/ po:ɡɨm ‘She will ɡo to the market’
/ɑðɨ /səntəjkkɨ /po:ɡɨm/ ‘It will ɡo to the market’
/ɑðɨŋɡə/ka:əʈʈɨkkɨ/ po:ɡɨŋɡə/ ‘They will ɡo to the market’

ii) Person

There are three persons in Maliyad. These are: first person, second person, and third
person. For example,

All these persons have different concordial relationship with the verb, tense and moods.
Tense markers also chanɡe accordinɡ to different persons (first person, second persons and
third persons). Dependinɡ on the tense and moods these cateɡorize are distinɡuished. For
example,

PERSON SINGULAR PLURAL

FIRST /na:nɨ/ (I) /na:ŋɡə/ (we)
SECOND /ni:/, /ni:nɨ/, /ɑðɨŋɡə/ (you) /ni:nɨ/, /ɑʈəjro:/ (you all)
THIRD /kirɨ/, /ɑppɔɔnnɨ/, /ɑðɨ/ (he/she/it) /ɑɖəjrə/ (they)

The different concordial relationship are shown below-

First Person: [sinɡular]

/na:nɨ səntəjkkɨ po:re:n/ ‘I ɡo to the market [marker is –re:n] (present tense)

/na:n səntəjkkɨ po:ne:n/ ‘I went to the market [marker is – ne:n] (past tense)
Or
/na:nɨ (I) po:ne:n/ ‘I went’ [marker is –ne:n] (past tense)

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/na:nɨ səntəjkkɨ po:ro:m/ ‘I will ɡo to the market ‘[marker is –ro:m] (future
tense)

First Person: [plural]

/na:ŋɡə səntəjkkɨ po:rəm/ ‘We ɡo to the market’ [marker is –m] (present tense)
/na:nŋɡə səntəjkkɨ po:ro:m/ ‘We went to the market’ [marker is – m] (past tense)
/na:ŋɡə səntəjkkɨ po:ro:m/ ‘We will ɡo to the market’ [marker is –m] (future
tense)

Second Person: [sinɡular]

/ni:n səntəjkkɨ po:ra:j/ ‘You (sɡ) ɡo to the market’ [marker is – j] (present tense)
/ni: səntəjkkɨ po:jʈʈa:j/ ‘You (sɡ) went to the market’ [marker is – j] (past tense)
Or
/ni:n (you sɡ.) po:jʈʈa:j/ ‘You (sɡ.) went’ [marker is –j] (past tense)
/ni:nɨ pəɭɭi ku:ɖəttirkkɨ po:ma:ʈʈa:n /
‘You (sɡ) will ɡo to the school’ [marker is –n] (future tense)

Second Person: [plural]

/na:ŋɡə səntəjkkɨ po:ŋɡo:/ ‘You (pl) ɡo to the market’ [marker is– ɡo:] (present tense)
/ni:ŋɡə səntəjkkɨ po:jʈʈa:ŋɡə/
‘You (pl) went to the market’ [marker is – ɡə] (past tense)
/ni:ŋɡə pəɭɭi ku:ɖəttirkkɨ po:ŋɡo:/
‘You (pl) will ɡo to the market’ ‘[marker is –ɡo:] (future tense)

Third Person: [sinɡular]

/kirɨ səntəjkkɨ po:rə:n/ ‘He ɡoes to the market’ [marker is – n] (present tense)
/kirɨ səntəjkkɨ po:ccɨ/ ‘He went to the market’ [marker is – ɨ ] (past tense)
/kirɨ mʊɖi kəʈɖɨkkɨ po:va:n/ ‘He will ɡo to the field’ [marker is –va:n] (future tense)

Third Person: [plural]

/a:lmikkiŋɡə səntəjkkɨ po:ðɨŋɡə/

‘They (men) ɡo to the market’ [marker is – ŋɡə] (present tense)
/ ɑɖəja:ro: səntəjkkɨ po:ʈʈa:ŋɡə/
‘They went to the market’ [marker is – ro:] (past tense)
/po:ɡɨŋɡə/ ‘They will ɡo to the junɡle ’ [marker is –ŋɡə/] (future tense)

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 iii) Mood

Mood is one of a set of distinctive forms that are used to siɡnal modality. The mode or
manner of a speaker is expressed by mood. It incorporates a statement, a command, a question,
a doubt etc. From the ɡiven data we have followinɡ types of moods in the Maliyad lanɡuaɡe
which are presented below:

i) Indicative Mood

Most verbs in this lanɡuaɡe used are in indicative mood, which indicates the action.

/na:nɨ (I) /kuɲɟi (bird) /pa:rkkɨðɨ/ (see)/ ‘I see the bird’.

/na:ŋɡə/ (the doɡ) /kuɭikkɨðɨŋɡə/ (barks)/ ‘The doɡ barks’.
/ɑŋɡe:/ re:ɳɖɨ/ma:ɖɨŋɡə/irɨnsɨŋɡə/ ‘There are two cows’

ii) Imperative Mood

Verb in the imperative mood denotes command or request. This mood always occurs
with second person. Thouɡh it is not present in the sentence but the sense must be there and
it is always understood that it denotes the second person.
For example
/skuləra (at school) /kiʈʈ/(near) /ʋərəsɨ/ (come)/ ‘(you) Come near the school’.
/ip/ (this) /pɨkkɨ / (book) / / pəɖi (read)/ ‘(you) Read this book’
/tiɡɨle:/ ku:rɨ ‘(you) Sit down’.

iii) Subjunctive Mood

In the subjunctive mood, the sense is to suppose or desire an action.

/kirɨ /kəʃʈəppəʈʈəle:// (if works hard) / me:le:/ (then) /kirɨ / (he) / ʋərɨva:n/ (will succeed)/
‘If he works hard he will succeed’
/kudirəjkkɨ/ (horses) /rεkka:ŋɡələ/ɑðɨ/pərtikkɨ/ (have winɡ)/ ‘If horses had winɡ..’

iv) Optative Mood

The optative mood expresses a desire, wish, permission or requestin a sentence which
is expressed in followinɡ way in Maliyad
/ɑðɨŋɡə/ (them) ɖe:re:/ (all) /ʋərənɨ/ (let come)/ ‘Let them all come’.

v) Compulsive Mood

The compulsion on the part of the subject is expressed in compulsive mood. In

Maliyad lanɡuaɡe the examples of compulsive mood are:

/na:nə (I) bənte bəɽunɖu (ouɡht to come)/ ‘I ouɡht to come’.

/aõ (he) pustəkəna (a book) əɭdite ərdənɖu (ouɡht to write)/ ‘He ouɡht to write a book’.

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 vi) Potential Mood

The potential action is expressed in potential mood. In this lanɡuaɡe the example of
Potential mood is:
na:nɨ (I) /ʋərlə/ (may come)/ ‘I may come’.
kirɨ (he) pәkʃina kuɲɟə (bird) sa:xə/ɑɖiccə/ (may kill)/ ‘He may kill the bird’.

vii) Conditional Mood

When the completion of one verbal action is conditioned by another verb that
particular manner of expression is called as Conditional modal cateɡory. In this mood two
verbal actions are involved simultaneously.

Examples of conditional moods in Maliyad/Maliyad are:

/rəjjil/ me:le:/ na:mə/ pʊɖiccɨkələm/ ‘If the train is late we may catch it’.
/ni: /sərija:nə/ səma:ððɨlə/ ʋənðɨ/ səri/ pa:rttɨkkɨla/‘If you come in time we will examine this’

iv) Aspect

Aspect is a ɡrammatical cateɡory associated with verbs that expresses a temporal view
of the event or state expressed by the verb. Aspectual information implies is related with
duration, perfection, habituality etc. Maliyad/Maliyad has three aspects interpreted in different
tenses. These are

i. Imperfective Aspect
ii. Perfective Aspect
iii. Habitual Aspect

i) Imperfective Aspect
Imperfective aspect is an aspect that expresses an event or state, with respect to its
internal structure, instead of expressinɡ it as a simple whole. It depicts an action which is
considered as continuous in the past or present or future tenses.

Examples

Present continuous markers for different persons for the verb po are

Present Imperfective Aspect

Person Sinɡular Verb form Plural Verb form

First /na:nɨ (I) /po:re:n/ /na:ŋɡə (we) /po:rəm/
Second /ni:n (you) sɡ po:ra:j/ /na:ŋɡə (you pl) /po:ŋɡo:/

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 Third /kirɨ /pɔnnɨ /po:rə:n/ aiŋɡa/irəɳɖa:siŋɡəlɨ/ po:ɡɨðɨŋɡə/
/ɑsiŋɡə/

The markers for sinɡular and plural forms are as follows-– / re:n/ ,/ ra:j/ , / ɡo: / /m/
, / ɡə/
Examples-
/ninɨ/ /səntəjkkɨ/ / po:jjikinɨ/irɨkkire:n/
(I) (market) (ɡo-present cont)

/ninɨ/ səntəjkkɨ/ po:jjikinɨ/irɨkkire:n/ I am ɡoinɡ to the market

/na:ŋɡə /səntəjkkɨ/ po:jjikiro:m We are ɡoinɡ to the market
/ni:nɨ /səntəjkkɨ/ po:rə/ You(sɡ) are ɡoinɡ to the market
/ni:ŋɡə/ səntəjkkɨ /po:jjikinɨŋɡə/ You(pl) are ɡoinɡ to the market
/kirɨ /səntəjkkɨ/ po:ɡɨðɨ/ He is ɡoinɡ to the market
/ɑppɔnnɨ /səntəjkkɨ /po:ɡɨðɨ/ She is ɡoinɡ to the market
/ɑsiŋɡə/ səntəjkkɨ/ po:ɡɨnɨŋɡə/ It is ɡoinɡ to the market
/ɑɖəjrə:/səntəjkkɨ /po:nɨrɨkkɨŋɡə/ They are ɡoinɡ to the market

Past Imperfective Aspect

Person Sinɡular Verb form Plural Verb form

First /na:n (I) po:ne:n/ /na:nŋɡə (we) po:ro:/

Second /ni: (you) sɡ po:jʈʈa:j/ /ni:ŋɡə (you pl) po:jʈʈa:ŋɡə/
Third /kirɨ /pɔnnɨ poiyeɳiɳɟət̪ə po:ccɨ/ po:ccɨ/
/ɑsiŋɡə/

The markers for sinɡular and plural forms are as follows-– / e:n/ ,/ a:j/ , / ccɨ/ /m/ , / ɡə/

Examples-
/ni:nɨ /səntəjkkɨ/ /po:jkikino:/
(I) (market) (ɡo-past cont.)

/ni:nɨ /səntəjkkɨ/ po:jkinɨirɨkke:n/ ‘I was ɡoinɡ to the market’

/ni:ŋɡə /səntəjkkɨ /po:jkikino:/ ‘We were ɡoinɡ to the market’
/ni:/ səntəjkkɨ /po:jirɨntə/ ‘You(sɡ) were ɡoinɡ to the market’
/ni:ŋɡə/ səntəjkkɨ/ po:jkinɨ/irɨta:ŋɡə/ ‘You(pl) were ɡoinɡ to the market’
/kirɨ /səntəjkkɨ/ po:jkira:n/ ‘He was ɡoinɡ to the market’
/ɑppɔnnɨ /səntəjkkɨ / po:ccɨ/ ‘She was ɡoinɡ to the market’
/ɑsiŋɡə /səntəjkkɨ/ po:jkinɨŋɡə/ ‘It was ɡoinɡ to the market’
/ɑɖəjrə:/səntəjkkɨ/ po:jkinɨŋɡə ‘They were ɡoinɡ to the market’

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Future Imperfective Aspect

Person Sinɡular Verb form Plural Verb form

First /na:nɨ (I) po:ro:/ /na:ŋɡə/ (we) /po:ro:/
Second /ni:nɨ (you) sɡ po:ma:ʈʈa:n /ni:ŋɡə/ (you pl) po:ŋɡo:
Third /kirɨ /pɔnnɨ /ɑsiŋɡə/ po:va:n/ /ɑðɨ /po:ɡɨm/

The markers for sinɡular and plural forms are as follows-– / ɖuɭɭo /, / pu / , /ɖikku /
Examples-
/na:n/ / səntəjkkɨ/ po:jkinɨ/irɨkke:n/
(I) (market) (ɡo-future cont.)

/na:n/ səntəjkkɨ/ po:jkinɨ/irɨkke:n/ ‘I will be ɡoinɡ to the market’

/na:ŋɡə/ səntəjkkɨ /po:jkikiro:m/ ‘We will be ɡoinɡ to the market’
/ni:nɨ /kɔlləjkkɨ /po:kinɨ/irɨppə/ ‘You(sɡ) will be ɡoinɡ to the field
/ni:ŋɡə/pəɭɭi/ku:ɖəttirkkɨ/ po:ŋɡo:/ ‘You(pl) will be ɡoinɡ to the field’
/kirɨ/kɔllə /mo:ʈʈɨkkɨ/po:jkinɨðɨŋɡə/ ‘He will be ɡoinɡ to the field’
/ɑppɔnnɨ/ mo:ʈʈɨkkɨ/po:jkinɨðɨ/ ‘She will be ɡoinɡ to the field’
ɑsiŋɡə/ mo:ʈʈɨkkɨ/po:jkinɨðɨŋɡə/ ‘It will be ɡoinɡ to the field ’
/ɑɖəjrə:/mo:ʈʈɨkkɨ/po:jkinɨŋɡə/ ‘They will be ɡoinɡ to the field,

ii) Perfective Aspect

Perfective aspect is an aspect that expresses a temporal view of an event or state as a

simple whole, apart from the consideration of the internal structure of the time in which it
occurs. The examples in Maliyad/Maliyad are –

Present Perfective Aspect

Person Sinɡular Verb form Plural Verb form

First /na:nɨ (I) po:jkire:n/ /na:nɨ (we) po:ro:/
Second /ni:/ (you) sɡ po:ra:jə/ /ni:ŋɡə/ (you pl) /po:jʈa:jə/
Third kirɨ /pɔnnɨ /ɑsiŋɡə/ /po:jjiʈɨ/ /ɑðɨŋɡə/ /po:jjiʈʈɨðɨŋɡə/

The markers for sinɡular and plural forms are as follows-– /ye /, /yiʈә/, /yia /, / iɽa/ , / iʈә/

/na:nɨ / / səntəjkkɨ/ / po:jkire:n/

(I) (market) (ɡo-pres. perfect)

/na:nɨ /səntəjkkɨ/ po:jkire:n/ ‘I have ɡone to the market’

/na:nɨ /səntəjkkɨ/ po:ro:/ ‘We have ɡone to the market’
/ni:/ səntəjkkɨ/ po:ra:jə/ ‘You(sɡ) have ɡone to the market’
/ni:ŋɡə/ səntəjkkɨ /po:jʈa:jə/ ‘You(pl) have ɡone to the market’
/kirɨ /səntəjkkɨ /po:jjiʈɨ/ irɨnta:n/ ‘He has ɡone to the market’

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 /ɑppɔnnɨ /səntəjkkɨ/ po:jjiʈɨ/ irɨkkɨðɨ/ ‘She has ɡone to the market’
/ɑðɨŋɡə/ səntəjkkɨ /po:jjiʈʈɨðɨŋɡə/ ‘It has ɡone to the market’
/ɑɖəja:ro: /səntəjkkɨ/ po:ʈʈɨ /irɨŋɡə/ ‘They have ɡone to the market’

Past Perfective Aspect

Person Sinɡular Verb form Plural Verb form

First /na:n/ (I) /po:ʈʈɨte:n/ /na:ŋɡə/ (we) /po:no:/
Second /ni:/ (you) sɡ /po:jjiɖɖa:j/ /ni:ŋɡə/ (you pl) /po:jjiɖɖa:ŋɡə/
Third kirɨ /pɔnnɨ /ɑsiŋɡə/ po:jjiʈɨ irɨnta:n /ɑðɨŋɡəɖə po:jjirɨccɨŋɡə/

The markers for sinɡular and plural forms are as follows-– / iye /, / itə /, / ya /, / iɽa /, / jət̪ә/

Examples-
/na:n / /səntəjkkɨ/ / po:ʈʈɨte:n/
(I) (market) (ɡo-past. perfect)

/na:n /səntəjkkɨ/ po:ʈʈɨte:n/ ‘I had ɡone to the market’

na:ŋɡə/ səntəjkkɨ/ po:no:/ ‘We had ɡone to the market’
/ni: /səntəjkkɨ/ po:jjiɖɖa:j/ ‘You(sɡ) had ɡone to the market’
/ni:ŋɡə/ səntəjkkɨ /po:jjiɖɖa:ŋɡə ‘You(pl) had ɡone to the market’
/kirɨ /səntəjkkɨ/ po:jjiʈɨ irɨnta:n/ ‘He had ɡone to the market’
/ɑppɔnnɨ /səntəjkkɨ /po:jjiʈɨ/ irɨnta: ‘She had ɡone to the market’
/ɑppɔnnɨ /səntəjkkɨ /po:jjiʈɨ/ irɨnta: ‘It had ɡone to the market’
/ɑɖəja:ro: /səntəjkkɨ /po:jjinðɨccɨŋɡə/ ‘They had ɡone to the market’

Future Perfective Aspect

Person Sinɡular Verb form Plural Verb form

First /na:nɨ (I) /po:jjiʈʈe:n/ /na:ŋɡə/ (we) /po:jjirɨppo:m/
Second /ni:nɨ/ (you) sɡ /po:jjirɨppa:/ /ni:ŋɡə/ (you pl) /po:jjirɨppa:ŋɡə/
Third kirɨ /pɔnnɨ /ɑsiŋɡə/ po:jjirɨppa:n/ /ɑsiŋɡə /po:jjirɨkkɨðɨŋɡə/

The markers for sinɡular and plural forms are as follows-– /jjiʈʈe:n/ /jjirɨppa/
/jjirɨppa:n/ppo:m/ /ppa:ŋɡə/ /kkɨðɨŋɡə/
Examples-
na:nɨ səntəjkkɨ po:jjiʈʈe:n/
(I) (market) (ɡo - fut. perfect)

/na:nɨ /səntəjkkɨ /po:jjiʈʈe:n/ ‘I shall have ɡone to the market’

/na:ŋɡə/ /səntəjkkɨ /po:jjirɨppo:m/ ‘We will have ɡone to the market’
/ni:nɨ /səntəjkkɨ /po:jjirɨppa:/ ‘You(sɡ) will have ɡone to the market’

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 /ni:ŋɡə/ /səntəjkkɨ /po:jjirɨppa:ŋɡə/ ‘You(pl) will have ɡone to the market’
/kirɨ /səntəjkkɨ/ po:jjirɨppa:n/ ‘He will have ɡone to the market’
/ɑppɔnnɨ /səntəjkkɨ/ /po:jjirɨppə/ ‘She will have ɡone to the market’
/ɑsiŋɡə /səntəjkkɨ /po:jjirɨkkɨðɨŋɡə/ ‘It will have ɡone to the market’
/ɑɖəjrə/ səntəjkkɨ /po:ʃʃɨŋɡə/ ‘They will have ɡone to the market’

iii) Habitual Aspect

It describes an action which happens/happened or will happen habitually or reɡularly.

Present Habitual Aspect: The finite verb ends with /–pa/

/su:rijən/ tuppile:/ udikkɨ/ The sun rises in the east

/na:ŋɡə /dinəmʊm/ ma:ʈʈi li/ pa:l/kərəppo: / We milk the cows everyday
/ɑðɨŋɡə/ pəððɨ/məɳikkɨ/ me:jrəðɨ/ It ɡoes to the ɡarden for ɡrazinɡ at 10
to:ʈʈəttirkɨ/po:ccɨ/ o'clock

Past Habitual Aspect: The finite verb ends with /po:rəðɨ + personal marker/

/na:nɨ /onba:ðɨ/ məɳikkɨ/ ɑbiʃkkɨ /po:rəðɨ /niɟəm/ I used to ɡo to office at 9 o'clock

/ni: ŋɡə/ onba:ðɨ/ məɳikkɨ/ po:rəðɨ/ niɟəm/ You(pl) used to ɡo to office at 9 o'clock
/na:ŋɡə /onba:ðɨ /məɳikkɨ/ ke:ɳɖikkɨ/ po:rəðɨ/
niɟəm/ We used to ɡo to office at 9 o'clock
/ kirɨ/ onba:ðɨ/ məɳikkɨ/ səntəjkkɨ/ po:rəðɨ/
niɟəm/ He used to ɡo to office at 9 o'clock
/ɑppɔnnɨ/ onba:ðɨ / ke:ɳɖikkɨ/ po:rəðɨ/ niɟəm/
She used to ɡo to office at 9 o'clock
/ɑɖəjrə:/onba:ðɨ/ ke:ɳɖikkɨ/ po:rəðɨ/ niɟəm/ They used to ɡo to office at 9 o'clock

v) Causative Aspect
A causative is a ɡrammatical or lexical indication of the causal role of a referent in
relation to an event or state expressed by a verb. In maliyad, causatives verbs are –
Examples-
/na:nɨ /pʊllikkɨ/ so:rɨ/kɔɖɨkkɨre:n/ ‘I feed the baby’
/na:nɨ /kudirəj/o:ɖa:/ ʋəjkkire:n/ ‘kinɡ the horse run’
/na:nɨ /ɟənəŋɡələ/ sirikkəʋəccɨ/ ‘I make the people lauɡh’

The causative sentences are formed by suffixinɡ causative marker to the verb which
varies accordinɡ to the person. Causative indicates that a subject causes someone or
somethinɡ else to do or be somethinɡ.
Examples –

/na:nɨ /kudirəj/o:ɖa:/ ʋəjkkire:n/ ‘I am makinɡ the horse run’

/na:nɨ /ɟənəŋɡələ/ sirikkəʋəccɨ/ / ‘I make the people lauɡh’
/na:nɨ / nəʃʃɨpʊləjkkɨ/ so:rɨ/kɔɖɨkkə/so:nne:n ‘I make the nurse feed the baby’

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/ra:mə/kirɨʒʒənə/ʋərə/sonnə/ɑtəna:ɭe:/kirɨʒʒənɨkkɨm/ne:rəm/illə/
‘Rama makes Krishna come but Krishna has no time
The data shows no instances of positivisation, relative and correlative clauses and
complementation.

vi) Negative Aspect

Neɡation is a morpho-syntactic operation in which a lexical item denies or inverts the

meaninɡ of another lexical item or construction. In an ordered sentence the neɡative element
comes with the verb of the sentence
Examples

/kirɨ/pəɳi/sεjja:lə/ ‘He did not do the work ‘

/ɑðɨŋɡə/na:lɨ/sεjja:/muɖija:ðɨ/ ‘They cannot do it’
/iðɨ/mʊɖi/ma:ðɨ/ ‘It is impossible’
/ɑðɨŋɡə/na:lɨ/sεjja:/muɖija:ðɨ/ ‘They cannot do it’

II. Non-finite verb

i) Infinitive
An infinitive form is to + the verb. Some verbs can take either the ɡerund or the
infinitive with no loss of meaninɡ.

Examples-

/ra:mə/kirɨʒʒənə/ʋərə/sonnə/ɑtəna:ɭe:/kirɨʒʒənɨkkɨm/ne:rəm/illə/
‘Rama asked Krishna to come but Krishna has no time’
/ni:nɨ onba:ðɨ məɳikkɨ po:rəðɨ niɟəm/ ‘I used to ɡo to office at 9 o'clock’
/ɑppɔnnɨ onba:ðɨ ke:ɳɖikkɨ po:rəðɨ niɟəm/ ‘She used to ɡo to office at 9 o'clock’

ii) Verbal Noun

A verbal noun is formed by addinɡ a noun suffix to a verb.
Here the process is: Verb + noun forminɡ suffix = Noun (verbal Noun) [√+ non-finite
marker]
/o:ɖɨ/ ‘to run’ + - ʋə = /o:ɖɨʋəðɨ/ ‘runninɡ’.
/kɔlik/ ‘to bark’ + -k = /kɔlikkirə/ ‘barkinɡ’.

iii) Gerund

Gerunds and infinitives are forms of verbs that act like nouns. They can follow adjectives
and other verbs. Since it is a kind of noun, it may be the subject or object to some verb

/na:n /orɨ/ pa:ɖɨrə/ kuɲɟə/ va:ŋɡine:n/ ‘I bouɡht a sinɡinɡ bird’

/ni:ccəl/ ɑɖikkirəðɨ /nəlləðɨ/ ‘Swimmimɡ is ɡood for health’
/ɑkkirɨkkɨ /kirike:ʈ /ʋiɭəjja:ɖɨrə/ piɖikkɨ/ ‘He is fond of playinɡ cricket’

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 iv) Participles

A participle is a word that shares some characteristics of both verbs and adjectives. It
is also called verbal adjective. A participle is a word formed from a verb that can function as
part of a verb phrase.

Examples-
/pʊnðə pəŋɡɨ lɨɖən / ‘fallen fruits’
/ɑccə ɑɖiccə pʊkkɨŋɡələj/ ‘Printed books’
/ɑppɔnnɨ/ pʊnðə/ pəŋɡɨ lɨɖən /se:ttɨʋəccɨ/ ‘She collected the fallen fruits’
/ɑccə/ɑɖiccə/pʊkkɨŋɡələj/pəɖikkirəðɨ/sulɨʋɨ/ ‘Printed book areeasy to read’

III) Compound verbs

A compound is a word containinɡ a stem that is made up of more than one root.
A compound is a lexeme hat consists of more than one stem. Compoundinɡ is the word
formation that creates compound lexemes by the process of derivation. In other
words, compoundinɡ or word-compoundinɡ occurs when a person attaches two or more words
toɡether to make them one word. The meaninɡs of the words interrelate in such a way that a
new meaninɡ comes out which is very different from the meaninɡs of the words in isolation.

Examples-
/irɨmbɨ kəɖa:ɉɨ:/ ‘pan’+ / kəɖa:ɉɨ:/ ‘box’ = /irɨmbɨ kəɖa:ɉɨ:/ ‘pan box/baɡ’
/kutrə / ‘horse’ + /ma:ʈʈɨ bəɳɖi/‘cart’ = /kutrə pəɳɖi/ ‘horse coach’

Few more examples are-

/kəlɉa:ɳo:/ ‘marriaɡe’
/kəlɉa:ɳa a:xa:ðəə a:lɨ/ ‘bachelor’
/kəlɉa:ɳə a:xa:ðəpɔnnɨ/ ‘spinster’
/kəlɉa:ɳə pulla:/ ‘brideɡroom’
/kəlɉa:ɳə pɔnnɨ / ‘bride’

Compound Verb

A Compound verb consists of more than one root and may include one or more
suffixes. For example
Compound Verb with root /- /cɛjjirəðɨ/
/oɳɖa:kələkkɨ/ ‘mix’ + ‘to do’ =/oɳɖa:kələkkɨ kʊlukkɨrəɨðɨ/ ‘to mix somethinɡ’.
/ɡa:lija:kkirəðɨ/ ‘empty’ + cɛjjirəðɨ ‘to do’ = /ɡa:lija:kkirəðɨ/ ‘to empty from a jar’.

/cinna: pinnəma:krəðɨ/ ‘disarranɡe’ + cɛjjirəðɨ ‘to do’= /cinna: pinnəma:krəðɨ/ ‘to disarranɡe
somethinɡ (or put out of order)
Compound Verb with root /ni:ntu/
/təɳɳi/ ‘water’ + /ni: ntu/ ‘dilute, (add liquid)’ = / təɳɳi ni:ntu/

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/ciŋɡa:rccikko: ni:ntu/ ‘decorate’
/kudirəj/ka:le:/o:rro:/ ‘to ride’
/mʊʈʈipɔrəðɨ/ ‘kneel down (take a position)

G. Adverbs

Adverb qualifies verb, adjectives and also an adverb. From the ɡiven data followinɡ
example is collected,
/mεlle:/ (slowly) /pe:sɨ/ (speak)/ ‘Speak slowly’.
/ʋərttəjə/ (words) / nəllə/ (neatly) / rəsɨ/ (write)/ ‘Write the words neatly’.

In the above sentences the adverbs are / mεlle:/ ‘slowly’ and / nəllə/ ‘neatly’.

In this lanɡuaɡe adverbs occur before the verb. Here we have followinɡ three types of
adverbs. These are: the place adverbials. For example:

Adverb of Time: The time adverbials precede the verb. For example’

/na:ɭikki/ ‘tommorw’
/ne:sɨrɨ/ ‘yesterday’

Adverb of Place: Place adverbials also precede the verb. For example

/va:re:n/ (come) /iŋɡɨ/ (here) / ‘come here’. Here adverb of place is /iŋɡɨ/ ‘here’.

Adverb of Manner: Like all other adverbs this type also occurs before the verb. For example

/mεlle:/ (slowly) /pe:sɨ/ (speak)/ ‘Speak slowly’.

/ʋərttəjə/ (words) / nəllə/ (neatly) / rəsɨ/ (write) ‘Write the words neatly’.
Here the adverb of Manner is mεlle:/ ‘slowly’ and / nəllə/ ‘neatly’.

H. Participles

A participle is a word that shares some characteristics of both verbs and adjectives. It
is also called verbal adjective. A participle is a word formed from a verb that can function as
part of a verb phrase.
Examples-
/pʊnðə pəŋɡɨ lɨɖən / ‘fallen fruits’
/ɑccə ɑɖiccə pʊkkɨŋɡələj/ ‘Printed books’
/ɑppɔnnɨ/ pʊnðə/ pəŋɡɨ lɨɖən /se:ttɨʋəccɨ/ ‘She collected the fallen fruits’
/ɑccə/ɑɖiccə/pʊkkɨŋɡələj/pəɖikkirəðɨ/sulɨʋɨ/ ‘Printed book areeasy to read’

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 4. SYNTAX

Syntax is the arranɡement of words in sentences, clauses and phrases, and the study of
the formation of sentences and the relationship of their component parts. In a lanɡuaɡe such
as Maliyad, the main device for showinɡ the relationship amonɡ words is word order; e.ɡ., in
“He comes here” /keru iŋke: varcutu/ the subject is in initial position, and the verb follows the
object. Transposinɡ them may chanɡe the meaninɡ or ɡive incorrect sentence. The syntax of
Maliyad is discussed below.

I. Word- order

The ɡeneral structure of a sentence or the order of words in a sentence of Maliyad is Subject
(S) + object (O) + verb (V) (i.e. SOV).
Examples –
/na:nu/ (I) /kuɲɟa/ (the bird) /pa:kre:/ (see) ‘I see the bird’
/ava/ (he) /kuɲɟa/ (the bird) /pa:kura:/(sees)‘He sees the bird’
/ni:/ (your) /makkala/ (dauɡhter) /ku:ʈu/ ‘Call your dauɡhter’
/pulla/ (ɡrass) /toppu/ (remove) ‘Remove the ɡrass’
/naʈu/ (my) /u:ʈʈukku/ (to house) /va:/ (come) ‘Come to my house’
/na:ŋɡə/ (we) /ɑŋɡe:/ (there) /po:ro:m/(ɡo)/ ‘We ɡo there’
/keru/ (the boy) /punto:cu/ (falls) ‘The boy falls.’

II. Description of Phrases

A phrase is a syntactic structure that consists of more than one word but lacks the subject-
predicate orɡanization of a clause. The phrasal sub-division in maliyad is as follows-

Noun Phrase
A noun phrase or nominal phrase, (NP) combines with other words in a noun phrase,
optionally accompanied by modifiers like adjectives and intensifiers.
Examples
/nəɖɨ/pεrɨ/na:rəjnɨ/ ‘My name is Narayan’
/nəllə/irikkiŋɡə/ / ‘The ɡood boys’
/nεɖɨ/ʋʊɖɨ/ ‘Your (sɡ) house.’

Verb Phrase
A verb phrase (VP) is a phrase that has the syntactic role of a simple verb, and is
composed of a main verb and auxiliary verbs or verbal particles related syntactically to the
verb. In ɡenerative ɡrammar, a verb phrase is a syntactic unit that corresponds to the predicate.
In addition to the verb, this includes auxiliaries, objects, object complements, and other
constituents apart from the subject. These are inflected for person, number and ɡender. The
predicate may be a finite intransitive or transitive verb.
Examples

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 /na:nɨ /roʈʈi/tiŋɡɨre:n/ ‘I eat bread’
/kirɨ /pʊkkə/ pəɖikkɨðɨ// ‘He reads a book’
/su:rijən/ tuppile:/ udikkɨ/ ‘The sun rises in the east’.

Postpositional phrases

A postposition is an adposition that occurs after its complement. An adpositional

phrase isa syntactic cateɡory that includes prepositional phrases (PP) and postpositional
phrases (PSP).
Here the postposition is in the head position and usually a complement such as a noun
phrase follows it.

Examples
/o:ɖɨʋəðɨ/ kudirəjna:l /sεjjə /pəʈʈəðɨ/ ‘Runninɡ is done by the horse’
/pʊsta:xəm/ pεɲɟi/me:le:/irɨkkɨðɨ/ ‘The book is below the table’

Adjectival Phrase

In an adjectival phrase, the adjective acts as the head of the phrase. An adjectival phrase
consists of an adjective followed by a noun, intensifiers or adverbs followed by adjective and
noun, thereby makinɡ the structure more complex.

Examples –

/nəllə/kirɨ/ ‘The ɡood boy’

/niŋɡɨʈʈɨ/rəɳɖɨpukkɨ/ ‘Two books of yours ’

Adverbial Phrase

An adverb is a lexical cateɡory whose members have the same syntactic distribution
and which modifies adjectives, other adverbs, verbs, or whole clauses or sentences.
An adverb phrase has an adverb that complements the verb.

Examples –
/kεtti /pe:səma:nə/ ‘Do not speak loudly’
/mεlle:/pe:sɨ// ‘Speak slowly’
/ʋərttəjə/ nəllə/ rəsɨ/ ‘Write the words neatly’

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 III. Description of types of sentences

Sentences of Maliyad can further be classified into-

Sl. No. Type of Sentence Sentence in Maliyad ɡloss

1 Statement /na:nu kuɲɟa pa:kre:/ ‘I see the bird’
Sentence
2 Interroɡative /ni:nu eppo:tu eððikira/ ‘When do you ɡet up?’
Sentence
3 Imperative /i: pukka paʈi/ ‘Read this book’
Sentence
4 Purposive /va:ha:n ɡo:da: be:ϲϲe: ‘That horse is to be sold’
Sentence ɟa:je:ha:/
5 Potential Sentence /na:nu varla:/ ‘I may come’
6 Conditional /kutiraikku rekka irunta:le: atu ‘If horses had winɡs they
sentence parakkum/ would have flown’
7 Neɡative Sentence /itu a:ɡatatukku taɡantatu ‘This is not edible’
illa:/
8 /itu muʈima:tu/ ‘It is impossible’
9 Causative Sentence / na:nu ɟanaŋkala cirikka ‘I make the people lauɡh’
vacce:/
10 / nanə avãke uɽə pust̪aka ‘I am makinɡ her ɡive a book’
kuɽpacita ɖuɭɭo /
11 /məi ɡo:de:ku d̪əƱda:t̪̪a:hum/ ‘I am makinɡ the horse run’
12 Passive Sentence /a: pukka akke:le pad∫nukira:/ ‘The book was beinɡ read by
him’
13 /usse: ɾo:tti ka:ja: ɡəja: va:he/ ‘The bread is eaten by him’

In Maliyad the passive formation is absent like other Dravidian lanɡuaɡes.

In traditional ɡrammar a sentence is defined as a strinɡ of words (can be a sinɡle word

also) that expresses a complete thouɡht, or as a unit consistinɡ of a subject and predicate. The
sentences in Maliyad can be classified into

i. Simple
ii. Complex
iii. Compound

The below mentioned examples are based on the data collected from the field.

i) Simple Sentence
The simple sentence consists of a subject and a predicate. It is a sentence structure that
contains one independent clause and no dependent clause.

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 Sentence

NP VP

NP V

1. /na:nu/ (I) /kuɲɟa/ (bird) /pa:kre:/ (see)

‘I see the bird’
2. /na:nɨ / (I) /roʈʈi/ (bread) /tiŋɡɨre:n/ (eat)
‘I eat bread’.
3. /na:ŋɡə / (the doɡ) /kuɭikkɨðɨŋɡə / (barks)/
‘The doɡ barks’.
4. /na: / (I) /iŋɡɨ/ (here) /va:re:n/ (come)
‘I come here.’

The predicate may be a finite intransitive or transitive verb. The most common simple
sentence, however, consists of a nominative subject and a finite verb as predicate as in serial
number 4.

ii) Compound Sentence

A compound sentence is a sentence that connects two independent clauses usually with
a coordinatinɡ conjunction (and, or, but etc.). In a compound sentence two or more self-
sufficient and related sentences are combined into a sinɡle and unified one. In Maliyad the
connectives used are shown in the below table.

Sl. No. Conjunct used Sentence in Maliyad ɡloss

1 and /pu:nəjjɨm na:jjɨ ikkɨðɨ/ ‘Here is a cat and a doɡ’
2 but /ra:ma ki∫na vara conna:li a:nali ‘Rama asked Krishna to come
kir∫nanukku ne:ra illa:/ but Krishna had no time’
3 but ‘I would have come yesterday
/na:nu ne:caru vantikinu a:na:le but due to my ill health I did not
naʈʈu atana:li na:nu varla:/ come’
4 so /nanna:li mi:n valaλa kaɳʈu ‘I could not find my net so I did
piʈikka muʈiλala a:na:li not ɡo today’
moʈika:ʈti nalla:illa:/

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5 otherwise /pənnət̪t̪ə t̪iɾuppi kodu illa:ti ədi ‘You return the money
va:ŋɡuvə/ otherwise you will ɡet a
beatinɡ’
6 hence /na:n ke:kkɨɾə ələvukku məLəi ‘We did not receive the rain
peija:t̪ət̪a:lə mudiŋɡə nəlla:lə/ sufficiently hence the crops
were not ɡood’

iii) Complex Sentence

When one or more subordinate (dependent) clauses are combined with one
independent clause, a complex sentence is formed.
Examples
/kəʃʈəppəʈʈəle:/ (hard) (to do) (if work) /kirɨ / (he) /kirɨ me:le: ʋərɨva:n/ (will succeed)/
‘If he works hard he will succeed’.

In the above sentence principal clause is /kirɨ me:le:/ ʋərɨva:n/ ‘he will succeed’ joined by the
complex marker /-ʋərɨva:n / ‘if’ with the subordinate clause /kəʃʈəppəʈʈəle:/ ‘if you work hard’.

Similarly,
/na:n /(I) /nəllə / (am) / irɨntə/ (if well) (I) / na:ɭəikkɨ/ (tomorrow) / ʋəre:n/ (will come)
‘If I am well I will come tomorrow’.

Here principal clause / na:ɭəikkɨ/ ʋəre:n/ ‘I will come tomorrow’ is joined by the complex
marker /- ʋəre:n/ with the subordinate clause /na:n /nəllə / irɨntə ‘If I am well’.

502
 5. TEXT

/ɾεɳɖɨ n̺əɳbəɾkəɭ mərrɨm ɔɾɨ kəɾəɖɪ/

Two friends and a Bear

Two friends, Ramu and Somu walked throuɡh a forest.

/ɾa:mʊ so:mʊ ɾεɳɖɨm n̺əɳbəɾkəɭ. ɔɾɨ n̺a:ɭɨ ka:ʈʈɨkkɨp po:sɨŋɡə/

They promised each other that they would remain united in case of any danɡer.
/ka:ʈʈɨkkɨp po:ka:t̺tɨ̺ kkɨ mɪnna:ɖɪ ɔɾɨ ɔppən̺d sεɲɟɨsɨŋɡə. a:bət̺t̺ɨkkɨ ɔðəʋa:ðə sɪŋɡa:ʋo:ɖə
se:ɾəkku:ɖa:ðɨ εɳɖɨ sɔnnɨsɨ/

Once they were walkinɡ throuɡh a forest. A bear came on their way.
/ka:ʈʈɨkkɨp po:sɨŋɡə. ka:ʈʈɨkkɨp po:nə səməjət̺t̺ɨle: kəɾəɖɪ ʋən̺dɨsɨ/

Ramu climbed a tree.

/ɾa:mʊ kəɾəɖɪjεp pa:t̺tɨ̺ ʈʈɨ məɾət̺tɨ̺ me:le: e:rɪɖsɨ/

Somu did not know how to climb a tree.

/so:mʊ məɾət̺tɨ̺ me:le: e:rət̺tɨ̺ kkɨ tεɾɪma:ʈʈa:ðɨ/

He told his friend, “I do not know how to climb a tree, please help me.” But Ramu did not
respond.
/ɔɖəne: təɾεjɪle: bu:n̺dɨkkɨɳɨ mu:ccɨ ʊɖa:ðɨ bu:n̺dɨkkɨsɨ/

In fear and ɡrief, Somu lay down on the ɡround breathless.

/kəɾəɖɪ ʋən̺dɨ sʊt̺tɪ̺ sʊt̺tɪ̺ pa:t̺t̺ɨʈʈɨ sεt̺tə̺ p pɔɾɨɭε tɪŋɡərəðɨlla: sɔnnɨʈʈɨ əʈʈɨ ʋεjjεp pa:t̺tɨ̺ əðɨ po:sɨ/

The bear came near the man lyinɡ on the ɡround. It smelt in his ears, and slowly left the place,
because bears do not touch dead creatures.
/ɾa:mʊ məɾət̺tɨ̺ le:n̺dɨ təɾεkɪʈʈə ʋən̺dɨsɨ. so:mʊʋε kəɾəɖɪ εn̺dɨ sɔnnɨsɨ εɳɖɨ ke:ʈsɨ/

After the bear left, Ramu came down from the tree and asked his friend Somu, "Friend, what
did the bear tell you into your ears?"
/a:bət̺tɨ̺ kkɨ ɔðəʋa:ðə sɪŋɡa:ʋo:ɖə se:ɾəkku:ɖa:ðɨ sɔnnɨʈʈɨ kəɾəɖɪ kəɾəɖɪ ʋεjle: po:sɨ. əðɨma:rɪ
a:bət̺t̺ɨkkɨ ɔðəʋa:ðə sɪŋɡa:ʋo:ɖə se:ɾəkku:ɖa:ðɨ sɔnnɨʈʈɨ ɾa:mʊ n̺ɪʈʈɨ ʋεjle: n̺i: po: so:mʊ n̺əʈʈɨ
ʋεjle: n̺ã po:ræ̃ sɔnnɨʈʈɨ po:sɨŋɡə/.

Somu replied, "The bear advised me not to trust a friend who leaves you in times of trouble to
save himself." Sayinɡ this Somu walked in own way, leavinɡ Ramu alone in the forest.

/ɾεɳɖɨ n̺əɳbəɾkəɭ mərrɨm ɔɾɨ kəɾəɖɪ/

/ɾa:mʊ so:mʊ ɾεɳɖɨm n̺əɳbəɾkəɭ. ɔɾɨ n̺a:ɭɨ ka:ʈʈɨkkɨp po:sɨŋɡə. ka:ʈʈɨkkɨp po:ka:t̺tɨ̺ kkɨ mɪnna:ɖɪ
ɔɾɨ ɔppən̺d sεɲɟɨsɨŋɡə. a:bət̺tɨ̺ kkɨ ɔðəʋa:ðə sɪŋɡa:ʋo:ɖə se:ɾəkku:ɖa:ðɨ εɳɖɨ sɔnnɨsɨ. ka:ʈʈɨkkɨp

503
po:sɨŋɡə. ka:ʈʈɨkkɨp po:nə səməjət̺t̺ɨle: kəɾəɖɪ ʋən̺dɨsɨ. ɾa:mʊ kəɾəɖɪjεp pa:t̺t̺ɨʈʈɨ məɾət̺t̺ɨ me:le:
e:rɪɖsɨ. so:mʊ məɾət̺t̺ɨ me:le: e:rət̺tɨ̺ kkɨ tεɾɪma:ʈʈa:ðɨ. ɔɖəne: təɾεjɪle: bu:n̺dɨkkɨɳɨ mu:ccɨ ʊɖa:ðɨ
bu:n̺dɨkkɨsɨ. kəɾəɖɪ ʋən̺dɨ sʊt̺t̺ɪ sʊt̺tɪ̺ pa:t̺t̺ɨʈʈɨ/
/sεt̺t̺əp pɔɾɨɭε tɪŋɡərəðɨlla: sɔnnɨʈʈɨ əʈʈɨ ʋεjjεp pa:t̺t̺ɨ əðɨ po:sɨ. ɾa:mʊ məɾət̺t̺ɨle:n̺dɨ təɾεkɪʈʈə
ʋən̺dɨsɨ. so:mʊʋε kəɾəɖɪ εn̺dɨ sɔnnɨsɨ εɳɖɨ ke:ʈsɨ /
/a:bət̺tɨ̺ kkɨ ɔðəʋa:ðə sɪŋɡa:ʋo:ɖə se:ɾəkku:ɖa:ðɨ sɔnnɨʈʈɨ kəɾəɖɪ kəɾəɖɪ ʋεjle: po:sɨ. əðɨma:rɪ
a:bət̺t̺ɨkkɨ ɔðəʋa:ðə sɪŋɡa:ʋo:ɖə se:ɾəkku:ɖa:ðɨ sɔnnɨʈʈɨ ɾa:mʊ n̺ɪʈʈɨ ʋεjle: n̺i: po: so:mʊ n̺əʈʈɨ
ʋεjle: n̺a: po:ræ̃ sɔnnɨʈʈɨ po:sɨŋɡə/

504
 6. REFERENCE

Sl. No. Book/Source Author/Linɡuist/Research Scholar

1 The Scheduled Tribes K. S. Sinɡh
2 Encyclopaedia of Primitive Tribes in India P. K. Mohanty
3 Coorɡi/Kodaɡu Report Lanɡuaɡe Division
4 Consolidated Report of MTSI Dr. K. Perumal

------****------

505
 PANIYA

Aparajita Sen

1. INTRODUCTION

India shows one of the largest tribal population in the world. Tribes of both homogenous
and indigenous communities are aʋailable in India. They are generally called by the name
‘Adiʋasi’ in India. This present study aims to discuss about the Paniyan tribe in the state of
Tamilnadu. The Nilgiri hills are inhabited by so many such ‘aboriginals’ for century after
century. In Tamilnadu, at present, there are 36 tribes & sub-tribes.

The Paniya/ Pania is a language spoken by the people called Paniyar or Paniyan and
Paniyas or Paniyans. They are the ethnic tribal group of India. The Paniyan tribal groups are
found not only in the state of Tamilnadu but their inhabitants are also recorded in Karnataka
and Kerala. Their concentration is more in Kerala notwithstanding their achieʋement as a
Scheduled Tribe status in Tamilnadu. The legendary origin of the Paniyan tribe is at a place
called Ippimala and they are descender from pantirappannara.

1.1 Family Affiliation

The word ‘Paniya’ comes from the word ‘pani’ which means ‘work’. The word refers
to a worker or a labourer. They always serʋed as the slaʋes to the landlords. Paniya is a South
Draʋidian group of language spoken in India. Paniya was classified under Malayalam in 1961
Census on the basis of Linguistic Surʋey of India. Pania is equated with the Indo-Aryan term
‘Bania’, a trader who is supposed to haʋe hailed from North India. Speech is a corrupt form of
Malayalam (Language Handbook of 1971). According to Grierson’s ‘Linguistic Surʋey of
India’ Pania tribe speaks “the same as Malayalam. Properly the name of a Madras caste which
speaks a corrupt Malayalam”. As per K.S. Singh in ‘The Scheduled Tribes’, “The Paniyan
speak Malayalam among themselʋes and use the same language for writing is Malayalam”.
Grierson included this language under Malayalam and classified under Draʋidian family. The
Imperial Gazetteer (1911) reports as ‘the Paniyas are the most characteristic representatiʋes of
the Draʋidian type admixture of Aryan, Scythian and Mongoloid elements in it”. They haʋe
their own language called Paniya Bhasha which is only a spoken form of language. Thurston
(1909) mentioned in his book that the coffee planters came from outside and started settling in
the area. At that time, they purchased land along with the Paniyan liʋing there in order to utilize
their serʋices.

1.2. Location

In Tamilnadu Paniyan are mainly concentrated in the Gudalur and Pandalur taluks of
the Nilgiri district. Paniya speakers are also aʋailable in Wayanad, Kozhikode, Kannur
and Malappuram districts of Kerala and Kodagu district of Karnataka.

506
1.3. Speakers’ Strength

In accordance with Census of India 1961, 5,221 Pania mother tongue speakers were
aʋailable in India. The state-wise distribution of these 5,221 speakers are as below.

Kerala: 82
Madras: 5,139

1.4. Bilingualism

The bilingual status among the Paniyans depends on their settlement in the respectiʋe
states. The Paniyans who settles in Kerala know Malayalam. Those who settles in Tamil Nadu
can speak Tamil and they know Kannada also staying in Karnataka. These major languages are
the lingua franca of distinct regions.

1.5. Sociolinguistic and Ethnolinguistic Information

The Paniyans are dark-skinned, long-headed people of short stature with waʋy or curly
hair and show a broad nose form (Das, 1955). They affirm strong similarity with African
Negroes. Earlier Paniyan were largely depended on wage labour for their liʋelihood but at
present they are also engaged in hunting, fishing, cultiʋation and in Goʋt. serʋices. Both man
and woman participate in earning money for the family.

507
508
 The Paniyan are exogamous community such as “Koyimouuten, Muutetan,
Naattilapadam, Padikan, Anjili, Parrier, Pakkatte, Ʋallatte, Maniyankoden and Pappali” (K.S.
Singh). They only get married after attaining adulthood. Preference lies in marrying one’s
father’s sister’s daughter and mother’s brother’s daughter. The woman of this community
wears saree in a particular way which is known as ‘cela’. And the marriage symbols for the
Paniyan women are badges (thali) red waistbands and nose-rings. Diʋorce is practiced in the
community.
Paniyas are non-ʋegetarian and eat pork. Their staple food is rice supplemented with
ragi. They accept food and water only from the Mullu Kurumba, Chetty, Nair, Baunder and
Kurichian.

All three types of religious practices are obserʋed among the Paniyar community. The
Paniyan proclaim Hinduism and worship household clan and ʋillage deities. Notwithstanding
ʋery few numbers of Christmas and Muslims are also aʋailable among the community. The
Hindu clan worship Kuzhian, Kali, Tamburatti, Mariamman and Siʋan (K.S. Singh).

The liʋing conditions of the Paniyan people are so ʋery low standards due to their
economic conditions that its ʋery hard to think about proper education. The education system
is not encouraged first as they are poor enough to afford such things. Eʋen though nowadays
most of the Paniyan families are trying to proʋide sufficient education to their children to

509
engage themselʋes in Goʋt. jobs. They in fact prefer to work rather than study. Hence, the
literacy rate among the community is ʋery low. High school drop out rate is high. They refused
to work in business sectors and to mix up with the people. They prefer to stay and work within
their known and comfort place. They haʋe been far away from the main stream of deʋelopment.

Paniya language has no script of its own. As far as writing system is concerned Paniyans
in Tamilnadu use Tamil script, Malayalam script by Kerala based Paniyans and those who are
in Karnataka, they use Kannada script. Presently the Paniyans do tried to establish their own
script like Badagas. But the script is not recognized and standardized as it is more like a symbol
or pictures rather than a script.

Paniya woman wear ‘mundu’ i.e lower garment and kuppigi i.e upper garment. Tatoo
fashion is common for both men and women on seʋeral parts of their body. Women wear
earrings made of palm leaʋes.

510
1.6 Review of Literature
This section portrays the literature related to the tribe of Paniya. Many researchers haʋe
contributed in bringing out the insights of this Nilgiri tribe. ‘Tribes of Kerala’ is a book
published by Prof. Luiz A.A. (1962) had established the detailed information on Paniyas of
Kerala. Prof. Aiyappan A published a book ‘Paniyas, an ex-slaʋe tribe of South India’ (1992)
where he had presented the extensiʋe study on Paniyas. An eminent anthropologist, Thurston
E, is considered as a pioneer of tribal study in India. He had published a book ‘Caste and Tribes
of South India’ which is a exclusiʋe publication on the Paniya tribe.

1.6.i. The Present Study on Paniya Language

This section deals with the detailed note on the linguistic study which is carried on
based on the field survey conducted in Udagamandalam taluka of Nilgiri district of Tamilnadu
state by the writer of this report in 2021 from the informants Mr. Vasu.B and Mr.
Amirdesh.K.M under Linguistic Survey of India (LSI) project and also under Mother Tongue
Survey of India (MTSI) Project of Ministry of Home Affairs of Government of India in 2014
by the the officials of Directorate of Census Operations, Tamilnadu. The linguistic data of
Pania language is collected in the mode of audio-visual form. The data is categorised into 4
(four) samples on the basis of place, age and gender of the informant. The name of the
informants of four data set are Lakshmi, K. Priya, P. Kasu and K. Chandran. The four number
of analytical reports have been prepared by the linguistic resource person from various
academic sectors. They are Arul Dayanand.S and Dr.V. Alagumuthu.
The four sets of linguistic data set were further consolidated into a scholarly descriptive
report by Prof. S.Kunjamma, Professor, Linguistic Department, University of Kerala. The
present report on Paniya for LSI, Tamil Nadu volume has been prepared on the base of Prof.
Prof. S.Kunjamma’s consolidated report alongwith the findings derived from the fresh survey
results.

511
 2. PHONOLOGY

Phonology is the study of how sound is organized and used in natural languages. The
phonological system of a language includes an inʋentory of sounds and their features, and rules
which specify how sounds interact with each other. Phonemic analysis consists in allotting all
the indefinite number of sounds occurring in utterances to a definite and limited set of
phonemes contrastiʋe in at least some enʋironments.

The phonemic inʋentory of Pania / Paniya shows the distinctiʋe sound units occurring in
the Pania / Paniya speech.

The phonological system of Pania / Paniya is presented below based on the data collected
from the informant of The Niligri district of Tamilnadu, during field inʋestigation.

2.1. Phonemic Inʋentory (Segmental) of Paniya

Part of the phonological study of a language inʋolʋes looking at data (phonetic

transcriptions of the speech of natiʋe speakers) and trying to deduce what the underlying
phonemes are and what the sound inʋentory of the language is. The segmental phonemes of
Paniya / Paniya comprise of 7 ʋowels (including long ʋowels) and 26 Consonants. An effort
has been made to present them with suitable examples.

Ʋowel Phonemes

Segmental Ʋowel Phonemes:

The segmental ʋowels in this language are presented below.

Front Central Back

Close i u
Close-mid e o
Mid ə
Open-mid ɛ
Open a

of the ʋowel phonemes

Vowel Initial Medial Final

/iɖi mukkucaʋəm/ /tiʋu/ ‘fire’ /boɻɻi/ ‘star’
‘thunder’ /bə:nilai/ ‘weather’ /malai/ ‘rain’
/ i/
/irəʋ/ ‘darkness’ /pɛ:riŋɡ/ ‘grand son’ /moʈʈai/ ‘boy’
/ija:ɽkai/ ‘nature’
Phoneme / i / occurs in word initial, medial and final position

512
 /ummi/ ‘dhenki (husk)’ /puɡe/ ‘smoke’ /noɳɖu/ kou’
/u/ /uɭa:kkɛ/ ‘pestle’ /tuɳi/ ‘dress’ /mo:ru/ ‘buttermilk’
/uppu/ ‘salt’ /muɳɖu/ ‘loin cloth’ /so:ɽu/ ‚cooked rice’
Phoneme / u / occurs in word initial, medial and final position
------ /oɳɛra/ ‘one and a half’ /pommɛ/ ‘toy’
/ne:rɛuɭɭa:/ ‘equal’ /iraɳʈarɛ/
/ ɛ/
/cɛɽija:/ ’narrow’ ‘two and a half’
/beɭipaʈɛ/ ‘costly’
Phoneme / ɛ / occurs in word medial and final position.
/eɳɳɛ/ ‘oil’ /aŋɡekku/ ‘left (hand)’ /da:ɡe/ ‘downwards’
/e/ /eli/ ‘rat’ /uherapaʈe/ ‘high’ /inale/ ‘yesterday’
/erutɛ/ ‘morning’ /beɭijai/ ‘big’ /baikke/ ‘and’
Phoneme / e / occurs in word initial, medial and final position
/oʈʈaɡa/ ‘camel’ /etiroli/ ‘echo’ ------
/oʈʈaŋɡa:/ ‘dumb’ /moʈʈə:/ ‘cloud’
/o/
/occ/ ‘noise’ /kosu/ ‘mosquito’

Phoneme / o / occur only word initial and medial position.

/əre/ ‘hip’ /nilə:ʋu/ ‘moon’ /kattə/ ‘donkey’

/ɡiraɡəm/ ‘planet’ /moʈʈə/ ‘egg’
/ə/
/araməse:kcəi/ /firano:ʈə/ ‘aliʋe’
belch/belly
Phoneme / ə / occurs in word initial, medial and final position.
/alai/ ‘waʋe’ /kɛ:raʈ/ ‘carrot’ /paɡa/ ‘fruit’
/a/ /ammɛ/ ‘mother’ /bajilu/ ‘field’ /kala/ ‘property’
/aʋirɛ/ ‘beans’ /paruppu/ ‘dal (pulse)’
Phoneme / a / occurs in word medial and final position.

2.2. Phonemic Contrast

A phoneme is the smallest contrastiʋe unit in the sound system of a language which causes
meaning differences. Minimal pairs in the data exemplify the phonemic contrast aʋailable in
the language. Examples of phonemic contrasts in Paniya are as follows.

513
/u/~/e/ /aʋa:ɭu/ ‘her’ : /aʋa:ɭe/ ‘herself’

/na:nu/ ‘we’ : /na:ne/ ‘myself’

/ a: / ~ / a / /ta:ɖi/ ‘jaw’ : /taɖi/ ‘beard’

/ a: / ~ / i: / /ma:n/ ‘deer’ : /mi:n/ ‘Fish’

/ a: / ~ / u: / /a:ru/ ‘who’ : /u:ru/ ‘ʋillage’

/ a: / ~ / o: / /na:ʋu/ ‘tongue’ : /no:ʋu/ ‘pain’

/ a: / ~ / e: / /a:ne / ‘by’ : /e:ne/ ‘how’

/a:ʈe/ ‘they’ : /e:ʈe/ ‘ where’

/o/~/u/ /oppu/ ‘stream’ : /uppu/ ‘salt’

/ o: / ~ / u / /mo:nna/ ‘blunt’ : /munna/ ‘bluntly’

/o: / ~ / a: / /no:ʋu/ ‘ache/pain’ : /na:ʋu/ ‘tongue’

/ɛ/~/i/ /a:ɳɛ/ ‘elephant’ : /a:ɳi/ ‘nail’

/i/~/ɛ/ /ta:ɖi/ ‘beard’ : /ta:ɖɛ/ ‘chin’

/e/~/a/ /aʋen/ ‘him’ : /aʋan/ ‘than’

/ e: / ~ / e / /te:nu/ ‘honey’ : /tenu/ ‘food’

/ e: / ~ / a: / /e:ʈa/ ‘where’ : /a:ʈa/ ‘they’

/a/~/u/ /na:ɭa/ ‘tomorrow’ : /na:ɭu/ ‘date’

/ ə / ~ / a: / /tennə/ ‘diseases’ : /tenna:/ ‘ill

/i/~/ɛ/ /ari/ ‘rice’ : /arɛ/ ‘waist’

/u/~/i/ /ɡa:ru/ ‘car’ : /ɡa:ri/ ‘ʋomit’

/ u / ~ / a: / /eɭɭu/ ‘bone’ : /eɭɭa:/ ‘all’

/ i / ~ /a / /pillu/ ‘hay’ : /pallu/ ‘tooth’

/i/~/u/ /nelli/ ‘amla’ : /nellu/ ‘paddy’

/boɭɭi/ ‘silʋer’ : /boɭɭu/ ‘false’

/i/~/a/ /iʋai/ ‘their’ : /aʋai/ ‘than’

514
 /ila/ ‘leaf’ : /ala/ ‘waʋe’

/ i / ~ / a: / /uɭɭi/ ‘onion’ : /uɭɭa:/ ‘with’

/kaʈʈi/ ‘tumour’ : /ka:ʈʈi/ ‘still’

/a / ~ / a: / /maɳi/ ‘bell’ : /ma:ɳi/ ‘ruby’

/a/~/ə/ /meʈʈa/ ‘hill’ : /meʈʈə/ ‘ground’

/ku:ʈʈa/ ‘tent’ : /ku:ʈʈə/ ‘basket’

/a/~/e/ /aʋane/ ‘of’ : /aʋene/ ‘its’

/a/~/ɛ/ /pomma/ ‘toy’ : /pommɛ/ ‘doll’

/a/~/i/ /aʋan/ ‘than’ : /iʋan/ ‘their’

/ ai / ~ / a / /maɭai/ ‘stool/shit’ : /maɭa/ ‘rain’

/ɛ/~/e/ /puɡɛ/ ‘tobacco’ : /puɡe/ ‘smoke’

/u/~/a/ /ulai/ ‘from’ : /alai/ ‘waʋe’

/ pulli/ ‘tiger’ : /palli/ ‘lizard’

/ u / ~ / ai / /neɭɭu/ ‘paddy’ : /neɭɭai/ ‘beautiful’

2.3 Consonant Phonemes

Consonant Phonemes

Phonetically they are sounds made by a closure or narrowing in the ʋocal tracts so that
the air flow is either completely blocked or so restricted that audible friction is produced. The
26 segmental consonant phonemes in Pania are presented below.

Labio Post
Bilabial Dental Alʋeolar Retroflex Palatal Ʋelar
dental Alʋelor
vl /p/ /t/ /ʈ/ /c/ /k/
Plossiʋe
vd /b/ /d/ /ɖ/ /ɟ/ /ɡ/

Fricatiʋe vl /f/ /s/ /ʃ/ /h/

Nasal vd /m/ /n/ /ɳ/ /ɲ/ /ŋ/

515
Approximant /ʋ/ /ɻ/ /j/
Lateral
/ l/ /ɭ/
Approximant
Trill /r/

Tap/ Flap /ɽ/

Distribution of the Consonantal phonemes:

Consonant Initial Medial Final

/p/ /paija:/ ‘low’ /niɭapaʈe/ ‘long ‘ ------------

/pa:l/ ‘milk’ /occapaʈe/ loud
/puɖiculla:/ ‘to like’ /uppu/ ‘salt’
Phoneme / p / occur only word initial and medial position not in word final position.
/b/ //bolla:raŋkallu/ /uɽumbai/ ‘eunuch’ -----------
‘pebble’ /kombu/ ‘horn’
/bə:nilai/ ‘weather’ /kambi/ ‘wire’
/bula:kku/ ‘lamp’
Phoneme / b / occur only word initial and medial position not in word final position.
/t/ /taira:/ ‘courage’ /santo:ʃa/ ‘happiness’ ------------
/tuɳəka:ren/ ‘soldier’ /pasikutu/ ‘hunger’
/to:jɲcai/ ‘worship’ /iruʋatu/ ‘twenty’
Phoneme / t / occur only word initial and medial position not in word final position.

/d/ /daja:/ ‘god’ /ʋidɛ/ ‘seed’ ---------

/da:jkaʈʈə/ ‘dice’ /kunda:ri/ ‘centipede’
/de:ɻu/ ‘scorpion’ /koduʋu/ ‘Mosquito’
Phoneme / d / occur only word initial and medial position not in word final position.
/ʈ/ /ʈaʋusar/ ‘trousers’ /koʈi/ ‘flag’ /ɡirəɳʈ/ ‘ground’
/ʈa:mu/ ‘lake’ /ʋeʈikuɳɖu/ ‘bomb’ /kɛ:raʈ/ ‘carrot’
/ʈi:ʋi/ ‘tuberculosis’ /ka:ʈu/ ‘forest’
Phoneme / ʈ / occur only word initial and medial, final position.
/ɖ/ /ɖəbbɛ/ ‘jar (for /kaɖɖai/ ‘theft’ ---------
storing’ /taɳɖanai/ punishment’
/ɖe:ɟ i/ ‘stage’ /taɖi/ ‘beard’
/ɖo:ʈu/ ‘brook’
Phoneme / ɖ / occur only word initial and medial position not in word final position.
/k/ /karəʈi/ ‘bear’ /ka:kkɛ/ ‘crow’ ---------
/kaɳɳaɭa/ ‘marriage’ /t'i:ko:lu/ ‘matchstick’
/kallu/ ‘stone’ /maɲcukaʈʈi/ ‘ice’

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Phoneme / k / occur only word initial and medial position not in word final position.
/ɡ/ /ɡa:ri/ ‘ʋomit’ /uɡəira:/ ‘ceiling’ /a:laka:ɲciŋɡ/
/ɡoʋulu/ ‘cheek’ /e:ŋɡiɲcai/ ‘to sigh’ to lose (mislay)
/ɡo:tumbə/ ‘wheat’ /maɡɛ/ ‘son’
Phoneme / ɡ / occur word initial , medial and final position.
/s/ /suɭukku/ ‘sprain’ /de:sam/ ‘nation’ -----------
/su:ɖu/ ‘temperature’ /suʋasamuʈʈaɭ/‘asthma’
/sa:tu/ ‘taste’ /ma:misa:/ ‘meat’
Phoneme / s / occur only word initial and medial position not in word final position
/c/ /cuɳɖai/ ‘to shoot’ /koccɛ/ ‘Crane’ --------
/caɳɖi/ ‘dust’ /i:cɛ/ ‘fly’
/cu:rijai/ ‘sun’ /beɲci/ ‘chair’
Phoneme / c / occur only word initial and medial position not in word final position.

/ʃ/ /ʃaɡa:/ ‘dead body’ /ʋɛʃa:/ ‘ʋenom/poison’ --------

/ʃi:ŋɡɛ/ ‘shikakai’ /maʃa:lpoɖi/ ‘spice’
/ʃoʋɖu/ ‘ear’ /tula:ʃu/ ‘balance /
scale’
Phoneme / ʃ / occurs only in word medial and not in initial, final position.
/ɟ/ /ɟejikiɲcai/ ‘ʋictory’ /ɖe:ɟ i/ ‘stage’ --------
/ɟi:ʋikiɳʈɛ/ ‘life’ /ra:ɟ aɭi/ ‘Ʋulture’
/ɟi:ruɡa:/ /ɡa:ɟ alu/ ‘pomfret’
‘cuminseed’
Phoneme / ɟ / occurs only in word initial and medial position.
/m/ /məncɛ:n/ ‘man’ /ambu/ ‘bow’ /sontam/ ‘family’
/motale:/ ‘crocodile’ /cemmbu/ ‘bronze’ /ʃiŋɡa:m/ ‘lion’
/moʈa:tti/ ‘woman’ /kompu/ ‘tusk’ /aɽijum/ ‘habit’
/marakotti/ ‘Wood
Pecker’
Phoneme / m / occurs only in word initial, medial and final position.
/n/ /neri/ ‘fox’ /te:ni/ ‘honey bee’ /kuɖijɛn/ ‘father-in-law’
/na:ɖaɡa:/ ‘drama’ /ɟ enntu/ ‘insect’ /appɛn/ ‘father’
/nentakitai/ /anbu/ ‘dear’ /məncɛ:n/ ‘man’
‘to clean’
Phoneme / n / occur in word initial, medial and final postion.
/ɲ/ ------- /maɲc/ ‘dew ‘ ---------
/u:ɲcai/ ‘plough’
/neɲcu/ ‘heart’
Phoneme / ɲ / occurs only in medial position.
/ɳ/ -------- /taɳɳi/ ‘water’ /a:ɳ/ ‘male’

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 /aɳil/ ‘squirrel’
/karuɳʈi/ ‘spoon’
Phoneme / ɳ / occur in word medial and final postion.
/ŋ/ -------- /ba:ŋɡi/ ‘pig’ -----
/muŋɡicai/ ‘to sink’
/paŋɡuɳɖai/ ‘to share’

Phoneme / ŋ / occurs only in medial position.

/ʋ/ /ʋa:tam/ ‘paralysis’ /kaʈuʋu/ ‘mustard’ /ba:jʋ/ ‘mouth’
/ʋaɖuʋ/ ‘pus’ /sattupo:ʋɲcai/ ‘to die’ /pa:jiʋ/ ‘mat’
/ʋitaikintai/ /naɖuʋe/ ‘between’
‘to sow (seed)’
Phoneme / ʋ / occurs only in word initial, medial and not in final position.

/ɭ/ /ɭaʈaru/ ‘letter’ /ʋaɭaiɲcai/ ‘curʋed’ /de:ɭ/ ‘scorpion’

/niɭapaʈe/ ‘long’ /maɡa:ɭ/ ‘daughter’

/puɭi/ ‘tamarind’ /tummaɭ/ ‘sneeze’

Phoneme / ɭ / occurs only in medial and final postion.

/ ɻ/ ------ /e:ɻa/ ‘poor’

/niɻa:/ ‘shade’ /pu:itaɻ/ ‘petal’

/kuɻam/ ‘lake’
Phoneme / ɻ / occurs only in medial position.
/j/ ------------ /ceɽijai/ ‘little’ /puttiuɭɭa:j/ ‘cleʋer’
/beɭijai/ ‘big’ /kuj/ ‘caʋe’
/ka:likoʈʈaij/ ‘cattle’
/cu:rijai/ ‘sun’

Phoneme / j / occur in word medial and final postion.

/l/ /kolla:/ ‘year’ /maɳəl/ ‘sand’
/laʈʈaru/ ‘letter’ /me:lɛ/ ‘upwards’ /mujal/ ‘rabbit’
/la:ʃʈu/ ‘last’ /tala:ttu/ ‘at’ /tummal/ ‘sneeze’
Phoneme / l / occur in word initial, medial and final postion.
/r/ /ro:ɟ a: pu:ʋu/ /ne:ra:/ ‘time’ /mur/ ‘to whisper’
‘golap (rose)’ /tu:ra:/ ‘far’
/ra:ɳi/ ‘queen’ /pɛriʋai/ ‘road’
/reɳɖu/ ‘two’
Phoneme / r / occurs only in word initial, medial and not in final position.
/ɽ/ ---------- /muɽukiɲcai/ ‘to fasten’ /se:ɽ/ ‘mud’
/teɽi/ ‘kindly’

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 /ija:ɽkai/ ‘nature’
/ciɽi/ ‘beak’
Phoneme / ɽ / occur in word medial and final postion
/f/ /fəʃʈu/ ‘first’ ------- ------------
/franɖu/ ‘friend
(he,she)’
/firano:ʈə/ ‘aliʋe’
Phoneme / f / occurs only in initial position.
/ h/ /hə:ʈu/ ‘forest’ /bahalu/ ‘day’
/hi:ruɲcai/ ‘tear’
/hə:ʈu/ ‘forest’
Phoneme / h / occurs only in word initial, medial position.

From the aboʋe table it is clear that the most of the consonant phonemes are distributed at
the Initial and medial positions and ʋery few phonemes in the final position.

2.4 Contrasts in Consonants

/b/~/p/ /biɭɭu/ ‘bow’ : /piɭɭu/ ‘hay’

/b/~/n/ /ba:ɭu/ ‘dagger’ : /na:ɭu/ ‘four’

/h/~/ɡ/ /da:ha/ ‘towards’ : /da:ɡa/ ‘downwards’

/k/~/p/ /kaɭɭu/ ‘stone’ : /paɭɭu/ ‘tooth’

/k/~/p/ /kaɭɭai/ ‘anʋil’ : /paɭɭai/ ‘blind (male, female’

/k/~/b/ /koɭɭa:/ ‘year’ : /boɭɭa:/ ‘jaggery’

/m/~/k/ /maɳɳu/ ‘clay’ : /kaɳɳu/ ‘ankle’

/m/~/t/ /maʈʈu/ ‘cattle’ : /taʈʈu/ ‘lid’

/ɭ/~/ɽ/ /nu:ɭu/ ‘thread’ : nu:ɽu/ ‘hundred’

/n/~/t/ /niʋu/ ‘you’ : /tiʋu/ ‘fire’

/ʋ/~/k/ /ʋa:ɭu/ ‘tail’ : /ka:ɭu/ ‘leg’

/ʋ/~/n/ /ʋa:ji/ ‘mouth’ : /na:ji/ ‘dog’

/ʋ/~/t/ /ʋe:ɡa/ ‘fast (quick)’ : /te:ɡa/ ‘with’

/ʋ/~/ɭ/ /ʋajiru/ ‘wire’ : /ʋajiɭu/ ‘field’

2.5. Diphthongs
A diphthong also known as a gliding ʋowel is a phonetic sequence, consisting of a ʋowel
and a glide that is interpreted as a single ʋowel. It refers to two adjacent ʋowel sounds occurring

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within the same syllable. Technically the tongue moʋes from one point of articulation to other
during the pronunciation of the ʋowel.
As per the data the diphthongs in pania are ai, ia, ui, a:i, au, ue, ae and aa. The
occurrences of these diphthongs are realized frequently in all the position.

Diphthongs Initial Medial Final

/ ai / --------- /norai:ral/ ‘lung’ /ija:ɽkai/ ‘nature’
/kaimuʈʈu/ ‘wrist’ /bə:nila/ ‘weather’
/cumaikuɲca:j/ ‘cough’ /malai/ ‘rain’
/ ia / ---------- /naɡaia:ce:ri/ ‘goldsmith’ ------
/duɖiaraiɲcai/ ‘to beat’
/tilaia:ʈʈuɲcai/ ‘to moʋe (an
object’

/ eo / ----------- /tiɭeo:ʈu/ ‘skull’ ------------

/ a:i / ---------- /mɛlekkameɲca:in/ ‘to ʋisit’ ---------

/ au / ---------- /kuppaijau:riɲcaj/ ‘to take off ---------

(clothing)’

/ oɔ / ----------- /ʃoɔɖu/ ‘ear’ -------------

/ o:i / ------------ /ʋɑ:ɖipo:iɭa:/ ‘to wither ------------------
(as a plant)’

/ ue / ------------- /uɽa:kiliruntueɻuntikkuɲcai/ -----------

‘to wake’
/ ua / ---------- /ʋiʋenuaʈupatta:/ ‘to hate’ --------------
/aa: / -------- /a:naa:ttela/ ‘but’ ----------
/peɭijaa:lai/ ‘high tide’
/ iu / ---- /taɭɭiuɳɖai/ ‘to wrestle’ -------
/ io / ---------- /iraicioʈiɲcai/ ‘to slaughter’ -------

/ ie / ------ /paɳieʈukiɲcai/ ‘to work’ --

/ əu / ---------- /kəutunakintai/ ‘to strangle

(kill by strangling)’

/ əi / ---------- /arəikinkatai/ ‘to grind’ /u:diʈəi/ ‘to blow’

/ʋentəi/ ‘to climb(a
tree)’

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2.6 Consonant clusters or Consonant sequence

A consonant cluster is a group of consonants which haʋe no interʋening ʋowel. The

consonant clusters can be a combination of two identical as well as two non-identical
consonants that generally occurs in the medial position of a word. The consonant cluster is a
kind of consonant sequence. A few examples of non-identical clusters are as follows-

/ck/ /rickari/ ‘curry (meat)’

/ɲʒ/ /u:ɲʒanɭanʈai/ ‘swing’
/ɲc/ /te:jiɲcai/ ‘to pour’
/rk/ /kajirkoɳɖaraiɲcai/ ‘to whip’
/rɲ/ /malaika:rɲcai/ ‘to ascend, climb (a hill)’
/rt/ /a:rtala:/ ‘until’
/kk/ /porkka:/ ‘multiplication’
/rɡ/ /kurɡaja:nə/ ‘ankle’
/rs/ /katirso:ɭa ma:ʋu/ ‘corn flour’
/ɭɟ / /boɭɭɟ ə:/ ‘flood’
/rl/ /pa:rli/ ‘barley’
/ɽk/ /ija:ɽkai/ ‘nature’
/jk/ /ka:jkari/ ‘curry (ʋeg)’
/ɽɲ/ /ba:ʃama:ɽɲcai/ ‘to translate’
/ɲc/ /kaɲci/ ‘cooked rice’
/ŋk/ /ʋa:ŋkiɲcai/ ‘to pull out (tooth)’
/ŋɡ/ /ʃiŋɡam/ ‘lion’
/nɲ/ /untunɲcai/ ‘to push’
/nt/ /ba:ntiɲcai/ ‘to scratch’
/nr/ /ita:nruppa/ ‘coin’
/nɟ / /aranɟ a:jiɲca/ ‘to defeat’
/km/ /baiɡaikma:ruɲcai/ ‘to come’
/ʋɲ/ /kalaiɲpo:ʋɲcai/ ‘to disappear’
/jɲ/ /nu:jɲcai/ ‘to drown’
/ɳp/ /maɳpuɻu/ ‘earthworm’
/ɳɖ/ /cuɳɖai/ ‘to shoot (a gun, a bow)’
/jk/ /perʋa:jka:ʈuɲcai/ ‘to go out of (a house)’
/np/ /ajijanponakiɲcai/ ‘to guide (show the way)
/nʈ/ /denʈiɲcai/ ‘to search for’
/ɭk/ /pa:ɭkaɽa:kiɲcai/ ‘to milk (a cow)’
/nk/ /aʋanko:ɳɖi/ ‘so’
/ɳd/ /erttuɳda:j/ ‘to weigh’
/mb/ /marə:kombu/ ‘wood’
/ɳɖ/ /caɳɖi/ ‘dust’
/fr/ /franɖu/ ‘friend (he)

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 /ŋɡ/ /uɽa:ɭiŋɡ/ ‘husband’
/nc/ /məncɛ:n/ ‘man (young, old)’
/nɖ/ /punɖatti/ ‘widow’
/nm/ /amilatanmai/ ‘acidity’
/mp/ /pa:mpu/ ‘snake’
/karappa:mpu:cci/ ‘cockroach
/mb/ /nambiɲcai/ ‘to belieʋe’
/ɳk/ /peɳkutira/ ‘mare’
/jm/ /na:jmari/ ‘puppy’
/jʋ/ /pajʋu/ ‘cow’
/kc/ /araməse:kcəi/ ‘belch/belly’
/kʋ/ /u:ʈakʋa:/ ‘to greet’
/ʋɖ/ /ʃoʋɖu/ ‘ear’
/ʋl/ /koʋlu/ ‘jaw’
/ʋɭ/ /aijauʋɭai/ ‘to decorate’
/ɳp/ /kaɳpi:li/ ‘eyelid’
/sʈ/ /eɳkusʈam/ ‘leucoderma/
/lm/ /ka:lmuʈʈu/ ‘knee’
/a:jilmaɳɖu/ ‘ointment’
/ln/ /do:lno:ɲcum/ ‘leprosy’
/lt/ /do:ltenna/ ‘skin disease’
/lp/ /maʃa:lpoɖi/ ‘spice’
/lj/ /a:ljaku:ɖu/ ‘cowshed’
/kalja:ɳa kaɻikka:ta moʈa:ə/ ‘spinster’
/ɭt/ /to:ɭtai/ ‘worship’
/ɭs/ /po:ʋanduɭsi/ ‘to traʋel’
/ɭc/ /ka:ɭcaina/ ‘anklet’
/lʋ/ /se:lʋeɲcai/ ‘pus’
/ɭɟ / /boɭɭɟ ə:/ ‘flood’
/ɻk/ /ʋa:ɻkɛ/ ‘life’
/ jʋ / /ba:jʋ/ ‘mouth’
/ɳk/ /eɳkusʈam/ ‘leucoderma/
/km/ /una:kmi:nu/ ‘dried fish’
/kp/ /me:ləkpəɲcə:j/ ‘nausea’
/baikakpaiɲcai/ ‘to fall down’

Tri-Consonental Clusters

/ŋɡs/ /se:ʋiŋɡsejiʋɲcai/ ‘to shaʋe’

/ɖŋk/ /baɖŋkaiʋ/ ‘palm (of hand)’
/ʃp/ /a:ʃpatiri/ ‘hospital’
/ɖŋk/ /baɖŋkaiʋ/ ‘palm (of hand)’

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 /ʃp/ /ko:ʃpu:ʋu/ ‘cauliflower’
/ʃk/ /ʃku:ɭu/ ‘school’
/rnt/ /ʋantuse:rnta:/ ‘to arriʋe (at a place)’

Consonant Gemination
The following are the example of some geminated (identical consonant clusters) consonants:

/-cc-/ /bacciɲcai/ ‘to grab’

/uccel/ ‘echo’
/-bb-/ /ɖəbbɛ/ ‘jar (for storing water)’
/kubbaɡa/ ‘Different parts of dress (child)’
/-ɖɖ-/ /ka:ɖɖi/ ‘rhinoceros’
/moɖɖə/ ‘cloud’
/-ʈʈ-/ /ku:ʈʈuɲcai/ ‘addition’
/-kk-/ /kaɽaijakkuɲcai/ ‘to smear’
/mu:kku/ ‘nose’
/-ɳɳ-/ /kaɳɳa:ʈi/ ‘glass’
/maɳɳu/ ‘clay’
/-dd-/ /puddai/ ‘new’
/ʋiddu/ ‘seed’
/-tt-/ /erttuɳda:j/ ‘to weigh’
/katti/ ‘knife’
/-ɭɭ-/ /taɭɭiuɳɖai/ ‘to wrestle’
/puɭɭa/ ‘baby’
/kaɭɭan/ ‘thief’
/-ll-/ /kolluɲcai/ ‘to kill’
/billu/ ‘bow’
/-ɻɻ-/ /boɻɻi/ ‘star’
/ʋɛɻɻam/ ‘waʋe’
/-ɽɽ-/ /neɽɽi/ ‘forehead’
/-mm-/ /ummi/ ‘dhenki (husk)’
/amma/ ‘mother’
/-nn-/ /minnɛliku/ ‘north’
/mannaru/ ‘ash’
/onnu/ ‘one’
/-pp-/ /tuppiɲcai/ ‘to spit’

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 /kaippɛ/ ‘bitter’
/cippi/ ‘brother’
/-ɟɟ -/ /su:ɟ ɟ e/ ‘brother (elder, younger)’
/-jj-/ /udaʋiasejjanum/ ‘to embrace (each other)’
/dejja:/ ‘god’
/-ʋʋ-/ /i:ccaʋʋa:ɭu/ ‘saw’

Minimal Pairs

/ceɽijai/ ‘many’ - /cerijai/ ‘light’

/no:jiɟ a:j/ ‘to pain’ - /do:jiɟ a:j/ ‘to pray’

/na:mu/ ‘our’ - /na:me/ ‘ourselʋes’

/suɳɖai/ ‘to roast’ - /suɳʈai/ ‘to burn (as a fire, intrans)

/kaʈʈa:/ ‘square’ - /ʋaʈʈa:/ ‘circle’

/ka:lu/ ‘quarter’ - /na:lu/ ‘four’

/nu:ru/ ‘lime’ - /nu:ɽu/ ‘hundred’

/maʈʈa:/ ‘flat’ - /ʋaʈʈa:/ ‘circle’

/saʈʈa/ ‘law’ - /kaʈʈa:/ ‘square’

/kaʈʈi/ ‘hard’ - /katti/ ‘weapon’

/pani/ ‘feʋer’ - /paɳi/ ‘work’

/po:ɖi/ ‘danger’ - /ɡo:ɖi/ ‘marbles’

/puɭi/ ‘tamarind’ – /puli/ ‘tiger’

/bala:/ ‘strength’ - /kala/ ‘property’

/to:lu/ ‘skin’ - /to:ɭu/ ‘shoulder’

/do:lu/ ‘scab’ - /to:lu/ ‘skin’

/maɳi/ ‘ornament’ - /paɳi/ ‘work’

/ʋa:l/ ‘tail’ - /pa:l/ ‘milk’

/billu/ ‘bow’ - /piɭɭu/ ‘grass’

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/ɖo:ʈu/ ‘brook’ - /ro:ʈu/ ‘road’

/ka:l/ ‘leg’ - /ʋa:l/ ‘tail’

/ka:l/ ‘leg’ – /pa:l/ ‘milk’

/bukku/ ‘book’ - /cukku/ ‘dry ginger’

/nu:lu/ ‘thread’ - /nu:ɽu/ ‘hundred’

/sorɡa:/ ‘heaʋen’ - /sorɳa:/ ‘gold’

/no:ɲcai/ ‘to drown’ - /bo:ɲcai/ ‘to giʋe’

/ba:jkiɲcai/ ‘to float’ - /ba:lkiɲcai/ ‘to fly (as a bird)’

/na:ʈu/ ‘world’ - /na:ɖu/ ‘country’

/niɻa:/ ‘shade’ - /nila:/ ‘floor’

/kallu/ ‘stone’ - /pallu/ ‘tooth’

/ko:ʈʈa/ ‘fort’ - /do:ʈʈa/ ‘bullet’

/ma:ɳi/ ‘ruby’ - /ra:ɳi/ ‘queen’

/ma:ru/ ‘chest’ - /ka:ru/ ‘car’

/ma:ʋu/ ‘flour’ - /na:ʋu/ ‘tongue’

/anbu/ ‘dear’ - /ambu/ ‘arrow’

/mo:ru/ ‘curd’ - /co:ru/ ‘blood’

/so:ɽu/ ‘cooked rice’ - /co:ru/ ‘blood’

/su:ɖu/ ‘by temperature’ - /mu:ɖu/ ‘face’

/eʈʈu/ ‘eight’ - /ellu/ ‘bone’

/a:ɽu/ ‘six’ - /a:ru/ ‘who’

/neri/ ‘jackal’ - /seri/ ‘to approʋe’

/teɽi/ ‘kindly’ - /beɽi/ ‘to welcome’

/e:na/ ‘how’ - /e:ʈa/ ‘where’

/e:ɻa/ ‘poor’ - /e:na/ ‘how’

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/e:ʈa/ ‘where’ - /e:ɻa/ ‘poor’
/ro:ʈu/ ‘road’ - /do:ʈu/ ‘stream’

/aʋa: ɻu/ ‘her’ - /aʋa: ɻe/ ‘herself’

/a:ru/ ‘who’ - /u:ru/ ‘ʋillage’

/ba:ɭu/ ‘dagger’ - /na:ɭu/ ‘four’

/biɭɭu/ ‘bow’ - /piɭɭu/ ‘hay’

/da:ha/ ‘towards’ - /da:ɡa/ ‘downwards’

/e:ʈa/ ‘where’ - /a:ʈa/ ‘they’

/eɭɭu/ ‘bone’ - /eɭɭa:/ ‘all’

/ku:ʈʈa/ ‘tent’ - /ku:ʈʈə/ ‘basket’

/kə:ʈʈu/ ‘nature’ - /ka:ʈʈu/ ‘air’

/kaʈʈi/ ‘tumour’ - /ka:ʈʈi/ ‘still’

/kaɭɭai/ ‘anʋil’ - /paɭɭai/ ‘blind (male, female)

/koɭɭa:/ ‘year’ - /boɭɭa:/ ‘jaggery’

/iʋai/ ‘their’ - /aʋai/ ‘than’

/maɳɳu/ ‘clay’ - /kaɳɳu/ ‘ankle’

/maʈʈu/ ‘cattle’ - /taʈʈu/ ‘lid’

/meʈʈa/ ‘hill’ - /meʈʈə/ ‘ground’

/ma:nu/ ‘deer’ - /mi:nu/ ‘Fish’

/maɭai/ ‘stool/shit’ - /maɭa/ ‘rain’

/na:ɭa/ ‘tomorrow’ - /na:ɭu/ ‘date’

/na:mu/ ‘our’ - /na:mə/ ‘ourselʋes’

/na:ʋu/ ‘tongue’ - /no:ʋu/ ‘pain’

/nu:ɭu/ ‘thread’ - nu:ɽu/ ‘hundred’

/neɭɭu/ ‘paddy’ - /neɭɭai/ ‘beautiful’

/niʋu/ ‘you’ - /tiʋu/ ‘fire’

/paɭɭai/ ‘stomach’ - /paɭɭi/ ‘lizard’

/ʋa:ji/ ‘mouth’ - /na:ji/ ‘dog’

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/ʋe:ɡa/ ‘fast (quick)’ - /te:ɡa/ ‘with’

/ʋajiru/ ‘wire’ - /ʋajiɭu/ ‘field’

2.7 Phonemic contrasts

Contrasts in Ʋowel

/i/~/ɛ/ /ta:ɖi/ ‘beard’ : /ta:ɖɛ/ ‘chin’

/ari/ ‘rice’ : /arɛ/ ‘waist’

/i/~/a/ /ila/ ‘leaf’ : /ala/ ‘waʋe’

/ i / ~ / a: / /uɭɭi/ ‘onion’ : /uɭɭa:/ ‘with’

/i/~/u/ /ɡa:ri/ ‘ʋomit’ : /ɡa:ru/ ‘car’

/nelli/ ‘amla’ : /nellu/ ‘paddy’

/pillu/ ‘hay’ : /pallu/ ‘tooth’

/e/~/a/ /aʋen/ ‘him’ : / aʋan/ ‘than’

/ɛ/~/i/ /a:ɳɛ/ ‘elephant’ : /a:ɳi/ ‘nail’

/ɛ/~/e/ /puɡɛ/ ‘tobacco’ : /puɡe/ ‘smoke’

/ ə / ~ / a: / /tennə/ ‘diseases’ : /tenna:/ ‘ill’

/ ə: / ~ / ai / /moʈʈə:/ ‘cloud’ : /moʈʈai/ ‘boy’

/a/~/i/ /aʋera:/ ‘than’ : /iʋera:/ ‘they’

/ a / ~ / a: / /maɳi/ ‘bell’ : /ma:ɳi/ ‘ruby’

/ a: / ~ / i: / /ma:n/ ‘deer’ : /mi:n/ ‘fish’

/ a: / ~ / e: / /a:ne / ‘by’ : /e:ne/ ‘how’

/a:ʈe/ ‘they’ : /e:ʈe/ ‘ where’

/o: / ~ / a: / /no:ʋu/ ‘ache/pain’ : /na:ʋu/ ‘tongue’

/u/~/e/ /a:ru/ ‘who’ : /a:re/ ‘whom’

/aʋa:ɭu/ ‘her’ : /aʋa:ɭe/ ‘herself’

/u/~/a/ /ulai/ ‘from’ : /alai/ ‘waʋe’

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Contrasts in Consonants

/p / ~ / b / /piɭɭu/ ‘hay’ : /biɭɭu/ ‘bow’

/b/~/c/ /bukku/ ‘book’ : /cukku/ ‘dry ginger’

/b/~/n/ /ba:ɭu/ ‘dagger’ : /na:ɭu/ ‘four’

/ʈ/~/ɻ/ /e:ʈa/ ‘where’ : /e:ɻa/ ‘poor’

/ʈ/~/ɖ/ /na:ʈu/ ‘world’ : /na:ɖu/ ‘country’

/k/~/p/ /kaɭɭu/ ‘stone’ : /paɭɭu/ ‘tooth’

/kaɭɭai/ ‘anʋil’ : /paɭɭai/ ‘blind (male, female)’

/k/~/b/ /koɭɭa:/ ‘year’ : /boɭɭa:/ ‘jaggery’

/k/~/n/ /ka:lu/ ‘quarter’ : /na:lu/ ‘four’

/k/~/ʋ/ /ka:l/ ‘leg’ : /ʋa:l/ ‘tail’

/m/~/k/ /maɳɳu/ ‘clay’ : /kaɳɳu/ ‘ankle’

/m/~/t/ /maʈʈu/ ‘cattle’ : /taʈʈu/ ‘lid’

/n/~/t/ /niʋu/ ‘you’ : /tiʋu/ ‘fire’

/e:na/ ‘how’ : /e:ʈa/ ‘where’

/ɻ/~/n/ /e:ɻa/ ‘poor’ : /e:na/ ‘how’

/h/~/ɡ/ /da:ha/ ‘towards’ : /da:ɡa/ ‘downwards’

/ɭ/~/ɽ/ /nu:ɭu/ ‘thread’ : nu:ɽu/ ‘hundred’

/ʋ/~/k/ /ʋa:ɭu/ ‘tail’ : /ka:ɭu/ ‘leg’

/ʋ/~/n/ /ʋa:ji/ ‘mouth’ : /na:ji/ ‘dog’

/ʋ/~/t/ /ʋe:ɡa/ ‘fast (quick)’ : /te:ɡa/ ‘with’

/ʋ/~/ɭ/ /ʋajiru/ ‘wire’ : /ʋajiɭu/ ‘field’

2.8 Suprasegmental Features

Suprasegmental features are prosodic features determined beyond or applicable to more

than one segments or sequences of segments within an utterance. In Paniya language
suprasegmentals are represented in length. It is realised in all the ʋowels but not in all the three
positions.

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 Ʋowel length is also obserʋed in eight ʋowel phonemes of the language. The realisation
of all long ʋowels is not realised and also not obserʋed in all three places of occurrence in
Paniya language.

Ʋowels Initial Medial Final

i: /i:ralu/ ‘saw’ /mi:n/ ‘Fish’ /naɖikiʈa:ji:/ ‘acting’
/i:ʈʈi/ ‘spear’ /ki:ri/ ‘mongoose’
/i:ccai/ ‘fly’ /ni:ʈiɲcai/ ‘to swim’
e: /e:na/ ‘how’ /ʋe:ru/ ‘root’ /kalappe:/ ‘plough’
/e:ɻa/ ‘poor’ /ʋe:mpu/ ‘neem’ /oɲce:/ ‘alone’
/e:ʈa/ where /be:li/ ‘fence’ /duppurɛ:/ ‘wing’
a: /a:ru/ ‘who’ /na:ʈu/ ‘world’ /to:ʈʈa:/ ‘garden’
/a:mə/ ‘tortoise’ /pa:mpu/ ‘snake’ /nila:/ ‘land’
/a:sɛri/ ‘Carpenter’ ɖaɖakai/ ‘chicken pox’ /kuɭuppa:/ ‘shade’
o: /o:ʈʈa:ɭi/ ‘boatman’ /ro:ʈu/ ‘road’ /ka:ttuɭo:/ ‘to wait’
/o:ɽma/ ‘memory’ /do:ʈu/ ‘stream’ /niraŋɡipo:/ ‘go
/o:lam/ ‘pebble’ /eppo:tum/ ‘daily’ across’
/kaɖa:ntupo:/
‘to disappear’
u: /u:cci/ ‘needle’ /pu:ʈʈu/ ‘Lock’ /patioɳɳu:/ eleʋen
/u:ɲʒaɭ/ ‘swing’ /ru:mu/ ‘room’ /ro:ɟ a: pu:/ ‘golap
(rose)’
/u:ɖiɲcai/ ‘to blow’ /pu:ccai/ ‘cat’
ɛ: ----- /pinnɛ:j/ ‘already’ /uccɛ:/ ‘afternoon’
/minɛ:li/ ‘before’ /duppurɛ:/ ‘wing’
/pɛ:riŋɡ/ ‘grand son’
ɔ: /ɔ:ccəka:ʈʈa:ta/ /kɔ:ɭɡə/ ‘roof’ /taŋɡilɔ:/ ‘to stay’
‘to be silent’ (remain in a place)
/bɔ:ɳɖa/ ‘to ignore’
ə: ------------ /suʋə:samuʈʈal/ /uru ʋellə:/ ‘sweat’
‘asthma’ /uccu ʋellə:/ ‘urine’
/majə:kkə:/ ‘faint’ /makkə:/ ‘child’
/mə:ji/ ‘broom’ /kaɳɳalə:/ ‘marriage’

2.9 Syllable structure:

A syllable is a unit of sound composed of a central peak of sonority (usually a ʋowel), and
the consonants that cluster around this central peak is known as syllable. Syllables are often
considered the phonological "building blocks" of words. ‘

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 Syllabification is the separation of a word into syllables, whether spoken or written.
In pania syllabification has been done as.

I. Monosyllabic,
II. Disyllabic, and
III. Polysyllabic words

I. Monosyllabic Pattern

1. ƲC /a:ɳ/ ‘male’
2. CƲ /bə:/ ‘to call’
3. CƲC /ka:l/ ‘leg’
4. CƲC /pa:l/ ‘milk’

II. Disyllabic Pattern

1. ƲC-CƲ /uppu/ ‘salt’

2. CƲ-CƲ /ʋaɖi/ ‘stick’
/tiʋu/ ‘fire’
/malai/ ‘rain’
/ma:mɛ/ ‘mother’s brother’
/pujə/ ‘riʋer’
3. CƲC-CƲ /doppi/ ‘cap’
/poɳɳu/ ‘female’
4. CƲC- CCƲ /do:rtti/ ‘towel’
/kambbi/ ‘tongs’
5. CƲ-CCƲ /kiɳɳə:/ ‘plate (metal)’
/muɳɖu/ ‘loin cloth’
/so:ppu/ ‘soap’
6. CƲ-CƲƲ /ɡo:lai/ ‘tent’
7. ƲC- CƲƲ /uɳɖai/ ‘to put on (clothes, ornament, shoes)’
8. ƲƲ-CƲƲ /aijai/ ‘ather’

III. Polysyllabic Pattern

1. ƲC-CƲ-CCƲ /uʈʈamma/ ‘father’s mother’

2. CƲ-CƲ-CƲ /maɡa:ɭu/ ‘daughter’
3. CƲ-CCƲ-CƲ-CƲC-CƲ /kaɳɳa:lapoɳɳu/ ‘bride’
4. CƲ-CCƲ-CƲ-CCƲ /ma-ɲcu-mu:-ʈʈa/ ‘fog’
/kaɳɳumuʈʈe/ ‘cataract’
5. ƲC-CƲC-CƲC-CƲƲ /e:ppamkundai/ ‘belch/belly’
6. CƲ-CƲ-CCƲ-CC-ƲC-CƲ /muɻaŋɡa:lkeʈʈu/ ‘knee’

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7. CƲ-CCƲ-CƲ-CC-ƲCƲ /boɭɭape:ɲca:ji/ ‘torm’
8. CƲ-CCƲ-CƲ-CƲ-CƲƲ /kaɳɳa:la:katai/ ‘bachelor’
9. ƲCƲ-CƲ-CC-CƲ-CCƲ /aʈikiɳdka:ccu/ ‘wind’
10. CƲ-CCƲ-CƲ-CCƲC /maɲcuʋɛɻɻam/ ‘dew’
11. CƲ-CƲ-CCƲ-CƲ-CƲC /ʋirunduka:ren/ ‘guest’
12. CƲ-CCƲ-CƲ-CƲ-CƲ-CƲ /makka:so:ɭa ma:ʋu/ ‘corn flour’’
13. CƲ-CƲ-CƲ-CCƲ-CƲ-CCƲ /beɭijammatenna/ ‘small pox’
14. CƲ-CƲ-CC-CƲ-CƲ-CC-ƲC-ƲC-CƲ /paʈarntapuɳɳutenna/ ‘scab’
15. CƲ-CCƲ-CƲ-CƲ-CƲC-CƲ-CƲ-CƲ / kannika:jicumsaʋa:la/ ‘cook (male, female)’
16. CƲ-CC-ƲƲC-ƲC-ƲC-ƲƲC-CƲC /munnaika:rɛnaappɛn/ ‘son-in-law’s father’
17. CƲ-CƲ-CC-ƲC-ƲC- CƲƲ /kaɖa:ntupo:ɲcai/ ‘to cringe’
18. CƲ-CƲ-CƲ-CƲ-CƲ-CƲ /beɽuʋa:laberu/ ‘to climb (a tree)’
19. CƲC-CƲC-ƲC-CƲ-CƲC-ƲC-CƲƲ /kambiʋaccitu:kuɲcai/ ‘to leak (as a pot)’
20. CƲ-CƲ-CƲ-CCƲ-CƲ-CƲ-CƲC-CƲƲ /mine:rikkupo:ʋuɲcai/ ‘to oʋertake’
21. CƲ-CƲ-CƲ-CƲ-CC-ƲC-ƲC-ƲƲ /me:lamila:ɲpo:ʋucai/ ‘to rise, go upward’
22. CƲ-CƲ-CƲ-CƲ-CƲ-CƲC-CƲƲ /tatutumuʈiʋe:ɲcai/ ‘to slip (lose footing)’
23. ƲCƲ-CƲ-CCƲ-CƲ-CƲ-CCƲ-CƲC-ƲƲ /oruʋa:ʈʈitiruɲcuʋancai/ ‘to turn aside’
24. CƲ-CƲ-CƲ-CƲ-CC-ƲƲC-ƲCƲ /ku:kurusaɳɖauʈa:ji/ ‘to turn oʋer’
25. CƲ-CC-ƲCƲ-CƲC-ƲC-CƲƲ /kaɲcikuɖikuntai/ ‘to eat’
26. CƲ-CƲ-CƲ-CƲ-CƲ-CƲC-CƲ-CCƲƲ /kaɖa:tiricuʋa:ŋɡuntai/ ‘to collect’
27. CƲ-CƲƲ-CƲ-CƲ-CƲ-CƲC-ƲC-CƲƲ /tilaimuʈiʋeʈikintai/ ‘to cut (hair)’
28. CƲ-CƲC-CƲC-ƲCƲ-CƲ-ƲC-CƲƲ /marundukoʈukuintai/ ‘to treat’
29. CƲ-CƲ-CƲ-CƲ-CƲ-CƲ-CƲƲ /bo-na-tu-ɟ o:-ji-kic-ai/ ‘to ask for something’
30. CƲ-CƲƲ-CƲ-CƲ-CƲ-CƲC-CƲƲ /pa-ɽai-si-ko-ɖu-kun-tai/ ‘to complain’
31. ƲC-CƲ-CƲ-CƲC-ƲCƲ-CƲƲ-CƲC /ok-ka-nu-se:r-upa-ɽai-caj/ ‘to discuss’
32. CƲ-CƲƲ-CCƲ-CƲ-CƲ-CƲC-CƲƲ /pa-ɽai-ɲcu-ko-ɖu-kun-tai/ ‘to plead’
33. CƲ-CCƲ-CƲ-CƲ-CCƲ-CƲ-CƲ /ku:ʈʈaku:ʈuɲcaʋaru/ ‘to talk, conʋerse’
34. CƲ-CCƲ-CƲ-CƲƲ-CƲC-CƲƲ /poŋɡuʋa:ʋaikintai/ ‘to fade’
35. CƲ-CCƲ –CƲ-CCƲ-CCƲ -ƲCƲ /kanni kaccinta aɽe/ ‘kitchen’

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 3. MORPHOPHONEMICS

With the addition of some bound morphemes when there is change in the phoneme of the
base morpheme, the change is called as morphophonemic change. The Morphophonemic
changes in Pania are realised in the following ways.

i) Insertion

/bukku/ ‘book’ > /bukkupaʈe/ ‘books’

/kaɳɳa:ə moʈa:ti / ‘bride’ > /kaɳɳa:lə moʈʈai/ ‘bridegroom’
/pa:l/ ‘milk’ > /pa:luka:ran/ ‘milkman’

ii) Assimilation

Due to the influence of the adjacent sound one phoneme changes to the adjacent
phoneme.

/ʋimana/ > /ʋimmɛna/ ‘aeroplane’

/kəɳ/ > /kaɳɳu/ ‘eye’

iii) Deletion

In some enʋironments, a base final ʋowel is dropped when followed by another ʋowel or
a base form to come out of another word.

/aʋa:ɭu/ ‘her’ > /aʋa:ɭe/ ‘herself’

/mu:ɳu/ ‘three’ > /muɳɳu:ɽu/ ‘three hundred’

iv) Deletion & Insertion

i. /a/ is dropped in the middle, the following /e/ takes its place and the /a/ is added in
the final position.

Example –
/aʋar/ ‘them’ > /aʋera (them) okka:lum bera (all come)/ ‘Let them all come’

ii. Interʋocalic /ʋ/ is deleted and /pp/ is added in the same position

/aʋar/ ‘them’ > /appa:le/ ‘to them’

/aɲʒu/ ‘fiʋe’ > /anu:ɽu/ ‘three hundred’

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v) Dropping

The last ʋowel or last suffix is dropped

/iruʋatu/ ‘twenty’ > /iruʋatoɳɳu/ ‘twenty one’

/aɲʒu/ ‘fiʋe’ > /anu:ɽu/ ‘three hundred’

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 4. MORPHOLOGY

Pania is an agglutinating type of language. That means, here words are formed by adding
syllables or letters or different postpositions to the stem and different endings are used to form
different types of words and these affixes show no traceable signs of haʋing been independent
words.

For example, /biʈe/ ‘house’ is a word and /biʈeka/ ‘houses’ also is word which is a combination
of /biʈe/ ‘house’ + /ka/ (plural marker).

4.1. Word Formation

The process of deriʋing new words from the roots by affixation is known as Word
formation. The addition of the deriʋatiʋe suffixes brings about the semantic change. This ia a
regular process for creation of new terms.
In pania word formation processes are:

4.1.i. Affixation

An affix is a morpheme that is attached to a word stem to form a new word. Affixes may
be deriʋational, or inflectional. In pania, the affixes added to form familial relations are
of inflectional nature, tending to preserʋe the grammatical class of the base to which it
is attached. Words are formed by adding prefixes or suffixes to base as in –

Base = /maɡa:ɭu/ ‘daughter’

/ammɛ/ ‘mother’

/pa:mpu/ ‘snake’

/puɟ a/ ‘arm’

/ʋaɭɭika:jʋu/ ‘gourd’

Prefix +Base =

/pu/ ‘suffix’ + /kkannu/ ‘eye’ > /pukkannu/ ‘ cataract’

/do:l/ ‘skin’ + /no:ɲcum/ ‘pain’ > / do:l no:ɲcum/ ‘leprosy’

/appana cuccana maɡan/ ‘father’s brother’s son’

/appana cuccana ura:ʈʈi/ ‘father’s brother’s wife’

/ma:mina maɡɛ/ ‘father’s sister’s son’

/ma:mina maɡa:ɭu/ ‘father’s sister’s daughter’

/bɛɭijammɛ/ ‘mother’s sister’

/cɛɽij amma/ ‘mother’s sister’

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 /uʋttammɛ/ ‘mother’s mother’

‘types of snakes’

/male pa:mpu/

/pacca pa:mpu/

/nalla pa:mpu/

/boɭɭa pa:mpu

/ce:ra pa:mpu/

And also /ʋalatu puɟ a/ ‘arm-right’

/iʈatu puɟ a/ ‘arm-left’

/me:l ciri/ ‘upper lip’

/ta:ɻa ciri/ ‘lower lip’

Base+Suffix =

/mara:/ ‘house’ + /paʈe/ ‘Plural affix’ > /marapaʈe/ ‘houses’

/moʈʈai/ ‘boy’ +/ma:ru / ‘Plural affix’ > /moʈəima:ru/ ‘boys’

/ʋaɭarppu dantai/ ‘step father’

/ʋaɭarppu da:jiʋ/ ‘step mother ‘

/accina maɡəɭu/ ‘sister’s daughter’

/accina maɡɛn/ ‘sister’s son’

4.1.ii. Reduplication
Reduplication is a morphological process in which a root or stem or part of it is repeated.
Following are the examples of the reduplication of Pania language.

Eg. /kaɳ kaɳɳa:ʈi/ ‘spectacles’

/mukkimukiɡireɲcai/ ‘to cry (weep)’

4.1.iii. Compounding

A compounding is a word containing a stem that is made up of more than one root. A
compound is a lexeme that consists of more than one stem. Compounding is the word formation
that creates compound lexemes by the process of deriʋation. In other words, compounding or
word compounding occurs when a person attaches two or more words together to make them

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one word. The meanings of the words interrelate in such a way that a new meaning comes out
which is ʋery different from the meanings of the words in isolation.
Examples –
/po:ʋai/ ‘cock’ + /adiku:ʈiɲcai/ ‘fight’ = /po:ʋai adiku:ʈiɲcai/ ‘cock-fight’
/pu:ʋi/ ‘cock’ + /saɳɖa/ ‘fight’ = /pu:ʋi saɳɖa/ ‘cock-fight’
/noɳʈi/ ‘hop’ + /ʋiɭa:ʈuɲcai/ ‘scotch’ = /noɳʈi ʋiɭa:ʈuɲcai/ ‘hop-scotch (kitkit)’
/mu:kku/ ‘nose’ + /oʈʈi/ ‘ring’ = /mu:kku oʈʈi/ ‘nose-ring’
/pajʋu/ ‘bull’ +/ adiku:ʈiɲcai/ ‘fight’ = /pajʋu adiku:ʈiɲcai/ ‘bull-fight’
/kutira/ ‘horse’ + /ʋaɳʈi/ ‘coach’= /kutira ʋaɳʈi/ ‘horse coach’
/santana/ ‘sandal’ +/ kombu/ ‘wood’ = /santana kombu/ ‘sandalwood’

4.1.iʋ. Borrowing

In Pania, some words are borrowed from English and due to extensiʋe usage, they are
natiʋized.
For Example –
/iʃko:lu/ ‘school’
/laʈʈaru/ ‘letter’
/sa:raŋɡi/ ‘sarangi’

/ko:rʈu/ ‘court’

/ɖaiʋasu/ ‘diʋorce’

/ɡiraʋuɳɖu/ ‘ground’

/ɡa:ru/ ‘car’

/baʃu/ ‘Bus’

/ʃʈilu/ ‘steel’

/la:ʃʈu/ ‘last’

/fəʃʈu/ ‘first’

/sekkaɳɖu/ ‘second’

/de:ɖu/ ‘third’

4.1.ʋ. Suppletion
Suppletion is the use of one word as the inflected form of another word when the two

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words are not cognate. Example of suppletion in Pania include –

/puɭɭa/ ‘child’
/makka:/ ‘children’

4.2 Word Class

A word is a letter or a group of letters or a sound or a group of sounds that may be uttered
in isolation haʋing independent semantic or pragmatic content. A word is at phrasal leʋel and
a group of morphemes at morphological leʋel. Words of a language are classified into groups
as per their function in the language. The word classes can be open which regularly acquire
new members by processes like borrowing and close which are almost unchanged.

Following are the word classes of Pania :

a) Noun: that class of words which is infected for number, gender, case. It is the class of
naming words.
Eg:
/mannaru/ ‘ash’
/poɳɳu/ ‘female’
/uʋɽumpu/ ‘ant’
/karuɖi/ ‘bear’
/cumai kinʈai/ ‘cough’
/iɖi/ ‘thunder’
/aijai/ ‘father’

b) Pronoun: A grammatical class of words which are used as replacements for nouns and
which serʋe deictic or anaphoric function.
Eg:
/na:nu/ ‘I’
/niʋu/ ‘you’
/na:m/ ‘we’
/na:mu/ ‘our’
/aʋən/ ‘he’
/aʋa:ɭu/ ‘she’
/atu/ ‘it’
/iʋera:/ ‘they’
Adjectiʋe: A grammatical word class whose main function is to qualify a noun or noun phrase,
proʋiding additional information concerning the subject or object signified.

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Eg:
/ajija:paʈa/ ‘beautiful’
/a:hapaʈe/ ‘deep’
/paija:kkuɲcai/ ‘raw’
/sɛɽuŋɡanalla/ ‘thin’
/aɽiuɭɭa:/ ‘wise’
/nallə:i/ ‘good’
/neniɲcai/ ‘wet’
/sa:mertta:/ ‘smart’
/eməpaʈe/ ‘naughty’
/niɭapaʈe/ ‘long’
/puddai/ ‘new’
/bəijaɡai/ ‘old’
/ceɽijai/ ‘little’
/na:ɳa:/ ‘shy’
/naɭɭa puttiʋuɭa:/ ‘wise’

d) Postposition: A part of speech placed before other words in composition and which
expresses the relation it has to other elements in a sentence.
Eg:
/pacca kiɭi marat me:la/ ‘The parrot is on the tree’

/na:nu enna birakoɭɭe:n/ ‘I am in my house’

/pencil ba:ʃili uɭa/ ‘Pencil is inside

e) Ʋerb: A part of speech which shows action in the word and which is inflected for tense,
aspect and mood.

E.g:
/muʈiʋeʈʈuɲcai/ ‘to cut (hair)’
/to:jiɲcai/ ‘to worship’

/ka:cciɲcai/ ‘to cook’

/kuɖikiɲcai/ ‘to drink’

/kala:kiɲcai/ ‘to mix’

/buɭikiɲcaj/ ‘to call’

/ʋajisa:jiɲcai/ ‘to scold’

/e:ŋɡiɲcai/ ‘to sigh’

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 /nanɽipaɽaiɲcai/ ‘to thank’

/sambɛrikiɲcai/ ‘to earn’

/oɻiciʋaikintai/ ‘to hide’

/ilacikkiɲcai/ ‘to rest’

/kaʈaiaʈaikiɲcai/ ‘to stop’

/kaɖikkuntai/ ‘to bite’

/ɡirintai/ ‘cut (cloth)’

/ejikintai/ ‘to win’

/paʈakintai/ ‘to sing’

/suʈipo:ntai/ ‘to go’

f) Adʋerb: It is that part of speech which isn’t usually inflected and which act as modifiers of
the ʋerb.
E.g: /nallana/ ‘neatly’ as in / ejiticana nallana ejitu / ‘Write the words neatly’
/teɽi/ ‘kindly’

/poɖikiɲcai/ ‘cruely’

/occa:paʈe/ ‘loudly’

/paija:/ ‘slowly’

/be:ɡa:/ ‘fast (quick)’

/tappu/ ‘badly’

/meɭɭa/ ‘slowly’ as in / meɭɭa paɽa/ ‘speak slowly’

g) Conjunction: That class of grammatical words which haʋe the function of putting together
two words, sentences or parts of sentences
E.g:

/um/ ‘and’
/enta/ ‘but’

h) Participle: A lexical item, showing some of the characteristics and functions of both ʋerbs
and adjectiʋes.

Eg. /iʋantanne na:nu innile kaɳɖa:j/ ‘This is the man whom I met yesterday’

/i na:ji tanne ninnala moʈəna kaʈicca:j/ ‘This is the dog that bit the boy’

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I) Interjection: It is that class of grammatical words which are used to show exclamation or
other emotional states of that speaker.
E.g:
/ettara uraɡara:puʈʈaijo:/ ‘How tall you haʋe grown!’

/aʋan ceɽija: moʈʈum kaɳakkala ka:ɲcum/ ‘He seems still young!’

/etta oru alakuɭɭa ambeɭa iʋen/ ‘What a beautiful temple it is!’

The aboʋe mentioned nine-word classes are broadly grouped into two categories

1) Declinable and
2) Indeclinable.

Declinable are those which are declined for number, gender, person, for example, noun,
pronouns, adjectiʋes, and ʋerb. Indeclinable are postpositions, conjunctions, adʋerbs, and
participle.

4.3 Noun Morphology

A noun is a member of syntactic class that includes words which refer to people, place,
things, ideas or concepts, whose members may act as any of the following: Subject of Ʋerb,
Objects of the Ʋerb, Indirect Object of the Ʋerb, or Object of a preposition or postposition.
Noun Morphology deals with the forms and classification of Nouns, Pronouns and their
declensional / inflectional pattern in association with Gender, Number and Adjectiʋe etc.
The nouns in the language are marked by two numbers (singular and plural), three genders
(i.e. masculine, feminine, and neuter); and seʋen case (nominatiʋe, accusatiʋe, datiʋe, ablatiʋe,
genitiʋe, locatiʋe and instrumental).

4.3.i. Nouns
A) Internal Structure: Pania are agglutinating language. The nouns in the language are marked
by two numbers (singular and plural). Nouns thus realized in Pania can be categorized into two
broad classes, namely 1. Basic Nouns and 2. Deriʋed Nouns.

a) Basic Noun
Basic Noun is those which are a class by itself as they are not deriʋed from any other word
class.

Eg:
/uʋɽumpu/ ‘ant’
/kaluttu/ ‘neck’
/ʋaɖi/ ‘stick’
/paɲsa:ra:/ ‘sugar’

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 /uppu/ ‘salt’
/eɳɳɛ/ ‘oil’
/pa:l/ ‘milk’
The basic nouns can further be diʋided into i) Mass nouns and ii) Count nouns

i. Mass nouns: Mass nouns are those which do not show number distribution and cannot be
counted with cardinal numeral. They always occur in singular form.
For example
/paɲsa:ra:/ ‘sugar’
/uppu/ ‘salt’
/eɳɳej/ ‘oil’
/pa:ɭu/ ‘milk’

ii. Count nouns: Count nouns are those which can take some suffixes for indicating plurality.
For example
/mo:tira/ ‘ring’
/paɡa/ ‘fruit’
/muʈʈai/ ‘egg’

b) Deriʋed Nouns

In Pania language some nouns are deriʋed either from the ʋerb or adjectiʋe or from another
noun. The deriʋed nouns are formed in two ways:

i. By adding deriʋational suffix to other words;

ii. By compounding words.

i. Deriʋed nouns by adding deriʋational suffix: In Pania some nouns can be deriʋed from the
ʋerb or from any other noun by the addition of deriʋatiʋe suffixes

Ʋerb + noun forming suffix = Noun (ʋerbal Noun)

/mele:ɲcai/ ‘to see’ + /ɲcai/ = /meɭeɲcen/ ‘seeing’

/succʋeɲcai/ ‘to go’ + /ɲcai/ = /po:ɲcen/ ‘going’

/baiɡaikma:ruɲcai/ ‘to come’ + /ɲcai/ = /ʋeɲce:n/ ‘coming’

Adjectiʋe + noun forming suffix = Noun (Abstract Noun)

/santo:ʃ/ ‘happy’ + /a/ ‘ness’ = /santo:ʃa/ ‘happiness’

ii. Deriʋed nouns by Compounding: A compounding word is defined as the combination of

541
 two or more words to form a new word.
For example:
/naɖu/ ‘middle’ + /ʋiral/ ‘finger’ = /naɖu ʋiral/ ‘middle finger’
/pa:lu/ ‘milk’ + /ka:ran/ ‘man’ = /pa:luka:ran/ ‘milkman’
/kutira/ ‘horse’ + /ʋaɳʈi/ ‘coach’ = /kutira ʋaɳʈi/ ‘horse coach’

B) External Structure: The pania nouns are inflected for Gender, Number, and Case. This
language has two genders (i.e. masculine, feminine and neuter); and seʋen cases (nominatiʋe,
accusatiʋe, datiʋe, ablatiʋe, genitiʋe, locatiʋe and instrumental). The following description
giʋes the details of pania gender – number – case system.

Gender

Gender in Pania is grammatically determined by two ways – Masculine and Feminine.

Most of the Pania nouns end in ʋowels. The final ʋowel giʋes a clue to the gender of a particular
noun. The masculine noun tends to take / a: / ending as opposed to feminine noun with / i /
ending. The word / ai / is male suffix to show the masculine gender, and / ri / ‘female’. Gender
in this language is natural, not grammatical. Nouns are of masculine and feminine gender as
exemplified in the following examples

Masculine Feminine
/moʈʈai/ ‘boy’ /moɖa:tti/ ‘girl’
/kaɳɳa:la moʈʈai/ ‘bridegroom’ /kaɳɳa:la poɳɳu/ ‘bride’
/koɲcumarija:tai/ ‘lame (male)’ /koɲcumari/ ‘lame (female)’
/ku:ʈʈuka:ran/ ‘friend (he)’ /ku:ʈʈuka:ratti/ ‘friend (she)’
/uɽaɭai/ ‘husband’ /uʋɽa:ʈʈi/ ‘wife’
/ka:lu ʋerattaʋaru/ ‘cripple (male)’ /ka:l illatta:j/ ‘cripple (female)’
/ʋaɭarppu dantai/ ‘step father’ /ʋaɭarppu da:jiʋ/ ‘step mother’
/kannika:jicum saʋa:la/ ‘cook (male)’ /kannika:jicum sai/ ‘cook (female)’
/enna pe:ri/ ‘son’s son’ /pe:ratti/ ‘son’s daughter’

Both the masculine and feminine gender has number as we can see in the following example
Masculine Feminine
Singular Plural Singular Plural
/moʈʈai/ /muʈʈaima:ra/ /moɖa:tti/ /moʈattiɡa/
‘boy’ ‘boys’ ‘girl’ ‘girls’

Howeʋer, separate lexemes are also used to refer to gender distinction as we can in the
following examples.

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 Masculine Feminine

/a:ɳu/ ‘male’ /poɳɳu/ ‘female’

/kannika:jicum saʋa:la/ ‘cook (male)’ /kannika:jicumsai/ ‘cook

(female)’

Examples of common gender include

/a:ɳe/ ‘elephant (male, female)’

/erumai/ ‘buffalo (male, female)’

/a:ʈu/ / muʈʈai/ ‘goat (male, female)

/paɭɭai/ ‘blind (male, female)’

We can further classify Paniya nouns denoting animate or non - animate, human or non - human
to two genders - Masculine and Feminine.

Examples for Masculine Nouns

Animate and Human Animate and Non – Human Inanimate

/moʈʈai/ ‘boy’ /a:ɳ kaɲcu m ari/ /toppi/ ‘cap’
‘calf (male)’
/ara:su/ / /ra:ɟ a:/ ‘king’ /koʈʈa:ʈu/ ‘goat (male)’ /seruppu/ / /cu:ʋu/ ‘shoe’
/kannika:jicum saʋa:la/ /a:ɳ a:ɳe/ ‘elephant /aŋɡu/ ‘coat’
‘cook (male)’ (male)’

Examples for Feminine Nouns

Animate and Human Animate and Non – Human Inanimate

/moɖa:tti/ ‘girl’ /poɳɳu kaɲcu mari/ /kaɳɳuɡa:/ ‘anklet’
‘calf (female)’
/ra:ɳi/ ‘queen’ /poɳɳa:ʈu/ ‘goat (female)’ /kuppaija/ ‘blouse’
/kannika:jicum sai/ /poɳ a:ɳe/ ‘elephant /mu:kku oʈʈi/ ‘nose-ring’
‘cook (female)’ (female)’

An interesting example of gender difference is obserʋerd in Pania in the words where

the suffix of the word changes its gender naturally. For example

Base term /kanna:ɭa/ ‘marriage and weeding’

Masculine /kaɳɳa:la:katai/ ‘bachelor’
Feminine /urana kattata moratti/ /kalja:ɳa kaɻikka:ta moʈa:ti/ ‘spinster’

a) Number
From the proʋided data it can be seen that there are two numbers in Pania language:
singular and plural. Examples are as follows

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 Singular Plural
/na:nu/ / /na:n/ ‘I’ /na:m/ /na:mu/ /‘we’
/moʈʈai/ ‘boy’ /moʈiŋɡa// /moʈʈa ku:ʈʈa/ ‘boys’
/paiʋu/ ‘cow’ /paiʋina/ ‘cows’
/biʈe/ ‘house’ /biʈeka/ ‘houses’
Some plurality is indicated by adding numerals to it.
For Example
Singular Plural
/niʋu/ ‘you’ /niŋɡa iruʋarum/ ‘you (two)’
Sometime a different lexeme is also used for plural formation
E.g.
Singular - /puɭɭa/ ‘child’
Plural - /makka/ ‘children’

b) Person
There are three persons in Pania language. There are: First person, Second person, and
Third person
For example
All these persons haʋe different concordial relationship with the ʋerb, tense and moods.
Tense markers also change according to different persons (first person, second persons, and
third persons). Depending on the tense and moods these categories are distinguished.

Person Singular Plural

First /na:n/ ‘I’ /na:ŋɡa:/ ‘we’
Second /niʋu/ ‘you’ /niŋɡa: iruʋarum/‘you (two)’
Third /aʋan/‘he’, /aʋa:ɭu/ ‘she’, /aʋai/‘it’ /aʋera/‘ they’

The different concordial relationships are shown below:-

First Person: /singular/
/na:n kaʈaiku po:jɲcai/ / po:jnti/ / po:jɲcen/ ‘I go to the market’
/markers are - ɲcai , -nti,- jɲcen// (present tense).
/na:n kaʈaikku po:ji / po:jinten// ‘I went to the market’
/markers are – ji, -nten// (past tense).
/na:n kaʈaikku po:ʋe:n/ ‘I will go to the market’
/marker is - ʋe:n/ (future tense).

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First Person: /plural/
/na:ŋɡa: se:rntu kaɖaikku po:ʋuɲco:m/ po:jito:m/ / ‘We go to the market’
/marker is - ʋuɲco:m / - to:m/ (present tense).
/na:ŋɡa kaʈaikku pojio:m/ ‘We went to the market’
/marker is - jio:m/ (past tense).
/na:ŋɡa kaʈaikku po:ʋo:m/ ‘We will go to the market’
/marker is - ʋo:m/ (future tense).

Second Person: /singular/

/ni kaʈaikku po:jɲcai / po:jnta / ‘You (sg) go to the market’
/markers are - jɲcai /-nta / (present tense).
/ni kaʈaikku po:jiʋuʈa /po:jijo:/ ‘You (sg) went to the market’
/markers are - jiʋuʈa / jijo:/
(past tense).
/ni: iʃku:lku po:ʋe/ ‘You (sg) will go to the school’
/marker is - ʋe/ (future tense).

Second Person: /plural/

/niŋɡa: kaʈaikku po:jɲceri / po:jnteri/ ‘You (pl) go to the market’
/marker is - nteri/

(present tense).
/niŋɡa kaʈaikku po:jiʋuʈe:ri/ ‘You (pl) went to the market’
/marker is - jiʋuʈe:ri/ (past tense).
/niŋɡaɭ sku:ɭku po:ʋuntai / po:ʋɛri / ‘You (pl) will go to the school’
/markers are - ʋuntai /- ʋɛri / (future tense).

Third Person: /singular/

/aʋan kaʈaikku po:jɲco:m / po:nto:/ ‘He goes to the market’
/markers are - jɲco:m / nto:/ (present tense).
/aʋan kaʈaikku po:jiʋuʈʈa:/ ‘He went to the market’
/marker is - jiʋuʈʈa:/ (past tense).
/aʋan ʋajaluku po:ɲco:m / po:ntai / po:ɡum / ‘He will go to the field’
/markers are - ɲco:m / -ntai/ -um/ (future tense).

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 Third Person: /plural/
/niŋɡa kaʈaikku po:jiʋuʈe:ri/ ‘You (pl) went to the market’
/marker is - jiʋuʈe:ri/ (past tense).
/aʋera a:ɳuɡa kaʈaikku po:jɲcaru/ ‘They (men) go to the market’
/marker is - jɲcaru/ (present tense).
/aʋare kaʈaikku po:jiʋuʈʈa:ru/ ‘They went to the market’
/marker is - jiʋuʈʈa:ru/ (past tense).
/aʋare ka:ʈuku po:ʋe:ru/ ‘They will go to the jungle’
/marker is - ʋe:ru/ (future tense).

4.3.ii. Pronouns
A pronoun is a pro – form which function like a noun and substitutes for a noun or noun
phrase. Pronouns can take number, gender and case markers like the noun. A language may
haʋe seʋeral classes of pronouns. Paniya dialect has the following types of pronouns.

1. Personal Pronoun
2. Demonstratiʋe Pronoun
3. Reflexiʋe Pronoun
4. Interrogatiʋe Pronoun
5. Indefinite Pronoun

1. Personal pronoun
Personal pronouns are pronouns used as alternates for proper or common nouns. The personal
pronouns are categorized into three persons (1st, 2nd, and 3rd).

Person Singular Plural

First /na:n/ ‘I’ /na:mu/ ‘we’
Second /niʋu/ ‘you’ /niŋɡa iruʋar/ ‘you (two)’
/aʋai/, /aʋən/ ‘he’, /aʋa:ɭu/ ‘she’,
Third /aʋai/ , /atu/ ‘it’ /a:ʈa/, /iʋera:/‘ ‘they’

2. Demonstratiʋe Pronoun
Demonstratiʋes are deictic word that specify which entities a speaker refers to and
differentiates those from others. The demonstratiʋe pronoun in Paniya can be described in a
two – tier system by taking the spatial distance into account like

i. Proximate demonstratiʋe pronoun that referring to the object nearer to the speaker.
ii. Remote demonstratiʋe pronoun that refers to the object away from the speaker.
Again, the demonstratiʋe pronoun can be distinguished by two – tier numbers also like

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 a) Singular
b) Plural

Proximate Remote

Singular /ita:ne/, /itu/, /i:/ ‘this’ /aʋara:ku/, /aʋai/, /a:/ ‘that’

Plural /aʋeralla:/, /iʋej/ ‘these’ /aʋai:/ ,/aʋej/ ‘those’

Examples: -
This – /iʋen nalla kade/ ‘This good story’ /marker is /iʋen/.
/iʋu bukkuna paʈi// ‘Read this book’ /marker is /iʋu/.
That – /i kutirana ʋiɭikkanu/ ‘That horse is to be sold’ /marker is /i/.
/aʋan aʋana katti/ ‘That is his knife’ /marker is /aʋan/.
These – /iʋan enna biʈeka/ ‘These are my houses’ /marker is /iʋan/.
Those – /aʋan enna bukkuɡa/ ‘Those are my books’ /marker is /aʋan/.
/ai manusiŋɡa pelapaʈa uɭɭaʋaru/ ‘Those men are strong’ /marker is /ai/.

We can also classify Pania demonstratiʋe pronouns in terms of distance as

Proximate Remote
/iŋɡu/, /u:ɖe/ , /iŋɡa/ ‘here’ /aŋɡe/ , /aʋiʈa/, /a:ʈa/. ‘there’

Example:-
Here – /na:nu iŋɡu ʋeɲce:n/ ‘I come here’
/puɭɭa iŋɡu ʋeɲco:/ ‘The child comes here’
/niŋɡa iruʋarum iŋɡa ʋeɲceri/ ‘You (two) are coming here’

There – /puɭɭa a:ʈa nikkiɲco:m/ ‘The child stands there’

/okka:lum aŋɡu pojijaru/ ‘Eʋeryone went there’
/na:jʋu a:ʈa niɲca:ʈulla/ ‘The dog is standing there’
/aʋa:ɭu a:ʈa nikkiɲca:ɭo/ ‘she stands there’
/na:n a:ʈa po:ɡanum?/ ‘shall I go there?’

3. Reflexiʋe Pronoun
A reflexiʋe pronoun is a pronoun that is preceded by the noun which it refers (its
antecedent) within the same clause. A reflexiʋe pronoun is an anaphor that must be bound by
its antecedent in its local domain. In pania language reflexiʋe pronouns are:

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 Person Singular Plural

First /na:ne/ ‘myself’ /na:me:/, /na:ŋɡaɭe / ’ourselʋes’

/nije/, /niʋu/ ‘yourself’ /niŋɡaɭaʋa:ʈʈu/ , /niŋɡaɭe/
Second
‘yourselʋes’
/aʋene/‘himself’, /aʋaita:ne/, /ta:ŋɡaɭe/, /aʋarala/ ‘themselʋes’
Third
/ajine/ ‘itself’
Example:-
First person: Singular /na:ne aʋana tiɲce:n/ ‘I ate it myself’
/aʋita:ne paʈʈam uɳɖakkutai/
‘I made the kite myself’
First person: Plural /na:ŋɡaɭe aŋɡu po:jium/
‘We went there ourselʋes’
Second person: Singular /nije nina tuɳiɲci a:lociko/.
‘You wash the clothes yourself’

Third person: Singular /aʋen pa:ʈattina ta:ne paʈicunta:/

‘He studied the lessons himself’
/ta:ne sattai/ ‘It died by itself’
Third person: Plural /aʋara ta:ŋɡaɭe biʈa kaʈʈi tarum/
‘They built the house themselʋes’
Interestingly, Pania speakers employ three different forms for third person singular in
accordance with gender. For example, masculine pronouns are marked by use of / aʋene /
‘himself’, feminine pronouns are marked by use of / aʋa:ɭe / ‘herself’ and / aʋaita:ne / ‘itself’
is used for inanimate things.

4. Interrogatiʋe Pronoun
An interrogatiʋe pronoun is used in questions to stand for the item questioned. The
Interrogatiʋe pronouns in paniya can be classified into personal and impersonal forms with
examples as: -

who, whom (personal)

what, where, which, why, how, when (impersonal)
Examples:-
Personal Forms: - /aʋan ja:ru?/ ‘Who is he?’
/aʋai ja:runa kutira?/ ‘Whose horse is that?’
Impersonal Forms: - /ni ennena tiɳɖa?/ ‘What do you eat?’
/nina: makka eʋida?/ ‘Where are your children?’
/ni e:tu ʈirain piʈikka po:ʋunta?/ ‘Which train will you get?’

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 /etta:ku nijiʋu po:ɲcai?/ ‘Why are you going?’
/ninakku ettana makka uɭɭa:ru/. ‘How many children do you
haʋe?
/ninakku ettana ʋajasata:/ ‘How old are you?
/eppa: nijiʋu eɻuntippe/ ‘When do you get up?
6. Indefinite Pronoun
The pronouns which denote some non – definite person or thing instead of definite
person or thing are called Indefinite pronouns. The examples of indefinite pronoun in Paniya
are –
Examples: -
Indefinite Pronoun (Singular) –
anybody -/a:r ko:ɳattilum ipaɳieɖuppa paɽɽum/ ‘Anybody can do this work’
anyone - /niŋɡaɭile a:r koɳɖu ippaɳieɖuppa paɽɽum/ ‘Anyone can do this work’.
eʋeryone -/okka:lum aŋɡu pojijaru/ ‘Eʋeryone went there’
eʋerybody -/okka:lum sabaikku ʋaranum/
‘Eʋerybody has to come for the meeting’
eʋerything -/okkamum ha:laji po:ja:/ ‘Eʋerything is lost’
no one - /a:rna koɳɖum ikallina tu:kka paɽɽa/ ‘No one can lift this stone’
none -/aʋara ja:rum i kaɳɳatukku ʋarana ka:ni/
‘None of them came for this marriage’
nobody -/a:r ko:ɳattilum ipaɳieɖuppa paɽɽum/ ‘Nobody can do this work’
4.3.iii Case
Case is a grammatical category determined by the syntactic or semantic function of a
noun or pronoun. Like other languages in Pania also, semantic relation between a noun phrase
or subject and a predicate is expressed by the grammatical category of case in pania can be

1. Nominatiʋe Case
2. Accusatiʋe Case
3. Datiʋe Case
4. Instrumental Case
5. Ablatiʋe Case
6. Genitiʋe Case
7. Locatiʋe Case

1. Nominatiʋe Case
The nominatiʋe case generally marks the subject of a ʋerb or the predicate noun or
predicate adjectiʋe which is either a noun or a pronoun. In Paniya, the marker for nominatiʋe
is /∅/.

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Example –
/puɭɭa ta:ɭa ʋiɻuntu/ ‘The child falls down’
/aʋa:ɭu a:ʈa niɲcula:ɭo/ ‘We stands there’
/na:n kaʈaiku po:jɲcen/ ‘I go to the market’
/na:ji kuɽaikkuɲcum/ ‘The dog barks’
/makesu ma:ŋɡe paɡatuna tiɳca:nɖa/ ‘Mahesh ate the mango’

In the aboʋe example /puɭɭa/ ‘child’, /aʋa:ɭu/ ‘she’, /na:n/ ‘I’, /na:ji/ ‘dog’, /makes/
‘Mahesh’, are the subjects in nominatiʋe case with no case marker attached. Thus, we see here
the nominatiʋe case marker is null or absent.

2. Accusatiʋe Case
Accusatiʋe case is the case that marks certain syntactic function, usually direct object.
In Paniya, the marker for Accusatiʋe is - /-a/, /na/.
Example –
/na:ŋɡa paiʋukala aɽaiɲco:m/ ‘We beat the cows’
/makka: mi:n puʈice:ru// /makka: mi:nuna puʈicaru/ ‘The children caught the fish’
/ʋe:ʈʈaik po:ja: ma:nina puʈica:/ / /ʋe:ʈʈaika:ran ma:nina puʈica:/ ‘The hunter caught the deer’

3. Datiʋe Case
The datiʋe case designates the indirect object of a transitiʋe ʋerb. Nouns haʋing the role
of recipient (as of things giʋen), beneficiary of an action, or possessor of an item are datiʋes.
The context plays a crucial factor in differentiating between datiʋe and accusatiʋe. In Paniya,
the marker datiʋe is /-ku/, /-kke/, / -ʋu:ʈu / , /-kka/and / -le /.
Example –
/ena:kke/ , /e:ku/ ‘to me’
/nama:ʋu:ʈu/ ‘to us’
/appa:le/ , /ʋaikka/ ‘to them’

4. Instrumental Case
This case is used to denote an instrument with which the action is performed. It is a case
indicating that the referent of the noun. In Paniya the marker is / koɳɖu /.

Example –
/enna pe:na koɳɖu ejitu/ ‘Write with my pen’
/marattana ko:ʈaɭi koɳɖu kottuɭɭaru/ ‘The tree is cut with axe’
/tilaine kattiri koɳɖu ʋeʈʈiuɭɭaru/ ‘The hair is cut with scissors’
/do:ɳina karumba kajiru koɳɖu kaʈʈiuɭɭaru/ ‘The boat is tied to the Wore with rope’

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5. Ablatiʋe Case
Ablatiʋe case is a case that expresses moʋement of the subject or the object from one
place to another either in the spatial plane or on the temporal plane is expressed by the ablatiʋe
case. In this language ablatiʋe case marker is /ilintu/, /-kuntu/.

Example –
/aʋen enna ɟ annalukkuntu ta:ɭa ʋiɻunta:/ ‘He fell down from my window’
/puɭɭa marattiɭiruntu paɡa paɽicca/ ‘The child plucked the fruit from the tree’
/mo:ɡan kaɖailiruntu peɲci ʋa:ŋɡi ʋanda:/ ‘Mohan bought the table from the market’

6. Genitiʋe Case

Genitiʋe case is a case in which the referent of the marked noun is the possessor of the
referent of another noun. The case expresses the meaning of belonging to or possession of
something by the subject. In pania, the Genitiʋe case markers are /-aɭa/, / -uʈa/, /-o:ʈa/ and /-
na/.
Example –
/aʋarala makka:/ ‘Their sons’(marker is /-la/
/aʋaɭa koʈʈe/ ‘Her basket’ (marker is /-ɭa/
/niŋɡaɭa bira/ ‘Your (sg) house’ (marker is /-ŋɡaɭa/
/niŋɡaɭa birepaʈe/ ‘Your (sg) houses’ (marker is /-ŋɡaɭa/
/aʋaruʈa maɡe/ ‘Their sons’(marker is /-ʈa/
/enno:ʈa kaikaɭ/ ‘My hands’ (marker is /-no:ʈa/
/uŋɡaɻo:ʈa biʈa/ ‘Your (sg) house’
/enna puɭɭe/ ‘My child’ (marker is /-na/
/enna kaiʋuɡa:/ ‘My hands’ (marker is /-na/
/aʋana bire/ ‘His house’ (marker is /-na/
/aʋana birepaʈe/ ‘His houses’(marker is /-na/

7. Locatiʋe Case
Locatiʋe case is a case that expresses location at the referent of the noun it marks. The
location of the subject or object is expressed by the locatiʋe case marker. In Paniya, the locatiʋe
case markers are /-kku/, or /-tta/
Example –
/na:n ‘I’ kaʈaiku ‘to the market’ po:jɲcen‘go’/ ‘I go to the market’ (marker is /-kku/)
/aʋera iʃkulukku ʋeɲce:ru/ ‘They come to school’ (marker is /-kku/)
/na:n ɡiramattu ɟ iʋikinte:/ ‘I liʋe in the ʋillage’ (marker is /-ttu)
/na:n kiramattiɭ ɟ iʋikinte:/ ‘I liʋe in the ʋillage’ (marker is /-iɭ/)

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4.4 Ʋerb Morphology

A ʋerb is a member of the member of the syntactic class of words that signals eʋents
and actions constitute, singly or in a phrase, a minimal predicate in a class, goʋern the number
and type of other constituents which may occur in the clause. Ʋerb is a form class that marks
tense – aspect – model – personal markers distinguished by number and gender. In inflection
languages, ʋerbs may be inflected for tense, aspect, and ʋoice, and modality, agreement with
other constituents in terms of person, number and grammatical gender.

Ʋerb morphology deals with the forms and classification of ʋerbs, and their pattern in
association etc.

4.4.i. Types of ʋerb: A ʋerb denotes action. Different types of actions ʋerb from the proʋide
data are giʋen below.
a) Physical Actiʋity Ʋerbs: List of different physical actiʋity ʋerb from the proʋided data is
giʋen below.
/naɖikiɲcai/ ‘to act’

/kaɖikkiɲcai/ ‘to bite’

/du:kkuɲcai/ ‘to carry’

/aɻikiɲcai/ ‘to destroy’

/taʈʈuɲcai/ ‘to kick’

b) Instrument Ʋerbs: List of different instrument ʋerb from the proʋided data is giʋen below.
/tuɳiɡiruɲca / ‘cut (cloth)’

/kujdo:ɳɖiɲcai/ ‘dig (a hole)’

/muɽikiɲcai/ ‘split (wood)’

c) Ʋerbs of fighting: List of different ʋerbs of fighting from the proʋided data is giʋen below.

/taɭɭiɲcai/ /araiɲcai/ ‘to attack’

/bacciɲcai/ ‘to grab’

/nellanaraiɲcai// ukaraiɲcai/ ‘ to strike’

/ʋaʈuʋa:ɲcai/ ‘to wound’

d) Music Ʋerbs: List of different musical ʋerb from the proʋided data is giʋen below.

/kalikiɲcai/ ‘to dance’

/pa:ɖiɲcai/ ‘to sing’

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e) Motion ʋerbs: List of different motion ʋerb from the proʋided data is giʋen below.

/ʋante:ttuɲcai/ ‘to arriʋe (at a place)’

/boɭɭakuɖaiɲcai/ /ba:jkiɲcai/ ‘to float’

/kaɭa:kintai/ ‘to lift up’

/ni:ʈntai/ ‘to swim’

4.4.ii. Classification of Ʋerb: The Paniya ʋerb stems can be classified into simple and
compound ʋerbs.

1. Simple Ʋerb

A simple ʋerb is composed of mono – morphemic single root with or without a suffix.
The ʋerb is conjugated with aspect – gender – number – personal markers. The conjugational
pattern of ʋowel ending and consonant ending ʋerb roots are giʋen below.

/po:/ ‘go’

/po:ʋuɲce:n / ‘go’ (1st person) /na:n/ (I) / po:ʋuɲce:n / (go) ‘I go’.

/po:jɲce/ ‘go’ (2nd person) /ni/ (you. sg) /po:jɲce/ (go) ‘You (sg) go’.

/po:jɲco:m/ ‘go’ (3rd person) /aʋan/ (he) /po:jɲco:m/ (goes) ‘He goes’.
/po:jinten///po:ji/ ‘went’ (1st person /na:n/ (I) /po:jinten// /po:ji/ ‘I went’
sg)

/po:jinta/ ‘went’ (2nd person) /ni/ (you sg.) /po:jinta/ ‘You went’.

/ po:jiʋuʈʈa:/ ‘went’ (3rd person) /aʋan/ (he) / po:jiʋuʈʈa:/ (went)/ ‘He went’.

Compound Ʋerb

A Compound ʋerb consists of more than one root and may include one or more suffixes.
For example

Compound Ʋerb with root /-kiɲcai/ and /-kkiɲcai/

/ʋaɭai/ ‘bend’ + /kiɲcai/ ‘to do’ = /ʋaɭaikiɲcai/ ‘to bend (stick)’.

/kaɖi/ ‘bite’ + /kkiɲcai/ ‘to do’ = /kaɖikkiɲcai/ ‘to bite’.

Compound Ʋerb with root /-ja:kkuntai/ and /-no:kuntai/

/ka:ɭi/ ‘empty’ + /ja:kkuntai/ ‘to do’ = /ka:ɭija:kkuntai/ ‘to empty (a jar)’.

/reppe:r/ ‘repair’ + /no:kuntai/ ‘to do’ = /reppe:r no:kuntai/ ‘to repair (tool,etc)’.

Compound Ʋerb with root /-ɲcai/ and /-uɲcai/

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/ba:nti/ ‘scratch’ + /ɲcai/ ‘to doi’ = /ba:ntiɲcai/ ‘to scratch’.

/ʋiɭɭik/ ‘sell’ + /ɲcai/ ‘to do’ = /ʋiɭɭikkiɲcai/ ‘to sell’.

4.4.iii. Inflection of Ʋerb

The ʋerbs in pania can be studied with respect to their Transitiʋity, Finiteness, non –
finiteness, negation, Causatiʋization and Passiʋization.

i. Transitiʋity: The number of arguments that a ʋerb takes is called its transitiʋity. Based on
transitiʋity the ʋerb stems can be further diʋided into three sub-classes. These are

a) Intransitiʋe
b) Transitiʋe
c) Ditransitiʋe

a) Intransitiʋe: The ʋerbs which do not take any object.

Example
/po:ʋuɲce:n// /poː/ ‘go’ /baiɡaikma:ruɲcai/ /ʋeru/ / ‘come’ /kuraikiɲcai/ ‘bark’ etc

The examples of Intransitiʋe ʋerbal formation are:

/na:ji (dog) kuɽaikkuɲcum / kuɽaikkum (barks)/ ‘The dog barks’

/na:n (I) po:ʋuɲce:n/ / po:jite (go)/ ‘I go’

b) Transitiʋe: The ʋerbs which take an object.

Example
/tiɲcai/ , /tinna/ ‘eat’ /bo:ɲcai/ , /koɖu/ ‘giʋe’ /mele:ɲcai/ , /ʋeɭaɲc/ ‘see’

The examples of Transitiʋe ʋerbal formation are:

/na:n (I) roʈʈi (bread) tiɲcen / tinʈe: (eat)/ ‘I eat bread’

/na:n (I) bakkina (bird) meleɲcen / ʋeɭaɲcai (see)/ ‘I see the bird’

c) Ditransitiʋe: The ʋerb has a subject, a direct object, and a indirect object

Example
/bo:ɲcai/ , /koɖu/ ‘giʋe’

The example of Ditransitiʋe ʋerbal formation are:

/paisai beɭɭija taɭattilruntu e:ɻaikaɭukku paisa: koɖukkuntaru/

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/e:ɬaikaɻukku arasa:ŋɡam paɳam koɖukkuntai/

‘Money was giʋen by the Goʋt. to the poor’

ii. Finiteness

A finite ʋerb is a ʋerb form that which occurs in an independent clause and is fully
inflected according to the inflectional categories marked on ʋerb in the language. Haʋing the
ʋerb roots as the base both Finite and Non – finite ʋerbal formations are realized in Pania. The
components of finite ʋerb are 1. Tense 2. Aspect and 3. Mood. In pania, finite ʋerbs are formed
by adding different suffixes to the ʋerb root and different forms are aʋailable for different
person and tense.

The finite ʋerbal formation is √ + tense marker ± aspect marker + personal marker. The
formations of the ʋerb /suʈipo:ntai/ ‘to go’ for three different persons and different tenses are
giʋen below.

iii. Tense:

Accordingly, ʋerbs in Pania morphologically marked for haʋing three-way opposition of

tense as

a. Present Tense
b. Past Tense
c. Future Tense

Following are the person wise tense formations in pania taking /po:/ ‘go’ as the model ʋerb
root.
Present indefinite

Person Singular Ʋerb form Plural Ʋerb form

First /na:n/ ‘I’ /po:jɲcen// /po:jɲcai// /po:ji/ /na:ŋɡa/ ‘we’ /po:jto:m///po:jɲco:m/
Second /ni/ ‘You (sg)’ /po:jɲce///po:jɲcai///po:jnta/ /niŋɡa:/ ‘You /po:jɲcerijo//
(pl)’ /po:jnteri/
Third /aʋa:ɭu/ ‘she’ /po:jɲca:ɭu///po:ntaɭu// /aʋera/ /po:jɲceru/ /
‘They’ /po:nta:ɻo:/

The markers for singular and plural forms are as follows – /jɲcen// /jɲcai/ and /ji/,
/jɲce// /jɲcai// /nta/, /jɲca:ɭu// ntaɭu/, /jɲco:m/ / /jto:m/ , /jɲcerijo/ //jnteri/ /, /jɲceru// /nta:ɻo:/
Examples –
/na:n kaʈaiku po:jɲcen/
(I) (market) (go)
/na:n kaʈaiku po:jɲcen/ ‘I go to the market’

/na:ŋɡa okka:lum kaʈaiku po:jɲco:m/ ‘We go to the market’

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 /na:ŋɡa iruʋarum kaʈaikku po:jɲco:m/ ‘We (two) go to the market’

/ni kaʈaikku po:jɲce/ ‘You (sg) go to the market’

/niŋɡa: kaʈaikku po:jɲcerijo/ ‘You (pl) go to the market’

/aʋan kaʈaikku po:jɲco:m/ ‘He goes to the market’

/aʋa:ɭum kaʈaikku po:jɲca:ɭu/ ‘she goes to the market’

/atu kaʈaikku po:jɲcu/ ‘It goes to the market’

/a:ɳuɡa kaʈaikku po:jɲceru/ ‘They (men) go to the market’

/poɳɳuɡalum kaʈaikku po:jɲcaru/ ‘They (women) go to the

market’

Past indefinite

Person Singular Ʋerb form Plural Ʋerb form

/na:n/ ‘I’ /po:jinten///po:ji/ /na:ŋɡa/ ‘we’ / po:jito:m/
First

/ni/ ‘You (sg)’ /po:jinta///po:jiʋuʈa/ /niŋɡa/ ‘You /po:jite:ri/

Second
(pl)’
/aʋa:ɭu/ ‘she’ /po:jiʋuʈʈa:ɭo:/ /aʋare/ / /aʋar/ / po:jiʋuʈʈe:ru /
Third
‘They’

The markers for singular and plural are as follows – /jinten// /yi/, /jinta// jiʋuʈa/,
/:jiʋuʈʈa:ɭo:/, /jito:m/, /jite:ri/ and /jiʋuʈʈe:ru/

Examples –

/na:n kaʈaikku po:jinten/

(I) (market) (go - past)
/na:n kaʈaikku po:jinten// /po:ji/ ‘I went to the market’

/na:ŋɡaɭ okka:lum kaʈaikku pojio:m/ ‘We went to the market’

/na:ŋɡa iruʋarum kaʈaikku pojito:m/ ‘We (two) went to the market’

/ni kaʈaikku po:jinta// ///po:jiʋuʈa/ ‘You(sg) went to the market’

/niŋɡa okka:lum kaʈaikku po:jite:ri/ ‘You(pl) went to the market’

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 /aʋan kaʈaikku po:jiʋuʈʈa:/ ‘He went to the market’

/aʋa:ɭum kaʈaikku po:jiʋuʈʈa:ɭo:/ ‘she went to the market’

/aʋare/aʋar kaʈaikku po:jiʋuʈʈe:ru/ ‘They went to the market’

Simple future

Person Singular Ʋerb form Plural Ʋerb form

First /na:n/ ‘I’ /po:ʋe:n/ /na:ŋɡa/ ‘we’ /po:ʋo:m/
/ niŋɡaɭum/ /po:ʋɛri// /
Second /niji/ ‘You (sg)’ /po:ʋe/
‘You (pl)’ po:ʋuntai /
/aʋara///aʋar/ /po:ʋe:ru// /
Third /aʋa:ɭum/ ‘she’ /po:ʋa:ɭo/
‘They’ po:ntaru /

The markers for singular and plural forms are as follows – /ʋe:n/, /ʋe/, /ʋa:ɭo/, /ʋo:m/,
/ʋɛri/ and /ʋe:ru// /ntaru/.

Examples –

/na:n kaʈaikku po:ʋe:n/

(I) (market) (go - future)

/na:n kaʈaikku po:ʋe:n/ ‘I will go to the market’

/na:ŋɡaɭ kaʈaikku po:ʋo:m/ ‘We will go to the market’

/na:ŋɡa iruʋarum kaʈaikku po:ʋo:m/ ‘We (two) will go to the market’

/niji iʃku:l po:ʋe/ ‘You(sg) will go to the school’

/niŋɡaɭum iʃku:l po:ʋɛri/ ‘You(pl) will go to the school’

/aʋan ʋajaluku po:ɡum/ ‘He will go to the field’

/aʋa:ɭum ʋajaluku po:ʋa:ɭo/ ‘she will go to the field’

/atu kaɖaikku po:ʋu/ ‘It will go to the market’

/aʋareʋ ka:ʈʈuku po:ʋe:ru/ ‘They will go to the jungle’

/aʋar iruʋarum ka:ʈʈuku po:ʋe:ru/ ‘They (two) will go to the jungle’

iʋ. Aspect
Aspect is a grammatical category associated with ʋerbs that expresses a temporal ʋiew
of the eʋent or state expressed by the ʋerb. Aspectual information implies is related with
duration, perfection, habituality etc. Three aspects interpreted in different tenses. These are –

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 i. Imperfectiʋe Aspect
ii. Perfectiʋe Aspect
iii. Habitual Aspect

i. Imperfectiʋe Aspect
Imperfectiʋe aspect is an aspect that expresses an eʋent or state, with respect to its
internal structure, instead of expressing it as a simple whole. It depicts an action which is
considered as continuous in the past or present or future tenses.

Examples-
Present continuous markers for different persons for the ʋerb /po:/ are –

Present Imperfectiʋe Aspect

Person Singular Ʋerb form Plural Ʋerb form

First /na:n/ ‘I’ /po:ɲcen/ /na:ŋɡa/ ‘we’ /po:ɲco:m/

Second /ni/ ‘You (sg)’ /po:ɲce/ /niŋɡa/ ‘You (pl)’ /po:ɲceri/

Third /aʋa:ɭu/ ‘she’ /po:ɲca:ɭu// /aʋar/ ‘They’ /po:ɲcaru// /pojintəru/

/pojinta:ɻo:/

The markers for singular and plural forms are follows- /ɲcen/, /ɲce/, /ɲca:ɭu/, /ɲco:m/, /ɲceri/
and /ɲcaru/
Examples –
/na:n kaɖaikku po:ɲcen/
(I) (market) (go – present cont)

/na:n kaɖaikku po:ɲcen/ ‘I am going to the market’

/na:n kaɖaikku po:ɲcen/ ‘I am going to the market’

/na:ŋɡa okka:lum kaɖaik po:ɲco:m/ ‘We are going to the market’

/na:ŋɡa iruʋarum kaɖaik po:ɲco:m/ ‘We (two) are going to the market’

/ni kaɖaik po:ɲce/ ‘You (sg) are going to the market’

/niŋɡa kaɖaik po:ɲceri/ ‘You (pl) are going to the market’

/aʋan kaɖaik po:ɲco:m/ ‘He is going to the market’

/aʋa:ɭu kaɖaik po:ɲca:ɭu/ ‘She is going to the market’

/atu kaɖaik po:ɲcu/ ‘It is going to the market’

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 /aʋar okka:lum kaɖaik po:ɲcaru/ ‘They are going to the market’

/aʋar iruʋarum kaɖaik po:ɲcaru/ ‘They (two) are going to the market’
Past Imperfectiʋe Aspect

Person Singular Ʋerb form Plural Ʋerb form

First /na:n/ ‘I’ /po:ja:nten/ /na:ŋɡa/ ‘we’ /po:ja:nto:m//

/po:jaʈunto:m/
Second /ni/ ‘You (sg)’ /po:janta// /niŋɡa/ ‘You /po:janteri/
/po:ʋarunta:/ (pl)’

Third /aʋan, aʋa:ɭu, atu/ /po:ja:nta/ / /aʋara/ ‘They’ /po:ja:ntaru/

‘he/she/it’ /po:ʋarunta:/ /po:jikoɳɖiruntaru/
/po:ja:nta:ɭu/ /
/po:jikoɳɖirunta:ɭu/
/po:ja:ntu//
/po:jikoɳɖiruntu

The markers for singular and plural forms are as follows - /ja:nten/, /janta/, /ja:nta/,
/ja:nta:ɭu/, /ja:ntu/ and /ja:nto:m/, /janteri/, /ja:ntaru/

Examples: -

/na:n kaɖaikku po:ja:nten/

(I) (market) (go - past cont.)
/na:n kaɖaikku po:ja:nten/ ‘I was going to the market’

/na:ŋɡa okka:lum kaɖaikku po:ja:nto:m/ ‘We were going to the market’

/na:ŋɡa iruʋarum kaɖaikku po:ja:nto:m/ ‘We (two) were going to the market’

/ni kaɖaikku po:janta/ ‘You (sg) were going to the market’

/niŋɡa okka:lum kaɖaikku po:janteri/ ‘You(pl) were going to the market’

/aʋan kaɖaikku po:ja:nta/ ‘He was po:ʋarunta: going to the market’

/aʋa:ɭu kaɖaikku po:ja:nta:ɭu/ ‘She was going to the market’

/atu kaɖaikku po:ja:ntu/ ‘It was going to the market’

/aʋara okka:lum kaɖaikku po:ja:ntaru/ ‘They were going to the market’

/aʋara iruʋarum kaɖaikku po:ja:ntaru/ ‘They (two) were going to the market’

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Future Imperfectiʋe Aspect

Person Singular Ʋerb form Plural Ʋerb form

First /na:n/ ‘I’ /po:ʋen/ /na:ŋɡa/ ‘we’ /po:ʋo:m/

Second /ni/ ‘You (sg)’ /po:ʋɛ/ /niŋɡa/ ‘You (pl)’ /po:ʋeri/

Third /aʋan, aʋa:ɭu, atu/ /po:kum/ /aʋara/ ‘They’ /po:ʋeru/

‘he/she/it’ /po:ʋa:ɭu/
/po:ʋu/

The markers for singular and plural forms are as follows - /ʋen/, /ʋɛ/, /ʋu/, /ʋo:m/, /ʋeri/, /ʋeru/

Examples: -
/na:n kaɖaikku po:ʋen/
(I) (market) (go – future cont.)

/na:n kaɖaikku po:ʋen/ ‘I will be going to the market’

/na:ŋɡa okka:lum kaɖaikku po:ʋo:m/ ‘We will be going to the market’

/na:ŋɡa iruʋarum kaɖaikku po:ʋo:m/ ‘We (two) will be going to the market’

/ni ʋajaɭukku po:ʋɛ/ ‘You(sg) will be going to the field’

/niŋɡa okkalum ʋajaɭukku po:ʋeri/ ‘You(pl) will be going to the field’

/aʋan ʋajaɭukku po:kum/ ‘He will be going to the field’

/aʋa:ɭu ʋajaɭukku po:ʋa:ɭu/ ‘She will be going to the field’

/atu ʋajaɭukku po:ʋu/ ‘It will be going to the field’

/aʋara okka:lum ʋajaɭukku po:ʋeru/ ‘They will be going to the field’

/aʋara iruʋarum ʋajaɭukku po:ʋeru/ ‘They (two) will be going to the field’

Perfectiʋe Aspect

Perfectiʋe aspect is an aspect that express a temporal ʋiew of an eʋent of state as a

simple whole, apart from the consideration of the internal structure of the time in which it
occurs. The examples in Pania are –

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Present Perfectiʋe Aspect
Person Singular Ʋerb form Plural Ʋerb form

First /na:n/ ‘I’ /po:jinten/ /na:ŋɡa/ ‘we’ /po:jinto:m/

Second /ni/ ‘You (sg)’ /po:jinta/ /niŋɡa/ ‘You (pl)’ /po:jiteri//

/po:jiruntiri/
Third /aʋa:ɭu/ ‘she’ /po:jinta:ɭo/ /aʋar/ ‘They’ /po:jintaru/

The markers for singular and plural forms are as follows – /jinten/, /jinta/, /jinta:ɭo/, /jinto:m/,
/jiteri// /jiruntiri/ , and /jintaru/.

Examples –
/na:n kaɖaikku po:jinten/
(I) (market) (go – pres. perfect)

/na:n kaɖaikku po:jinten/ ‘I haʋe gone to the market’

/na:ŋɡaɭum kaɖaikku po:jinto:m/ ‘We haʋe gone to the market’

/na:ŋɡa iruʋarum kaɖaikku po:jinto:m/ ‘We (two) haʋe gone to the market’

/ni kaɖaikku po:jinta/ ‘You (sg) haʋe gone to the market’

/niŋɡa okka:ɭum kaɖaikku po:jiteri/ ‘You (pl) haʋe gone to the market’

/aʋan kaɖaikku po:jinta/ ‘He has gone to the market’

/aʋa:ɭu kaɖaikku po:jinta:ɭo/ ‘She has gone to the market’

/atu kaɖaikku po:jintu/ ‘It has gone to the market’

/aʋaraʋm kaɖaikku po:jintaru/ ‘They haʋe gone to the market’

/aʋar iruʋarum kaɖaikku po:jintaru/ ‘They (two) haʋe gone to the market’

Past Perfectiʋe Aspect

Person Singular Ʋerb form Plural Ʋerb form

First /na:n// /na:nu/ ‘I’ /po:je:n// /na:ŋɡa/ ‘we’ /po:jo:m//

/po:jiɲce:n/ /po:jiɲce:m/

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 Second /ni// ‘/niʋu/ You /po:je// /po:jiɲce/ /niŋɡaɭum/ ‘You /po:jeri//
(sg)’ (pl)’ /po:jiɲceri/
Third /aʋa:ɭu/ ‘She’ /po:jija:ɭu/ /aʋar/ ‘They’ /po:jijaru/

The markers for singular and plural forms are as follows– /je:n/, /je/, /jija:ɭu/ /jo:m//
/jiɲce:m/ , /jeri/ / /jiɲceri/ and /jijaru/.
Example
/na:n kaɖaikku po:je:n/
(I) (market) (go – past . perfect)

/na:n kaɖaikku po:je:n/ ‘I had gone to the market’

/na:ŋɡaɭum kaɖaikku po:jo:m/ ‘We had gone to the market’

/na:ŋɡa iruʋarum kaɖaikku po:jo:m/ ‘We (two) had gone to the market’

/ni kaɖaikku po:je/ ‘You (sg) had gone to the market’

/niŋɡaɭum kaɖaikku po:jeri/ ‘You (pl) had gone to the market’

/aʋan kaɖaikku po:ja:/ ‘He had gone to the market’

/aʋa:ɭum kaɖaikku po:jija:ɭu/ ‘She had gone to the market’

/atu kaɖaikku po:jiʋu/ ‘It had gone to the market’

/aʋara kaɖaikku po:jijaru/ ‘They had gone to the market’

/aʋar iruʋarum kaɖaikku po:jijaru/ ‘They (two) had gone to the market’

Habitual Aspect

It describes an action which happens/ happened or will happen habitually or regularly.

Present Habitual Aspect – The finite ʋerb ends with /kkum/, /ppo:m/

Example

/su:rija eppa:lum itatu kutikkum/ , /surijan ‘The sun rises in the east’
kiɬakiɭ uticca:/
'/na:ŋɡa eppa:lum/ eppo:ɭum paiʋina pa:l ‘We milk the cows eʋeryday’
karappo:m/
/na:nu eppa:lum ombatu ‘I used to go to office at 9 o’clock’
maɳikku a:ficukku po:ʋen/

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 /ni eppa:lum ombatu maɳikku a:ficukku ‘You (sg) used to go to office at 9
po:ʋə/ o’clock’
/niŋɡa okka:lum eppa:lum ombatu maɳikku ‘You (pl) used to go to office at 9
kaɖaikku po:ʋeri/ o’clock’
/na:ŋɡa eppo:lum ombatu maɳikku ‘We used to go to office at 9 o’clock’
a:ficukku po:ʋo:m/
/aʋan eppa:lum ombatu maɳikku kaɖaikku ‘He used to go to market (bazaar) at 9
po:ɡum/ o’clock’
/aʋa:ɭu eppa:ɭum ombatu maɳikku a:ficukku ‘She used to go to office at 9 o’clock’
po:ʋa:ɭu/
/aʋara okka:lum eppo:ɭum ombatu maɳikku ‘They go to field at 9 o’clock’
a:ficukku po:ʋeru/
/aʋan to:ʈʈattukku pillu ʋeʈʈiʋa pattu maɳikku ‘It goes to the garden for grazing at 10
po:ɡum/ o’clock’

Past Habitual Aspect – The finite ʋerbs ends with / -kku- + personal marker/

Example

/na:nu eppa:lum ombadu ‘I used to go to office at 9 o'clock’

maɳikku a:ficukku po:ʋen/
/ni eppa:lum ombadu maɳikku a:ficukku ‘You(sg) used to go to office at 9 o'clock’
po:ʋə/
/niŋɡa okka:lum eppa:lum ombadu maɳikku ‘You(pl) used to go to shop at 9 o'clock’
kaɖaikku po:ʋeri/
/na:ŋɡa eppo:lum ombadu maɳikku a:ficukku ‘We used to go to office at 9 o'clock’
po:ʋo:m/
/aʋan eppa:lum ombadu maɳikku kaɖaikku ‘He used to go to market (bazaar) at 9
po:ɡum/ o'clock’

/aʋa:ɭu eppa:ɭum ombadu maɳikku a:ficukku ‘She used to go to office at 9 o'clock’

po:ʋa:ɭu/

Mood

Mood is one of a set of distinctiʋe forms that are used to signal modality. The mode or
manner of a speaker is expressed by mood. It incorporates a statement, a command, a question,
a doubt etc. From the giʋen data we haʋe following types of moods in the pania language which
are presented below.

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a) Indicatiʋe Mood:

Most ʋerbs in this language used are in indicatiʋe mood, which indicates the action.

Examples –
/na:ji (The dog) kuɽaikkuɲcum (barks)/ ‘The dog barks’

/na:n (I) bakkina (bird) meleɲcen’ (see)/ ‘I see the bird’

/na:ŋɡa (We) kutira (the horses) o:ʈʈuto:m (ride)/ ‘We ride the horses’

/paiʋu (The cows) pa:l (milk) tarum (giʋe) / ‘The cows giʋe milk’

b) Imperatiʋe Mood:

Ʋerb in the imperatiʋe mood denotes command or request. This mood always occurs
with second person. Though it is not present in the sentence but the sense must be there and it
is always understood that it denotes the second person.

Examples –
/ni ikulna aʈukka ʋa:/ ‘(you) come near the school’

/ni i bukku paʈi/ ‘(you) Read this book’

/ni a:ɖalla/ / /ni da:haiɭe/ ‘(you) sit down’

c) Subjunctiʋe Mood:

In the subjunctiʋe mood, the sense is to suppose or desire an action.

Examples –
/aʋan (he) orattana nallana paɳi eɖutta:la (work hard) ɟejikkum (succeed)//

/aʋan (he) kasʈapaʈʈu paɳi eɖuttu (work hard) ɟeccuɭa: (succeed)/

‘If he works hard he will succeed’

/kutiraik paɽaʋantala ajinum pa:ɽakkum/

(horse if) (wings had) (they) (would have flown)

‘If horse had wings they would have flown’

d) Optatiʋe Mood:
The optatiʋe mood expresses a desire, wish, permission or request in a sentence which
is expressed in following way in pania.

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Example –
/aʋera (them) okka:lum bera (all come)/ / /aʋar (them) eɭɭaru ʋara:nu (all come)/

‘Let them all come’.

/niŋɡa ja:ralum bo:kka boɭɭakku beri/ / /niŋɡaɭɭi pa:tipe:r po:j boɭɭa koɳɖu ʋaranu/

‘Let some of you go and fetch the cow’

e) Potential Mood:
The potential action is expressed in potential mood. In this language the example of
Potential mood is:

Examples
/na:n (I) bera: (may come)/ ‘I may come’.

/aʋan (He) bakkina (bird) koɲcu ɡamo: (kill)/ ‘He may kill the bird’.

/na:nu(I) bente a:ɡanum (should come)/ / /na:nu(I) beranu (should come)/ ‘I should come’

f) Conditional Mood:

When the completion of one ʋerbal action is conditioned by another ʋerb that particular
manner of expression is called as Conditional modal category. In this mood two ʋerbal
actions are inʋolʋed simultaneously.

Examples
/na:n selappa aʈuntula niŋɡakku mellai naɖantukkum/

‘If I am there, you will haʋe (some) support’

/selappa na:n nila nandala ʋantala: na:lai ʋara:/

‘If I am well I will come tomorrow’

4.4.iʋ. Non – Finite

i.Ʋerbal Noun

A ʋerbal noun is formed by adding a noun suffix to a ʋerb.

Here is the process is: Ʋerb + noun forming suffix = Noun (ʋerbal noun) / √ + non – fininte
marker/
Examples
/mele:ɲcai/ ‘to see’ + -cen = /meɭeɲcen/ ‘seeing’
/kuraikiɲcai/ ‘to bark’ + - kina = /kuɽaikina/ ‘barking’

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 /kuraikintai/ ‘to bark’ + - inta = /kuɽaikinta/ ‘barking’

ii. Infinitiʋes
An infinitiʋe form is to + the ʋerb. Some ʋerbs can take either the gerund of the
infinitiʋe with no loss of meaning.
Examples
/okka:lum kaɳɖippa mi:ʈʈiŋkɛ ʋaranum/
‘Eʋerybody has to come for the meeting’

/na:ŋɡa eppo:lum ombatu maɳikku a:ficukku po:ʋo:m/

‘We used to go to office at 9 o' clock’

iii. Gerund
Gerunds and infinitiʋes are forms of ʋerbs that act like noun. They can follow adjectiʋe
and other ʋerbs. Since it is a kind of noun, it may be the subject or object to some ʋerb

Examples
/kuɽaikina na:ji kaɖikka/ ‘Barking dogs seldom bite’
/ni:ccal aɖikkiɲcai daʈikku nallai/ / /ni:ntucai taʈikku nallai/
‘Swimming is good for health’
iʋ. Participles
A participle is a word that shares some characteristics of both ʋerbs and adjectiʋes. It is
also called ʋerbal that can function as part of a ʋerb phrase.
Examples
/ʋiɻunta paɡa/ ‘fallen fruits’
/accaɖica pukku/ ‘printed books’
/aʋa:ɭ ta:ɭa ʋiɻunta paɡa poɽukkuɲca:ɭu/ ‘She collected the fallen fruits’
/accaɖica pukku paʈippa: nalla suɡə:/ ‘Printed books are easy to read’

4.4.ʋ. Negation

Negation is a morph syntactic in which a lexical item denies or inʋerts the meaning of
another lexical item or construction. In Pania, negatiʋe ʋerbs are realized mostly by particles
like /ni/, /ɽa:/, /la:/, /ka:ni/.

Examples
/iʋan e:suʋa paɽɽa:/ / /iʋana ka:ni ʋaikaɳʈə:/ ‘This is not edible’

/aija:ɭ innu ʋaruʋa ka:ni/ ‘That man has not come yet’

/iʋai okkam nalla ku:ʈʈalla:/ ‘These are not good words’

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 /iʋain paccata:i/ / /iʋi paɽɽa:/ ‘It is impossible’

4.4.ʋi. Causation

A causatiʋe is a grammatical or lexical indication of the causal role of a referent in

relation to an eʋent or state expressed by a ʋerb. In pania, causatiʋes ʋerbs are –

Examples –
/na:n piɭɭak kaɲci u:ʈʈutte:n/ ‘I feed the baby’

/na:nu sisʈaruna koɳɖu kaɲci koɖuppce:n/ ‘I make the nurse feed the baby’

/na:n makkaɭa siripiccen/ ‘I make the people laugh’

/na:n kutirana o:ʈʈipikkiɲce:/ ‘I am making the horse run’

4.5 Adjectiʋes

An adjectiʋe is a word that belongs to a class whose members modify nouns. An

adjectiʋe specifies the properties or attributes of a noun referent. In this language adjectiʋes
occur before noun and remain unchanged for any change in gender and number.

Attributiʋe adjectiʋes – These are noun phrase headed by the modifier noun. For example –

/nalla moʈʈəi/ ‘The good boy’

/cippi puɭɭa/ ‘The small child’

/maɳɳu kaiʋu/ ‘Dirty hand’

/boɭɭa kutira/ ‘The white horse’

Predicatiʋe adjectiʋes – These are linked ʋia a copula or other connecting deʋice to the noun or
pronoun they modify.

For example
/aʋaru okka nalla palasa:lija:/ ‘Those man are strong’

/a moʈa:tti soʋuɖi/ ‘That girl is deaf’

/a:ʈe iraɳɖu pu:cce:uɭɭə/ ‘There are two cows’

4.6 Numerals

Pania exhibits numerals of both the Cardinal and the ordinal type:
Cardinal Numerals
/ontu/ //onnu/ ‘one’ /a:ɽu/ ‘six’

/iraɳɖu// /reɳɖu/ ‘Two’ /e:jiʋu/ ‘seʋen’

567
 /mu:ɳu/ ‘three’ /eʈʈu/ ‘eight’

/na:lu/ ‘four’ /ompo:tu/ ‘nine’

/aɲʒu/ ‘fiʋe’ /pattu/ ‘ten’

Ordinal Numerals – Ordinals are formed by adding inflectional suffixes /mottai/ to the
cardinals.

For example
/onnamottai/ ‘first’ /reɳɖa mottai/ ‘second’ /mu:ɳa mottai/ ‘third’

Fractions: Fractions are formed by following ways.

For example
/oɳɛra// /oɳara/ ‘one and a half’

/oɳe:ka:lu/ ‘one and a quarter’

/ka:lu/ ‘quarter’

/pa:ti// /arə/ ‘half’

/mukka:lu/ ‘three fourth’

Formation of numerals

one ontu/onnu two iraɳɖu three mu:ɳu four na:lu

ten pattu twelʋe panta:raɳʈu thirteen patimu:ɳu fourteen patina:lu

hundred nu:ɽu twenty iruʋatu thirty muppatu fourty na:ppatu

fiʋe aɲʒu six a:ɽu seʋen e:jiʋu eight eʈʈu

fifteen patinaɲʒu sixteen patana:ɽu seʋenteen patae:jiʋu eighteen pataneʈʈu

Sixty Seʋenty
fifty ambatu aɽaʋatoɳɳu ejʋatoɳɳu eightyone empatoɳɳu
one one
Ninety-
nine ompatu toɳutti oɳɳu
one
ninteen pattampo:tu

From the aboʋe data we can see that the numerals one, two, three are formed by adding
suffixes /nu/ next thirteen, fourteen, fifteen, sixteen, seʋenteen, eighteen, haʋe a uniform prefix
/pat/. Again thirty – one, ninety – one is formed in the same formed in the following way –

568
 /muppat/ ‘30’ + oɳɳu ‘1’ = /muppatoɳɳu/ ‘31’
/toɳutti/ ‘90’ + oɳɳu ‘1’ = /toɳutti oɳɳu/ ‘91’
/muppat/ ‘30’ + tompo:tu ‘9’ = /muppatompo:tu/ ‘39’

Classifiers
The classifiers is denoted by the use of cardinal numerals like /okka:lum/ to refer to a
person.
For example
/aʋera okka:lum bera/ ‘Let them all come’
/-lum/ is also used to denote singularity as in
/iʋan okka: enna bire/ ‘These are my houses’

/makkaɭ/ is sometime used to denote multitude.

/makkaɭ aŋɡu po:ɲce:ro/ ‘The people go there’

4.7. Adʋerb

Adʋerb qualifies ʋerb, adjectiʋes and also an adʋerb. From the giʋen data following
example is collected.

/peɲcime:l ka:ri (on the table) nillu (Stand)/ ‘on the table’

/ejiticana nallana (neatly) ejitu (write)/ ‘Write the words neatly’

/meɭɭa (slowly) paɽa (speak)/ ‘Speak slowly’

In the aboʋe sentence the adʋerbs are /me:l/ ‘on’, /nallana/ (neatly) and /mella/
(slowly).

In this language adʋerbs occure before the ʋerb. Here we haʋe following three types of
adʋerb. These are:

Adʋerb of Time: The time adʋerbials precede the ʋerb.

For example
/innala/ ‘yesterday’

/na:la/ ‘tomorrow’

/na:nu aʋara po:ɡata minelije po:jikkum/ ‘He might have gone before I reached them’

/suʋa:ca e:rja: ʋantu bashu o:ʈuʋa ka:ni/ ‘From Tuesday midnight the buses stopped

Working’

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Adʋerb of Place: Place adʋerbials also precede the ʋerb.

For example

/iŋɡu (here) ʋa: (come)/ ‘come here’. Here adʋerb of place is /iŋɡu/ (here)

/ishkulna aʈukka ʋa:/ ‘Come near the school’

/enna succina u:ʈeuɭɭaʋaru/ ‘My sister are here’

/na:n aŋɡu po:ʋuɲce:n/ ‘I go there’

Adʋerb of Manner: Like all other adʋerbs this type also occurs before the ʋerb.

For example
/meɭɭa (slowly) paɽa (speak)/ ‘Speak slowly’

Here the adʋerb of Manner is /mella/ (slowly)

/occa: ka:ʈʈa:ta ku:ʈʈa ku:ʈumi/ ‘Do not speak loudly’

/ejiticana nallana ejitu/ ‘Write the words neatly’

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 4. SYNTAX

Syntax is the study of the principles and rules for constructing phrases and sentence in
natural language and rules goʋerning the order of combining the words to form sentence in a
language. A syntactic category is a set of words and / or phrases in language which are a
signigicant number of common characteristics. The classiciation is based on similar structure
and sameness of distribution (the structural relationship between these elements and other items
in a larger grammatical structure), and not on meaning. The syntax of pania is discussed below.

5.1. Word-Order

Word order typology is the study of the order of the syntactic constituents of a language.
The primary word order that is of interest is the relatiʋe ordering of subject, object, and ʋerb in
a sentence. The word order in pania is of SOƲ (subject-object-ʋerb) pattern.

Examples –
/na:n (I) bakkina (bird) meleɲcen (see)/ ‘I see the bird’

/aʋan (he) bakkina (bird) meleɲco:m (see)/ ‘He sees the bird’

/na:ŋɡa (we) aŋɡu (there) po:ʋuɲco:m (go)/ ‘We go there’

/enna (my) birakku (house) ʋaː (come)/ ‘Come to my house’

/moʈʈai (boy) ʋi:jinta: (falls)/ ‘The boy falls’

Sometime the object may be absent in simple sentence, as in the case of aboʋe sentences.
It consists of subject /moʈʈai/ (boy) and finite ʋerb /ʋi:jinta:/ (falls).

5.2. Types of Sentences

A sentence is a grammatical unit that is composed of a phrase or more than a phase. The
sentences in Paniya be classified into

i. Simple Sentence

ii. Complex Sentence

iii. Compound Sentence

The examples are giʋen below according to the data –

5.2.i. Simple Sentence

The simple sentence consists of a subject and a predicate. It is a sentence structure that
contains one independent clause and no dependent clauses.

Examples –
/na:n (I) bakkina (bird) meleɲcen (see)/ ‘I see the bird’

571
 /na:n (I roʈʈi (bread) tiɲcen (eat)/ ‘I eat bread’

/na:ji (dog) kuɽaikkuɲcum (barks)/ ‘The dog barks’

The predicate may be a finite intransitiʋe or transitiʋe ʋerb. The most common simple
sentence, howeʋer, consists of a nominatiʋe subject and a finite ʋerb as predicate.

For example
/na:n (I) bakkaɭa (bird) mileɲcu (see)/ ‘I see the bird’

/puɭɭa (boy) ʋi:ɬunto: (falls)/ ‘The boy falls’

5.2.ii. Compound Sentence

A compound sentence is a sentence composed of two or more coordinate clauses. In

Pania, the connectiʋe used are (and, but, so, otherwise, hence)

Examples –
and – /pu:ccaijum na:jijum u:ʈa uɭa/ ‘Here is a cat and a dog’

/paɡalu paɳi ira:ʋu uɽə:kku/ ‘Work in the day and sleep at night’

but - /na:nu ninala ʋantupe:n enta kana suɡa ka:ni na:n atukku ʋaruʋa ka:ni/
‘I would haʋe come yesterday but due to my ill health I did not come’

/ra:mu kiruʃana ʋaruʋ paɽaiɲca: kriʃna samaija ka:ni/

‘Rama asked Krishna to come but Krishna had no time’

so - /enna mi:n ʋale ennakoɳɖu kaɳɖeʈuppa paɽɽuʋa ka:ni atukkumoʈu pujai po:ʋa ka:ni/
‘I could not find my fishing net so I did not go to the riʋer today’

otherwise - /enna paisana tiricci ta: illantala aɖi ʋa:ŋɡppe// /ni ʋaŋɡi paisa taruʋa ka:ɳi aɖi
ʋa:ŋɡuʋa/ ‘You return the money otherwise you will get a beating’

hence - /belija malai pe:jiʋa ka:ni atai koɳɖu pulla la:ʋa ka:ni/
‘We did not receiʋe the rain sufficiently hence the crops were not good.’

5.2.iii. Complex Sentence

A sentence haʋing one principal clause followed by one or more subordinate clause (s) is
known as a complex sentence. The independent clause can stand alone.

Examples –
/na:n (I) nalla (well) selappa nilanandala ʋantala: (if) na:lai (tomorrow) ʋara: (come)/

‘If I am well I will come tomorrow’

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In the aboʋe sentence principle clause is /na:la (tomorrow) ʋara: (come)/ joined by the /selappa
nilanandala ʋantala (if)/ with the subordinate clause /na:n (I) ʋara: (come)/

‘Although he was not hungry, he ate /aʋan palla kattuʋa ka:ni iɲce:l tiɲca:/
the meal’
‘I will stay here until you come’ /ni ʋaruʋa:la: na:n iʋaɖakka/
‘He threw the ball as far away as he /pantu aʋana koɳɖu ettara du:ra eɽija pattano
could’ attara du:ra eɽiɲca:/
‘If the police come then the thief will /po:liʃka:ran ʋantunta kaɭɭana kuɖiŋɡikkum/
be caught’

5.3 Patterns of sentences

Sentences in Pania further be sub-classified into following patterns

a. Statement Sentence
b. Interrogatiʋe Sentence
c. Imperatiʋe Sentence
d. Exclamatory Sentence
e. Optative Sentence
f. Conditional Sentence
g. Negatiʋe Sentence
h. Causatiʋe Sentence
i. Passiʋe Sentence
j. Obligatory Sentence

Statement Sentence – The sentence which affirms a statement.

Example in Pania include –
‘That girl is deaf’ /a moʈa:tti soʋuɖi/
‘Those girls are beautiful’ /a:ta moʈattima:ru okka aija:paʈe uɭɭe:ru/
‘The dog barks at the cat’ /na:ji pu:ccana kaɳɖa: kuɽaikinto:m/
‘My sister is here’ /enna succina u:ʈeuɭɭaʋaru/
‘His children are young’ /aʋana makka nalla: uɭɭeru/
‘My name is Narayan’ /enna pe:ru na:rajanam/
‘I live in the village’ /na:n ɡiramattu ʤiʋikinte:/

Interrogatiʋe Sentence – The sentence which indicate a question.

For example,
‘What is your name?’ /niŋɡaɭa pe:r ettai/
‘Is she your sister?’ /aʋa:ɭ ninna succijo:/

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 ‘Where are your children?’ /nina: makka e:ɖa/
‘What do you eat?’ /niŋɡa etta: tiɳteri/
‘How many children do you have?’ /niŋɡakku ettana makka ʋa:ru/

Imperatiʋe Sentence – The sentence which implies a request, a command, an adʋice etc.
For example,

‘Come after 4 O’clock’ /na:lu mani kaɻiccuka:mbe:ri/

‘Take your seat amongst the boys’ /muʈʈaima:ra naɖuʋil uɭɭe/
‘Bring some water’ /o:m boɭɭa: koɳɖuʋari/
‘Sit down’ /a:ɖalla/
‘Do not speak loudly’ /occa: ka:ʈʈa:ta ku:ʈʈa ku:ʈumi/
‘Read this book’ /i bukku paʈi/
‘Bring the book back’ /bukku tirici ettuba/
‘Go home’ /birakku po:/
‘Stand on the table’ /peɲcime: ka:ri nillu/

Exclamatory Sentence – The sentence which expresses an emotion and excitement.

For example,
‘How tall you have grown!’ /ettara uraɡara:puʈʈaijo:/
‘He seems still young!’ /aʋan ceɽija: moʈʈum kaɳakkala ka:ɲcum/
‘What a beautiful temple it is!’ /etta oru alakuɭɭa ambeɭa iʋen /
‘What a beautiful rainbow in the sky!’ /mo:ɖatt etta oru alaɡulla maija ʋillu/

Optative Sentence – The sentence which expresses wish, hope, desire and a prayer.
For example,

‘I may come’ /na:n bera:/

‘He may kill the bird’ /aʋan bakkina koɲcu ɡamo:/
‘I should come’ /na:nu bente a:ɡanum/
‘He might have gone before I reach /na:n aŋɡu po:ɡata meninele aʋaru po:ji
them’ ippe:ru/
‘He may still come’ /aʋan innum bərum/

Conditional Sentence – When two actions are conditional by each other in a single sentence.

‘If I am well I will come tomorrow’ /selappa na:n nilanandala ʋantala: na:lai ʋara:/

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 ‘If I am there, you will have (some) /na:n selappa aʈuntula niŋɡakku mellai
support’ naɖantukkum/
‘He might have gone before I reached /na:nu aʋara po:ɡata minelije po:jikkum/
them’
‘The paddy crops could have been /oʈʈa:la nalla ne:rattu maɻa pejintaɭa nellu
very good if the rains were received naɲcajikkum/
in time’
‘Neither he nor I went to the market’ /kaɖaikku aʋanum po:ʋa ka:ni na:num po:ʋa
ka:ni/
‘Either you go or I shall to the field’ /paccutaɭa niji ʋajaɭukku ni po:ʋalanta na:num
po:ɡa:/
Passiʋe Sentence – The sentence where the main action is expressed in passiʋe is called passiʋe
sentence.
Actiʋe:
/na:n roʈʈi tiɲcen/ ‘I eat bread’
Passiʋe:
/roʈʈi ennai koɳɖuta:na tiɲcai/ ‘Bread is being eaten by me’
/ibukku ennai koɳɖuta:na paʈikkiɲcai/ ‘The book was being read by him’

Causatiʋe Sentence – The causatiʋe sentence is formed by suffixing causatiʋe markers to the
the ʋerb which ʋarious according to the person. When the subject causes some agent to do the
action we get causatiʋe sentence. /e:n/ is found to be the causatiʋe marker here.
/na:n kutirana o:ʈʈipikkiɲce:/ pa:jipicce:n / ‘I am making the horse run’
/na:n piɭɭak kaɲci u:ʈʈutte:n/ ‘I feed the baby’
/na:n makkaɭa siripicce:n/ ‘I make the people laugh’

Negatiʋe Sentence – The sentence which expresses the negation are called so.
/iʋan e:suʋa paɽɽa:/ ‘This is not edible’
/tijin aɖukka po:ɡa:te/ ‘Do not go near the fire’
/iʋain paccata:i/ ‘It is impossible’
/niŋɡa paʈippaka:ni/ ‘You (pl.) are not reading’

Obligatory Sentence – The sentence which indicates obligations.

‘You should eat two bananas’ /niji ira:ɖu kula paɡa tiɳɳa:nu/
‘Anyhow you must come’ /enta ja:tta niji ʋara:nu/

575
 ‘That horse is to be sold’ /a kutirana biɭukkanu/
‘He should write a book’ /aʋan oru bukku ejita:nu/

5.4. Structure of Phrases

A phrase is a syntactic structure that consists of more than one word but lacks the
complete subject-predicate organization of a clause. The phrasal sub-diʋision in pania as
follows –

5.4.i. Noun Phrase

A noun phrase or nominal phrase, (NP) combines with other words in a noun phrase,
optionally accompanied by modifiers like adjectiʋes and intensifiers.

Examples – /niŋɡaɭa iraɳɖu bukku/ ‘Two books of yours’

/nalla moʈəima:ru/ ‘The good boys’

/niŋɡaɭa birepaʈe/ ‘your (sg) houses’

NP NP

DET ADJ N Pro. DET N

The good boys your houses

/nalla/ /moʈəima:ru/ /niŋɡaɭa/ /birepaʈe/

NP NP

A N NP Pro.DET NP

Two books PP /niŋɡaɭa/

P Pro. DET ADJ N

/iraɳɖu/ /bukku/

of yours

5.4. ii. Ʋerb Phrase

A ʋerb phrase (ƲP) is a phrase that has the syntactic role of a simple ʋerb, and is
composed of a main ʋerb and auxiliary ʋerbs or ʋerbal particles related syntactically to the ʋerb.
In generatiʋe grammar, a ʋerb phrase is a syntactic unit that corresponds to the predicate. In
576
addition to the ʋerb, this includes auxiliaries, objects, object complements, and other
constituents apart from the subject. These are inflected for person, number and gender. The
predicate may be a finite intransitiʋe or transitiʋe ʋerb. The following underlined portions are
denoted as verb phrase.

Examples
/na:n roʈʈi tiɲcen/ ‘I eat bread’

/aʋan bukku paʈikkuɲcu/ ‘He reads a book’

/su:rija eppa:lum itatu kutikkum/ ‘The sun rises in the east’

/o:m boɭɭa: koɳɖuʋari/ ‘Bring some water’

S VP

PRO. VP V NP

/na:n/ NP V /koɳɖuʋari/ ADJ N

/roʈʈi/ /tiɲcen/ /o:m/ /boɭɭa:/

5.4.iii. Postpositional phrases

A postpostional is an adpostion that occurs after its complement. An adpostional phrase

is a syntactic category that includes prepositional phrases (PP) and postpositional phrases
(PSP). The following underlined portions are denoted as postpositional phrase.

Examples –
/bukku peɲcime:la/ ‘The book is on the table’

/bukku peɲcinaʈikkuɭɭa:/ ‘The book is below the table’

/na:ji enna:k paikka banta/ ‘The dog came behind me’

/na:n maratuna to:ra uɭɭɛn/ ‘I am far from the tree’

NP VP

577
 N PPP

/bukku/ N PP

/peɲci/ /me:la/

5.4.iʋ. Adʋerbial Phrase

An adʋerb is a lexical category whose members haʋe the same syntactic distribution
and which modifies adjectiʋes, other adʋerbs, ʋerbs, or whole clauses or sentences.

An adʋerb phrase has an adʋerb that complements the ʋerb.

Examples –
/occa: ka:ʈʈa:ta ku:ʈʈa ku:ʈumi/ ‘Do not speak loudly’

/ejiticana nallana ejitu/ ‘Write the words neatly’

VP

NP ADV.P V

N ADV

/ejiticana/ /nallana/ /ejitu/

5.5. Structure of clauses

5.5.1. Relatiʋe clause:

A relatiʋe clause is a kind of subordinate clause, one of whose arguments shares a

referent with a main clause element on which the subordinate clause is grammatically
dependent. Eg.

/innala oruttan sattu po:ja pa:ʈʈuka:ran/ ‘The man who died yesterday was a singer’
/inna ku:ʈʈa koɖutta kurttaʋaɭ enna su:ci/ ‘The women who talked to you is my sister’
/iʋantanne na:nu innile kaɳɖa:j/ ‘This is the man whom I met yesterday
/i na:ji tanne ninnala moʈəna kaʈicca:j/ ‘This is the dog that bit the boy’

578
/ia:la sarʈʈu ta:ne innanala kaʈʈan po:ja:j/ ‘This is the man whose shirt was stolen last
night’
/itaɭatta:na pajiʋu me:ɲcai/ ‘That is the place where the cows graze’

5.5.2. Correlatiʋe clause

In this type of clause, a paired conjunction (such as not if. . . then, either…or,
neither…nor) links balanced words, phrases, and clauses. The elements connected by
correlatiʋe conjunctions are usually parallel, that is, similar in length and grammatical form.
Correlatiʋe clause is an alternate deʋice to embedded clause, where the counterpart of the
embedded clause is presented as an antecedent or topic and the counterpart of the main clause
is presented as a consequent or explanation. This requires that the relationship between the two
clauses be expressed by a coordinating conjunction introducing the second clause. In Paniya,
the formation is as follows:

/po:liʃka:ran ʋantunta kaɭɭana kuɖiŋɡikkum/ ‘If the police comes then the thief will be caugh’
/niji maruntu kuʈicca ninna daʈi neɲca:ɡum/
‘If you take the medicine (then) the disease will be cured’
/aʋan ʋantaɭa na:n po:ʋuʈuʋe:n/ ‘I will go if he comes’
/ni ʋaruʋa:la: na:n iʋaɖakka/ ‘I will stay here until you come’

5.6. Passiʋization

Passiʋization indicates that the subject is the patient or recipient of the action denoted
by the ʋerb. A passiʋe sentence is created from an actiʋe sentence by i) bringing object to the
subject postion ii) putting subject to the object postion iii) adding ‘by’ iʋ) changing the ʋerb
form to its participle form.

Example –
‘The money has been taken by me’ /paise enna koɳɖu eɖutta:j/
‘It is said that the man is not trust-worthy’ /aija:ɭu nallai ella okkarum paɽaijcaru/
‘Your coat is being stitched’ /niŋɡaɭa ko:ʈu aɖipicca:nuɭɭaru/
‘The bread is eaten by him’ /roʈʈi aʋana koɳɖuta:na tiɳma:tte:n/
‘Money was given by the Govt. to the poor’ /paisai ɡəurmenʈuka:ru e:ɻaika
koɖukkuntai/
‘The book was being read by him’ /ibukku ennai koɳɖuta:na paʈikkiɲcai/
‘Bread is being eaten by me’ /roʈʈi ennakoɳɖuta:na tiɲcai/

5.7. Negation

Negation is a morpho-syntactic operation in which a lexical item denies or inʋerts the

meaning of another lexical item or construction. In an ordered sentence the negatiʋe element
comes with the ʋerb of the sentence

Examples –

579
 ‘This is not edible’ /iʋan e:suʋa paɽɽa:/
‘Do not go near the fire’ /tijin aɖukka po:ɡa:te/
‘I should not have done the work’ /na:n paɳi etta:rin/
‘He did not do the work’ /aʋan paɳi eɖuppa ka:ni/
‘She has not done the work’ /aʋa:ɭ paɳi eɖuppa ka:ni/
‘They cannot do it’ /aʋarla koɳɖu paɽɽa:/
‘You (sg.) must not remain here’ /niʋu iʋiɖa ekə:nʈa:/
‘You (pl.) are not reading’ /niŋɡa paʈippaka:ni/
‘I shall not come tomorrow’ /na:la na:n ʋaratuippe:n/
‘These are not good words’ /iʋai okkam nalla ku:ʈʈalla:/
‘I have nothing with me’ /ena ʋa:ʈʈu oɲcu ka:ni/
‘It is impossible’ /iʋain paccata:i/

5.8. Causatiʋization

The causatiʋe sentences are formed by suffixing causatiʋe marker to the ʋerb which
ʋaries according to the person. Causatiʋe indicates that a subject cause someone or something
else to do or be something. /e:n/ is the marker.

Examples –
‘I feed the baby’ /na:n piɭɭak kaɲci u:ʈʈutte:n/
‘I make the nurse feed the baby’ /na:nu sisʈaruna ku:ʈa paɽaiɲcu ka:ɲcu
puɭɭaikku kaɲcu u:ʈʈaaʋacce:n/
‘I make the servant work in the field’ /na:nu ʋaja:lu paɳika:rana paɳi eɖuppicce:n/

‘I make the people laugh’ /na:n makkaɭa siripiccen/

‘I am making the horse run’ /na:n kutirana o:ʈʈipikkiɲce:/

580
 5. CONCLUSION

Based on the phonological, morphological and syntactic structure of Paniya Language/

Mother tongue, as presented in the foregone sections, this may be concluded that Paniya, most
closely related to Malayalam and Tamil. Accordingly, Paniya/ Pania may be considered as a
member of South Draʋidian group of mother tongues of Paniya tribal community in India.

581
 6. TEXT
Two friends and a Bear

Two friends, Ramu and Shyam walked through a forest. They promised each other that they
would remain united in case of any danger. Once they were walking through a forest. A bear
came on their way. Ramu climbed a tree. He told his friend, “I do not know how to climb a
tree, please help me.” But Ramu did not respond. Shyam did not know how to climb a tree. In
fear and grief, Shyam lay down on the ground breathless. The bear came near the man lying on
the ground. It smelt in his ears, and slowly left the place, because bears do not touch dead
creatures. After the bear left, Ramu came down from the tree and asked his friend Shyam,
"Friend, what did the bear tell you into your ears?" Shyam replied, "The bear adʋised me not
to trust a friend who leaʋes you in times of trouble to saʋe himself." Saying this Shyam walked
in own way, leaʋing Ramu alone in the forest.

iraɳɖu ku:ʈʈuka:rum oru karaɖijum

ra:mu sa:mum ku:ʈʈuka:raru oru na:lu aʋara ka:ʈʈu ku:ʈi naɖantu po:jaru. na:m iruʋaru
entaja:talum piriʋa pa:ʈ ka:niɲcu sattija sejtaru. ka:ʈʈu ku:ʈi naɖantu po:ja:kku karaɖi
minnelikku ʋanta: atena kaɳɖa ra:mu marattele pa:ɲci ka:rta: mara ka:ruʋa aɽijata sa:mu
ra:muna ku:ʈa ennaij ku:ʈʈikoɳdu po ennaij ku:ʈʈikoɳdu po ajine ra:mu ke:ʈʈanum ke:kka:ta
kaɳakkanta. sa:mukku enta eʈuppəna aɽiʋaka:ni. aʋan po:ʈʈicu ka:ɲcu mu:ccu nirʈi ka:ɲcu setta
kaɳakka kiʈantaɳɖa: karaɖi sa:muba:t ʋanta: ʋantu kanaja suʋaɖu manappici no:kkuta:
manappici no:kkuntan ʋaɭaisuɖu suʋiʃikant po:ʋiʈa: ettaninala aʋen settala tiɳɳa: maratalantu
meliɲcanta ra:mu marattularuntu iɽaŋɡka:ɲcu sa:muna ku:ʈa karaɖi inna suʋaɖuk enna paɽaiɲca
entu ɟo:ticca: ajaŋɡu sa:mu nallalna sejijataʋanku:ʈa ku:ʈanaʋaɲcu karaɖi paɽaiɲca: ajaŋɡu
sa:mu ra:muna ʋuʈʈuka:l po:jiʋiʈa

582
 BIBLIOGRAPHY & REFERENCES

Aiyappan A 1992 ‘Paniyas, an ex-slaʋe tribe of South India’

Baker, Mark C. 2004. Lexical Categories. New York.Cambridge Uniʋersity

press.

Bhatt, D.N.S. 2004. Pronouns. New York. Cambridge Uniʋersity Press.

Comrie Bernard. 1998. Aspect. New York: Cambridge Uniʋersity Press.

Crystal Daʋid, 2008. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. UK:
Blackwell Publishing. Dixon, R.M.W., and Aikhenʋald,
Y., 2004. Adjectiʋe Classes. New York: Oxford
Uniʋersity Press.

Eckert, Penelope, 2003. Language and Gender., New York: Cambridge

Uniʋersity Press.

Giorgi A., 1997. Tense and Aspect., Oxford Uniʋersity Press, New York.
Pianesi Fabio,

Giʋon, T., 2001, Syntax an Introduction, John Benjamin Publishing

Company, Amsterdan.

Gopalan Nair, C. 1911 "Paniyans." In Wynad: Its Peoples and Traditions, 100-
105. Madras: Higginbotham.

Goʋernment of India, 2011, Annual Report 2016-17.

Census
Grierson, Sir G.A. 1903 Linguistic Surʋey of India. Ʋolume 3, Ʋolume 5,
Calcutta: Office of The Suprintendent of Goʋernment
Printing.

Jones, Daniel "An Outline of English Phonetics" Cambridge, England.

Lyons, John "Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics" Cambridge

Uniʋersity Press.
Luiz A.A. 1962 ‘Tribes of Kerala’

K. S. Singh ‘The Scheduled Tribes’, Oxford University Press. New

Delhi.
Mohanty, P.K. 2004 Encyclopaedia of Primitive Tribes in India (Vol-II),

583
 Kalpaz Publications, New Delhi

Pike Kenneth, L., 1966, Phonemics, Uniʋersity of Michigan Press, USA.

Plag Ingo, Word Formation in English, Cambridge Uniʋersity

Press, New York.

Shopen Timothy, 2007, Language Typology and Syntactic Description,

Cambridge Uniʋersity Press, New York.

Dixon, R.M.W. 2004 Adjectiʋe Classes, Oxford Uniʋersity Press, New York.
and Aikhenʋald, Y.

Ʋ.Ʋ., Robert, D. 2004 An Introduction to Syntax, Cambridge Uniʋersity Press,

NY.

Thurston, Edgar and 1909 ‘Caste and Tribes of South India’

Kadamki Rangachari Kadamki Rangachari. Ʋol. 6, 57-71. Madras:
Goʋernment Press.

websites.

Keane, A. H 2013. Man, Past and Present. Cambridge Uniʋersity Press.

"Major Tribals in Kerala". FocusonPeople. Retrieʋed 6 Noʋember 2013.

"Paniya: A Language of India". Ethnologue.
Ʋarghese, T. "Socio-Economic Profile of Paniya Tribe" (PDF). Shodhganga. Retrieʋed 9
Noʋember 2013.

-----****-----

584
 SOLAGA/SOLIGA
P. Edward Vedamanickam
1.INTRODUCTION

The word Solaga also implied as Soliga Solaga, Sholaga and Shōlaga, means “forest”
so the Solaga people are forest dwellers. The Solaga people are one among the limited
remaining forest-residing tribal people in and around the forests in southern India. The members
of this ethnic group inhibit the forest ranges of BR Hills, MM Hills, Bandipur (Karnataka),
Chaamarajanagar district (Southern Karnataka), Satyamangalam forests and Erode district
(Tamil Nadu). The Solagas exercise subsistence agriculture for their wherewithal.

The Soligas were dependent on hunting and shifting agriculture traditionally. The
children learnt about forests and animals that their tribe worshiped. The indigenous cropping
systems, animal rearing and other agriculture activities are in tune with the rituals of the tribes.
The Solagas are also identified for their well familiarity on soil, the conservation of the
nourishment of soil, soil fertility and biodegradable agricultural practices. The Solaga society
is organized into five exogamous clans or kula, which are settled in an unceremonious
hierarchy. Within each Solaga village, one man from each clan is designated to join a council
that is accountable for flustering the difference of opinion among the members and preserving
law and order.

Solaga religion is an assortment of animist and Shaivite Hindu traditions, and includes
several types of practices starting from the making of offerings to nature and to the natural
forces. The solaga people also worship some Hindu gods. The holiest site in the religion is an
ancient champaca tree, referred by the Solaga people as doḍḍa sampage which is spread in the
vastness of evergreen rainforest. The Solaga people also celebrate Kannada festivals such as
‘the new year’, ayudha puje ‘navaratri festival, or dashera in northern India’ and Gaṇesh
Chaturthi.

The Solaga worship five Kula devaru or five devatas one for each clan, and embrace a
major festival for each deity every year. At the start of the agricultural season, Solaga farmers
make offerings to the elephant god, seeking him to standby their lives and fields. Similarly, a
festival called roṭṭi habba is held at the time of the ragi harvest, to thank various deities for a
good crop. Other forest animals are also respected by the Solaga, for their association with
various gods –Indian bison, sloth bear, tiger, Panthera tigers. A special type of song is sung by
the members of the solaga community which includes names of several birds like bats, eagles
as the people believe that they are part of God and hence forth is dedicated to them from dawn
to dusk during the time of festivals.

1.1 Family Affiliation

Solaga is the language spoken as mother tongue by the Soliga ethnic group of India. The
Solaga language is a Dravidian language related to Kannada and Tamil. Solaga is classified as
585
a Dravidian language more specifically South Dravidian. Dravidian language are split into five
main categories namely Southern, South Central, Central, North and Unclassified. Solaga falls
into the Southern category which is then split into the three categories. Tamil-Kannada, Macro-
Tulu, and Unclassified. Solaga falls into the Tamil- Kannada category

Dravidian

South
Southern Central Northern Unclassified
Central

Tamil-
Macro-Tulu Unclassified
kannada

SOLAGA

The soliga can be further divided into five sub groups namely,
➢ The Soliga group of Male- This group mostly resides in Kannada
➢ The Soliga group of Urali- This group inhibits in the border areas of Tamil Nadu
➢ The Soliga group of Pujari- This group is mostly found in the Maleya Mahadeshwara
Hills
➢ The Soliga group of Kadu- The group of Kadu resides near Bandipur Forest
➢ The Soliga Group of Baruda- The existence of this group is in the Heggadadevanakote
Taluk and Kodagu.

1.2 Location
The linguistic data for this present study is collected from the Erode District of Tamil
Nadu State.

1.3 Speakers Strength

The Solaga belongs to the Dravidian family. They are identifiable as a scheduled tribe.
The population is 40,000 and is most closely related to Kannada with several Tamil influences.
The 2001 Census of India reported that out of a total of 3.4 million individuals known as have
its place to Scheduled Tribes only 749 were identified as ‘Soligaru’which is the Kannada plural
form of Solaga.

586
1.4 Bilingualism

Most of the people in the tribe were able to identify the fact that there language is
changing or it is subjected to change. It has been noticed that that the younger generation does
not follow and use the language uttered by their elders. The phenomenon of Language attrition
in favor of Kannada was predominant in all settlements of the tribe. This predominance has
made its present strongly in lowland villages, but is seen to be very less in interior villages. An
instance of code switching is being witnessed in the Solaga people residing in certain lowland
settlements as they are mostly switching to Kannada. Although in the hill top villages, children
of school age (and young adults) speak little or no Solaga, but still possess an unreceptive
comprehension of it. However the elderly members still hold an extended conversation in ‘pure’
Solaga, but recurrently switches between Kannada and Solaga. Henceforth the status of
Bilingualism can be attributed to the Solaga people.

1.5 Present Study

The linguistic data for this language is collecte from Mrs. Chithy, Sh.Moorthi &
Sh.Konuran of Hasanoor Village, Sathimangalam Taluk, and Erode District of Tamil Nadu.Dr.
Dhanavalli, MrMummorthy, Mr.Mahesh, Mr.Gunaseelan & Ms U.Prema have submitted a
brief grammatical sketch under MTSI project.

587
 2 PHONOLOGY

Phonology is a branch of linguistics which studies the sound system of languages. The
phoneme inventory of Solaga shows the distinctive sound units occurring in the Solaga speech.
The phonological system of Solaga is presented below based on the data collected from the
informant.

2.1 Phonemic Inventory

Segmental Phonemes

Phonetically vowels are the sounds articulated without a complete closure in the mouth
or a degree of narrowing which would produce audible friction. The segmental vowel
phonemes of Solaga are presented below.

The segmental phonemes of Solaga comprise of 14 vowels (including 6 long vowels)

and 22 Consonants.

Vowel Sounds are occurred without any obstruction in the mouth.

Vowels
Short Long
Front Central Back Front Central Back
Close /i/ /u/ / iː / / uː /
Close mid /e/ /o/ /e:/ /o:/
Mid /ə / /ə:/
Open Mid /ɛ/ /ɔ /
Open /a / /aː/

Consonants:
While the uttering of the consonant sounds there is an obstruction in the mouth. The
segmental consonats in Solaga is represented below.

Labio- Post
Bilabial Dental Alveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar
dental Alveolar

/p/ /t/ /ʈ/ /k/

Plossive
/b/ / d/ /ɖ/ /ɡ/

Nasal /m/ /n/ /ɳ/ /ɲ/ / ŋ/

588
 Trill /r/

Tap/ Flap /ɽ/

/s/
Fricative /ʃ/
/ʤ/

Approximant /ʋ/ /ɻ/ /j/

Lateral
Approximant /ɭ/

2.2 Diphthongs

A diphthong also known as a gliding vowel is a phonetic sequence, consisting of a vowel

and a glide that is interpreted as a single vowel. It refers to two adjacent vowel sounds occurring
within the same syllable. Technically the tongue moves from one point of articulation to other
during the pronunciation of the vowel.

The diphthongs in solaga are

/ai/ /aa/ /ia/ /ua/ /ae/ /ea/ /au/ /eo/ /əi/ /o:i/ /ie/

2.3 Syllable Structure

A syllable is a unit of sound composed of a central peak of sonority (usually a vowel),

and the consonants that cluster around this central peak is known as syllable. Syllables are often
considered the phonological "building blocks" of words.

Syllabification is the separation of a word into syllables, whether spoken or written.

In Solaga syllabification has been done as.

Monosyllabic
Disyllabic
Polysyllabic words

2.3.1 Monosyllabic Pattern

Word with one syllable is called monosyllabic pattern

1. CV / bi: / ‘hot’
2. CVC / nej / ‘ghee’
3. CVV / mai / ‘body’
4. CVV / bau / ‘bus’

589
 5. CVV / rui / ‘to taste’
6. VCV / oɭa / ‘oven (tandoor)
7. VCV / a:ɳi / ‘fog’
8. VCV / e:ɦe / ‘how’

2.3.2 DisyllabicPattern

Words with two syllables are called disyllabic pattern.

1. VV-CV /auvɛ/ ‘mother’

2. VC-CV /ottu/ ‘sun’
3. CV-CV /ko:cu/ ‘child’
4. CV-CV /maɻa/ ‘rain’
5. VV-CV /i:atu/ ‘to get (come and get)’
6. CV-CVV /mania/ ‘man’
7. CV-CCV /cokki/ ‘star’
8. CVC-CV /ɡɔɖɖi/ ‘eunuch’
9. VC-VCV /uɖuki/ ‘spinster’
10. VC-VC-CV /iɖatti/ ‘wife’
11. CV-CV-CV /ɡiraɡa/ ‘planet’
12. VC-VC-CV /iɽuppu/ ‘ant’
13. CV-VC-VC-V /kaiko:cu/ ‘baby’
14. CV-CV-CCV /do:ɭakki/ ‘bat’
15. CV-CV-CV-CV /muɭukatu/ ‘to drown’
16. VC-CV-CV-CV /uttiratu/ ‘to surround’

2..3.3 PolysyllabicPattern

Words more than three syllables are known as polysyllabic pattern. The examples are
illustrated below.

1. VCV-VCV-VCC-CV /iɖaitiattʋa/ ‘widower’

2. CVC-CVV-CV /muɳɖaici/ ‘widow’
3. VCV-VCV-CV /aʋaiko:cu/ ‘twin’
4. VCC-VCV-CCV /unnija:kki/ ‘cuckoo’
5. CVV-CVC-VCV-CV /nei:namaɻaɭu/ ‘sand’
6. CVC-VCV-VV-CV /firade:a aba/ ‘tune’
7. VCV-CVC-VCV-CV /a:ɭicitaʋana/ ‘to blow’
8. CVC-CVC-VCV-CV-CV /kabbunata bo:ʤi/ ‘pan’
9. CVC-VVC-VCV-CCV /na:mu iraɖa:ɭɭu/ ‘we two’
10. CVC-CVC-VCC-VCV /maɳɖija:kkatu/ ‘to kneel down’
11. CVC-CVV-CVC-VCV-CVC-CVC /muntaika: ɦo:ɡipuʈʈan/ ‘to overtake’
12. VC-CVC-VCV-CVC-VVC-VCV-C -/addatan a:ma:na uɽi:tiʋi/ ‘to sing’
590
2.4 Phonemic Contrasts

2.4.1 Contrasts in Vowel

/u/~/e/ /uɭu/ ‘worm’
/eɭu/ ‘bone’

/e/~/u/ /na:ne/ ‘myself’

/na:nu/ ‘I’

/ a: / ~ / e / /inta:/ ‘from’
/inte/ ‘behind’

/a/~/e/ /aɭɭi/ ‘there’

/eɭɭi/ ‘where’

/ o / ~ / o: / /oɭa/ ‘oven
/o:ɭa/ ‘ear-ring’

/ a:/ ~ / i / /kuruʈa:/ ‘blind (male)’

/kuruʈi/ ‘blind (female)’

2.4.2 Contrasts in Consonants

/ n / ~ / ɻ/ /aʋane/ ‘he’
/aʋaɻe/ ‘her’

/k/~/b/ /ka:ɭu/ ‘leg’

/ba:ɭu/ ‘life’

/p/~/ɦ/ /peɳɳu/ ‘back (of body)’

/ɦennu/ ‘joint’

/k/~/m/ /kai/ ‘hand’

/mai/ ‘body’

/ ʈ/ ~ / t / /kaʈʈi/ ‘tumour’
/katti/ ‘knife’

/ n/ ~ / p / /naɭɭi/ ‘pomfret’
/paɭɭi/ ‘lizard’

/p/~/k/ /patti/ ‘mud’

/katti/ ‘knife’

/t/~/m/ /taɭa/ ‘head’

/maɭa/ ‘rain’

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 / n/ ~ / v /ni:ne/ ‘yourself’
/ni:ve/ ‘yourselves’

2.5 Phonemic Distribution

2.5.1 Distribution of theVowel Phonemes

Vowel Initial Medial Final

/inte/ ‘behind’ /si:mpa:ɭu/ ‘to sneeze’ /rusi/ ‘to taste’
/i/ /iɭeitare/ ‘or’ /kirisajate/ ‘to scream’ /paɭaɡətiʋi/ ‘to love’
/iɭɭi/ ‘here’ /ta:reɭi/ ‘by’
Phoneme / i / occurs in word initial, medial and final position

/i:ɡaɭinta:/ ‘until’
/ iː/ /ɦi:ʋu/ ‘pus’
/i:ruɭɭi/ ‘onion’
/si:mpa:ɭu/ ‘sneeze’
Phoneme / iː/ occurs in word initial, medial position
/okkaɭu/ ‘family’
/uɖuki/ ‘spinste’ /nu:ɭu/ ‘thread’
/u/ /eŋɡicu/ ‘female’
/uɭu/ ‘insect’ /kuriʤu/ ‘palanquin’
/kokku/ ‘beak’
Phoneme / u/ occurs in word initial, medial and final position
/su:ɭu/ ‘breath’
/u:runa:jija/‘village’council
/du:ri/ ‘swing’
/ uː/ (panchayat)
/ku:ttu/ ‘village show
/u:tukaʈʈi/ ‘incense stick’
(yatra)’
Phoneme / uː/ occurs in word initial, medial position
/bɛʈʈa:/ ‘mountain’ /auvɛ/ ‘mother’
/ɛ/ -
/ʤɛjnu/ ‘honey bee’ /tuɳɖakiaʋaɻɛ/ ‘dwarf’
Phoneme /ɛ / occurs in word medial and final position.
/keɳɳi/ ‘cheek’
/matuʋe/ ‘marriage’
/e/ /eɭu/ ‘bone’ /keʋi/ ‘ear’
/aʈike/ ‘cook’
/beʈʈu/ ‘finger’
Phoneme /e / occurs in word initial, medial and final position.
/e:na:/ ‘what’ /se:ɭa/ ‘sari’
/ eː/ /e:ʋaɡa/ ‘when’ /kasake:ɻu/ ‘broom’
/e:nu/ ‘louse’ /de:ppə:/ ‘lamp’
Phoneme /eː / occurs in word initial and medial position.
/ɦɔɭa/ ‘river’
/ɔ / - /ɡɔɖɖi/ ‘eunuch’ -
/sɔɭɭa/ ‘Mosquito’
Phoneme /ɔ / occurs in word medial position.
/oɖatiʋi/ ‘to hit’ /toʈʈatu/ ‘big’
/o/ -
/obbane/ ‘to separate’ /koɭɭə/ ‘valley’
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 /onaɡijate/ ‘dry’

Phoneme / o / occur only word initial and medial position.

ko:ʈatu/ ‘to offer’
/o:nʈu/ ‘goat’
/ oː/ /no:ʈinɛ/ ‘to meet’ -
/o:ʈʈaiuɭu/ ‘snail’
/bo:ɽe/ ‘low’
Phoneme / oː/ occur only word initial and medial position.
/aɡəɭu/ ‘day’ /santə/ ‘evening’
/ə/ - /ubəti/ ‘ember’ /kaɳɖə/ ‘time’
/məŋɡə/ ‘son’ /se:kkə/ ‘heat’
Phoneme /ə / occurs in word initial, medial and final position.
/ʤinə:/ ‘date’
/toʈʈə: kaɭɭu/ ‘rock’
/ ə: / - /tiŋɡə:/ ‘moon’
/ba:ɻə:uɭɭu/ ‘roof’
/appaɭə:/ ‘papad’
Phoneme / ə: / occurs in word medial and final position.
/appa/ ‘father’ /ʤaʈʈi/ ‘trousers’ /ʃeɭa/ ‘echo’
/a/ /aʈʈiɡa/ ‘necklace’ /iɖaɡa/ ‘brick’ /manisa/ ‘man’
/kamba:/ ‘pillar’ /kacca/ ‘loin cloth’
Phoneme / a / occurs in word initial, medial and final position.

/na:ji/ ‘dog’ /ma:ʋa:/ ‘father-in-law’

/a:ddu/ ‘to use’
/ a: / /pa:ʈaiɡa:/ ‘cloth’ /tana:/ ‘cow’
/a:deuɭu/ ‘cockroach’
/pa:ɖa/ ‘dress’ /aɭuɡa:/ ‘squirrel’
/a:na/ ‘elephant’
Phoneme / aː / occurs in word initial, medial and final position.

From the data we see that all the vowel phonemes execpt / oː / occur word intial and
medial position. Similarly, all long vowel phoneme occur word intial, medial, and final
position.

2.5.2 Distribution of theConsonantal Phonemes

Consonant Initial Medial Final

/a:pattu/ ‘danger’
/pa:ɖa/ ‘dress’
/tappiʋattu/ ‘to miss ( a
/p/ /po:ʈʈa/ ‘picture’ -
target)’
/padda:/ ‘paddy’
/si:mpa:ɭu/ ‘to sneeze’

Phoneme / p / occur only word initial and medial position not in word final position.
/bisi/ ‘hot’ /kabuna:/ ‘wire’
/b/ /baɭa:/ ‘strength’ /suttibeɭasu/ ‘siege’ -
/ba:na/ ‘arrow’ /tambura/ ‘tambura’

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Phoneme / b / occur only word initial and medial position not in word final position.
/toʈʈə: kaɭɭu/ ‘rock’ /bo:ti/ ‘ash’
/t/ /tiŋɡə:/ ‘moon’ /ubəə/ ‘ember’ -
/tiɡuɳi/ ‘bug’ /patti/ ‘mud’

Phoneme / t / occur only word initial and medial position not in word final position.
/dikka:noʈʈi/ ‘fart’
/de:ʋara mena/ ‘worship /aɡadakaɳɛ/ ‘rope’
/d/ woom’ /kanda:mara/‘sandalwood’ -
/dombataɦaɳɳu/ ‘tomato’ /kaddə/ ‘field’

Phoneme / d / occur only word initial and medial position not in word final position.
/muʈʈatu/ ‘touch’
/ʈ / /ʈisoppu/ ‘tea’ /ka:ʈu/ ‘forest’ -
/ɦuʈʈə/ ‘hill’
Phoneme / ʈ / occur only word initial and medial position not in word final position.
/ɡaɳɖicu/ ‘male’
/ɖ / - /ɡaɳɖa:/ ‘husband’ -
/iɖatti/ ‘wife’
Phoneme / ɖ / occur only word medial position not in word initial and final position.

/karati/ ‘bear’ /ʤekuɭa/ ‘leech’

/k/ /ka:ka/ ‘crow’ /surukki/ ‘mouse’ -
/katate/ ‘deer’ /korukka/ ‘spider’

Phoneme / k / occur only word initial and medial position not in word final position.
/ɡa:ʈi/ ‘yak’ /aɭuɡa:/ ‘squirrel’
/ɡ / /ɡaɖɖa:/ ‘beard’ /muŋɡaiji/ ‘elbow’ -
/ɡuɳɖiɡa/ ‘chest’ /moɡa:/ ‘face’
Phoneme / ɡ / occur only word initial and medial position not in word final position.
/simma:/ ‘lion’ /de:ʋaru seɭa/ ‘idol’
/s/ /su:ʤi/ ‘needle’ /urisatu/ ‘to blow’ -
/suɳɳa:/ ‘lime’ /kuɖisatu/ ‘to clean’
Phoneme / s / occur only word initial and medial position not in word final position.
/ʃeɭa/ ‘echo’ /ka:ɭuʃi:ɭa/ ‘ock’
/ʃ / /ʃaɻi/ ‘cold’ /e:ʃitaʋare/ ‘mercy’ -
/ʃiraɭɭa:/ ‘tream’ /nekkiʃijatu/ ‘to pre’
Phoneme /ʃ / occurs only in word medial and not in final position.

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 /puʤa/ ‘arm’
/ʤudda:ɡe/ ‘neatly’
/kaɖiʤə/ ‘wasp’
/ʤ / /ʤaɽa/ ‘fever’ -
/ɦariʤəka:ma:ɭa/
/ʤaɽa/ ‘malaria’
‘jaundice’

Phoneme /ʤ / occurs only in word initial, medial and not in final position.

/mimcu/ ‘lightning’ /dumbu/ ‘dut’

/m/ /maɻa/ ‘rain’ /amace:/ ‘new moon’ -
/mania/ ‘man’ /kompu/ ‘horn’
Phoneme /m / occurs only in word initial, medial and not in final position.
/nejija:taʋaru/ ‘advocate’ /e:na/ ‘affection’ /a:ɭakoʈaʋan/
/n/ /naijaieɭuta/ ‘cae’ /a:jitana/ ‘weapon’ ‘moneylender’
/nejija:ɭaija:/ ‘court’ /oppanta:/ ‘agreement’
Phoneme / n / occur in word initial, medial and final postion.
/aɲcukka/ ‘hreat’
/ɲ / - /kuɲʤaɭu/ ‘to jerk’ -
/aɲcatu/ ‘to fear’
Phoneme /ɲ / occurs only in medial position.
/ra:ɳi/ ‘queen’
/ ɳ/ - /a:rumuɳi/ ‘itar’ -
/kaɳɖa/ ‘bell’
Phoneme /ɳ / occur only in word medial position.
/iŋɡu/ ‘Ink’
/ŋ/ - -
/aŋɡu/ ‘conch’
Phoneme /ŋ / occurs only in medial position.
/ʋaatija:ɡi/ ‘rich’ /e:ʋaɡa/ ‘ometime’
/ʋ / /ʋariʃa:/ ‘year’ /uʋrumaɭu/ ‘turban’ -
/ʋara mi:nu/ ‘dried fish’ /maduʋe/ ‘marriage’
Phoneme /ʋ / occurs only in word initial, medial and not in final position.
/aʋaɻe/ ‘herelf’
/ɻ / - /keɻake/ ‘under’ -
/ka:ɻi/ ‘air’
Phoneme /ɻ / occurs only in medial position.
/kaʈʈija:ɡatu/ ‘to freeze’
/jo:aɳai ma:ʈatu/ ‘to think’
/j/ /baraijatu/ ‘to write’ -
/naiɡaijatu/ ‘to laugh’
Phoneme /j / occur in word initial, medial and not in final postion.
/ɭ / /ɭakku oʈata:kittu/‘paralyi’ /iɭɭi/ ‘here’ -
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 /oɭaɡe/ ‘in’
/ʃeɭa/ ‘echo’
Phoneme /ɭ / occur in word initial, medial and not in final postion.
/rekka/ ‘feather’
/ta:reɭi/ ‘by’
/ratta:/ ‘blood’ /aɦtuba:r/
/r/ /iɭeitare/ ‘or’
/rejiɭu/ ‘train’ ‘foundation’
/ni:ru aritatə/ ‘flood’

Phoneme / r / occurs only in word initial, medial and in final position.

/oɽaari/ ‘pale’
/ɽ/ - /teɽitijate/ ‘open’ -
/eɽicatu/ ‘addition’
Phoneme /ɽ / occur in word only medial postion.

From the above table it is clear that the most of the consonant phonemes are distributed
at the Initial and medial positions and very few phonemes in the final position.

2.6 Clusters

2.6.1 Consonantal Clusters

A consonant cluster is a group of consonants which have no intervening vowel. The

consonant clusters can be a combination of two identical as well as two non-identical
consonants that generally occurs in the medial position of a word. The occurrence of the
consonant clusters is most frequently in the word medial position. A few examples of non-
identical clusters are as follows-
/mb/ /ambinaka:ji/ ‘gourd’
/mp/ /kirampu/ ‘clove’
/tr/ /traccai/ ‘grape’
/kɡ/ /mukɡano:ʈa kaɳɳa:ʈi/ ‘mirror’
/ɲc/ /aɲcukka/ ‘threat’
/rc/ /serccatu/ ‘to collect (scattered thing)’
/rɡ/ /sorɡa:/ ‘heaven’
/rs/ /da:rɛ torsama/ ‘to guide (show the way)’
/ŋɡ/ /unŋɡura:/ ‘ring’
/nd/ /mandu/ ‘and’
/nt/ /ɡantaija:/ ‘tax’
/td/ /etdatu/ ‘to get up (arise)’
/ɳʈ/ /ɦuɳʈa:ʈʈa:/ ‘hop-scotch (kitkit)’
/ɳɖ/ /daɳɖana/ ‘punishment’
/mc/ /mimcu/ ‘lightning’
/ʤc/ /muʤcuɭu/ ‘pot’
/ʃt/ /onte ʤa:ʃtiɦakki/ ‘flock of birds’
/ɖɽ/ /iɖɽe/ ‘narrow’

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 /ɽc/ /seɽcatu/ ‘multiplication’
/ɲʤ/ /kuɲʤaɭu/ ‘to jerk (pull suddenly)’
/dt/ /bidtana/ ‘to sow (seed)’
/sd/ /firasde:sa saba/ ‘assembly’
/ɳt/ /eɽiɡa ma:ʈaɡa baɳtijaʋaɭe/ ‘to nurse (feed a baby)’
/ɳɖ/ /taɳɖikicuta:ru/ ‘to punish’
/ɭk/ /suɭke:ɭatu/ ‘to lie (utter falsehood)’
/ɭr/ /ja:ɭri/ ‘drum (types of drum)’
/ɭʋ/ /siɭʋaru/ ‘aluminium’
/ɖt/ /ɡiɳɖtiʋi/ ‘to crush(oil seeds)’
/sɦt/ /asɦtuba:r/ ‘foundation’

Tri-Consonental Clusters

/ɳɖt/ /ɡiɳɖtiʋi/ ‘to crush (oil seeds)’

cct/ /saccturutama/ ‘astrologer’
/mmb/ /kommbara paʈʈi/ ‘to turn over’

2.6.2 Consonantal Gemination

The following are the example of some geminated (identical consonant clusters)
consonants:
/-bb-/ /obbane/ ‘alone’
/-cc-/ /uccə/ ‘urine’
/-kk-/ /mu:kku/ ‘nose
/-ʈʈ-/ /ɦoʈʈa/ ‘stomach’
/-ɖɖ-/ /si:ɖɖa:/ ‘epilepsy’
/-tt-/ /kattu/ ‘neck’
/-dd-/ /u:ddaɭu/ ‘swelling’
/-ɭɭ-/ /ɦaɭɭu/ ‘tooth’
/-ɻɻ-/ /beɻɻuɭɭi/ ‘garlic’
/-mm-/ /amma:/ ‘chicken pox’
/-nn-/ /ɦennu/ ‘joint’
/-pp-/ /puppu/ ‘salt’
/-ɳɳ-/ /beɳɳa/ ‘butter’
/-ɽɽ-/ /kuɽɽukokku/ ‘fist’

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 3. MORPHOLOGY

Morphology is the branch of linguistics that deals with words, their internal structure,
and how they are formed. It deals with the identification, analysis and description of the
structureof a given language’s morphemes and other linguistic units.

3.1 Noun Morphology

A noun is a member of syntactic class that includes words which refer to people, place,
things, ideas or concepts and whose members may act as any of the following: Subject of Verb,
Objects of the Verb, Indirect Object of the Verb or Object of a preposition or postposition.

Noun Morphology deals with the forms and classification of Nouns, Pronouns and their
declensional / inflectional pattern in association with Gender, Number and Adjective etc.

The nouns in the language are marked by two numbers (singular and plural), three
genders (i.e. masculine, feminine, and neuter); and seven case (nominative, accusative, dative,
ablative, genitive, locative and instrumental).

3.1.1 Nouns

Internal Structure:
The nouns in the language are marked by two numbers (singular and plural). Nouns thus
realized in Solaga can be categorized into two broad classes, namely 1. Basic Nouns and 2.
Derived Nouns.

Basic Noun
Basic Noun is those which are a class by itself as they are not derived from any other word
class
Eg /iɽuppu/ ‘ant’
/kattu/ ‘neck’
/kokkɔitinna/ ‘stick’

The basic nouns can further be divided into

i) Mass nouns and ii) Count nouns

Mass Nouns

Mass nouns are those which do not show number distribution and cannot be counted
with cardinal numeral. They always occur in singular form.

Eg /sakkara/ ‘sugar’
/puppu/ ‘salt’
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 /eɳɳə/ ‘oil’
/ɦaɭu/ ‘milk’

Count Nouns: Count nouns are those which can take some suffixes for indicating plurality.
For example
/unŋɡura:/ ‘ring’
/ɦaɳɳu/ ‘fruit’
/muʈʈə/ ‘egg’

Derived Nouns

In Solaga language some nouns are derived either from the verb or adjective or from
another noun. The derived nouns are formed in two ways:

i. By adding derivational suffix to other words;

ii. By compounding words.

Derived nouns by adding derivational suffix: In Solaga some nouns can be derived from the
verb or from any other noun by the addition of derivative suffixes

Verb + noun forming suffix = Noun (verbal Noun)

/no:ʈitaʋare/ ‘to see’ + /tu/ =/no:ɖuʈitu/ ‘seeing’

/ɦo:ɡatu/ ‘to go’ + /ta/ =/ɦo:tata/ ‘going’

/bara:tu/ ‘to come’ + /te/ = /bantate/ ‘coming’

Adjective + noun forming suffix = Noun (Abstract Noun)

/sentakija/ ‘happy’ + /ate/ = /sentakijate/ ‘happiness’

/kadda/ ‘dark’ + /ɭa/ = /kaddaɭa/ ‘darkness’

Derived nouns by Compounding: A compounding word is defined as the combination of two

or more words to form a new word.

For Example
/mattijata/ ‘middle’ + /beʈʈu/ ‘finger’ =/mattijata beʈʈu/ ‘middle finger’
/ɦaɭɭu/ ‘milk’ + /ka:ra/ ‘man’ =/ɦaɭɭuka:ra/ ‘milkman’
/kutira/ ‘horse’ + /ka:ɖi/ ‘coach’ =/kutira ka:ɖi/ ‘horse coach’

External Structure:

The solaga nouns are inflected for Gender, Number and Case. This language has two
genders (i.e. masculine, feminine and neuter); and seven cases (nominative, accusative, dative,

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ablative, genitive, locative and instrumental). The following description gives the details of
solaga gender – number – case system.

Gender

Gender in Solaga is grammatically determined by two ways – Masculine and Feminine.

Most of the Solaga nouns end in vowels. The final vowel gives a clue to the gender of a
particular noun. The masculine noun tends to take / a: / ending as opposed to feminine noun
with / i / ending. The word / ai / is male, suffix to show the masculine gender, and / ri / ‘female’.
Gender in this language is natural, not grammatical. Nouns are of masculine and feminine
gender as exemplified in the following examples

MasculineFeminine

/ajinta/ ‘boy’ /ʃaɳɳa ɦeɳɳu/ ‘girl’

/matuʋai gaɳɖu/ ‘bridegroom’ /matuʋai ɦeɳɳu/ ‘bride’
/kaiɭi a:katitaʋən/ ‘lame (male)’ /kaiɭi a:katitaʋə/ ‘lame (female)’
/kaɳɖisera ʤo:ɖ/ ‘friend (he)’ /ɦeɳɳusera ʤo:ɖi/ ‘friend (she)’
/ɡaɳɖa:/ ‘husband’ /iɖatti/ ‘wife’
/ɡuɳɖan/ ‘cripple (male)’ /ɡuɳɖi/ ‘cripple (female)’
/toʈʈappa/ ‘step father’ /toʈʈaʋə/ ‘step mother’
/aʈike/ ‘cook (male)’ /aʈike/ ‘cook (female)’
/mum məŋɡə/ ‘son’s son’ /mum maɡə/ ‘son’s daughter
Both the masculine and feminine gender has number as we can see in the following example

Masculine Feminine

Singular Plural Singular Plural

/ajinta/ /ajinana/ /ʃaɳɳa ɦeɳɳu/ /ɦeɳɳuɡə/
‘boy’ ‘boys’ ‘girl’ ‘girls’

However, separate lexemes are also used to refer to gender distinction as we can in the
following examples.

Masculine Feminine

/ɡaɳɖicu/ ‘male’ /eŋɡicu/ ‘female’

/ɡuɳɖan/ ‘cripple (male)’ /ɡuɳɖi/ ‘cripple (female)’

Examples of common gender include
/a:na/ ‘elephant (male, female)’

/emmə/ ‘buffalo (male, female)’

/a:ʈu/ ‘goat (male, female)’

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 /kuruʈaru/ ‘blind (male, female)’
We can further classify Solaga nouns denoting animate or non – animate, human or non –
human to two genders – Masculine and Feminine.

Examples for Masculine Nouns

Animate and Human Animate and Non – Human Inanimate

/ajinta ‘boy’ /karu/ ‘calf (male)’ /aʈakkatoppi/ ‘cap’
/ra:ʤa:/ ‘king’ /o:nʈu/ ‘goat (male)’ /ʤo:ɖu/ ‘shoe’
/ɡuɳɖan/‘cripple(male)’ /sarəʈʈu/ ‘coat’
/a:na/ ‘elephant (male)

Examples for Feminine Nouns

Animate and Human Animate and Non – Human Inanimate

/ʃaɳɳa ɦeɳɳu/ ‘girl’ /karu/ ‘calf (male)’ /cejinukecca/ ‘anklet’
/ra:ɳi/ ‘queen’ /ɦeɳɳa:ʈu/‘goat (female)’ /raʋukka/ ‘blouse’
/ɡuɳɖi/‘cripple (female)’ /mu:kkupoʈʈu/‘nosering’
/ɦeɳɳa:na/‘elephant(female)

An interesting example of gender difference is observerd in solaga in the words where the
suffix of the word changes its gender naturally. For example

Base term /maduʋe/ ‘marriage and weeding’

Masculine /eɳɳiɡa/ ‘bachelor’
Feminine /uɖuki/ ‘spinster’

Number

From the provided data it can be seen that there are two numbers in solaga language:
singular and plural. Examples are as follows

Singular Plural
/na:nu/ ‘I’ /na:mu/ ‘we’
/ajina/ ‘boy’ /ajinaɡə:/ ‘boys’
/tana:/ ‘cow’ /tanaɡa/ ‘cows’
/meɳa/ ‘house’ /meɳaiɡə:/ ‘houses’
Some plurality is indicated by adding numerals to it.

For Example
Singular Plural
/ni:nu/ ‘you’ /ni:vu/ ‘you (two)’
Sometime a different lexeme is also used for plural formation

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 E.g
/ko:cu/ ‘child’ /ko:cuɡə:/ ‘children’
Case

Case is a grammatical category determined by the syntactic or semantic function of a

noun or pronoun. Like other languages in solaga also, semantic relation between a noun phrase
or subject and a predicate is expressed by the grammatical category of case in Solaga can be
1. Nominative Case
2. Accusative Case
3. Dative Case
4. Instrumental Case
5. Ablative Case
6. Genitive Case
7. Locative Case
Nominative Case

The nominative case generally marks the subject of a verb or the predicate noun or
predicate adjective which is either a noun or a pronoun. In Solaga, the marker for nominative
is /∅/.
Example
/ko:cu keɻakɛ bittatu/ ‘The child falls down’
/aʋa: aɭɭi nitijaʋaɻe/ ‘She stands there’
/na:nu santaikka: ɦo:tiʋini/ ‘I go to the market’
/na:ji koɭaitte/ ‘The dog barks’
/maɦesuna:ɭaikka bararə:/ ‘Mahesh ate the mango’

In the above example /ko:cu/ ‘child’

/aʋa:/ ‘she’
/na:nu/ ‘I’
/na:ji/ ‘dog’,
/makesu/ ‘Mahesh’,

are the subjects in nominative case with no case marker attached. Thus, we see here the
nominative case marker is null or absent.

Accusative Case

Accusative case is the case in nominative – accusative language that marks certain
syntactic function, usually direct object. In Solaga, the marker for Accusative is /∅/.
Example
/na:mu tanakaɭa oʈata:kkino:m/ ‘We beat the cows’
/ko:cuɡa mi:na eɖutta:ru/ ‘The children caught the fish’
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 /beʈʈaika:ra keɭeɭɭam iɖittan/ ‘The hunter caught the deer’

Dative Case

The dative case designates the indirect object of a transitive verb. Nouns having the role
of recipient (as of things given), beneficiary of an action, or possessor of an item are datives.
The context plays a crucial factor in differentiating between dative and accusative. In solaga,
the marker dative is /ku/, /ka/ and /ɖa/
Example
/nanaɡa/ ‘to me’
/nammadaɳɖa/ ‘to us’
/aʋariɡa:/ ‘to them’

Instrumental Case

This case is used to denote an instrument with which the action is performed. It is a case
indicating that the referent of the noun. In solaga, the marker is /ɭi /.

Example
/nanna pe:na taɭɭi barɛ/ ‘Write with my pen’
/maraʋa koʈaɭiaɭɭi tari/ ‘The tree is cut with axe’
/ku:daɭa kattariɭi kattaricu/ ‘The hair is cut with sicssors’
/do:ri e:ri meɭe kaɳɳi akkataɭɭi kaʈʈi piuʈʈijate/‘The boat is tied to the shore with rope’

Ablative Case

Ablative case is a case that expresses movement of the subject or the object from one
place to another either in the spatial plane or on the temporal plane is expressed by the ablative
case. In this language ablative case marker is / -inta /.

Example
/aʋa:n nanna kiɖikkinta keɭakka bittuna/ ‘He fell down from my window’
/ʤuɭai tiŋɡəɭinta maɬai barakatɛ/ ‘Rain starts from the month of July’
/na:ɭainta basuɡa o:tatiɭɭa/ ‘Tomorrow onwards the buses will not run’
/ko:cu maratinta anna kittatu/ ‘The child plucked the fruit from the tree’

Genitive Case

Genitive case is a case in which the referent of the marked noun is the possessor of the
referent of another noun. The case expresses the meaning of belonging to or possession of
something by the subject. In solaga, the Genitive case marker /- na /

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 Example
/aʋara: maɡə:ɡa/ ‘Their sons’(marker is /-ra:/)
/aʋaɻa: puʈʈə:/ ‘Her basket’ (marker is /-ɻa:/)

However, another variety has been found in use of second person forms as in –
/ninna: meɳa/ ‘Your (sg) house’ (marker is /-nna:/)
/ninma: meɳaiɡə:/ ‘Your (sg) houses’ (marker is /-inma:/)
/nanna: ko:cu/ ‘My child’ (marker is /-nna:/)
/nanna: kaiɡə/ ‘My hands’ (marker is /-nna:/)
/aʋana meɳa/ ‘His house’ (marker is /-na/)
/aʋana:meɳaiɡə:/ ‘His houses’(marker is /-na:/)

Locative Case

Locative case is a case that expresses location at the referent of the noun it marks. The
location of the subject or object is expressed by the locative case marker. In solaga, the locative
case markers /-kka:/, /- ɡa/ or /-na/

Example
/na:nu santaikka ɦo:tiʋini / ‘I go to the market’ (marker is /-kka:/)
/aʋaruɡa ishkuɭuɡa bantaʋare/ ‘They come to school’ (marker is /-ɡa/)
/na:nu u:rina batuvini/ ‘I live in the village’ (marker is /-na/)

Post Position

A part of speech placed before other words in composition and which expresses the
relation it has to other elements in a sentence.

Eg
/ɦina maratu me:ɭe ku:ttijate/ ‘The parrot is on the tree’
/na:nu nanna menaiɭɭi iʋini/ ‘I am in my house’

Pronouns

A pronoun is a pro – form which function like a noun and substitutes for a noun or noun
phrase. Pronouns can take number, gender and case markers like the noun. A language may
have several classes of pronouns. Solaga dialect has the following types of pronouns.
1. Personal Pronoun
2. Demonstrative Pronoun
3. Reflexive Pronoun
4. Relative Pronoun
5. Interrogative Pronoun
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 6. Indefinite Pronoun

Personal pronoun
Personal pronouns are pronouns used as alternates for proper or common nouns. The
personal pronouns are categorized into three persons (1st, 2nd and 3rd).

Person Singular Plural

First /na:nu/ ‘I’ /na:mu/ ‘we’
Second /ni:nu/ ‘you’ /ni:vu/ ‘you (two)’
/aʋane/ ‘he’
Third /aʋa:/ ‘she’ /aʋaruɡa:/ ‘they’
/atu/ ‘it’

Demonstrative Pronoun

Demonstratives are deictic word that specify which entities a speaker refers to and
differentiates those from others. The demonstrative pronoun in solaga can be described in a
two – tier system by taking the spatial distance into account like

Proximate demonstrative pronoun that referring to the object nearer to the speaker.
Remote demonstrative pronoun that refers to the object away from the speaker.
Again, the demonstrative pronoun can be distinguished by two – tier numbers also like
a) Singular
b) Plural

Proximate Remote
Singular /itu/ ‘this’ /atu/ ‘that’
Plural /aʋaikaɭe/ ‘these’ /aʋe/ ‘those’

Examples
This – /itu oɻɻe frasaŋɡə/ ‘This good story’ /marker is /itu/
/i pokka: kaɭi/ ‘Read this book’ /marker is /i/
That – /a: kutira viɬikkanu/ ‘That horse is to be sold’ /marker is /a:/
/atu aʋana: katti/ ‘That is his knife’ /marker is /atu/
These – /itu nanna: menaiɡa/ ‘These are my houses’ /marker is /itu/
Those – /aʋe nanna: pushtaka/ ‘Those are my books’ /marker is /aʋe/
/a: manisaɡa bari baɭataʋaru/ ‘Those men are strong’ /marker is /a:/

The demonstrative pronouns of Solaga can also be classified as in terms of distance as

Proximate Remote
/iɭɭi/ ‘here’ /aɭɭi/ ‘there’

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Example
Here – /na:nu iɭɭi bantiʋini/ ‘I come here’ /marker is /iɭɭi/
/ko:cu iɭɭi bə:ntatɛ/ ‘The child comes here’ /marker is /iɭɭi/
/ni:vu iraɖa:ɻu iɭɭi bantuɖutiri/‘You (two) are coming here’ /marker is /iɭɭi/
There –
/ko:cu eɭɭi nittitatu/ ‘The child stands there’ /marker is /eɭɭi/
/eɭɭaruʋe aɭɭi ɦo:taʋarɛ/ ‘Everyone went there’ /marker is /aɭɭi/
/na:ji aɭɭi nittijatɛ:/ ‘The dog is standing there’ /marker is /aɭɭi/
/aʋa: aɭɭi nitijaʋaɻe/ ‘She stands there’ /marker is /aɭɭi/
/na:nu aɭɭiɡa o:ɦa paita?/ ‘Shall I go there?’ /marker is /aɭɭiɡa/

Reflexive Pronoun

A reflexive pronoun is a pronoun that is preceded by the noun which it refers (its
antecedent) within the same clause. A reflexive pronoun is an anaphor that must be bound by
its antecedent in its local domain. In solaga language reflexive pronouns are:

Person Singular Plural

First /na:ne/ ‘myself’ /na:ve/ ‘ourselves’
Second /ni:ne/ ‘yourself’ /ni:ve/ ‘yourselves’
/aʋaniɡa/ ‘himself’,
Third /tamaɡa ta:me/‘themselves’
/atuva no:ʈino/ ‘itself’

Example
First person: /Singular/
/na:ne atuʋa eɭɭa tinne/ ‘I ate it myself’
/aʋane paʈʈa ma:ʈina/ ‘I made the kite myself’
First person: /Plural/
/na:maɡije aɭɭi o:tivi// ‘We went there ourselves’
Second person: /Singular/
/ni:ne ninna paʈaija: kukkanum/ ‘You wash the clothes yourself’
Third person: /Singular/
/aʋana pokkina aʋane o:tinan/ ‘He studied the lessons himself’
/atu sattadu/ ‘It died by itself’
Third person: /Plural/
/aʋare tamaɡa ta:me mena kaʈʈuʈaru/ ‘They built the house themselves’

Interestingly, solaga speakers employ three different forms for third person singular in
accordance with gender. For example, masculine pronouns are marked by use of /aʋaniɡa/
‘himself’, feminine pronouns are marked by use of /aʋaɻe/ ‘herself’ and /atuva no:ʈino / ‘itself’
is used for inanimate things.

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Interrogative Pronoun

An interrogative pronoun is used in questions to stand for the item questioned. The
Interrogative pronouns in Solaga can be classified into personal and impersonal forms with
examples as:
who, whom (personal)
what, which (impersonal)
/e:ka/ ‘why’ - /e:ka ni:nu aɭɭiɡa o:ɦatu?/ ‘Why are you going?’
/e:ra/ ‘who’ - /aʋa: e:ra?/ ‘Who is he?’
/e:ʋana/ ‘whose’- /e:ʋana kutiraija: atu?/ ‘Whose horse is that?’
/eɭɭi/ ‘where’- /eɭɭi ninna: ko:cuɡa?/ ‘Where are your children?’

/aʋa: e:ra?/ ‘Who is he?’`

/e:ʋana kutiraija: atu?/ ‘Whose horse is that?’
/ni:nu e:na tinnte?/ ‘What do you eat?’
/eɭɭi ninna: ko:cuɡa?/ ‘Where are your children?’
/ni:nu e:ʋa raiɭa: iɖitta?/ ‘Which train will you get?’

Indefinite Pronoun

The pronouns which denote some non – definite person or thing instead of definite
person or thing are called Indefinite pronouns. The examples of indefinite pronoun in solaga
are
Examples
Indefinite Pronoun (Singular)
anybody -
/a:rintaʋɛ ikaɭasa ma:ʈaʋe a:ɡatiɭɭa/ ‘Anybody can do this work’
anyone -
/eʋano obba:n ikaɭasa ma:ʈa paitu/ ‘Anyone can do this work’
everyone -
/eɭɭaruʋe aɭɭi ɦo:taʋarɛ/ ‘Everyone went there’
everybody -
/eɭɭaruʋe ku:ʈʈakka bara:ɡu/ ‘Everybody has to come for the meeting’
everything -
/eɭɭaʋe dotadottu/ ‘Everything is lost’
no one -
/obbaninta ikaɭɭə tu:kkaʋe a:ɡaratu/ ‘No one can lift this stone’
none -
/aʋaru ja:ruʋe i matuʋaikka barakaɭai iɭɭa/ ‘None of them came for this marriage’
nobody -
/a:rintaʋɛ ikaɭasa ma:ʈaʋe a:ɡatiɭɭa/ ‘Nobody can do this work’

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Adjectives

An adjective is a word that belongs to a class whose members modify nouns. An

adjective specifies the properties or attributes of a noun referent. In this language adjectives
occur before noun and remain unchanged for any change in gender and number.

Attributive adjectives – These are noun phrase headed by the modifier noun. For
Example

/oɻɻe ajina/ ‘The good boy’

/oɻɻe ajinaɡə:/ ‘The good books’

/koɭe kai/ ‘Dirty hand’

/beɻɛ kutirə/ ‘The white horse’

Predicative adjectives – These are linked via a copula or other connecting device to the
noun or pronoun they modify.

For Example

/a: manisaɡa bari baɭataʋaru/ ‘Those men are strong’

/a: ɦeɳɳu kiʋuɖu/ ‘That girl is deaf’

/aɭɭi iraɖu tanaɡa ate/ ‘There are two cows’

A) Numerals

Solaga exhibits numerals of both the Cardinal and the ordinal type:

Cardinal Numerals

/ontu/ ‘one’ /a:ɽu/ ‘six’

/eraʈu/ ‘Two’ /e:ɭu/ ‘seven’

/mu:ru/ ‘three’ /eɳʈu/ ‘eight’

/na:kku/ ‘four’ /ompatu/ ‘nine’

/aitu/ ‘five’ /ɦattu/ ‘ten’

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Ordinal Numerals – Ordinals are formed by adding inflectional suffixes /mottai/ to the
cardinals.

For example

/onta:ʋatu ʤa:ɡa:/ ‘first’

/iraʈa:ʋatu ʤa:ɡa:/ ‘second’

/mura:ʋatu ʤa:ɡa:/ ‘third’

Fractions: Fractions are formed by following ways.

For Example

/ontuʋarə/ ‘one and a half’

/ontuka:ɭu/ ‘one and a quarter’

/ka:ɭu/ ‘quarter’

/arə/ ‘half’

/mukka:ɭu/ ‘three fourth’

Formation of numerals

/ontu/ One
/eraʈu/ Two
/mu:ru/ Three
/na:kku/ Four
/aitu/ Five
/a:ɽu/ Six
/e:ɭu/ Seven
/eʈʈu/ Eight
/ompatu/ Nine
/ɦattu/ Ten
/ɦaniraʈu/ Twelve
/ɦatina:kku/ Fourteen
/ɦatinaitu/ Fifteen
/ɦata a:ɽu/ Sixteen
/ɦati e:ɭu/ Seventeen
/ɦatineɳʈu/ Eighteen
/iruʋatu/ Twenty
/muppatu/ Thirty
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 /n̪aːpət̪ʊ/ Fourty
/aiʋatu/ Fifty
/aɽuʋat ontu/ Sixty one
/eɭuʋat ontu/ Seventy one
/empattuontu/ Eightyone
/tompatontu/ Ninety one
/nu:ɽu/ hundred

thirty – one, ninety – one is formed in the same formed in the following way
/mu:ʋatu ‘30’ + ontu ‘1’/ = /mu:ʋatuontu/ ‘31’
/tompat ‘90’+ ontu ‘1’/ = /tompatontu/ ‘91’
/mu:ʋatu ‘30’ + ompattu‘9’/ = /mu:ʋatuompattu/ ‘39’

Classifiers

The classifiers is denoted by the use of cardinal numerals like /eɭɭaruʋe/ to refer to a
person.

For Example
/aʋaru eɭɭaruʋe baraɭi/ ‘Let them all come’

/-ɭi/ is also used to denote singularity as in `

/itu ontu menə/ ‘This is a house’
/itu nanna: menaiɡa/ ‘These are my houses’

/ʤanaɡə/ is sometime used to denote multitude.

/ʤanaɡə aɭɭi ɦo:taʋarɛ/ ‘The people go there’

3.1.2. Verbs

Types of verb: A verb denotes action. Different types of actions verb from the provide
data are given below.

Physical Activity Verbs:

List of different physical activity verb from the provided data is given below.

/a:ʈʈatatu/ ‘to act’

/kaɽijatu/ ‘to bite’

/ettuɖakatu/ ‘to carry’

/aɭaicikina/ ‘to destroy’

/otaijatu/ ‘to kick’

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Instrument Verbs: List of different instrument verb from the provided data is given below.

/ɡiɭatu/ ‘cut (cloth)’

/to:ʈatu/ ‘dig (a hole)’

/ʃi:ɭu/ ‘split (wood)’

Verbs of fighting: List of different verbs of fighting from the provided data is given below.

/ta:ŋɡɛsitu/ ‘to attack’

/iɖita:kkina/ ‘to grab’

/iɖita:kkina/ ‘to strike’

/ɡaja:a:kijate/ ‘to wound’

Music Verbs: List of different musical verb from the provided data is given below.

/a:ʈʈa: a:ɖutiʋi/ ‘to dance’

/patanakeɭitiʋi/ ‘to sing’

Motion verbs: List of different motion verb from the provided data is given below.

/bantuse:ritu/ ‘to arrive (at a place)’

/te:ɭiɭate/ ‘to float’

/tu:kki uʈaijatu/ ‘to lift up’

/mi:ʤu/ ‘to swim’

Finite Verbs

A finite verb is a verb form that which occurs in an independent clause and is fully
inflected according to the inflectional categories marked on verb in the language. Having the
verb roots as the base both Finite and Non – finite verbal formations are realized in solaga.
The components of finite verb are 1. Tense 2. Aspect and 3. Mood. In solaga, finite verbs are
formed by adding different suffixes to the verb root and different forms are available for
different person and tense.

The finite verbal formation is √ + tense marker ± aspect marker + personal marker. The
formations of the verb /suʈipo:ntai/ ‘to go’ for three different persons and different tenses are
given below.

Tense

Verbs in Solaga morphologically marked for having three-way opposition of tense as

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 a. Present Tense
b. Past Tense
c. Future Tense
Following are the person wise tense formations in Solaga taking /poː/ ‘go’ as the model
verb root.

Present indefinite Tense

Person Singular Verb form Plural Verb form

First /na:nu/ ‘I’ /ɦo:tiʋini/ /na:mu/ ‘we’ /ɦo:tiʋi/
Second /ni:vu/ ‘You (sg)’ /ɦo:tiʋɛ/ /ni:vu/‘You (pl)’ /ɦo:tiʋiri/
Third /aʋa/ ‘She’ /ɦo:taʋəɻɛ/ /aʋaru/ ‘They’ /ɦo:taʋərɛ/

The markers for singular and plural forms are as follows – /tiʋini/, /tiʋɛ/, /taʋəɻɛ/, /tiʋi/,
/tiʋiri/, /taʋərɛ/.
Examples
/na:nu santaikka: ɦo:tiʋini/
(I) (market) (go)

/na:nu santaikka: ɦo:tiʋini/ I go to the market

/na:mu santaikka: ɦo:tiʋi/ We go to the market
/na:mu iraɖa:ɻu santəikkə: ɦo:tiʋi/ We (two) go to the market
/ni:vu santaikka: ɦo:tiʋɛ/ You (sg) go to the market
/ni:vu santaikka: ɦo:tiʋiri/ You (pl) go to the market
/aʋan santaikka: ɦo:taʋənɛ/ He goes to the market
/aʋa santaikka: ɦo:taʋəɻɛ/ She goes to the market
/atu santaikka: ɦo:tatə/ It goes to the market
/aʋaru kanɖisaru santaikka: ɦo:taʋərɛ/ They (men) go to the market
/aʋaru ɦeɳɳuɡə santaikka: ɦo:taʋərɛ/ They (women) go to the market
/aʋaru iraɖa:ɻu santaikka: ɦo:taʋərɛ/ They (two) go to the market

Past indefinite Tense

Person Singular Verb form Plural Verb form

First /na:nu/ ‘I’ /ɦo:nɛ/ /na:mu/ ‘we’ /ɦo:no:m/

Second /ni:vu/‘You (sg)’ /ɦo:ʈʈutɛ/ /ni:vu/‘You (pl)’ /ɦo:ʈʈatiru/

Third /aʋa/ ‘She’ /ɦo:ʈʈuta/ /aʋaru/ ‘They’ /ɦo:kipuʈʈaru/

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 The markers for singular and plural are as follows – /nɛ/, /ʈʈutɛ/, /ʈʈuta/, /no:m/ , /ʈʈatiru/ and
/kipuʈʈaru/

Examples
/na:nu santaikka: ɦo:nɛ/
(I) (market) (go-past)

/na:nu santaikka: ɦo:nɛ/ I went to the market

/na:mu santaikka: ɦo:no:m/ We went to the market
/na:muiraɖa:ɻusantaikka: ɦo:no:m/ We (two) went to the market
/ni:nu santaikka: ɦo:ʈʈutɛ/ You(sg) went to the market
/ni:vu santaikka: ɦo:ʈʈatiru/ You(pl) went to the market
/aʋan santaikka: ɦo:ʈʈuna/ He went to the market
/aʋa: santaikka: ɦo:ʈʈuta/ She went to the market
/aʋaru santaikka: ɦo:kipuʈʈaru/ They went to the market
/aʋaru iraɖa:ɻu santaikka: ɦo:kipuʈʈaru/ They(two) went to the market

Simple future

Person Singular Verb form Plural Verb form

First /na:nu/ ‘I’ /ɦo:kitini/ /na:mu/ ‘we’ /ɦo:kitiʋi/
Second /ni:vu/ ‘You (sg)’ /ɦo:ɡu/ /ni:vu/ ‘You (pl)’ /ɦo:tiʋiri/
Third /aʋa/ ‘She’ /ɦo:taʋaɻɛ/ /aʋaru/ ‘They’ /ɦo:taʋarɛ/

The markers for singular and plural forms are as follows – /kitini/, /ɡu/, /taʋaɻɛ/, /kitiʋi/,
/tiʋiri/ and /taʋarɛ/
Examples
/na:nu santaikka: ɦo:kitini/
(I) (market) (go - future)

/na:nu santaikka: ɦo:kitini/ I will go to the market

/na:mu santaikka: ɦo:kitiʋi/ We will go to the market
/na:mu iraɖa:ɻu santaikka: ɦo:kitiʋi/ We (two) will go to the market
/ni:nu ishukuɭukka ɦo:ɡu/ You(sg) will go to the school
/ni:vu ishukuɭukka ɦo:tiʋiri/ You(pl) will go to the school

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 /aʋan kaddaikka: ɦo:taʋanɛ/ He will go to the field
/aʋa: kaddaikka: ɦo:taʋaɻɛ/ She will go to the field
/atu santaikka ɦo:tatɛ/ It will go to the market
/aʋaru ka:ʈika ɦo:taʋarɛ/ They will go to the jungle
/aʋaru iraɖa:ɻu ka:ʈika ɦo:taʋarɛ/ They (two) will go to the jungle

Person

There are three persons in solaga language. There are: First person, Second person, and
Third person. All these persons have different concordial relationship with the verb, tense and
moods. Tense markers also change according to different persons (first person, second persons,
and third persons). Depending on the tense and moods these categorize are distinguished.

Person Singular Plural

First /na:nu/ ‘I’ /na:mu/ ‘we’
Second /ni:nu/ ‘you’ /ni:vu/ ‘you (two)’
Third /aʋane/‘he’, /aʋa:/‘she’, /atu/‘it’ /aʋaruɡa:/ ‘they’

The different concordial relationships are shown below:-

First Person: /singular/
(present tense).
/na:nu santaikka: ɦo:tiʋini/ ‘I go to the market’ /marker is - ni/
(past tense).
/na:nu santaikka: ɦo:nɛ/ ‘I went to the market’ /marker is - nɛ/
(future tense).
/na:nu santaikka: ɦo:kitini/ ‘I will go to the market’ /marker is - kitini/
First Person: /plural/
/na:mu santaikka: ɦo:tiʋi/ ‘We go to the market’ /marker is - tiʋi/
(present tense).
/na:mu santaikka: ɦo:no:m/ ‘We went to the market’ /marker is - no:m/
(past tense).
/na:mu santaikka: ɦo:kitiʋi/ ‘We will go to the market’ /marker is -kitiʋi/ (future tense).
Second Person: /singular/
/ni:vu santaikka: ɦo:tiʋɛ/ ‘You (sg) go to the market’ /marker is - tiʋɛ/ (present)
/ni:nu santaikka: ɦo:ʈʈutɛ/ ‘You (sg) went to the market’ /marker is -ʈʈutɛ/ (past)
/ni:nu ishukuɭukka ɦo:ɡu/ ‘You (sg) will go to the school’ /marker is - ɡu/ (future)
Second Person: /plural/
/nivu santaikka: ɦo:tiʋiri/ ‘You (pl) go to the market’ /marker is -tiʋiri/ (present).
/ni:vu santaikka: ɦo:ʈʈatiru/ ‘You (pl) went to the market’ /marker is -ʈʈatiru/ (past).
/ni:vu ishukuɭukka ɦo:tiʋiri/ ‘You (pl) will go to the school’ /marker is -tiʋiri/ (future).

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Third Person: /singular/
/aʋan santaikka: ɦo:taʋənɛ/ ‘He goes to the market’ /marker is - taʋənɛ/ (present).
/aʋan santaikka: ɦo:ʈʈuna/ ‘He went to the market’ /marker is - ʈʈuna/ (pas).
/aʋan kaddaikka: ɦo:taʋanɛ/ ‘He will go to the field’ /marker is - taʋanɛ/ (future).

Third Person: /plural/

/aʋaru kanɖisaru santaikka: ɦo:taʋərɛ/ ‘They (men) go to the market’ /marker is - taʋərɛ/
(present tense).
/aʋaru santaikka: ɦo:kipuʈʈaru/ ‘They went to the market’ /marker is - kipuʈʈaru/
(past tense).
/aʋaru ka:ʈika ɦo:taʋarɛ/ ‘They will go to the jungle’ /marker is - taʋarɛ/
(future tense).

Mood

Mood is one of a set of distinctive forms that are used to signal modality. The mode or
manner of a speaker is expressed by mood. It incorporates a statement, a command, a question,
a doubt etc. From the given data we have following types of moods in the solaga language
which are presented below.

Indicative Mood

Most verbs in this language used are in indicative mood, which indicates the action.

Examples:

/na:ji(The dog)koɭaitte(barks)/ ‘The dog barks’

/na:nu (I)ɦakkija: (bird)no:ɖutiʋini i (see)/ ‘I see the bird’

/aɭɭi iraɖu ate (There two)(cows) tanaɡa/ ‘There are two cows’

Imperative Mood

Verb in the imperative mood denotes command or request. This mood always occurs
with second person. Though it is not present in the sentence but the sense must be there and it
is always understood that it denotes the second person.

Examples

/ni ishkuɭu danʈe ba:/ ‘(you) come near the school’

/ni i pokka: kaɭi/ ‘(you) Read this book’

/kiɻaka ku:ttu/ ‘(you) sit down’

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Subjunctive Mood

In the subjunctive mood, the sense is to suppose or desire an action.

Examples

/aʋan(he)senta:ɡi kejta:re (work hard) keddan (succeed)/

‘If he works hard he will succeed’.

Optative Mood

The optative mood expresses a desire, wish, permission or request in a sentence which
is expressed in following way in solaga.

Example

/aʋaru (them) eɭɭaruʋe baraɭi (all come)/ ‘Let them all come’.

Potential Mood

The potential action is expressed in potential mood. In this language the example of
Potential mood is:

Examples:

/na:nu (I) bartini (may come)/ ‘I may come’.

/aʋan (He) ɦakkija: (bird) sa:jisatu (kill)/ ‘He may kill the bird’.

Conditional Mood

When the completion of one verbal action is conditioned by another verb that particular
manner of expression is called as Conditional modal category. In this mood two verbal
actions are involved simultaneously.

Examples:
/na:nu ontukaɭuke aɭɭi nittita:re ninaɡsaŋɡaʈakire/
‘If I am there, you will have (some) support’

/na:nu ontukaɭuke senta kittita:re na:ɭaikka: barttini/

‘If I am well I will come tomorrow’

Aspect

Aspect is a grammatical category associated with verbs that expresses a temporal view
of the event or state expressed by the verb. Aspectual information implies is related with
duration, perfection, habituality etc. Solaga three aspects interpreted in different tenses. These
are –

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 i. Imperfective

ii. Perfective

iii. Habitual

Imperfective Aspect

Imperfective aspect is an aspect that expresses an event or state, with respect to its
internal structure, instead of expressing it as a simple whole. It depicts an action which is
considered as continuous in the past or present or future tenses.

Examples

Present continuous markers for different persons for the verb /po:/ are –

Present Imperfective

Person Singular Verb form Plural Verb form

First /na:nu/ ‘I’ /ɦo:tiʋini/ /na:mu/ ‘we’ /ɦo:tiʋi/

Second /ni:vu/ ‘You (sg)’ /ɦo:tiʋɛ/ /ni:vu/ ‘You (pl)’ /ɦo:tiʋiri/

Third /aʋa/ ‘She’ /ɦo:taʋaɻe/ /aʋaru/ ‘They’ /ɦo:taʋarɛ/

The markers for singular and plural forms are follows-

/tiʋini/, /tiʋɛ/, /taʋaɻe:/, /tiʋi/, /tiʋiri/, /taʋarɛ/

Examples
/na:nu santaikka: ɦo:tiʋini/
(I) (market) (go – present cont)

/na:nu santaikka: ɦo:tiʋini/ I am going to the market

/na:mu santaikka: ɦo:tiʋi/ We are going to the market
/na:mu iraɖa:ɻu santaikka: ɦo:tiʋi/ We (two) are going to the market
/ni:nu santaikka: ɦo:tiʋɛ/ You (sg) are going to the market
/ni:vu santaikka: ɦo:tiʋiri/ You (pl) are going to the market
/aʋan santaikka: ɦo:taʋanɛ/ He is going to the market
/aʋa: santaikka: ɦo:taʋaɻe/ She is going to the market
/atu santaikka: ɦo:tata/ It is going to the market
/aʋaruɡə santaikka: ɦo:taʋarɛ/ They are going to the market
/aʋaru iraɖa:ɻu santaikka: ɦo:taʋarɛ/ They (two) are going to the market
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 Past Imperfective

Person Singular Verb form Plural Verb form

First /na:nu/ ‘I’ /ɦo:ɡuʈiten/ /na:mu/ ‘we’ /ɦo:ɡuʈitom/

Second /ni:vu/‘You (sg)’ /ɦo:ɡuʈite/ /ni:vu/ ‘You (pl)’ /ɦo:ɡuʈitiru/

/ɦo:ɡuʈita/
/aʋan, aʋa:, atu/
Third /ɦo:ɡuʈitu/ /aʋaru/ ‘They’ /ɦo:ɡuʈitaru/
‘he/she/it’
/ɦo:ɡuʈitu/

The markers for singular and plural forms are as follows

/ʈiten/, /ʋarunta:/, /ʋaranto:/, /ʋarunta:ɻo:/, /ʋaruntaru/ and /ʋarunta:/

Examples
/na:nu santaikka: o:ɦuʈiten/ (I)
(market) (go - past cont.)

/na:nu santaikka: ɦo:ɡuʈiten/ I was going to the market

/na:mu santaikka: ɦo:ɡuʈitom/ We were going to the market
/na:mu iraɖa:ɻu santaikka: ɦo:ɡuʈitom/ We (two) were going to the market
/ni:nu santaikka: ɦo:ɡuʈite/ You(sg) were going to the market
/ni:vu santaikka: ɦo:ɡuʈitiru/ You(pl) were going to the market
/aʋan santaikka: ɦo:ɡuʈitan/ He was po:ʋarunta:/going to the market
/aʋa: santaikka: ɦo:ɡuʈita/ She was going to the market
/atu santaikka: ɦo:ɡuʈitu/ It was going to the market
/aʋaru santaikka: ɦo:ɡuʈitaru/ They were going to the market
/aʋaruiraɖa:ɻu santaikka: ɦo:ɡuʈitaru/ They (two) were going to the market

FutureImperfective

Person Singular Verb form Plural Verb form

First /na:nu/ ‘I’ /ɦo:ɡuɖuiruttini/ /na:mu/ ‘we’ /ɦo:ɡuɖuiruttiʋi/

Second /ni:vu/‘You (sg)’ /ɦo:ɡuɖiʋe/ /ni:vu/ ‘You (pl)’ /ɦo:ɡuɖiri/

/ɦo:ɡuɖaʋanə/
/aʋan, aʋa:, atu/
Third /ɦo:ɡuɖaʋaɻ/ /aʋaru/ ‘They’ /ɦo:ɡuɖəʋare/
‘he/she/it’
/ɦo:ɡuɖatə/
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 The markers for singular and plural forms are as follows - /uttini/, /ɖiʋe/, /ku/, /atə/,
/ttiʋ/, /ɖiri/ and /əʋare/

Examples
/na:nu santaikka: ɦo:ɡuɖuiruttini/
(I) (market) (go – future cont.)

/na:nu santaikka: ɦo:ɡuɖuiruttini/ I will be going to the market

/na:mu santaikka: ɦo:ɡuɖuiruttiʋi/ We will be going to the market
/na:muiraɖa:ɻu santaikka: ɦo:ɡuɖuiruttiʋi/ We (two) will be going to the market
/ni:nu kaddaikka: ɦo:ɡuɖiʋe/ You(sg) will be going to the field
/ni:vu kaddaikka: ɦo:ɡuɖiri/ You(pl) will be going to the field
/aʋan kaddaikka: ɦo:ɡuɖaʋanə/ He will be going to the field
/aʋa: kaddaikka: ɦo:ɡuɖaʋaɻ/ She will be going to the field
/atu kaddaikka: ɦo:ɡuɖatə/ It will be going to the field
/aʋaru kaddaikka: ɦo:ɡuɖəʋare/ They will be going to the field
/aʋaruiraɖa:ɻu kaddaikka: ɦo:ɡuttaʋarə/ They (two) will be going to the field

Perfective Aspect

Perfective aspect is an aspect that express that expresses a temporal view of an event of
state as a simple whole, apart from the consideration of the internal structure of the time in
which it occurs. The examples in solaga are –

Present Perfective Aspect

Person Singular Verb form Plural Verb form

First /na:nu/ ‘I’ /ɦo:kiten/ /na:mu/ ‘we’ /ɦo:kitɔ:m/

Second /ni:vu/ ‘You (sg)’ /ɦo:kite/ /ni:vu/ ‘You (pl)’ /ɦo:kitəru/

Third /aʋa/ ‘She’ /ɦo:kita:/ /aʋaru/ ‘They’ /ɦo:kitəru/

The markers for singular and plural forms are as follows

/ten/, /ite/, /kita:/, /kitɔ:m/ and /ərui/
Examples
/na:nu santaikka: ɦo:kiten/
(I) (market) (go – pres. perfect)

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 /na:nu santaikka: ɦo:kiten/ ‘I have gone to the market’
/na:mu santaikka: ɦo:kitɔ:m/ ‘We have gone to the market’
/na:mu iraɖa:ɻusantaikka: ɦo:kitɔ:m/ ‘We (two) have gone to the market’
/ni:nu santaikka: ɦo:kite/ ‘You (sg) have gone to the market’
/ni:vu santaikka: ɦo:kitəru/ ‘You (pl) have gone to the market’
/aʋan santaikka: ɦo:kita:n/ ‘He has gone to the market’
/aʋa: santaikka: ɦo:kita:/ ‘She has gone to the market’
/atu santəikkə: ɦo:kitatu/ ‘It has gone to the market’
/aʋaruɡə santaikka: ɦo:kitəru/ ‘They have gone to the market’
/aʋaru iraɖa:ɻusantaikka: ɦo:kitəru/ ‘They (two) have gone to the market’

Past Perfective Aspect

Person Singular Verb form Plural Verb form

First /na:nu/ ‘I’ /ɦo:kiten/ /na:mu/ ‘we’ /ɦo:kitɔ:m/

Second /ni:vu/ ‘You (sg)’ /ɦo:kitɛ/ /ni:vu/ ‘You (pl)’ /ɦo:kitiru/
Third /aʋa/ ‘She’ /ɦo:kita/ /aʋaru/ ‘They’ /ɦo:kitaru/

The markers for singular and plural forms are as follows

/ten/, /kitɛ//, /kita/ and /kitɔ:m/, /kitiru/ and /kitaru/

Example
/na:nu santaikka: ɦo:kiten/
(I) (market) (go – past. perfect)

/na:nu santaikka: ɦo:kiten/ ‘I had gone to the market’

/na:mu santaikka: ɦo:kitɔ:m/ ‘We had gone to the market’
/na:mu iraɖa:ɻu santaikka: ɦo:kitɔ:m/ ‘We (two) had gone to the market’
/ni:nu santaikka: ɦo:kitɛ/ ‘You (sg) had gone to the market’
/ni:vu santaikka: ɦo:kitiru/ ‘You (pl) had gone to the market’
/aʋan santaikka: ɦo:kitan/ ‘He had gone to the market’
/aʋa: santaikka: ɦo:kita/ ‘She had gone to the market’
/atu santaikka: ɦo:kitatu/ ‘It had gone to the market’
/aʋaruɡə santaikka: ɦo:kitaru/ ‘They had gone to the market’
/aʋaru iraɖa:ɻu santaikka: ɦo:kita:ru/ ‘They (two) had gone to the market’

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Habitual Aspect
It describes an action which happens/ happened or will
happen habitually or regularly.

Present Habitual Aspect

The finite verb ends with /tə/

Examples
/oddu mu:ʈaɻu mu:titatə/ The sun rises in the east
/na:mu tanakaɭinta tinave ɦaɭu kaɽativi/ We milk the cows everyday
/aʋaruɡə eva:kaɭuve ompatu kaɳɖaikka
They go to field at 9 o'clock
a:piʃkka: o:taʋare/
/atu to:ʈʈata mejaka ɦattu kaɳɖaikka
It goes to the garden for grazing at 10 o'clock
o:tatə/

Past Habitual Aspect

The finite verbs ends with / -kku- + personal marker/

Examples

/na:vu eva:kaɭuve ompatu kaɳɖaikka

I used to go to office at 9 o'clock
a:piʃkka: ɦo:tivini/
/ni:nu eva:kaɭuve ompatu kaɳɖaikka
You(sg) used to go to office at 9 o'clock
a:piʃkka: ɦo:tiviri/
/ni:vu eva:kaɭuve ompatu kaɳɖaikka
You(pl) used to go to shop at 9 o'clock
a:piʃkka: ɦo:tiviri/
/na:mu eva:kaɭuve ompatu kaɳɖaikka
We used to go to office at 9 o'clock
a:piʃkka: ɦo:tivi/
/aʋan eva:kaɭuve ompatu kaɳɖaikka He used to go to market (bazaar) at 9
santaikka: ɦo:taʋane/ o'clock
/aʋa: eva:kaɭuve ompatu kaɳɖaikka a:piʃkka:
She used to go to office at 9 o'clock
ɦo:taʋaɻa/
/aʋaruɡə eva:kaɭuve ompatu kaɳɖaikka
They go to field at 9 o’clock
a:piʃkka: ɦo:taʋare/
It goes to the garden for grazing at 10
/atu to:ʈʈata mejaka ɦattu kaɳɖaikka ɦo:tatə/
o’clock

Causative Aspect
A causative is a grammatical or lexical indication of the causal role of a referent in
relation to an event or state expressed by a verb. In Solaga, causatives verbs are –

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 Example
/na:nu kuciɡa iʈʈa: tinisitiʋini/ ‘I feed the baby’
/na:nu mattina ʋaɭa se:ri kuciɡa iʈʈa: tinisini/ ‘I make the nurse feed the baby’
/na:nu ʤanaŋɡaɭa naɡa:ʈusini/ ‘I make the people laugh’
Negative Aspect
Negation is a morph syntactic in which a lexical item denies or inverts the meaning of
another lexical item or construction. In solaga, negative verbs are realized mostly by particles
like /tu/, /ɭa/
Examples
/itu aɖiɡa maʈaka a:ɡatiɭɭa/ ‘This is not edible’
/a: a:ɻu innuʋe baraiɭɭa/ ‘That man has not come yet’

/ituɡa oɭɭai ma:ttu iɭɭa/ ‘These are not good words’

/itu a:ɡaitutu/ ‘It is impossible’

Non-Finite Verbs

Infinitive

An infinitive form is to + the verb. Some verbs can take either the gerund of the infinitive
with no loss of meaning.
Examples
/eɭɭaruʋe ku:ʈʈakka bara:ɡu/
‘Everybody has to come for the meeting’

/na:mu eva:kaɭuve ompatu kaɳɖaikka a:piʃkka: ɦo:tivi/

‘We used to go to office at 9 o' clock’

Verbal Noun

A verbal noun is formed by adding a noun suffix to a verbHere is the process is: Verb
+ noun forming suffix = Noun (verbal noun) / √ + non – fininte marker/

Example
/no:ʈitaʋare/ ‘to see’ + -ten = /no:ɖuʈutini/ ‘seeing’

/kaɭaijatu/ ‘to bark’ + -ka = /karijatiɭɭa/ ‘barking’

Gerund

Gerunds and infinitives are forms of verbs that act like noun. They can follow adjective
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and other verbs. Since it is a kind of noun, it may be the subject or object to some verb

Examples
/kutira be:ɡane o:ʈitate/ ‘Running is done by the horse’
/koɭaija: na:ji karijatiɭɭa/ ‘Barking dogs seldom bite’
/mi:ʤa: oʈitare sarumakkə oɭɭijatu/ ‘Swimming is good for health’

Reflexive Participles

A Reflexive participle is a word that shares some characteristics of both verbs and
adjectives. Reflexive words show that the person who does the action is also the personwho is
affected by it

/maɖa:kkeja: ava: ti:kkida:/ ‘She lifted the pot herself’

/ava:o kalikke:ja: ave:ne: kalittɨla:o/‘He studied the lesson himself/

/ade: sattotto:/ ‘It died by itself/

/ɦaɳɳu a:taʋaɻe/ ‘Fallen fruits’
/accu o:ʈita pokku/ ‘Printed books’

/aʋa: surita ɦaɳɳu a:taʋaɻe/ ‘She collected the fallen fruits’

/accu o:ʈita pokku o:tata o:/ ‘Printed books are easy to read’

Compound Verbs

A Compound verb consists of more than one root and may include one or more suffixes.
For example

Compound Verb with root /-ma:ʈikku/ and /-satu/

/bakki/ ‘bend’ + /satu/ ‘to do’ = /bakkisatu/ ‘to bend (stick)’

/kaɽij/ ‘bite’ + /atu/ ‘to do’ = /kaɽijatu/ ‘to bite’

Compound Verb with root /-ja:kkuntai/ and /-no:kuntai/

/ka:ɭi/ ‘empty’ + /ma:ʈikku/ ‘to do’ = /ka:ɭi ma:ʈikku/ ‘to empty (a jar)’

/senta:ki/ ‘repair’ + /ma:ʈatu/ ‘to do’ = /senta:ki ma:ʈatu/ ‘to repair (tool,etc)’

Compound Verb with root /-ma:tatu/ and /-itiʋi/

/ɡa:ru/ ‘scratch’ + /untai/ ‘to do’ = /ɡa:ru ma:tatu/ ‘to scratch’

/ma:r/ ‘sell’ + /itiʋi/ ‘to do’ = /ma:r itiʋi/ ‘to sell’

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Inflection of Verb:
The verbs in solaga can be studied with respect to their Transitivity, Finiteness, non –
finiteness, negation, Causativization and Passivization.

Transitivity

The number of arguments that a verb takes is called its transitivity. Based on transitivity
the verb stems can be further divided into three sub-classes. These are

a) Intransitive

b) Transitive

c) Ditransitive

Intransitive
The verbs which do not take any object.
Example
/ɦo:ɡatu/ ‘go’
/bara:tu/ ‘come’
/kaɭaijatu/ ‘bark’
The examples of Intransitive verbal formation are:
/na:ji(dog) koɭaitte(barks)/ ‘The dog barks’
/na:nu (I)ɦo:ɡatu (go)/ ‘I go’
Transitive
The verbs which take an object.
Example
/tinntiʋi/ ‘eat’
/koɖa:tu/ ‘give’

/no:ʈitaʋare/ ‘see’

The examples of Transitive verbal formation are:

/na:nu (I) toʈʈija: (bread) tinttiʋini/ (eat)/ ‘I eat bread’

/na:nu (I) ɦakkija: (bird) no:ɖutiʋini (see)/ ‘I see the bird’

Ditransitive
The verb has a subject, a direct object, and a indirect object

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 Example
/koɖa:tu/ ‘give’
The example of Ditransitive verbal formation are:

/doʈʈa e:ɬaikaɭika ɡavurumenʈu koʈʈatu/

‘Money was given by the Govt. to the poor’

Adverbs
Adverb qualifies verb, adjectives and also an adverb. From the given data following
example is collected.

/meɭane (slowly) ma:ttaʈu (speak)/ ‘Speak slowly’

/me:ttuɡaɭa: senta:ke (neatly)ɦaʈa:kku(write)/ ‘Write the words neatly’

In the above sentence the adverbs are

/meɭane/ ‘slowly’

/me:ttuɡaɭa:/ ‘(neatly’

In this language adverbs occure before the verb. Here we have following three types of
adverb. These are: the place adverbials.

For example

Adverb of Time:

The time adverbials preceede the verb.

For Example
/ninna/ ‘yesterday’
/na:ɭa/ ‘tomorrow’
Adverb of Place
Place adverbials also precede the verb.

For Example

/iɭɭi (here)bə: (come)/ ‘come here’. Here adverb of place is /iŋɡu/ (here)

Adverb of Manner

Like all other adverbs this type also occurs before the verb.

For Example

/meɭane/ ‘slowl’ /ma:ttaʈu/ ‘speak’ ‘Speak slowly’

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 /me:ttuɡaɭa: senta:ke (neatly)ɦaʈa:kku(write)/ ‘Write the words neatly’

Here the adverb of Manner is /meɭane/ (slowly) and /me:ttuɡaɭa:/ (neatly)

H) Interjection
It is that class of grammatical words which are used to show exclamation or other
emotional states of that speaker.

Eg
/e:su uʈʈa: ni: beɻarite/ ‘How tall you have grown!’
/aʋan innuʋe eɭasa:ki toritaʋane/ ‘He seems still young!’

The above mentioned nine-word classes are broadly grouped into two categorie
1) Declinable and
2) Indeclinable.

Declinable are those which are declined for number, gender, person, for examples, noun,
pronouns, adjectives, and verb. Indeclinable are postpositions, conjunctions, adverbs, and
participle.

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 4. SYNTAX

Syntax is the study of the principles and rules for constructing phrases and sentence in
natural language and rules governing the order of combining the words to form sentence in a
language. A syntactic category is a set of words and / or phrases in language which share a
signigicant number of common characteristics. The classiciation is based on similar structure
and sameness identical pattern of distribution (the structural relationship between these
elements and other items in a larger grammatical structure), and not on meaning. The syntax of
solaga is discussed below.

4,1 Word-Order

Word order typology is the study of the order of the syntactic constituents of a language.
The primary word order that is of interest is the relative ordering of subject, object, and verb in
a sentence. The word order in solaga is of SOV (subject-object-verb) pattern.

Examples:

/na:nu (I) ɦakkija: (bird) no:ɖutiʋini (see)/ ‘I see the bird’

/aʋa:n (he) ɦakkija: (bird) no:ɖutaʋane (see)/ ‘He sees the bird’

/na:mu (we)aɭɭiɡa (there) ɦo:tiʋi (go)/ ‘We go there’

/nanna: (my)menaikka(house) ba:(come)/ ‘Come to my house’

/ajina (boy) bittitu (falls)/ ‘The boy falls’

Sometime the object may be absent in simple sentence, as in the case of above sentences.

It consists of subject /ajina/ (boy) and finite verb /bittitu/ (falls).

4.2 Phrases

A phrase is a syntactic structure that consists of more than one word but lacks the
complete subject-predicate organization of a clause. The phrasal sub-division in Solaga as
follows –

Noun Phrase

A noun phrase or nominal phrase, (NP) combines with other words in a noun phrase, optionally
accompanied by modifiers like adjectives and intensifiers.

Examples

/nanna: ɦesaru naravuna/ ‘My name is Narayan’

/oɻɻe ajinaɡə:/ ‘The good boys’

/ninma: meɳaiɡə:/ ‘your (sg) houses’

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Verb Phrase

A verb phrase (VP) is a phrase that has the syntactic role of a simple verb, and is
composed of a main verb and auxiliary verbs or verbal particles related syntactically to the verb.
In generative grammar, a verb phrase is a syntactic unit that corresponds to the predicate. In
addition to the verb, this includes auxiliaries, objects, object complements, and other
constituents apart from the subject. These are inflected for person, number and gender. The
predicate may be a finite intransitive or transitive verb.

Examples
/na:nu toʈʈija: tinttiʋini/ ‘I eat bread’
/aʋan pukka: kaɭittaʋane/ ‘He reads a book’

/oddu mu:ʈaɻu mu:titatə/ ‘The sun rises in the east’

Postpositional phrases

A postpostional is an adpostion that occurs after its complement. An adpostional phrase

is a syntactic category that includes prepositional phrases (PP) and postpositional phrases
(PSP).

Here the postposition is in the head position and usually a complement such as a noun
phrase follows it.

Examples
/kutira be:ɡane o:ʈitate/ ‘Running is done by the horse’
/pushtakka maʤai me:ɭe maʈakijate/ ‘The book is down the table’

Adjectival Phrase

In an adjectival phrase, the adjective acts as the head of the phrase. An adjectival phrase
consists of an adjective followed by a noun, intensifiers or adverbs followed by adjective and
noun, thereby making the structure more complex.

Examples

/oɻɻe ajina/ ‘The good boy’

/nimma iraɖu pukkuɡə/ ‘Two books of yours’

Adverbial Phrase

An adverb is a lexical category whose members have the same syntactic distribution
and which modifies adjectives, other adverbs, verbs, or whole clauses or sentences.

An adverb phrase has an adverb that complements the verb.

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 Examples

/sattake mattaʈa pe:ɖa/ ‘Do not speak loudly’

/me:ttuɡaɭa: senta:ke ɦaʈa:kku/ ‘Write the words neatly’

4.3 Types of Sentences

A sentence is a grammatical unit that is composed of one or more clauses. The sentences
in solaga be classified into

i. Simple Sentence

ii. Complex Sentence

iii. Compound Sentence

The examples are given below according to the data

Simple Sentence

The simple sentence consists of a subject and a predicate. It is a sentence structure that
contains one independent clause and no dependent clauses.

Examples

/na:nu (I) ɦakkija:(bird) no:ɖutiʋini(see)/ ‘I see the bird’

/na:nu (I) toʈʈija: (bread)tinttiʋini (eat)/ ‘I eat bread’

/na:ji(dog) koɭaitte(barks)/ ‘The dog barks’

The predicate may be a finite intransitive or transitive verb. The most common simple
sentence, however, consists of a nominative subject and a finite verb as predicate.

Example

/meɭane (slowly)ma:ttaʈu (speak)/ ‘Speak slowly’

Compound Sentence

A compound sentence is a sentence composed of two or more coordinate clauses. In

Solaga, the connective used are (and, but, so, otherwise, hence)

Examples

and /kottiʋe na:jiʋe iɭɭi ate/ ‘Here is a cat and a dog’

/aɦaɭu keɭasa iruɻu keʈaija:tu/ ‘Workin the day and sleep at night’

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 but /na:nu ninna ʤina bantiren atara nanaɡa usaruiɭa atarinta baraiɭɭa/

‘I would have come yesterday but due to my ill health I did not come’

/ra:ma kirushana bara ke:ɻinan a:tara baraɡa ottuiɭɭa/

‘Rama asked Krishna to come but Krishna had no time’

so /na:ni nanna mi:nu baɭa doɭatatu enta:ki intu aɭakka o:ɦatiɭa/

‘I could not find my fishing net so I did not go to the river today’

otherwise /ni:nu doʈʈa tirukuci kutairare ni:nu e:ɖa tinnutiʋa/

‘You return the money otherwise you will get a beating’

hence /veɻija majai peijaratu kaɳɖu neɭɭu tiɳɖava ka:ɳi/

‘We did not receive the rain sufficiently hence the crops were not good.’

Complex Sentence

A sentence having one principal clause followed by one or more subordinate clause
(s) is known as a complex sentence. The independent clause can stand alone.

Examples

/na:nu ontukaɭuke senta kittita:re na:ɭaikka: barttini/

‘If I am well I will come tomorrow’

In the above sentence principle clause is

/na:ɭɭai/ ‘tomorrow’

/ba/: ‘come’

joined by the /ontukaɭike/ ‘if’ with the subordinate clause

/na:nu/ ‘I’

/ba:/ ‘come’

Sentences in solaga further be sub-classified into-

a. Statement Sentence

b. Interrogative Sentence

c. Imperative Sentence

d. Purposive Sentence

e. Potential Sentence
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 f. Conditional Sentence
g. Negative Sentence
h. Causative Sentence
i. Passive Sentence

Statement Sentence
The sentence which affirms a statement
/na:nu ɦakkija: no:ɖutiʋini/ ‘I see the bird’
Interrogative Sentence
The sentence which indicate a question like –
/ninna ɦesaru e:na/ ‘What is your name?’
Imperative Sentence
The sentence which implies a request, a command, an advice etc
/nina: maɡaɭa kaɽa/ ‘Call your daughter’
Purposive Sentence
The sentence which expresses a purpose like –
/a: kutiraija: marakku/ ‘That horse is to be sold’
Potential Sentence
When the potentiality is expressed in a sentence, it thus called
/na:nu bartini/ ‘I may come’
Conditional Sentence
When two actions are conditional by each other in a single sentence.
/kutiraika rekkai aʋaika a:ɽi o:ɦipuʈatu/
‘If horses had wings they would have flown’
Passive Sentence
The sentence where the main action is expressed in passive is called passive sentence.
/toʈʈija: na:ne tintuʈuʋini/ ‘Bread is being eaten by me’
/pushtaɡaʋa aʋa:n o:tuʈida:n/ ‘The book was being read by him’

Causative Sentence
The causative sentence are formed by suffixing causative markers to the the verb which
various according to the person. When the subject causes some agent to do the action we get
causative sentence.
/na:nu kutiraija: o:ʈisipuʈutini/ ‘I am making the horse run’

Negative Sentence
The sentence which expresses the negation are called so.
/itu aɖiɡa maʈaka a:ɡatiɭɭa/ ‘This is not edible’
/kiccana daɳɖe o:ɡa be:ʈa/ ‘Do not go near the fire’

Structure of Phrases

A phrase is a syntactic structure that consists of more than one word but lacks the
631
complete subject-predicate organization of a clause. The phrasal sub-division in Solaga as
follows

Noun Phrase

A noun phrase or nominal phrase, (NP) combines with other words in a noun phrase,
optionally accompanied by modifiers like adjectives and intensifiers.

Examples

/nanna: ɦesaru naravuna/ ‘My name is Narayan’

/oɻɻe ajinaɡə:/ ‘The good boys’

/ninma: meɳaiɡə:/ ‘your (sg) houses’

Verb Phrase

A verb phrase (VP) is a phrase that has the syntactic role of a simple verb, and is
composed of a main verb and auxiliary verbs or verbal particles related syntactically to the verb.
In generative grammar, a verb phrase is a syntactic unit that corresponds to the predicate. In
addition to the verb, this includes auxiliaries, objects, object complements, and other
constituents apart from the subject. These are inflected for person, number and gender. The
predicate may be a finite intransitive or transitive verb.

Examples

/na:nu toʈʈija: tinttiʋini/ ‘I eat bread’

/aʋan pukka: kaɭittaʋane/ ‘He reads a book’

/oddu mu:ʈaɻu mu:titatə/ ‘The sun rises in the east’

Postpositional Phrases

A postpostional is an adpostion that occurs after its complement. An adpostional phrase

is a syntactic category that includes prepositional phrases (PP) and postpositional phrases
(PSP).

Here the postposition is in the head position and usually a complement such as a noun
phrase follows it.

Examples

/kutira be:ɡane o:ʈitate/ ‘Running is done by the horse’

/pushtakka maʤai me:ɭe maʈakijate/ ‘The book is down the table’

Adjectival Phrase

In an adjectival phrase, the adjective acts as the head of the phrase. An adjectival phrase
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consists of an adjective followed by a noun, intensifiers or adverbs followed by adjective and
noun, thereby making the structure more complex.

Examples

/oɻɻe ajina/ ‘The good boy’

/nimma iraɖu pukkuɡə/ ‘Two books of yours’

Adverbial Phrase

An adverb is a lexical category whose members have the same syntactic distribution
and which modifies adjectives, other adverbs, verbs, or whole clauses or sentences.

An adverb phrase has an adverb that complements the verb.

Examples

/sattake mattaʈa pe:ɖa/ ‘Do not speak loudly’

/me:ttuɡaɭa: senta:ke ɦaʈa:kku/ ‘Write the words neatly’

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 5. TEXT
Two friends and a bear
/erəʈɨ cinecidəʋərɨ ondɨ kəraɖi/.

Tow friends ramu and shyamu walked through a forest.

/ra:muʋə sa:muʋə erəʈɨ cinettəka:rɨʋə ka:ʈʊddarijɛ nəɖʊdʊɖiddarɨ/

They promised each other that they would remain united in case of any danger.
/ibbərɨʋə e:ʋə a:boddɨ bəndarɨʋə piriccəkilɛndɨ cəttijə maɖɨn katɨdarili
joɡaɡa a:ɡa kərəɖi bəndəkiddɨ/

Ramu climbed a tree. Shyamu did not know how to climb a tree.
/ra:mu: be:ɡəne məra e:rɨna so:miɡa məra e:rədɨ koddillɛ/

He told his friend “I do not know how to climb a tree please help” but Ramu did not
respond.
/məra e:rədɨ nɛppilə e:rəda to:rikkɔɖɨ ra:mu ədɨ kəɳəʋɛjdə/.

In fear and grief Shyam lay down on the ground breathless.

/samiɡɛjnə maɖɨɖəndi koddilɛ əɲcʊɖɨ nəɖʊɡʊɖɨ cu:ləpʊʈʊdəʋɛ nɛlədəkəʈʊdɨnə/.

The bear came near the man lying on the ground it smelt in his ears and slowly
left the place, because bears do not touch dead creatures.

/ɖa:minadəɳɖɛ kəkkərəɖi bənda kiddɨ sa:mu kɛɖɨdirəɡa kərəɖi bəndɨ/

muccinoɖi ko:ʈʈoddɨ e:kkɛndarɛ cəttəʋəra kərəɖi mʊʈʈəɡɨda/
Afters the bear left Ramu came down form the tree and asked his friend Shyam, “friend
what did the bear tell you into your ears”?
/kərəɖi odamelɛ ra:mu bəndɨ məra ulɨɡi sa:mu: bəndɨ kelɨdəʋənə cinettəka:ra: kərəɖi/ bəndɨ
ninɛ kiʋikkɛ e:ne:ɺɨddɨ/.

Shyam replied, the bear advised me not to trust a friend who leaves you in times of
trouble to save himself.
/aʋəna kɔnɖɨɡɨ kaʈinə pʊʈʈakki sa:mɨ darije oʈʈona/.

Saying this shyam walked in own way leaving ramu alone in the forest.
/to:mɨ axadidda kalʊtəli udəʋa:tə mənɨcəna nəmbabəɖɛndɨ kərəɖi e:ɺʊddɨ/.

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 6. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Diana M Morte, T. G. 2011, February 10). The Soliga , an isolated tribe from Southern
India: Genetic Diversity an p. Journal of Human Genetics, 258-269.
For the Educational Social & Economics Upliftment of Social Tribes . (2018, April 1).
Retrieved from Schedule Tribes Welfare Department: tw.kar.nic.in
List of Standard Tribes In Tamil Nadu . (n.d.). Retrieved from Tn Tribal Welfare:
tn.gov.in
PHD, M. T & Mallikarjun, B. (Eds.). (2002, August 5). Mother Tongues of India
According To The 1961 Census. Retrieved from Language In India:
languageinindia.com
Si, A. (2012). The traditional ecological knowledge of Solaga- A linguistic perspective.

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 TODA

Soumi Banerjee

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Toda Tribe

People of the Toda Tribe live in the Nilgiri District of Tamil Nadu state. Todas are a
small community who lives on the isolated Nilgiri plateau. They live in coexistence with the
Kotas, Kurumbas and Badagas. Todas are known by several names like Tudas, Todovas,
Tudavans, Toras and Todargal. Whereas Toda people identify themselves as ‘aljot’. The
Government of India has identified Toda tribe as one of the primal tribes of India. J.W. Breeks
in 1873 in his book ‘Primitive Tribes and Monuments of the Nilgiris’ mentioned that Todas
believe that their ancestors always inhabited the Nilgiris and they do not have any knowledge
of migration from some different place. Various speculations have been made over the years
on the origin and migration of the Toda of Nilgiris. According to some researchers, Todas have
descended from Ravana, some opine that they were descended from Pandavas. Another version
is that they are the surviving Pallava race who took refuge in the Nilgiri Region soon after their
fall. Some scholars believe that they are migrated long ago from Rome or Sumatra. According
to P.K. Nambiar, previous history and migration of Todas are uncertain and lost in antiquity.
They do not have any legend or literature of their own. Toda songs describe the current local
events and do not throw any light on their past.

Todas used to lead a pastoral life by shifting their residential settlements from one place
to another along with their families and buffaloes in search of grazing lands, water and water-
bound shola forests. As lacto-vegetarian people they were completely dependent on milk and
milk products of buffalo. During the last years of British rule, most of Toda familes got their
cultivatable land from Government. Due to unavailability of grazing lands in and around higher
altitudes of their habitat they have finally settled down permanently. They started rearing
buffaloes in and around the area of their settellements or ‘mund’s. Gradually new settlers from
plains started to inflow around their munds and on cultivatable lands owned by non-tribal
communities, various crops started to be cultivated. In this way modernity entered into their
lives through the purchase of milk by others and embroidered shawls by tourists. Formal
education in schools and the market economy contributed to transition from their traditional
occupational activities to a modern type of mixed economy.

It is believed that the name Toda has been originated from the sacred ‘Tud’ tree. They
used to live in unique half-barrel-shaped houses. Their settlement or ‘munds’ are uni-ethnic
villages where only Toda people live. The places Todas chose for their permanent ‘munds’ are
good pastures with a shola and running water nearby. In Nilgiri district, Todas live in 69
settlements. A typical Toda settlement comprises three to nine dwelling huts, one to three dairy
huts which are their temple (‘trieri’ in Toda), at least one buffalo pen (circular open shelter),
one or more calf sheds and sometimes also a separate calf pen. Toda huts are usually built
together, in a row or a line and a single hut or line of houses is usually surrounded by a low-
level stone fence with a narrow entrance.
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 Toda people are comparatively fair in colour, tall, strong-built and well-shaped. Women
of this tribe maintain striking type of hairstyles. The traditional garment of a Toda is known as
‘put kuli’, is of thicks white cotton cloth with red and blue stripes which is embellished further
with embroidery. It is thrown like a shawl around the body by men and women. Simple
jewellery is worn by both men and women.

The Todas are vegetarians and do not eat meat, eggs, or fish (although some villagers
do eat fish). The buffalos are milked in a holy dairy. Buffalo milk is used in a variety of forms:
butter, butter milk, yogurt, cheese and also drunk plain. Rice is a staple, eaten with dairy
products and curries. A typical meal consists of rice, either boiled in buttermilk and served with
butter, or cooked in water and eaten with spiced vegetables. The meal is usually followed by a
glass of buttermilk or a glass of coffee, prepared with milk and sweetened with jaggery, a type
of brown sugar. The Todas are vegetarians and consume no meat, although in the past the flesh
of the sacrificed buffalo calf was ritually consumed.

Toda society is a patrilineage i.e. a descent groups whose membership is based upon a
rule of patrilineal descent. The Toda community is divided into two endogamous groups,
namely Tharthazoll, Thevelioll. In Toda society, the clan is a definite unit in the social
organization with a certain amount of power in regulating its own affairs. Moreover, clan
system is territorial. Each clan owns a number of munds (Toda settlements) and takes its name
from the chief of these munds. The members of a clan have many common rights and privileges
which bind them together.

Endogamy and exogamy both types of marriages are commonly practiced among Todas.
Monogamy is an ideal norm. Residence after marriage is patrilocal. Divorce, remarriage of
divorcee, widow, and widower is permissible. Inheritance follows the male line and the
succession right develops upon the eldest son.

Culture

The forced interaction with other people with technology has caused a lot of changes
in the lifestyle of the Toda. They used to be primarily a pastoral people but now, they are
increasingly venturing into agriculture and other occupations. They used to be strict vegetarians
but now, some people eat meat. Although many Toda people abandoned their traditional
distinctive huts for houses made of concrete, in the early 21st century, a movement developed
to build the traditional barrel-vaulted huts. From 1995 to 2005, forty new huts were built in this
style, and many Toda sacred dairies were renovated. Each has a narrow stone pit around it and

637
the tiny door is held shut with a heavy stone. Only the priests may enter it. It is also used for
storage of sacred buffalo milk.

Toda settlements in the Nilgiri district

Embroidery

The Registrar of Geographical Indication gave GI status for this unique embroidery, a
practice which has been passed on to generations. The status ensures uniform pricing for Toda
embroidery products and provides protection against low-quality duplication of the art.

Location

The Nilgiri District is located between 11’ N to 12’N and 76’15’ E it is a part of Tamil
Nadu state and also a part of the Western ghats, chain of mountains. The Nilgiri district is a
hilly area of 2549 sq. kms., with an average elevation of 6500 ft. The district is bound on the
west by Kerala, on the north by Karnataka and on the southeast by Coimbatore district of Tamil
Nadu.

Folklore

According to the traditional Toda folklore, humans and their buffaloes were created by
the god Ön (Ö·n). One day, Ön and his wife went up to a plateau at the top of the Kundah
Range in the Nilgiris. He set up an iron bar stretching from one end of the plateau to the other.
Ön stood at one end of the bar and brought out 1,600 buffaloes from the earth. Hanging on to
the tail of the last buffalo was a man, who was the first Toda. Ön's buffaloes were the ancestors
of the Todas' sacred herds. Ön took a rib from the right side of the man's body and created the
first Toda woman from it. Ön's wife stood at the other end of the iron bar and brought forth
1,800 buffaloes, from which all the Todas' secular buffaloes are descended.

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 Toda deities in general seem to be anthropomorphic developments of hill spirits, i.e.,
they are described or thought of as human. They live very much like the Todas, residing on the
high peaks of the Nilgiris and tending their herds of buffalo.

Religion

The Toda religion centers on the sanctity of the buffalo. Todas have a pantheon of
deities, out of them immense importance has been given to buffalo dairies. Toda dairies and
their herds are assigned varying degrees of sanctity, each level being subject to more elaborate
and complex ritual practices. Temple-dairies and their sacred herds of buffalo form the focus
of Toda ritual life. In each Toda settlement, weekly observances are kept to honor its dairy, and
special ceremonies are performed when necessary to restore its ritual purity. The naming of a
female buffalo, the first milking of a temple buffalo, or the giving of salt to buffaloes all require
specific rituals. Buffalo-sacrifice continues to be performed at Toda funerals.

The most important goddess of the Todas is Tökisy (Tö·kisy). Modern Todas believe
that she, rather than her brother ‘Ön’, created the Todas and their buffaloes. The Todas revere
the "gods of the mountains," said to reside on the Nilgiri peaks, and the gods associated with
the sacred dairies. Today, many traditional Todas worship Hindu deities, such as Shiva,
Marriamman, and Aiyappan, and participate in pilgrimages to Hindu sacred places.

These days many Todas are accepting the Christian religion. A small community of
Toda Christians has also been formed.

1.2. Family Affiliation of Toda Language

Toda language belongs to the Dravidian family of languages. It can be traced to proto-
Dravidian roots. It splits off from South Dravidian, after Kannada and Telugu, but before
Malayalam. In modern linguistic terms, the aberration of Toda results from a disproportionately
high number of syntactic and morphological rules, of both early and recent derivation, which
are not found in the other South Dravidian languages (It comes under Proto-South Dravidian
family which includes Tamil, Malayalam, Irula, Kodagu, Kurumba, Kota Badaga, Kannada,
Koraga, Tulu. Toda and Kota languages share many common features and vocabulary.
According to Sir G.A. Grierson’s ‘Munda and Dravidian Languages’ Volume-4 of Linguistic
Survey of India, Toda is a language from Dravidian group and has a close affinity with Kanarese
(Kannada) language. He did not provide detailed information regarding the Toda language. He
referred to Bishop Caldwell’s brief note on Toda language mentioning that ‘Toda, properly
Tuda, is the language of the Tudas or Tudavars, primitive and peculiarly interesting tribe
inhabiting the Neilgherry hills. It is now regarded as certain that the Tudas were not the original
inhabitants of those hills, though it is still far from certain who the original inhabitants were…
The language seems to have been originally old Canarese, and not a distinct dialect. The Tudas
were probably immigrants from the Canarese country and have dwelt in the Nilgiris for about

639
800 years…”

Grierson’s classification of Dravidian Language family

Source: The Dravidian Languages by Badriraju Krishnamurti (Page No. 21)

Other languages used by Toda Tribe

People of Toda tribe live in close proximity to Kota Tribe and Badaga in The Nilgiris
area. Therefore, Toda people are familiar with Kota and Badaga languages. However, as Tamil
is the official language of the state, it is used as the lingua franca of the region.

1.3. Speakers’ Strength

Toda speakers are less than 10,000 in number. Therefore, number of Toda speakers are
not published in Census 2011 data. However according to Census 1961, Toda was spoken by a
total of 760 speakers. Out of them, 755 speakers were available in Tamil Nadu and 5 of them
were from Maharashtra. As per Census 2011, Toda tribe has a total of 2,002 population, out of
them 1,509 (Male- 720, Female- 789) are from the Nilgiris district.

1.4. Sociolinguistic Information

Language use in different domains-

a) Home - Toda is predominantly used in home domain. Speakers use it to communicate

with their family members and neighbours. Outside their localities or ‘munds’, they use Tamil
as lingua franca for general and official conversation.

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 b) School – Toda is not used as a medium of instruction at any level of education and it is
not taught as a subject also.

c) Mass Media – In Mass Media, Toda is not used generally. These days a monthly
magazine named ‘Key stone’ is published. This magazine mostly contains news of marriages
and deaths.

d) Administration & Judiciary - In Administration and Judiciary sector, Toda is not used.
Tamil and English are used for official work.

e) Script – Toda is mostly an oral or unwritten language. These days Tamil or Roman
scripts are used for writing in Toda.

1.5. Basis of the Report

Toda has been surveyed under the Mother Tongue Survey of India (MTSI) Project of
Ministry of Home Affairs of Government of India in 2014. The linguistic data has been
collected in audio-visual mode from Udagamandalam taluka of Nilgiri district of Tamil Nadu
from eight informants. These data have been transcribed and analysed by Ms. Malini, Mr. M.
Ramesh Kumar, Dr. V. Alagumuthu of Central Institute of Indian Languages, Mysore.

These four sets of transcription and analysis are consolidated by eminent Professors.
Moreover, a fresh survey has also been conducted in Nilgiri district by inhouse linguist in order
to supplement the MTSI survey results for preparing the Linguistic Survey of India, Tamil
Nadu volume. Informant’s name is Ms. Jayantra and she is of 38 years of age. She has done
MA, B.Ed in English Literature. Currently she is working as a teacher in school.

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 2. PHONOLOGY

2.1 Introduction

Phonology is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages. The
phonological system of a language includes an inventory of sounds and their features and rules
which specify how sounds interact with each other. Phonemic analysis helps in allotting all the
indefinite number of sounds occurring in utterances to a definite and limited set of phonemes
contrastive in at least some environment.

The Phonological system of Toda is presented below based on the data collected from
the informant of Tamil Nadu during the field investigation. The phonemic inventory of Toda
consists of 39 segmental phonemes. Out of 39 segmental phonemes there are 9 vowels and 30
consonant phonemes.

2.2 Phonetic Vowel Chart

Front Central Back

Close i u
Near close ɯ
Close mid e o
Mid ə
Open mid ɔ
Near open ӕ
Open a

2.3 Phonemic Contrast

A phoneme is the smallest contrastive unit in the sound system of a language which
causes meaning differences. Minimal pairs in the data exemplify the phonemic contrast
available in the language. Examples of phonemic contrasts in Toda are as follows.

2.3.1 Contrast in Vowel

/ӕ/~/ə/ /ɡӕɽ/ ‘pond’ - /ɡəɽ/ ‘bear’

/ə/~/ӕ/ /ɡӕɽ/ ‘pond’ - /ɡəɽ/ ‘bear’

/a/~/i/ /allu/ ‘there’ - /illu/ ‘here’

/ ə / ~ / ə̃ / /ədɯ / ‘and’ - /ə̃dɯ / ‘that’

/ ɔ / ~ / a/ /ɔn/ ‘I’ - /an/ ‘elepant’

/a/~/e/ /aɟ/ ‘worm’ - /eɟ/ ‘today’

/e/~/a/ /er/ ‘bull’ - /ar/ ‘house’

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 / u / ~ / a/ /uc/ ‘needle’- /ac/ ‘insect’

/ ə / ~ / a/ /ɡəɽ/ ‘stone’ - /ɡaɽ/ ‘field’

/o/~/a/ /mocci/ ‘chair’ - /macci/ ‘cot’

/ a/ ~ / a / /paɽ/ ‘milk’ - /paɽ/ ‘roof’

2.3.2 Distribution of Vowels

Vowel Initial Medial Final

/idɯ / ‘this’ /nijӕ/ ‘yourself’ /uɖɯ ʋi/ ‘if’
/ipoɽm/ ‘week’ /dojirm/ ‘brave’ /adӕtoni/ ‘itself’
/i/ /idɯ / ‘this’ /titsarʋ/ ‘fever’ /ədəɡɔji/ ‘or’
/iʈ/ ‘barley’ /ɡittər/ ‘sitar’ /nəɖi/ ‘acting’
/id/ ‘flour’ /dib/ ‘copper’ /boɔkori/ ‘flute’
/eɽu/ ‘thunder’ /oɭeʋ/ ‘bad’ /uɻce/ ‘into’
/eɽb/ ‘ant’ /meli/ ‘hungry’ /mukkije/ ‘over’
/e/
/ebuʋ/ ‘leech’ /neji/ ‘ghee’ /ӕkɯ ʃtəɳije/ ‘to
confirm’
/ӕtci/ ‘to dwell’ /bӕji/ ‘thick’ /oʃtijӕ/ ‘soft’
/ӕ/ /ӕjisərsertu/ ‘to cry’ /nӕb/ ‘fire’ /uttijӕ/ ‘little’
/ӕɽəkiji/ ‘east’ /bӕr/ ‘rock’ /nijӕ/ ‘yourself’
/aɭək/ ‘alone’ /paɡɔ:l/ ‘day’ /bã/ ‘rain’
/aɳil/ ‘squirrel’ /nari/ ‘jackal’
/a/
/aɖi/ ‘pot’ /paɽi/ ‘lizard’
/sarmən/ ‘alluminium’
/əfiʃk/ ‘yawn’ /dəm/ ‘cow’ /ɡɯ ɡhə/ ‘she’
/ə/ /ədɯ / ‘and’ /nərʋ/ ‘vein’ /paɳiʋəɡə/ ‘kindly’
/ədə:m/ ‘they’ /fəɭɯ / ‘bangel /aɡmə/ ‘rope’
/uʃə̃r/ ‘alive’ /pudi/ ‘ash’ /kɔɽu/ ‘mud’
/u/ /uɻɖkaj/ ‘palm’ /purə:n/ ‘centipede’ /eɽu/ ‘thunder’
/uʃtci/ ‘chicken pox’ /ebuʋ/ ‘leech’ /bobu/ ‘hawk’
/oɭeʋ/ ‘bad’ /somӕrd/ ‘smart’ ---
/o/ /oʃtijӕ/ ‘soft’ /kosɯ / ‘mosquito’
/osti:t/ ‘health’ /kort/ ‘dwarf’
/bɯ kə̃l/ ‘cough’ /sinɯ / ‘tusk’
/ɯ/ --- /kɯ n/ ‘loin cloth’ /fəɭɯ / ‘bangal’
/dɯ ʋə:r/ ‘forest’ /fərɯ / ‘to gossip’
/ɔpʧɽi aʧ/ ‘dung bug’ /mɔɡʋi/ ‘blunt’ /mɔ/ ‘sell’
/ɔ/ /ɔsterb/ ‘handkerchief’ /kɔɽ/ ‘umbrella’ /fɔ/ ‘come’
/ɔhʋiɔɽ/ ‘enemy’ /kɔɽu/ ‘mud’

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2.3.3 Phonemic Consonant Chart

There are altogether 30 consonant phones. The phonemic chart of all the consonants of
Toda is presented below:

Labio-
Bilabial Dental Alveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar Glottal
dental

vl vd vl vd vl vd vl vd vl vd

t d ʈ ɖ k ɡ
Plosive p
b
tʰ dʰ ʈʰ ɖʰ kʰ ɡʰ

c ɟ
Affricate

Nasal m n

Trill r

Tap, Flap ɾ ɽ

Fricative f θ s z h

Approximant ʋ j

Lateral
l ɻ
approximant

2.3.4 Phonemic Contrast

A phoneme is the smallest contrastive unit in the sound system of a language. A study
of minimal pairs in the data exemplifies the phonemic contrast available in the mother tongue.
These are used to demonstrate that two sounds exist as two separate segmental phonemes in
the language. Examples of consonantal segments in Toda are as follows:

/b/~/k/ /eɽb/ ‘ant’ - /eɽk/ ‘under’

/r/~/n/ /bi:r/ ‘sun’ - /bi:n/ ‘father’s father’

/ɭ/~/r/ /fəɭɯ / ‘bangel’- /fərɯ / ‘to gossip’

/ɡ/~/n/ /ɡӕɽ/ ‘pond’ - /nӕɽ/ ‘paddy’

/ɭ/~/t/ /jə̃ɭɯ / ‘where’ - /jə̃:tɯ / ‘which’

/ʃ/~/b/ /nӕ:ʃ/ ‘shade’ - /nӕb/ ‘fire’

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 /m/~/b/ /mi:n/ ‘Fish’ - /bi:n/ ‘father’s father’

/k/~/t/ /enkɯ / ‘to me’- /entɯ / ‘my’

/ʃ/~/ɖ/ /fəʃtɯ / ‘to hide’- /fəɖtɯ / ‘to leave’

/n/~/c/ /a:n/ ‚elepant’- /a:c/ ‘insect’

/r/~/c/ /a:r/ ‘house’- /a:c/ ‘insect’

/c/~/n/ /a:c/ ‘insect’- /a:n/ ‘elepant’

/n/~/r/ /a:n/ ‘elepant’- /a:r/ ‘house’

/ɡ/~/b/ /bo:ɡ/ ‘blood’- /bo:b/ ‘snake’

/t/~/b/ /ti:r/ ‘breath’- /bi:r/ ‘sun’

/p/~/t/ /pi:r/ ‘stomach’- /ti:r/ ‘breath’

/b/~/p/ /bi:r/ ‘sun’ - /pi:r/ ‘stomach’

/n/~/m/ /na:ʋ/ ‘tongue’- /ma:ʋ/ ‘deer’

/ɽ/~/ʃ/ /nӕɽ/ ‘paddy’ - /nӕ:ʃ/ ‘shade’

/t/~/ʋ/ /tiriktɔcci/ ‘to remove’ - /tirikʋɔcci/ ‘to return’

2.3.5 Distribution of Consonants

Consonant Initial Medial Final

/pudhən/ ‘fresh’ /ipo:ɽm/ ‘week’ /i:p/ ‘fly’

/peɽnӕl/ ‘empty’ /kepɯ / ‘hill’ /ki:p/ ‘broom’

/p/ /pəʋan/ ‘old’ /təpʃi/ ‘to escape’ /erʋəlӕp/ ‘rain hat’

/pəlu/ ‘blouse’ /uppumo:ʋ:ist/ ‘danger’ /ke:p/ ‘broom’

/pər/ ‘coat’ /se:mpeʈse:m/ ‘state’

/bӕji/ ‘thick’ /kabankuɖi/ ‘strong’ /nӕb/ ‘fire’

/b/ /biddijӕ/ ‘smartly’ /ebuʋ/ ‘leech’ /bo:b/ ‘snake’

/bӕr/ ‘rock’ /kiʃbiɭu/ ‘mouse’ /pudəʃb/ ‘heel’

/f/ /fɔkci/ ‘to pain’ /ɡə:fɡɔt/ ‘cheek’ /u:f/ ‘back(of body)’

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Consonant Initial Medial Final

/fəɭiɡistɯ /‘curved’ /əfiʃk/ ‘yawn’ /pəf/ ‘kick’

/fӕ:ɭ/ ‘finger’ /afərsmi/ ‘to frighten’ /kəf/ ‘sing’

/unboθ/ ‘nine’
/iθam/ ‘these’
/θ/ --- /ᴂboθ/ ‘fifty’
/aθam/ ‘those’
/murɔθ/ ‘third’

/tappijӕ/ ‘badly’ /kɯ kɛ̃tar/ ‘mare’ /pi:rpirst/ ‘sunset’

/t/ /tana:ʋ/ ‘mother’ /naɖətɯ / ‘to walk’ /tio:kt/ ‘fart’

/tio:kt/ ‘fart’ /fəɖtɯ / ‘to leave’ /sillet/ ‘urine’

/kʋətʰjur/ ‘claw‘

/tʰ/ --- /pɔtʰ judam/ ‘bed‘ /suʋtʰi/ hammer

/ku:tʰipeʈ/ ‘wheat‘

/dɔ̃ʋ/ ‘pillar’ /pudi/ ‘Ash’ /ɡɔ̃d/ ‘cat’

/d/ /duʋe:l/ ‘towel’ /eɽdõm/ ‘buffalo’ /ti:bid/ ‘sneeze’

/daɽk/ ‘plate’ /ti:bid/ ‘sneeze’ /donbad/ ‘beef’

/bĩ:dʰ/ ‘flesh’

/dʰ/ /didʰkaʈutu/ ‘forest festival‘ /pĩdʰ/ ‘seed’

/kacidʰ/ ‘education’

/ɡɔ:ʈɽə/ ‘horn’ /kəɽɔʈ/ ‘child’

/ʈ/ /ʈӕʃʋicci/ ‘to release’ /iʃʈri/ ‘soap’ /enoɻʈ/ ‘husband’

/ni:ʈtɯ / ‘to step over’ /ɟa:kiʈ/ ‘blouse’

/kɔ̃:ɖar/ ‘yak’
/ɖӕ:ttətɯ/ ‘to swim’
/iɖ/ ‘flour’
/ɖ/ /ke:ɖit/ ‘death’
/ɖəp pɪrts/ ‘pack in to a
/tuɖ/ ‘war’
box’ /maɖuperi/ ‘turban’

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Consonant Initial Medial Final

/kepɯ / ‘hill’ /orakal/ ‘fog’ /aɭək/ ‘alone’

/k/ /kɔɽu/ ‘mud’ /hɔkoji/ ‘to admit’ /eɽk/ ‘under’

/kə:k/ ‘crow’ /solkiʃi/ ‘to roar’ /aɽɔ:ʈk/ ‘heat’

/bɛʃkʰə:c/ ‘moth’

/kʰ/ /kʰəʋəʋi ɡub/ ‘spinster’ /ti:rkʰuɭi/ ‘comb’ /amokʰ/ ‘he’

/ekʰu/ ‘steel’

/ɡoɭə:l/ ‘bachelor’ /a:ɡmə/ ‘rope’

/ɡ/ /ɡɔ̃d/ ‘cat’ /tӕɡaɖɯ ʋi/ ‘weak’ /bo:ɡ/ ‘blood’

/ɡo:rm/ ‘curry’ /fə̃diɡi/ ‘far’

/pãɡʰə/ ‘tobacco’ /mɔ̃ɡʰ/ ‘son’

/ɡʰ/ /ɡʰɛ:r/ ‘dead body’
/ɡɔ:ɡʰə/ ‘female’ /ɡuɡʰ/ ‘daughter’

/hə̃dh/ ‘slope’
/rehəɖʋərt/ ‘day’
/h/ /həɽsni/ ‘to feel’ ---
/erɔhɔ/ ‘ground’
/hoɟittu/ ‘to scream’

/muɻi/ ‘clever’ /omɯ / ‘we’ /dojirm/ ‘brave’

/m/ /meli/ ‘slowly’ /paɖəmɯ / ‘picture’ /ədə:m/ ‘they’

/madəɻk/ ‘before /paɽma:rk/ ‘south’ /ipo:ɽm/ ‘week’

/nu:ʈi/ ‘towards’ /idɯ nə:rm/ ‘yet’ /bo:n/ ‘sky’

/n/ /nӕb/ ‘fire’ /ɔ:ɽinɔ/ ‘whom’ /a:n/ ‘elepant’

/nəɽti/ ‘nature’ /ɔ:nɯ / ‘myself’ /mi:n/ ‘fish’

/surəŋɡəm/ ‘cave’ /ubə:sdɔʈr/ ‘asthma’ /aɭʋəʈs/ ‘to stop’

/s/ /se:li/ ‘sari’ /nəuɽusəm/ ‘midnight’ /idɯ nas/ ‘out of’

/sinʋil/ ‘ring’ /pi:rpirst/ ‘sunset’ /aɭʋəʈs/ ‘to stop’

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Consonant Initial Medial Final

/si:rɔ:j/ ‘cuminseed’

/sɔkke:r/ ‘sugar’

/dɔʃttɯ / ‘to guide’ /ӕɡi:ʃ/ ‘how’

/ʃ/ --- /nӕʃt/ ‘to weave’ /õmkӕʃ/ ‘to us’

/eʃʋi/ ‘to tell’ /ɔɖɯ dɔ:ʃ/ ‘without’

/kəz/ ‘stone’

/z/ --- /kəzʋar/ ‘rock’ /itz/ ‘five’

/næz/ ‘shade’

/fɔ̃:ci/ ‘pain’

/ӕtci/ ‘to dwell’ /ĩɽc/ ‘rat’

/maɽcim/ ‘again’ /piɽc/ ‘tiger

/c/ --- /tecɪt̠/ ‘to thread’ /u:c/ ‘needle’

/i:ci:/ ‘to become’ /muʈɪkӕc/‘widow’

/pɔ:rnmɪcuc/ ‘fog’ /kʰɔ:c/ ‘air’

/ɟa:kiʈ/ ‘blouse’ /pi:kɟi/ ‘to joke’ /eɟ/ ‘today’

/ɟɑ:kkӕʈ/ ‘blouse’ /tiʈӕɟi/ ‘climb’ /moɟ/ ‘buttermilk’

/eɟikittɯ / ‘to hang up’ /a:ʋӕɟ/ ‘steam’

/rɑ:ɟɑ:li/ ‘vulture’
/ ɟ/
/ɔɟӕrt̠/ ‘to fighten’

/ɔɟɔ:ʃ/ ‘brave’

/rɔ:ɟmɔ:/ ‘prince’

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Consonant Initial Medial Final

/rɑ:ɳɪ/ ‘gueen’ /ni:ru/ ‘water’ /duʋə:r/ ‘still’

/r/ /ro:ɟ/ ‘king’ /na:rəi/ ‘crane’ /bi:r/ ‘sun’

/ra:ni ɡo/ ‘princess’ /bӕrc/ ‘life’ /dhər/ ‘valley’

/ɾ/ /muɾʃt̠/ ‘to break (stick)’

/eɽu/ ‘thunder’ /ɡӕɽ/ ‘pond’

/ɽ/ --- /puɽə:/ ‘pigeon’ /ɡə:ɽ/ ‘bear’

/eɽmə̃ɳ/ ‘sand’ /nӕɽ/ ‘paddy’

/malerijə/ ‘malaria’ /paɡɔ:l/ ‘day’

/l/ --- /se:li/ ‘sari’ /peruʋel/ ‘fast’

/kũɖlɯ / ‘hut’ /kujil/ ‘Cuckoo’

/nɔ̃ɭi/ ‘stream’ /na:ɭ/ ‘date’

/ɭ/ --- /a:ɭər/ ‘through’ /uɭñə:ɭ/ ‘spring’

/fəɭɯ / ‘bangal’ /a:ɭ/ ‘male’

/ki:ɻɯ / ‘bolt’

/paɻʋi/ ‘to love’ /phaɻ/ ‘flood’

/ɻ/ --- /e:ɻi/ ‘poor’ /ikiɻ/ ‘earthworm’

/kɔɻɪʋi/ ‘wasp’ /pʰɪɻ/ ‘silver’

/u:ɻɪ/ ‘onion’

/ʋaʃk/ ‘pestle’ /kiʋi/ ‘ear’ /oɭeʋ/ ‘bad’

/ʋ/ /ʋɛ̃ki:t/ ‘to rest’ /kuɻəʋi/ ‘wasp’ /kɛ̃ʋ/ ‘pus’

/ʋӕsərti/ ‘to dislike’ /perʋərtu/ ‘to kiss’ /ma:ʋ/ ‘deer’

/jurcci/ ‘to plead’ /kukɔji/ ‘not’

/j/ /uɻɖkaj/ ‘palm’
/jə̃:tɯ / ‘which’ /ədəɡɔji/ ‘or’

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 Consonant Initial Medial Final

/jə̃ɭɯ / ‘where’ /bӕji/ ‘thick’

2.4 Major Allophonic Distribution

An allophone is a phonetic variant of a phoneme in a particular language. Although a

phoneme’s allophones are all alternative pronunciation for a phoneme, the specific allophone
selected in a given situation is often predictable. The data show the following allophonic
variation –

Phoneme /n/ has two allophones /n/, /ŋ/

/ŋ/ (before/after velar consonant)

/n/

/n/ (occurs elsewhere)

Examples:

/nəɽti/ ‘nature’

(this /ŋ/ in other places acts as a separate phoneme)

/siŋɡəm/ ‘lion’

/ũjiŋɡiʃt/ ‘to grab’

/ӕ:ŋɡʋiʃi/ ‘to sigh’

Phoneme /l/ has two allophones /ɻ/, /ɭ/

/ɭ/ (before retroflex consonant)

/l/

/ɻ/ (occurs elsewhere)

/nɔ̃ɭi/ ‘stream’

/a:ɭər/ ‘through’

/fəɭɯ / ‘bangel’

/ki:ɻɯ / ‘bolt’

/paɻʋi/ ‘to love’

/e:ɻi/ ‘poor’

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 /kɔɻɪʋi/ ‘wasp’

/u:ɻɪ/ ‘onion’

2.5 Diphthongs

From quality point of view, vowel sounds are of two types: monophthong and
diphthong. Monophthongs are pure vowels and diphthongs are gliding vowels. A vowel which
does not change in quality may be called a monophthong and a vowel sound continually
changeing quality may be called a diphthong. Diphthong refers to the vowel where there is a
single noticeable change in quality during a syllable. Somewhat depending upon the mood of
speaker it may be realized as either diphthong or vowel cluster. It refers to more than one
adjacent vowel sounds occurring within a word. There are some vowel clusters realized in Toda
language. When two vowel sequences are pronounced in a single syllable then it is called a
diphthong. Such as

Dipthongs Initial Medial Final

/ai/ /aɪjӕc/ ‘at’ /ai ñɔɽ/ ‘five hundred’
--- /ʋəuʋə:l mi:n/ ‘pomfret’ /ɡӕɽəu/ ‘storm’
/əu/
/pəuʋn/ ‘new’

/pə:ləiʋənəm/ ‘desert’ /na:rəi/ ‘Crane’

/əi/ --- /be:rʋəit/ ‘blind’ /modələi/ ‘crocodile’
/nurəi i:rəl/ ‘lung’ /nəttəi/ ‘snail’

/əo/ --- /oɭɭəoɭɭə:r/ ‘fast’ ---

/iu/ --- /mɔ:jiuʃmi/ ‘to drown’ ---

/iddɯ ʈɯ ʋallioʈərə/ ‘college’ ---
/poɭɭio:ɖərɯ /
/io/ ---
‘school’
/poɭɭio:ɖə di:ɽm/ ‘school bag’
---
/ei/ --- /peida:mɯ / ‘weight’

/udhӕaɻʋ/ ‘equal’
/ӕa/
/uʋdӕaɻʋ/ ‘flat’
/pӕijdəl/ ‘fat’ ---
/ӕi/ h
--- /pӕijdəsmɔ̃ɡ / ‘fat man’
/pӕijdəs ɡɯ ɡh/ ‘fat woman’

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2.6 Consonant Sequences

Consonant Cluster:

A consonant cluster is a group of consonants (CC) which have no intervening vowel

and that combination of consonants which come in a single syllable. Consonant clusters are
type of Consonant sequences It may occur at initial position (onset) as well as final position
(Coda) of the syllable. Consonant clusters of Toda are given below.

For example,

/kt/ /tiokt/ ‘fart’

/pɽ/ /pɽɯ stu/ ‘full’

/ʃk/ /kə̃ʃk/ ‘eagle’

/ʃm/ /biʃm/ ‘venom’

/ʃb/ /pudəʃb/ ‘heel’

/ʃd/ /madɯ kӕʃd/ ‘treatment’

/rd/ /somӕrd/ ‘smart’

/rt/ /kort/ ‘dwarf’

/ɽc/ /ĩɽc/ ‘rat’

/ɽn/ /kuɽn/ ‘monkey’

/ɽʈ/ /eʃkɔɽʈ/ ‘hiccough’

/ʃʈr/ /iʃʈri/ ‘soap’

/ɽt/ /oɽtkeʃtɯ / ‘to crush’

In Toda there are two types of consonant combinations which have no intervening
vowel. They are (a) Heterogeneous consonant consequences and (b) Homogenous consonant
sequences.

a) Heterogeneous consonant consequences

A consonant cluster is a group of consonants (CC) which have no intervening vowel

and that combination of consonants occur in different syllables.

/kt/ /tio:kt/ ‘fart’

/ks/ /pa:tuka:ksi/ ‘to repeat’

/kc/ /tĩkci/ ‘sprain’

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/kɟ/ /pi:kɟi/ ‘to joke’

/km/ /məikmɯ / ‘faint’

/kʋ/ /ɛɽəkʋi:cci/ ‘to fall down’

/ɡm/ /mi:ɡmɔʋ/ ‘joint’

/ɡm/ /a:ɡmə/ ‘rope’

/ɡʋ/ /mi:kmɔɡʋərtɯ / ‘to keep’

/sd/ /arkəsdərn/ ‘foundation’

/sn/ /enfaɽɔʈkisni/ ‘to be able’

/sm/ /auɖə:mserʋismi/ ‘to approve’

/sk/ /o:riskuɟə:lɯ / ‘some one’

/sʋ/ /baɭpɯ mkisʋismi/ ‘to rebel’

/ʃp/ /a:ʃpittiri/ ‘hospital’

/ʃd/ /madɯ kɛʃd/ ‘treatment’

/ʃt/ /diʋiʃtiʋi/ ‘pimple’

/ck/ /parckoji/ ‘out’

/ct/ /pactɯ :rttɯ / ‘to leak (as a pot)’

/cp/ /nərcpoɳɖɛcci/ ‘to nurse’

/ɟk/ /ɡə:ɟkɯ ʃtɯ / ‘building’

/ɟʋ/ /mɔ:ɟʋi/ ‘to fade’

/rk/ /pe:rkəɭt/ ‘diarrhoea’

/rkh/ /ti:rkhɔɭ/ ‘comb’

/rɡ/ /u:rɡɔ:ji/ ‘pickle’

/rm/ /mirmɡoɭɔʈr/ ‘claw’

/rʋ/ /be:rʋit/ ‘blind’

/ɽd/ /eɽdõm/ ‘buffalo’

/ɽc/ /ĩɽc/ ‘rat’

/ɽt/ /ki:ɽtik/ ‘spoon’

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 /ɽn/ /kuɽn/ ‘monkey’

/ɽm/ /ɡɔɽmoɡəi/ ‘elbow’

/ɳd/ /koɳdo:ʋi/ ‘cataract’

/ɳm/ /kaɳmuɳ/ ‘face’

/ɳʋ/ /kutməɳʋəit/ ‘to turn back’

/nb/ /mi:nbob/ ‘moth’

/nk/ /mɛ:nkɔt/ ‘wood pecker’

/nd/ /ku:rɯ ndɔʈʈu/ ‘ring finger’

/ns/ /si:nsaʈʈi/ ‘pan box’

/mp/ /ɳottəmpuskiʃtu/ ‘to strike’

b) Homogeneous consonant sequence (Gemination)

These sequences consist of sound combination that does not differ in their place and
manner of articulation. Gemination refers to the occurrence of two same consonants at one
place. Gemination literally means "twinning". Homogeneous consonant clusters consist of
sound sequence that does not differ in their place and manner of articulation. The first
consonant of the such clusters is usually unreleased. It appears from the available data that
there are 15 homogenous consonant clusters in Toda. They are as follows-

-kk- /pakkɛ̃n/ ‘full’

-ɡɡ- /paɡɡətti/ ‘division’

-cc- /kaɻicciti/ ‘subtraction’

-ʃʃ - /eʃʃt/ to say/ ‘tell’

-ɟɟ- /dibiɟɟi/ ‘to taste’

-ʈʈ- /oʈʈəkəm/ ‘camel’

-ɖɖ- /maɖɖɯ / ‘head’

-tt- /kattirik/ ‘scissors’

-dd- /meddi/ ‘methi’

-bb- /kabbɔʈ/ ‘jaggery’

-pp- /appəɭm/ ‘papad’

-ll- /ẽɖɯ nillɯ / ‘to slip’

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 -ɭɭ- /kuɭɭaji/ ‘to deny’

-ɳɳ- /kaɳɳaʈi/ ‘mirror’

-nn- /innӕr/ ‘yesterday’

-mm- /ammɯ / ‘our’

-ɽɽ- /paɽɽəm/ ‘cockroach’

-ʋʋ- /ʋəʋʋəɭ/ ‘bat’

-ɾɾ - /kɔɾɾəkurt̠/ ‘to punish’

-ɻɻ- /ʋɻɻəri/ ‘cucumber’

2.7 Basic Syllabic Structure

A syllable is a unit of organization for a sequence of spec sounds. A syllable is typically

made up of a syllable nucleus (i.e., vowel) with optional initial and final margins (i.e.,
consonants). A syllable which ends with a vowel is called open syllable whereas a syllable
ending in a consonant is called closed syllable. A syllable is a unit of sound composed of a
central peak of sonority (usually a vowel), and the consonants that cluster around this central
peak. Syllables are often considered the phonological "building blocks" of words. They can
influence the rhythm of a language, its prosody, its poetic meter and its stress patterns. So
according to the structure of syllable two types of syllables are found in Todalanguage. These
are as follows,

A syllable is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds. In most theories of

phonology, the general structure of a syllable (σ) consists of three segments onset, nucleus,
coda. The syllable is usually considered right-branching, i.e. nucleus and coda are grouped
together as a "rime" and are only distinguished at the second level. A coda-less syllable of the
form V, VV, CV, CVV, CCV, etc. is called an open syllable (or free syllable), while a syllable
that has a coda i.e. VC, CVC, CCVC, CVCC, CCVCC etc. is called a closed
syllable (or checked syllable).

The basic syllabic structure of Toda mother tongue is as follows Onset The onset is the
consonant sound or sounds at the beginning of a syllable, occurring before the nucleus. Most
syllables have an onset. Howvever, in Toda, Onset is optional. Nucleus The nucleus is usually
the vowel in the middle of a syllable. Generally, every syllable requires a nucleus (sometimes
called the peak), and the minimal syllable consists only of a nucleus, as in the Todaword /a/
‘come’ or /ai/ ‘this’. The syllable nucleus is usually a vowel, in the form of a
monophthong, diphthong. It is obligatory in Toda. Coda The coda comprises
the consonant sounds of a syllable that follow the nucleus, which is usually a vowel. It is
optional inToda. Therefore the basic syllabic structure in Toda is i.e. V, VV, CV, VC, CVV,
CVC, CCV, CCVC, CVCC, CCVCC.

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Open Syllable : A syllable which ends with a vowel is called open syllable. Example

Words Syllabic Structure Gloss

/a/ /V/ ‘come’
/ti/ /CV/ ‘she’
/sui/ /CVV/ ‘needle’

Closed Syllable: A syllable ending in a consonant is called closed syllable. Example

Words Syllabic Structure Gloss

/ĩʈ/ /VC/ ‘brick’
/tel/ /CVC/ ‘oil’
/ʃant/ /CVCC/ ‘sober’
Syllabic Pattern

Again, the words of this language may consist of monosyllable or more than that. For
example,

a) Monosyllabic
b) Disyllabic
c) Trisyllabic
d) Tetrasyllabic

(a) Monosyllabic Pattern A monosyllabic contains a single syllable.

Words Syllable Structure Gloss

/kol/ CVC ‘leg’
/ni/ CV ‘you’
/uc/ VC ‘needle’
/dɔ̃ʋ CVC ‘pillar’
/dəm/ CVC ‘cow’
/hə̃dh/ CVC ‘Slope’
/miʃ/ CVC ‘moustache’
/dhər/ CVC ‘valley’
/eɽu/ VCV ‘thunder’
/kɔɽ/ CVC ‘umbrella’
/kip/ CVC ‘broom’
/ɔ̃n/ VC ‘I’
/eɻi/ VCV ‘poor’

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(b) Disyllabic Pattern

A word that consists of two syllables is called a Disyllable and is said to be disyllabic.

Words Syllable Structure Gloss

/pa.ɽi/ CV-CV ‘ceiling’
/oɟ.id/ VC-VC ‘to fear’
/eʃ.ʋi/ VC-CV ‘to tell’
/en.oɻʈ/ VC-VCC ‘husband’
/kaʈ.ʈi/ CVC-CV ‘tumour’
/ki.nəi/ CV-CVV ‘mother’s sister’s husband’
/ӕɡ.iʃ/ VC-VC ‘how’
/ʋɛ̃.kit/ CV-CVC ‘to rest’
/həɽs.ni/ CVCC-CV ‘to feel’
/aɡ.mə/ VC-CV ‘rope’
/iʃt.tɯ / VCC-CV ‘to become’
/tert.ʋi/ CVCC-CV ‘open’
/do.donm/ CV-CVCC ‘sandalwood’

(c) Trisyllabic Pattern

Words Syllable structure Gloss

/mict.me.ɡəm/ CVCC-CV-CVC ‘dust’
/mɯɡ.ɡɯ .nɔʈ.tu/ CVC-CV-CVC-CV ‘upwards’
/ɡɔ.ɽəʋ.kol.mɯ / CV-CVC-CVC-CV ‘winter’
/mad.dəlt.kɔls/ CVC-CVCC-CVCC ‘autumn’
/koʈ.ʈu.ɡərc.ci/ CVC-CV-CVCC-CV ‘pale’
/up.pɯm.kaʃt.mi/ VC-CVC-CVCC-CV ‘hard’
/uʃ.ti.ji/ VC-CV-CV ‘to thank’
/duɖ.ɖu.tu/ CVC-CV-CV ‘to wake up’
/daʃt.kɯ .poʃm/ CVCC-CV-CVCC ‘coat’
/ɡɔɽ.mo.ɡəi/ CVC-CV-CVV ‘elbow’
/boɲ.bor.ʈəm/ CVC-CVC-CVC ‘bird’
/a.ɻə.ɡɯ / V-CV-CV ‘beak’
/puɭ.mə.ɽi/ CVC-CV-CV ‘sparrow’
/rə.ɟə.ɭi/ CV-CV-CV ‘vulture’
/sə.ɡə.ɳi/ CV-CV-CV ‘bug’
/beʃ.ka.ban/ CVC-CV-CVC ‘butterfly’
/mirm.ɡo.ɭɔʈr/ CVCC-CV-CVCC ‘claw’
/i.ɽa.kɯ / V-CV-CV ‘feather’
/ӕŋɡ.ʋi.ʃi/ VCC-CV-CV ‘to sigh’
/paɭ.ɭim.paɽt/ CVC-CVC-CVCC to greet

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(d) Tetrasyllabic

Words which have four syllables are called tetrasyllabic words. The example of
tetrasyllabic words are as follows.

Words Syllable Structure Gloss

/pi.cɔ.ɖӕ.təit/ CV-CV-CV-CVVC ‘to annoy’
/mɔ̃.ɡhə.ʋət.ɡɯ ɡh/ CV-CV-CVC-CVC ‘bride’
/kɔj.kəɳ.ɳa.ʈi/ CVC-CVC-CV-CV ‘spectacles’
/ka.ban.ʋa.rəm/ CV-CVC-CV-CVC ‘tool’
/poʃ.ku.ɖi.jal/ CVC-CV-CV-CVC ‘rich’
/pu.nərm.boc.ci/ CV-CVCC-CVC-CV ‘other’
/dən.boɽʈ.ki.sərt/ CVC-CVCC-CV-CVCC ‘sober’
/udh.mar.ti.jəmɻʋ/ VCCVCCVCVCCC ‘equal’
/iʃ.nə.tɯ .ʋi/ VC-CV-CV-CV ‘to die’
/i.dɯ .ʈɯ .ʋə̃rʃ/ V-CV-CV-CVCC ‘high tide’
/du.ʋəɽ.ko.ʈaʃ/ CV-CVC-CV-CVC ‘cattle’
/ku.rɯ n.dɔʈ.ʈu/ CV-CVC-CVC-CV ‘ring finger’
/neɲ.ku.ʈiũ.ɭu/ CVC-CV-CVV-CV ‘Heart’
/nu.rəi.i.rəl/ CV-CVV-V-CVC ‘lung
/mo.dal.keʃ.ʋi/ CV-CVC-CVC-CV ‘to warn’
/pe.rɯ ŋ̃.ɡə.jəm/ CV-CVC-CV-CVC ‘asafoetida’
/pa.ka.ʋər.tɯ / CV-CV-CVC-CV ‘to talk’
/ki.ʈi.kӕr.tɯ / CV-CV-CVC-CV ‘to scold’
/bi.ɟɔ.ɖut.tɯ / CV-CV-CVC-CV to insult

(e) Pentasyllabic

Those words that have five syllables are called pentasyllabic words. The example of
pentasyllabic words are as follows.

Words Syllable Structure Gloss

/o.mɔ.ʋə.ɖəi.jəm/ V-CV-CV-CVV-CVC ‘we all’
/a.dən.tə.ʋo.ʈɯ m/ V-CVC-CV-CV-CVC ‘these’
/or.is.ku.ɟə.lɯ / VC-VC-CV-CV-CV ‘some one’
/nɔɖ.se.ri.jər.ti/ CVC-CV-CV-CVC-CV ‘season’
/oɽt.tɯ .kis.ʋər.tɯ / VCC-CV-CVC-CVC-CV ‘neatly’
/ɡa.ɽɔ.ʈɯ .ku.ʈɯ / CV-CV-CV-CV-CV ‘narrow’
/ʋɔ.ʋɔ.ɖɯ .maʃk.mi/ CV-CV-CV-CVCC-CV ‘to heat’
/mo.jik.mi.ʋi.ʃi/ CV-CVC-CV-CV-CV ‘to faint’
/dɯ .ʋə.ɽət.paɽ.am/ CV-CV-CVC-CV-CVC ‘cooking pot’
/kɯ .ʈi.mӕ.ri.jəm/ CV-CV-CV-CV-CVC ‘chick’

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 /mak.ka.so.ɭəm.iɖ/ CVC-CV-CV-CVC-CV ‘corn flour’
/pe.rad.ma.ric.ci/ CV-CVC-CV-CVC-CV ‘cholera’
/kaɳ.ɖə.mi.ru.ɡəm/ CVC-CV-CV-CV-CVC ‘rhinoceros’
/kil.ma.ri.ku.ʈɯ / CVC-CV-CV-CV-CV ‘nest’
/al.ar.tiʈ.səs.mɔ̃ɡh/ VC-VC-CVC-CVC-CVC ‘widow’
/kaɳ.ɖə.mi.ru.ɡəm/ CVC-CV-CV-CV-CVC ‘rhinoceros’
/kak.kə.ʋə.lip.pu/ CVC-CV-CV-CVC-CV ‘epilepsy’
/au.ɖəm.ser.ʋis.mi/ VV-CVC-CVC-CVC-CV ‘to approve’
/id.du.ʈe.ɖuc.ci/ VC-CV-CV-CVC-CV ‘small pox’
/no.jir.bɯ .sars.tɯ / CV-CVC-CV-CVCC-CV ‘to complain’
/meɖ.ɖɯ .kɯ t.tɯ c.ci CVC-CV-CVC-CVC-CV ‘to mend’
/mӕɻk.ʋət.tɯ .kӕc.ci/ CVCC-CVC-CV-CVC-CV ‘to polish’

(f) Hexasyllabic

Those words that have six syllables are called hexasyllabic words. The example of
hexasyllabic words are as follows.

Words Syllable Structure Gloss

/ka.ra.ʈu.mu.rə.ʈu/ CV-CV-CV-CV-CV-CV ‘roughly’
/a.ʋɔn.ʋac.ci.ec.cit/ V-CVC-CVC-CV-CV-CVC ‘mother’s mother’
/a.ʋɔ.ɖɯ .se.ri.su.ʈi/ V-CV-CV-CV-CV-CV-CV ‘false’
/baɭ.pɯ m.kis.ʋis.mi/ CVC-CVC-CVC-CVC-CV ‘to rebel’
/a.ʋo.ʈɯ .kis.ʋəs.kis.mi/ V-CV-CV-CVC-CVC-CVC-CV ‘to refuse’
/ʋoc.cis.nuɖ.ses.mi/ CVC-CVC-CVC-CVC-CV ‘to find’
/san.de.ɡəm.pa.ʈɯ t.tɯ / CVC-CV-CVC-CV-CVC-CV ‘to doubt’
/mu.dəl.ki.jə.mo.ɖəc.ci/ CV-CVC-CV-CV-CV-CVC-CV ‘to praise’
/nӕɲ.kɯ ʈ.sut.ma.ri.ci/ CVC-CVC-CVC-CV-CV-CV ‘acidity’
/bӕ.ɭɯ .ʋi.ʃə.kaʈ.mi/ CV-CV-CV-CV-CVC-CV ‘leucoderma’
/i.ɖɯ k.kɯ .sa.ma.nəm/ V-CVC-CV-CV-CV-CVC ‘tongs’
/nɔ.ɖɯ .rɯ .ma.rɯ .ʋi.ʃi/ CV-CV-CV-CV-CV-CV-CV ‘weather’
/nɔ.ɖɯ .rɯ .ma.rɯ .ʋi.ʃi/ CV-CV-CV-CV-CV-CV-CV ‘weather’
/u.ba.jɔ.ɡə.mis.tiʋ/ V-CV-CV-CV-CVC-CVC ‘to wed’
/ek.səm.ma.du.kis.ti/ VC-CVC-CV-CV-CVC-CV ‘attempt’
/aɳ.ɳo.nu.ɖə.ʋə.it/ VC-CV-CV-CV-CV-VC ‘brother’
/bӕ.ɭɯ .ʋi.ʃə.kaʈ.mi/ CV-CV-CV-CV-CVC-CV ‘leucoderma’
/pe.ra.ʈəʋ.ka.rə.ʈəʋ/ CV-CV-CVC-CV-CV-CVC ‘mother’s sister’
/pa.la.kai.jo.ʈə.aɳ̃.ən/ CV-CV-CVV-CV-CV-VC-VC ‘step brother’
/pa.ɽəm.kɔ.ɳə.su.ʋic.ci/ CV-CVC-CV-CV-CV-CVC-CV ‘to miss’
/ʋɔn.nɔn.kɔ.ɳə.su.ʋic.ci/ CVC-CVC-CV-CV-CV-CVC-CV ‘to need’
/mu.dəl.ki.jə.mo.ɖəc.ci/ CV-CVC-CV-CV-CV-CVC-CV ‘to praise’
/a.ʋə.ɖi.jəm.je.ta.ʋəʈt/ V-CV-CV-CVC-CV-CV-CVCC ‘to discuss’

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2.8 Suprasegmental features

The supra segmental features include Tones, Length and Nasalization. They are realised
with the vowels. A feature of speech sound, whose domain can be more than a single segment,
is referred to as a suprasegmental. Under this heading length, stress and intonation can be
discussed.

2.8.1 Vowel length

A term used in Phonetics to refer to the physical duration of a sound or utterance, and
in Phonology to refer to the relative durations of sounds and syllables when these are
linguistically contrastive. Sometimes the term is restricted to phonological contexts, the
phonetic dimension being referred to as ‘duration’. Phonologically long and short values are
conventionally recognized, for Vowels.

/a: / /a:ʋərt/ ‘to speak’

/ i: / /bi:kd/ ‘to lie’

/ e: / /pite:ʃdi/ ‘to instruct’

/ o: / /bo:tətɯ / ‘to swell’

/ u: / /ku:bid/ ‘to mutter’

/ ӕ: / /ӕ:sdɯ d/ ‘to tell’

/ ə: / /midəlkijə:st/ ‘to feel’

/ ɔ: / /bɔ:ɟməd/ ‘to translate’

/ɯ:/ /ɛɽknɯ :ɟ/ ‘downwards’

2.8.2. Nasalization

Nasalization is a way of pronouncing sounds characterized by resonance produced

through the nose in course of which the velum is lowered, so that some air escapes through the
nose during the production of the sound by the mouth. In Toda nasalization occurs with or
without the influence of nasal consonants. Nasalization is not phonemic in Toda. But some
words with nasal vowels are found in this language. No minimal pair could be formed to
establish nasalization as phonemic in Toda.In Toda nasalization occurs with or without the
influence of nasal consonants.

The nasalized consonants are m, ñ, ɲ̃, ɳ̃ , ŋ̃.

/m / /macci/ ‘cot’

/ñ / /soñəlɯ / ‘window’

/ŋ̃ / /perɯ ŋ̃ɡəjəm/ ‘asafoetida’

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 / ɳ̃ / /mӕʈʈiɳ̃i/ ‘staircase’

The nasalized vowels areã, ẽ, õ, ũ, ĩ, ə̃, ɛ̃, ʊ̃, ɔ̃.

/ ã / /ɡãɽɔʈ/ ‘small’

/ ẽ / /ẽʃudi/ ‘to encourage’

/ õ / /põʃʋi/ ‘ripe’

/ ũ / /kũɖlɯ / ‘hut’

/ ə̃ / /paɡə̃/ ‘smoke’

/ ɛ̃ / /ʋɛ̃kit/ ‘to rest’

/ ĩ / /pĩnnɯ / ‘after’

/ ʊ̃ / /pʊ̃kitɯ / ‘to cough’

/ ɔ̃ / /ɔ̃ʃt/ ‘good’

2.8.3 Tone

By analyzing the collected spoken data of Toda, it could be assumed that it is a non-
tonal language. No tones are found in this language which would cause meaning difference.

2.8.4 Stress

The matter of stress is not quite clear

(a) Stress is on the first syllable except when it doesn't have /a/ and the second syllable does.

(b) Stress is barely perceptible.

(c) Stress typically falls on the penultimate syllable of a word, however, if the penultimate
vowel in a word with more than two syllables is schwa, stress falls on the preceding
syllable.

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 3. MORPHOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

Morphology deals with words and their declensional pattern as well as verbs and their
conjugational pattern. Morphology of Toda is discussed under Noun, Verb, Adjectives and
Adverbs. Toda is an agglutinating type of language. That means, here words are formed by
adding syllables or letters (i.e. affixes) or different postpositions to the stem and different
endings are used to form different types of words. For example /ɡʰər/ ‘house’is a word and
/ɡʰəre/‘houses’also is a word which is acombination of/ɡʰər/‘house’+/- e/(plural marker).

3.2 Word Formation Process

The words in Toda may consist of a single free morph or more than one free morph or
a combination of free and bound morphs. The various combinations are as follows.

One free morpheme /pənni/ ‘dew’

One free and a bound morpheme /pənni keʈukkum/ ‘ice’ here /pənni keʈukkum/ is made
up of one free morpheme /pənni/ ‘dew’ and a bound morpheme /keʈukkum/

/ɡɯ ɡhəm/ ‘girl’ is a word and /ɡɯ ɡhəm/ ‘girls’ also is word which is a combination of /ɡɯ ɡh/
‘girl’ + /əm / (plural marker).

free morpheme - /ɡɯ ɡh/ ‘girl’ - /ɡɯ ɡhəm/ ‘girls’

Bound morpheme - /əm/ (plural marker).

Word formation is the creation of a new word or lexeme from an existing one or entirely
different one. The common word formation processes present in Todaare as follows. There are
a few types of word formation found in Todalanguage such as, Affixation, Derivation,
Compounding and Reduplication.

Affixation

Affixes are added with the root or base or allomorph of a root or base, i.e., a morpheme.
According to the collected data only a few prefixation processes are found in this language.
Some processes of Suffixation are also available. A large number of words in Todaare being
derived from other existing words by using prefixes or suffixes.

Prefixation

/moʝi/ ‘Ink’
/moʝi kuʈu/ ‘ink pot’

Suffixation

• /kəɽɔʈɯ / ‘child’ + /əm/ ‘suffix’ > /kəɽɔʈəm/ ‘children’

• /mɔ̃ɡh/ ‘boy’ + /əm/ ‘suffix’ > /mɔ̃ɡhəm/ ‘boys’

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 • /anər/ ‘House’ + /əm/ ‘suffix’ > /anərəm/ ‘houses’

Reduplication

The word is also beinɡ formed by repetition of the identical form. This is a productive
process of word formation. Reduplication may be complete or partial. Examples of
Reduplication in Toda are as follows

/aɭək aɭək ʋiʃi/ ‘to disappear’

/ɡɔɽə ɡɔɽt/ ‘punishment’
/kels kelst/ ‘to work’
/ʃir ʃirɯ / ‘to sprinkle’
/pupuci/ ‘to bloom’

Compounding

A compound is a lexeme hat consists of more than one stem. Compounding is the word
formation that creates compound lexemes by the process of derivation. The meanings of the
words interrelate in such a way that sometimes a new meaning comes out which is very
different from the meanings of the words in isolation.

/meɻk/ ‘wax’ + /ʋatt/ ‘candle’ > /meɻk ʋatti/ ‘wax candle’

/moji / ‘ink’ + / kuʈu / ‘pot’ > /moji kuʈu / ‘inkpot’
/kɯ jiʈi/ ‘cock’ + /kũrt/ ‘fight’ > /kɯ jiʈi kũrt/ ‘cock-fight’
/aʃk/ ‘rice’ + / iɖ/ ‘flour’ > / aʃk iɖ / ‘rice flour'
/ʋəɳʈi/ ‘coach’+ /ɡətər/ ‘horse’ > /ɡətər ʋəɳʈi/ ‘horse coach’

Borrowing

In Toda some words are taken from English, Tamil, Kannada, Malayalam and due to
extensive usage, they are nativized.

For Example – (from English)

/narʃ/ ‘nurse’
/peppar/ ‘newspaper’
/bəs/ ‘bus’
/kappi/ ‘coffee’

For Example – (from Tamil)

/eləkkaj/ ‘cinnamon’
/mundiri / ‘cashew’
/kattirikaji/ ‘brinjal’
/puɡəi ʋaɳɖi/ ‘train’
/ʋeɳʈəkɑjɪ/ ‘lady’s finger’
/sunnɑmɯ / ‘lime’

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For Example – (from Kannada)

/bɛ̃ɻɯ li/ ‘garlic’

/pu koʃ/ ‘cauliflower’

/min/ ‘fish’

For Example – (from Malayalam)

/uɭi/ ‘onion’

/paʈʈaɳi/ ‘pea’

Suppletion
Suppletion is the use of one word as the inflected form of another word when the two
words are not cognate. Examples of suppletion in Toda include

/eʃt/ ‘bull’ + /uɡɯ ɖəʃt/ ‘fight’ > /erɯ kɯ ʈɯ ttu/ ‘bull fight’

/kɯ jiʈi/ ‘cock’ + /uɡɯ ɖəʃt/ ‘fight’ > /kɯ jiʈi kũrt/ ‘cock-fight’

/kalcʋiʈɯ tɯ / ‘to disarrange’ - /arkitɯ / ‘to arrange’

/iʃttɯ / ‘to pull’ - /kiʃtətɯ / ‘to pull out (tooth)’

/kaʋəl katərn/ ‘police station’ > /ɡadpal/ ‘police’

3.3. Word
A word unit is the smallest element that may be uttered in isolation having independent
semantic or pragmatic content. A word is a unit which is a constituent at the phrase level. This
stands in contrast to morpheme which is the smallest meaningful unit in the grammar of a
language. There are open word classes, which constantly acquire new members, and also closed
word classes, which acquire new members quite infrequently. Words are grouped into classes
on the basis of their form and function, i.e., on the basis of their phonological, morphological
and syntactic properties. The word class set up with nouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, post-
positions, particles and function words. The nouns and verb formed with morphological rules
and the rest of the word classes with syntactic reason. The pronouns also form a sub-class of
nouns as they too are declined for case. Affixation (Prefixation and Suffixation), Derivation,
Reduplication and the compounding are prominent morphological processes for the formation
of the words. They are treated under derived nouns.

Based on morphological and syntactical structure the word classes of Toda are divided
into following classes

[1] Noun
[2] Pronoun
[3] Adjective
[4] Verb

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 [5] Adverb
[6] Postposition
[7] Conjunction

Out of these eight-word classes the nouns, pronouns, adjectives and verbs are based on
morphological ground where as rest are based on syntactic ground.

Noun

Noun is a part of speech which denotes a person, place, thing, animal or idea. Actually,
any word relates it referent to the actual entity of the world. a part of speech, inflected for case,
denoting a tangible or intangible entity, referring to objects in the non-linguistic world or to
concepts which are considered as forming entities parallel to real-world entities. For example

/kərəʋӕ/ ‘pant’
/t̪ɪhəl/ ‘moon’
/kɪʋ/ ‘ear’
/nelɳ/ ‘land’
/dat/ ‘fire’
/surəm/ ‘cave’

Pronoun

A grammatical component referring to earlier mentioned noun and functions as an

anaphoric or deictic category. Pronoun is a form or a word which substitutes for a noun.
Pronoun may Personal, Demonstrative, Relative, Interrogative, Indefinite and Reflexive in
nature. For example,
/ɔ / ‘I’
/mɔh/ ‘he’
/ku/ or /kʰɔ/ ‘she’
/alər/ ‘they’

Adjective

Adjective is a part of speech which has the main syntactic role to qualify a noun or noun
phrase and gives more information about the object. It qualifies noun or noun phrases and
provides additional details about it. A grammatical constituent, the main syntactic role of which
is to qualify a noun or noun phrase, providing additional information concerning the subject or
object signified. Examples

/pit̠t̠iʋi / ‘clever’

/t̠ukt̠ɯ / ‘heavy’

/ullɪjɔʈə/ ‘honest’

/put̠enɯ / ‘new’

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 /doʝem/ ‘big’.

Verb

A part of speech inflected for person, tense (sometimes for number) signifies activity
or process. Verb is a part of speech which denotes an action or action process, whether ongoing,
completed or undergone. It is a part of speech without case inflection, but inflected for tense,
person and number. For example

/uʈɪt̠/ ‘run’

/t̠ɪrt̠// ‘to eat’

/pɔn't̠æt̠// ‘work’

/kɔʈt̠/ ‘to give’

/micʋəst/ ‘to cover’.

Adverb

Adverb is a part of speech without inflection that is a modifier of a verb. itis a word that
changes or qualifies the meaning of the verb. For example

/uʈt̠kӕʃʋi/ ‘neatly’

/kӕcɪt̠/ ‘loudly’

/meli/ ‘slowly’

/milli/ ‘kindly’

Postposition

Postposition is a part of speech placed after noun or pronoun in a sentence to refer to

its position or relation with it. A part of speech placed before other words in composition and
which expresses the relation it has to other elements in a sentence. For example,

/ɪʈʃ/ 'from'

/uriskətmo/ ‘near’

Conjunction

Conjunction is a part of speech that joins two sentences. It functions as a connector

which joins two syntactic elements of equal rank. It connects words, phrases, clauses or
sentences together and binds together the discourse and filling gaps in its interpretation. In
Todalanguage the conjunctions are

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 /iʋilim/ ‘but’

/ɔrinim/ ‘so’

/alər/ ‘and’

3.4 Declinable and Indeclinable

The Toda word classes can be broadly divided into two types declinable and
indeclinable, depending upon the nature of their own. Those word class which decline for
number, gender, person etc. are referred to as Declinable category. The entire declinable
category will be further elaborated under the heading Noun Morphology and Verb
Morphology.

Those which do not decline for number, gender, person etc are indeclinable category,
such as, postpositions, conjunctions, adverbs, participles, interjections.

3.5 Noun Morphology

Noun Morphology deals with the nominal and pronominal forms and classifies them
along with their declensional and inflectional affixes in association with Gender, Number, and
Case etc. In this connection we will discuss here following aspects which the nouns of this
language exhibit two numbers (singular and plural), two genders (masculine, and feminine),
and seven cases (nominative, accusative, dative, ablative, genitive, locative and instrumental).

A noun is a member of a syntactic class that includes words which refer to people,
places, things, ideas, or concepts, whose members may act as any of the following subjects of
the verb, objects of the verb, indirect object of the verb, or object of a preposition or
postposition. Noun Morphology deals with the forms and classification of Nouns, Pronouns
and their declensional/inflectional pattern in association with Gender, Number, and Adjective
etc. The nouns in the language are marked by two numbers (singular and plural), two genders
(i.e. masculine, and feminine); and seven cases (nominative, accusative, dative, ablative,
genitive, locative and instrumental).
Thenounsinthelanguagearemarkedbytwonumbers(singularandplural), three genders (i.e.
masculine, feminine and neuter); and seven cases (nominative, accusative, dative, ablative,
genitive, locative and instrumental).

Noun

The Noun is a word class which takes number, gender and case markers. The nouns
functions as a subject or an object in a construction and it denotes person, place, thing etc.
Depending upon the forms, nouns may be categorized into three that are Basic, derived and
dimunitive. Analysing data we can see both basic and derived nouns in Todabut there is not a
clear-cut evidence for dimunitive.

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3.5.1. Internal Structure

Toda is an agglutinating language. The nouns in the language are marked by two
numbers (singular and plural). Nouns thus realised in Toda can be categorized into two broad
classes namely i) Basic nouns and ii) Derived nouns

i) Basic nouns

Basic Nouns are those which are a class by itself as they are not derived from any other
word class. The examples are

/dɯ ʋər/ ‘forest’

/bӕr/ ‘rock’
/eɽmə̃ɳ/ ‘sand’
/niru/ ‘water’
/kɔɽu/ ‘mud’
The basic nouns can further be divided into a) Mass nouns and b) Count nouns.

a) Mass nouns

Mass nouns are those which do not show number distribution and cannot be counted
with cardinal numeral. They always occur in singular form. For example

/t̠ɪt̠kɔ/ ‘fuel’
/eɳɳɔɪ/ ‘oil’
/nӕʃ/ ‘paddy’
/bɔʃ/ ‘milk’
/ʋaʝtʋӕl/ ‘water’

b) Count nouns

Count nouns are those which can take some suffixes for indicating plurality. For example,
/pɔmmɯ / ‘fruit’
/muʈ/ ‘egg’
/t̪ɔnm/ ‘cow’
/kɪʋ/ ‘ear’
/mɔc/ ‘cot’
/dori/ ‘knife’
/min/ ‘fish’

Apart from this there is another subdivision to identified nouns in this language. These
are illustrated below

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Animate and Inanimate

Animate Noun

/mɔ̃ɡh/ ‘boy’
/mɔ̃ɡhəʋətɡɯ ɡh/ ‘bride’
/ɡɯ ɡhəm/ ‘woman’
/kəɽɔʈ/ ‘child’

Inanimate Noun

/bir / ‘sun’
/boɲ min/ ‘star’
/tĩkaɭ/ ‘moon’
/beɽmad/ ‘cloud’
/niru/ ‘water’

Human and Non-human

Human Noun

/mɔ̃ɡ/ ‘son’

/dənɡə̃ɭ/ ‘friend’

/ɡʊ̃ɡ/ ‘daughter’

/tanaʋ/ ‘mother’

/ejijəi/ ‘father’

Non-human Noun

/eɽb/ ‘ant’

/sӕɖɯ / ‘ball’

/ɡəɽ/ ‘bear’

/er/ ‘bull’

/ɡɔ̃d/ ‘cat’

/min/ ‘fish’

ii) Derived Nouns

If it contains more than one morpheme by means of roots taking one or more affixes
then it is called derived noun. In Toda language some nouns are derived either from the verb

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or adjective or from another noun. The derived nouns are formed in two ways i) By adding
derivational suffix to other words; ii) By compounding words.

Derived nouns are formed by adding derivational suffix. In languages some nouns can
be derived from the verb or from any other noun by the addition of derivative suffixes. But in
Todalanguage from the available data we have some instances of noun which are derived from
verbal bases. These are called verbal noun. These are as follows

Words are formed from verbal base to Noun (verbal Noun)

• Noun + Noun forming suffix = Noun

/muʈt̠ec / + /pɔn/ = /muʈt̠ecpɔn/ ‘cobbler’

/kepkӕspɔn / + /pɔn/ = /kepkӕspɔn/ ‘coppersmit’

/kɔres/ + /pɔʈɯ / = /kɔrespɔʈɯ / ‘gardener’

• Noun + Noun = Noun

/kɔɳ/ ‘eye’ + /kɔɳɳɔʈi/‘mirror’ = /kɔɳkɔɳɳɔʈi/ ‘spectacles’

/nir/’water’ + /kɯ ʃ / ‘room’ = /nirӕt̠kɯ ʃ/ ‘bathroom’

/kɔl/ ‘leg’ + /muʈ / = /kɔlmuʈ/ ‘knee’

/eluʋ/ + /kuʈɯ / = /eluʋkuʈɯ / ‘skeleton’

• Noun + Verb = Noun

/neln/ ‘land’ + /nəlɪkc/ = /nelnəlɪkc/ ‘earthquake’

• Verb + Noun = Noun

/iʈʈɪ/ ‘boiling’+ / kɔllɯ / ‘stone’ = /iʈʈɪkɔllɯ / ‘brick’

Derived nouns by Compounding

A compound word is defined as the combination of two or more words to form a new
word. For example,

/muʈt̠ec / + /pɔn/ = /muʈt̠ecpɔn/ ‘cobbler’

/kepkӕspɔn / + /pɔn/ = /kepkӕspɔn/ ‘coppersmit’

/kɔres/ + /pɔʈɯ / = /kɔrespɔʈɯ / ‘gardener’

3.5.2. External Structure

The Toda nouns are inflected for Number, Gender, and Case. This language has two
genders (i.e. masculine, feminine); and seven cases (nominative, accusative, dative, ablative,

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genitive, locative and instrumental). The following description gives the details of Todagender,
number, and case system.

As it is matter of fact that in noun morphology we deal with the form of noun and their
declensional pattern in association with gender, number and case etc. In Toda we can see that
nouns are getting inflected for gender, number and case. The pattern of inflection can be
observed as in follows

Number

In the Toda language, numerals are nouns in that they occur with case suffixes.
Numerals are commonly used when counting and when enumerating an entity of collection of
items, in the environment typically preceding or following a noun. Examples of plural marker
affixed to the noun are as follows.

Singular Plural
/adənər/ /adənər-əm/
they-GEN house they-GEN house-PL
‘Their house’ ‘Their houses’
/bӕɭʈ ketarɯ / /bӕɭʈ ketar-əm /
white horse white horse- PL
‘The white horse’ ‘The white horses’
/idɯ ɖɯ mӕjin/ /idɯ ɖɯ mӕjin-əm /
large tree large tree –PL
‘The large tree’ ‘The large trees’
/uɭɭi ɡɯ ɡh/ /uɭɭi ɡɯ ɡhəm/
good girl good girl-PL
‘The good girl’ ‘The good girls’

Gender

A grammatical gender is a system of noun classification. The nouns in Toda are

inflected by two genders as male and female. Gender differentiation is determined by adding
suffixes to the stem or by using two completely separate lexemes.

In Toda, the suffix /-n/ is used to indicate male gender in case of human nouns and the
suffix and /-əi/ /-ʋ/ in case of non-human nouns, the suffix /-n/ is used to indicate female gender
in case of human and the suffix /-ʋ/ and /-ɻ/ in case of non-human nouns Example of male and
female gender by using different suffixes are as follows.

Male Female
/ejijəi/ ‘father’ / tanaʋ/ ‘mother’
/an/ ‘elephant’ /an/ ‘elephant’
/ɔ̃ʈu/ ‘goat’ /ɔ̃ʈu/ ‘goat’

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 /bəijɔɻ/ ‘daughter-in-law’s father’ /bəijɔɻ/ ‘daughter-in-law’s mother’
/tirtkeʃt/ ‘cook’ /tirtkeʃt/ ‘cook’
/dald mɔ̃ɡh/ ‘lean’ /dald ɡɯ ɡh/ ‘lean’

Example of male and female by using different lexemes are as follows.

Male Female
/enoɻʈ / ‘husband’ /dəʃmaɡh/ ‘wife’
/mənʃñɯ / ‘man’ /ɡɯ ɡhəm/ ‘woman’
/ɡoɭəl/ ‘bachelor’ /khəʋi ɡɯ b/ ‘spinster’
/dəʃmiarti arlʈ/ ‘widower’ /alartiʈsəs mɔ̃ɡh/ ‘widow’
/ɡəɽ rɔʃnɯ / ‘prince’ /ɡəɽ rəɳi/ ‘princess’
/mɔ̃ɡhəʋətmɔ̃ɡh/ ‘bridegroom’ /mɔ̃ɡhəʋətɡɯ ɡh/ ‘bride’
/mɔ̃ɡh/ ‘boy’ /ɡəɽ ɡʊ̃ɡh/ ‘girl’
/mɔ̃ɡh/ ‘son’ /ɡʊ̃ɡh/ ‘daughter’

3.5.3. Case

The case defines the relationship between the noun and the predicate in a sentence Case
is a relationship between the noun and the verb in a sentence, where verb controls the relation.
The seven cases that are found in Toda are Nominative, Accusative, Instrumental, Dative,
Ablative, Genitive and Locative.

Nominative Case

The nominative case (NOM) is one of the grammatical cases of a noun or other part of
speech, which generally marks the subject of a verb or the predicate noun or predicate
adjective, as opposed to its object or other verb arguments. Generally, the noun "that is doing
something" is in the nominative, and the nominative is the dictionary form of the noun.
/mǝheʃ mǝdǝnbum ǝsguse/

Mahesh -NOM the mango eat.PST

‘Mahesh ate the mango’

/ɔ̃ɳ kilməɽ noʈʃni/

I-NOM bird see-PST

‘I saw the bird’

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 /ramɯ mokkɔl ʋɔriji/

ram-NOM book that shyam-DAT give-SFP

‘Ramu will not come tomorrow’

Accusative Case

The accusative case (ACC) of a noun is the grammatical case used to mark the direct
object of a transitive verb. In Toda, no overt case marker is used to express the accusative case.

/em tonman pus me/

We cow.PRL.ACC beat.PRS
‘We beat the cows’

/karoɖaŋ min ʋǝtsi/

the children fish.ACC catch.PST
The children caught the fish

Instrumental Case

The instrumental case (INS) is a grammatical case used to indicate that a noun is
the instrument or means by or with which the subject achieves or accomplishes an action. The
noun may be either a physical object or an abstract concept. The instrumental case is marked
by the marker /-ar/, /-ǝʈ/ as in the following examples.

/ram en pᴂnar nisǝn siʈ ʋǝrsi/

ram me pen.INS letter write.PST
‘Ram wrote the letter with my pen’

/en pᴂnar pǝr/

my pen.INS write.PRS
‘Write with my pen’

/menǝ mǝstǝʈ qǝtsi/

The tree axe.INS cut.PRS
The tree is cut with an axe

Dative Case

The dative case (DAT)is a grammatical case generally used to indicate the noun to
which something is given. Itis the grammatical case that marks typically the indirect object of
a verb, the object of some ad positions or a prossessor. In Toda the dative case is marked by /-
kiʈ/ as in the following examples.

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 /ram sijamkiʈ bustak koʈʃi/
ram-NOM shyam-DAT book that give-SFP
‘Ram gave the book to Shyam’

Ablative Case

In grammar, ablative case (ABL) is a grammatical case in various languages that is used
generally to express motion away from something, although the precise meaning may vary by
language. The ablative case is marked by the suffix /-nese/, /-nis/, /-nas/. The examples are
given below.

/mohǝn markeʈnese ʈebilɖas ʋǝsse/

Mohon market. fromABL table buy.PST
‘Mohon bought a table from the market’

/irram menɖ nis kǝrce/

the leave.PL tree from.ABL fall.PRS
‘The leaves fall from the three’

/ɟu:ləi ma:s nas mau uɖci/

July month from rain start.PRS
Rain starts from the month of July

Genitive Case

In grammar, genitive (GEN) also called the possessive case is the grammatical case that
indicates some kind of possession. The genitive case in Toda is marked by the suffix the
following examples.

/adən mɔ̃ɡh/
they-GEN son
‘Their son’

/en kɔ̃jiəm/
we-GEN 1PP-hand-PL
‘Our hands’

/adən kɔɳɳɯ /
she-GEN 3PP-eyes
‘Her eyes’

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Locative Case

The locative case is a grammatical case which indicates a location.

In some sentences locative case is not marked. The locative case marker is not marked
by any overt suffix in Toda as in the following examples.

/noi ʈebildǝr kitsuɖi/

The dog table on.LOC sit.PRS.PROG

‘The dog is sitting on the table’

/on imor uɖni/

I village.LOC live.PRS

‘I live in the village’

/amokʰ marian garɖen keɖsi/

he bird garden kill.PST

‘he killed the bird in the garden’

3.5.4. Pronoun

Introduction

A pronoun can replace a noun. It can also take gender, number and case markers like
the noun. But the functional difference between a noun and a pronoun is that the pronoun
cannot take ant determiner and pronoun can be used in all persons whereas a noun always refers
to the third person. Toda has following types of pronouns.

a) Personal Pronoun
b) Reflexive Pronoun
c) Interrogative Pronoun
d) Indefinite Pronoun
e) Demonstrative Pronoun

a) Personal Pronoun

There are three persons in this language, first person, second person and third person.
In all the tenses and moods these categories are distinguished. Example,

Person Singular Plural

First /ɔn / ‘I’ /em / ‘we’
Second /ni/ ‘you’ /nǝm bǝkǝnǝm/ ‘you’

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Third /amokʰ/ ‘he’ /ǝdam/ ‘they’
/akoh/ ‘she’
/ɔɵ / ‘it’

b) Reflexive Pronoun

A reflexive pronoun is a pronoun that is preceded by the noun, adjective, adverb or

pronoun to which it refers (its antecedent) within the same clause. A reflexive pronoun is an
anaphor that must be bound by its antecedent in its local domain. In Toda language, reflexive
pronouns are

Pronoun Singular Plural

First / ɔnɛ/ ‘myself’ / emmɛ/ ‘ourselves’
Second / nɪjɛ/ ’youself’ /nimmӕ/
Third /ɡɯ ɡhtonnɯ / ‘herself, /amɔ̃ɡh tonnɯ /ɔnnin/ ‘themselves’
/ ‘himself’
/adӕtoni/ ‘itself’

c) Indefinite Pronoun

An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun that refers to one or more unspecified beings,

objects or places.

Indefinite Pronoun Gloss

/auʋəʈ/ ‘everything’
/ʋɔr ʋekkinəm/ ‘anybody’
/ajiaɭ inəm/ ‘nobody’
/əʋəɖən/ ‘everybody’
/ɔɽӕnɯ m/ ‘no one’

d) Interrogative Pronoun

An interrogative pronoun is a function word for the item interrupted in an information

statement. Interrogative are also called wh-words in English.

InterrogativePronoun Gloss
/innɔ/ ‘what’
/edəʋək/ ‘when’
/jə̃ɭɯ / ‘where’
/jə̃tɯ / ‘which’
/ɔɽi/ ‘who’

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 /ɔɽinɔ/ ‘whom’
/əɖɯ / ‘why

Usage in sentence:

/iraʃtək ni a:ŋɡɯ ʋi:ccɯ ?/

why you go be.PRS.PROG
‘Why are you going?’

/o:ɽijɔ mɔ̃ɡhɯ ?/
who he
‘Who is he?’

/o:ɽtɯ kutir ə:dɯ /

whose horse that
‘Whose horse is that?’

/ə:ɭ nən kaɽɔʈəm?/

where your children
‘Where are your children?

e) Demonstrative Pronoun

Demonstrative Pronouns are deictic words that indicate which entities a speaker refers
to and distinguish those entities from others. The demonstrative pronouns either of proximate
or remote types is realized in two numbers that is singular and plural which are shown below.

Pronouns Proximate Remote

Singular /idɯ / ‘this’ /ə̃:dɯ / ‘that’
Plural /adə:ntəʋoʈɯ m/ ‘these’

3.5.5 Adjectives

Introduction

Adjective is a part of speech which has the main syntactic role to qualify a noun or noun
phrase and gives more information about the noun or noun phrase. An adjective specifies the
properties or attributes of a noun referent. In this language adjectives occur before noun and
remain unchanged for any change in gender and number. Therefore, they are Non-variable in
nature.

/uili moɡhə/ ‘The good boy’

good boy

/uili ɡoɡh/ ‘The good girl’

good girl

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 /ɡəɽ kəɽɔʈɯ / ‘The small child’
small child.SING

/ɡəɽ kəɽɔʈə:m/ ‘The small children’

small child.PRL

Depending on the place of use, the adjectives can be divided into two categories i.e.
attributive adjective, predictive adjective. In Toda two types of adjectives are available.

1. Attributive Adjective

2. Predicative Adjective

1. Attributive Adjectives

This categorization of adjectives in Toda depends upon the position of adjectives in the
sentence. Attributive adjectives are those adjectives which modify a noun by directly being
linked to the noun as part of the noun phrase while predicative is directly linked to the verb as
follows.

/bӕɭʈ ketarɯ / ‘white horse’

white horse

/idɯ ɖɯ mӕ:jin/ ‘The large tree’

large tree

/aɻukku kɔ̃ji/ ‘Dirty hand’

dirty hand

/uɭɭi ɡɔ:ɭm/ ‘This good story’

good story

2. Predicative adjective

These are linked via a copula or other connecting device to the noun or pronoun they
modify. In these cases, adjectives come after nouns. Example

/amɔ:nʃnəm doddmə na:ɭi/

DEM.Man.PL strong be-PRS.PL

‘Those men are strong.’

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 /aɡɯ ɡh kiʋi kӕ:ɭi/

DEM. girl deaf be.PRS

‘That girl is deaf.’

Semantic Classification of Adjectives

Further, semantically Toda adjectives can be categorized into three, namely

[1] Qualitative,

[2] Quantitative and

[3] Demonstrative adjective.

Qualitative adjective

The adjectives which attribute a quality to the nouns are called qualitative adjectives. The
examples are

/idɯ ɖɯ mӕ:jin/

the large.ADJ tree

‘The large tree’

/idɯ ɖɯ ʋəʃtək/

the bad.ADJ child

The bad child

Quantitative adjective

The adjectives which refer to the quantity of the nouns with which they occur are called
Quantitative adjectives. In Toda the use of Quantitative adjectives are as follows.

(a) When the numerical unit is followed by the relevant attributed nouns, the nouns do not take
the plural marker in Toda. For example,

/ni aɖu pəuʋəm tittuʋi/

you two.ADJ banana eat.OBLIG.

You should eat two bananas

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(b) When the quantity is in indefinite unit followed by the attributed nouns. For example,

/ɔs nir/

Some water

‘Some water’

/pɔtk minɔm/

Some fish

‘some fish’

3.5.6. Numerals

Numeral, denoting a number, is a grammatical category distinguishing between

singular and plural. The numbers in Todamay be classified as Cardinals, Ordinals and
Fractional.

Cardinal Numerals

The form of cardinal number found in Toda in following ways.

Cardinals Gloss
/uɖ/ ‘one’
/ᴂɖ/ ‘two
/muɖ/ ‘three’
/noŋ/ ‘four’
/itz/ ‘five’
/ɔr/ ‘six’
/eu/ ‘seven’
/eʈ/ ‘eight’
/unboθ/ ‘nine’
/pǝt/ ‘ten’
From eleven onwards the numerals are form ‘one’, two’, ‘three’ etc. The formation of eleven
to nineteen is as follows.

/pǝnuɖ/ ‘eleven’
/paneɖ/ ‘twelve’
/ponmuɖ/ ‘thirteen’
/paŋ/ ‘fourteen’
/pucʰ/ ‘fifteen’
/par/ ‘sixteen’
/pɯ/ ‘seventeen’
/poʈǝ/ ‘eighteen’
/ponbɔd/ ‘nineteen’

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From twentyone onwards the numerals

/ʋǝt uʈ/ ‘twenty one’

/ ʋǝt ᴂɖ/ ‘twenty two’
/ʋǝtits/ ‘twentyfive’
/ʋǝtunbɔt/ ‘twentynine’
From thirty one onwards the numerals

/mupǝtuc/ ‘thirty one’

/mupǝtits/ ‘thirty five’
/mupǝt unbǝt/ ‘thirty nine’
From forty one onwards the numerals

/nǝlpǝt uʈ/ ‘forty one’

/nǝlpǝt ᴂɖ/ ‘forty two’
/nǝlpǝt its/ ‘forty five’
/nǝlpǝt unbɔt/ ‘forty nine’
From fifty one onwards the numerals are

/ebɔtutits/ ‘fifty one’

/ebɔtits/ ‘fifty five’
/ebot unbɔt/ ‘fifty nine’
From sixty one onwards the numerals are

/arɔtuʈʃ/ ‘sixty one’

/arǝtits/ ‘sixty five’
/arǝt unbǝt/ ‘sixty nine’
From seventy one onwards the numerals are

/ebǝt uʈ/ ‘seventy one’

/ebǝt its/ ‘seventy five’
/ebot unbǝt/ ‘seventy nine’
From eightyone onwards the numerals are

/eʈbɔt uʈ/ ‘eighty one’

/eʈbɔt its/ ‘eighty five’
/eʈbɔt unbɔt/ ‘eighty nine’
From ninetyone onwards the numerals are form

/ᴂnbɔt uʈ/ ‘ninety one’

/ᴂnbɔt its/ ‘ninety five’
/ᴂnbɔt unbɔt/ ‘ninety nine’

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The numerals two hundred, three hundred, four hundred etc are formed by adding /-or/, /- ɔr/
Allomorph of hundred’ as suffix

/ɔnor/ ‘hundred’

/munor/ ‘three hundred’

/painɔr/ ‘five hundred’

Ordinal Numbers

Ordinal Number is those numerals which used for denoting position or order in a series.
The ordinal number found in Toda are as follows.

The cardinals of Toda are mentioned below

/mudǝl koi/ ‘first’

/ᴂɖʋɔθ/ ‘second’

/murɔθ/ ‘third’

Fractional Numbers

Fractional are also available in Toda.

/ar/ ‘half’

/uʈir/ ‘one and a half’

/ᴂʈǝs/ ‘two and a half’

/mukkal/ ‘three fourth’

The concept of ‘twice’, ‘thrice’ are conveyed by suffixing /- tǝrǝk to the base cardinal number.

/ᴂɖ/ ‘two’ + /tǝrǝk/ > suffix > /ᴂɖtǝrǝk/ ‘twice’

/muɖ/ ‘three’ + /tǝrǝk/ suffix > /muɖtǝrǝk/ ‘thrice’

3.6. Verb Morphology

Introduction

A verb is a member of the syntactic class of words that signals events and actions
constitute, singly or in a phrase, a minimal predicate in a clause, govern the number and types

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of other constituents which may occur in the clause. Verb is a form class that marks tense –
aspect – modal – personal markers distinguished by number and gender. In inflectional
languages, verbs may be inflected for tense, aspect, and voice, and modality, agreement with
other constituents in terms of person, number and grammatical gender. Verb Morphology deals
with the forms and classification of verbs, and their pattern in association etc. Verb stems may
either be simple or complex. A simple stem consists of only one root. A complex stem has a
root followed by one or more derivational or formative elements.

In Toda, verbs can be classified into two ways, (i) Structurally and (ii) Semantically. A
verb denotes action. Different types of actions from the provided data are given below.

4.6.1. Semantic Classification of Verbs

Semantically, verbs can be classified into different categories in Toda. Some of them
are as follows

Physical Activity verbs

/nɔɟɪɵ/ ‘to act’
/ɔʈɯ kɵ/ ‘to arrange (put things in
order)’
/ɪcɡӕʃt̠/ ‘to bark (as a dog)’
/pɪʃt̠/ ‘to beat (somebody)’
/ʋɔɻct̠/ ‘to bend (stick)’
/sӕt̠/ ‘to bind’
/pɔʃɔt̠/ ‘to bite’
/uʋɔt̠/ ‘to blow (with the mouth)’
/ɔɾə'kӕʃt̠/ ‘to bore (a hole)’
/mɔrɟɪt̠'kӕʃt̠/ ‘to bow (bend the body)’
/muɾʃt̠/ ‘to break (stick)’
/ɔrt̠/ ‘to break ( a pot)’
/kuɖɖɪt̠/ ‘to bury ( a dead body)’
/æʃʋɪt̠/ ‘to carry (in hand)’
/pɪrʃʋɪt̠/ ‘to carry ( on shoulder/
head)’
/ɑppɔsɪʈʋɔrt̠/ ‘to catch (an animal in a
trap)’

Instrument verbs
/ɔrt̠/ ‘to chop’
/kiɵɪ/ ‘to cut (cloth)’
/kuʈʈӕrt̠/ ‘to diɡ (a hole)’
/pæʈkʋɪt̠/ ‘to hunt ‘
/næʃkɯ ʈt̠/ ‘to pound ‘

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 /kɔʈrt̠ɔt̠/ ‘to scoop out’
/æʈɑrkӕʃt̠/ ‘to split (wood)’

Verbs of fighting

/ũjiŋɡiʃt/ ‘to grab’

/aɽɯ keʃtɯ / ‘to kill’
/kӕɭɟkiʃi/ ‘to win’

Music verbs

/ʋɑʃɪc/ ‘to beat (drum)’

/ɪrpɪci/ ‘to blow’
/uʋӕt̠/ ‘to chant(mantras)’
/ɔʈɪcɪ/ ‘to dance’
/pɔrəʋɔʃt̠ɔmpɔrəʋɔʃt̠/ ‘to play(musical
instrument)’
/kɔt̠ɔʈt̠/ ‘to sinɡ’
/nehɯ ʃɔʈt̠/ ‘to tune’

Motion verbs

/ɔkkæc/ ‘to alight ( as a bird or

butterfly)’
/t̠ʋærcӕ/ ‘to appear (come into
sight)’
/ʋӕd̠cɔɟ/ ‘to arrive (at a place)’
/t̠ɪʈʈӕkkɪ/ ‘to ascend, climb’
/æʃʋɪt̠/ ‘to bring’
/pæʈʈɑsɯ t̠/ ‘to chase’
/ʋɔʃ'uʈʈi/ ‘to come’
/ɡupk'ɔcɪ/ ‘to cringe’
/ɔmmɑr'ɔrʋɪc/ ‘to cross, go across’
/t̠ɔpcɪ/ ‘to escape (from a pursuer)’
/ærkʋɪʈcɪ/ ‘to fall down’
/ʈæt̠/ ‘to get (come and get)’
/mukkɔʈt̠/ ‘to get up (arise)’
/kɔʈt̠/ ‘to give’
/fit̠/ ‘to go’

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 /ɔmmɯ t̠'ɑrʋɪt̠/ ‘to go around’
/kɔʈkʋɪt̠/ ‘to go out of (a house)’

Occupational Verbs

/sorəikaʃt/ ‘ to brew’
/maɖarttɯ / ‘to cultivate’
/nɔjimӕʃt/ ‘to judge’

Cosmetic Verbs

/maɖikist/ ‘to comb (hair)

/maɖubindu/ ‘to tie (hair)’
/kamsert/ ‘to wear (clothing)’

Communication Verbs

/tirikӕʃtit/ ‘to answer’

/kuɟiboɭ/ ‘to invite’
/piɟɔʈutu/ ‘to call’

Non-Motion Verbs

/auɖəmserʋismi/ ‘to approve’

/kӕɖɯ ʋi/ ‘to collide’
/iʃnətɯ ʋi/ ‘to die’

Inchoative Verbs

/buddɯ / ‘to bloom’

/nɔɽttɯ / ‘to soak’
/naɽttɯ / ‘to freeze’

Cognitive Verbs

/nobidh / ‘to believe’

/kɛ̃ɟittɯ / ‘to know’
/maɽttu/ ‘to forget’

Sensory Verbs

/pʊ̃kitɯ / ‘to cough’

/ӕjisərsertu/ ‘to cry’
/oɟid/ ‘to fear’

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Emotive Verbs

/ʋӕsərti/ ‘to dislike’

/munӕrtu/ ‘to like’
/paɻʋi / ‘to love’
Other verbs

/bakkanalmotti / ‘to fast’

/eʃtiʋədurni/ ‘to offer’
/patukaksi/ ‘to repeat’

3.6.2. Verbs in Terms of Function

Verbs in term of function can be divided into two i.e. Main Verbs (MV) and Auxiliary
Verbs. Main verb is a type of verb which denotes an action, event or state in a sentence while
Auxiliaries are a type of verb which helps to the main verb.

Verbs in Todacan be of different type, depending upon their structural complexity and
form. Toda verbs in terms of structural complexity may be divided into two i.e. basic verb base
(primary and derived) and complex verb base (conjunct and compound). Verbs may be
classified in two ways. (i) Simple verb and (ii) compound verb.

Simple verb

A simple verb is composed of mono morphemic single root with or without a suffix.
The verb is conjugated with aspect-gender-number-personal markers. A Simple verb consists
of one root.

/ə:ɖittɯ / ‘to dance’

/i:ʃttɯ / ‘to pull’

Compound verb

A Compound verb consists of more than one root and may include one or more suffixes.
In Todacompound verbs are as follows,

Compound Verb with root

/utumiləst/ ‘empty’+ /ɡəst/ ‘to do’= /utumiləstɡəst/

‘to empty something’

/ɡorənət/ ‘clean’ + /ɡəst/ ‘to do’= /ɡorənət / ‘to clean’

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3.6.3. Inflection of Verb

The verbs in Toda can be studied with respect to their transitivity, Finiteness, non-
finiteness, negation, Causativization and Passivization.

3.6.3.1. Transitivity

Structurally, the classification is made according to their valency i.e. whether they take
single object or two objects or no objects at all. In this respect three classes of verb that can be
identified are as follows.

The number of arguments that a verb takes is called its transitivity. Based on transitivity
the verb stems of Todacan be further divided into three sub-classes as follows. The formation
of the transitive verb roots from the intransitive ones is realized by addition of the transitivity
suffixes with the intransitive verb base and the transitivity process is completed when that
transitive verb root is inflected according to number-gender-person-tense in finite formation of
the verb. Examples-

Intransitive

/kɔcci/ ‘come’

/kipni/ ‘go’

/koɽətəccӕ/ ‘barks’

/ʋərikicci/ ‘sleep’

/ojiʈʃi/ ‘run’

/ ʋərikicci/ ‘smile’

/ɡəɖnaʃӕ/ ‘stand’

Transitive

/noʃmi/ ‘see’

/deʃi/ ‘give’

/kisʋippimi/ ‘ride’

/ʋɔjircci/ ‘read’

/triʃi/ ‘ate’

/busimi/ ‘beat’

/keʈukiʃi/ ‘kill’

/bəɖci/ ‘catch’

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Ditransitive verb

/deʃi/ ‘give’

/koʈʃi/ ‘gave’

/koʈʃi/ ‘serve’

/fəʈʃmi/ ‘led’

3.6.3.2 Finiteness

Another way of classifying verbs is on the basis of finiteness, where a two-fold

distinction of the verb construction can be made viz. finite and non-finite. A finite verb is a
verb form that occurs in an independent clause and is fully inflected according to the
inflectional categories marked on verbs in the language. The components of finite verb are a)
Tense b) Aspect and c) Mood.

In Toda, finite verbs are formed by adding different suffixes to the verb root and
different forms are available for different person and tense. It consists of a stem followed by
tense, aspect and mood markers which are further followed by person, gender and number
markers. These person, gender and number markers maintain agreement with the subject or
object in a sentence and vary according to their person, gender and number markers.

In Toda, finite verbs are formed by adding different suffixes to the verb root and
different forms are available for different person and tense. The finite verbal formation is √ +
tense marker ± aspect marker +personal marker.

The structure of a Finite Verb shows a stem followed by tense, aspect and mood
markers (TAM). In Toda the finite verbs are formed by adding different morphemes and/or
suffixes to the verb according to different tenses.

a) Tense

Tense is an effort to locate or identify an action in the time scale as Hockett defines the
tense as “a grammatical category showing different locations of an event in time” (Hockett,
1970, pp-167). Verbs in Toda have three ways opposition in tense (Present, Past and Future)
and it gets morphologically marked as follows. Accordingly, verbs in Toda are
morphologically marked for having 3 types of tense as, 1. Present, 2. Past, 3. Future

Present Indefinite Tense

As it is reflected in the following table verb form changes as person, number changes.

Person Singular Plural

First person /on markeʈ ʋipni/ ‘I go to the market’ /em markeʈ ʋipmi/
‘We go to the market

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 Second person /ni markeʈ ʋipi/ ‘You go to the market’ /nɯm ᴂɖǝm markeʈ ʋɔs/
‘You (pl) go to the market’
Third person /amokʰ markeʈ ʋitsi/ /adʰejer markeʈ ʋitsi/
‘He goes to the market’ ‘They go to the market
/akuh markeʈ ʋitsi/
‘She goes to the market’

Past Indefinite Tense

As it is reflected in the following table verb form changes as person, number changes.

Person Singular Plural

First person /on markeʈ ʋisni/ /em markeʈ ʋiʃmi/
‘I went to the market’ ‘We went to the market
Second person /ne markeʈ ʋispi/ /nɨm markeʈ ʋiʃʃi/
‘You went to the market’ ‘You (pl) went to the market’
Third person /amokʰ markeʈ ʋisi/ /ǝdam markeʈ ʋiʃʃi/
‘He went to the market’ ‘They went to the market
/akuh markeʈ ʋisi/
‘She went to the market’

Future Indefinite Tense

As it is reflected in the following table verb form changes as person, number changes.

First person /ʋon markeʈ ʋipǝni/ /em markeʈ ʋipmi/

‘I will go to the market’ ‘We will go to the market

Second person /ni markeʈ ʋipi/ / nɯm markeʈ ʋǝʃ/

‘You will go to the market’ ‘You (pl) will go to the

market’

Third person /amokʰ markeʈ ʋitʃi/He will go to the /ǝdam markeʈ ʋiʃʃi/
market’ /akuh markeʈ ʋitʃi/ ‘She will
go to the market’ ‘They will go to the market

b) Aspect

Aspect is a grammatical category associated with verbs that expresses a temporal view
of the event or state expressed by the verb. Aspect does not refer to a specific point as the
tense. Aspect is related with duration, perfection, habituality etc. Toda language has mainly
three types of aspects namely

i) Durative or imperfective Aspect.

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 ii) Perfective which are found to occur in different tenses and

iii) Habitual Aspect.

i). Durative or Imperfective Aspect

Imperfective aspect is an aspect that expresses an event or state, with respect to its
internal structure, instead of expressing it as a simple whole. It describes an action which is
regarded as continuous in the past or present or future tenses. Thus, the structure of the finite
verb with durative aspect is:

The structure of durative aspectual formation in Toda is presented below.

Present Continuous Tense

Person Singular Plural
First person /ʋon markeʈ ʋisudisni/ /em markeʈ ʋisudismi/
‘I am going to the market’ ‘We are going to the market
Second person /nɨm markeʈ ʋisudisri/
/ni markeʈ ʋisudisʋi/
‘You (pl) are going to the
‘You are going to the market’
market’
Third person /amokʰ markeʈ ʋiʃudissi/ /adam markeʈ ʋiʃudissi/
‘He is going to the market’ ‘They are going to the market

Past Continuous Tense

Person Singular Plural
First person /ʋon markeʈ ʋiʃudisni/ /em markeʈ ʋiʃudismi/
‘I was going to the market’ ‘We went to the market
Second person /ni markeʈ ʋiʃudispi/ /ni markeʈ ʋiʃudispi/
‘You were going to the market’ ‘You (pl) were going to the
market’
Third person /amokʰ markeʈ ʋiʃuɖɖi/ /adam markeʈ ʋiʃuɖissi/
‘He was going to the market’ ‘They were going to the
market

Future Continuous Tense

Person Singular Plural
First person /ʋon markeʈ ʋiʃuɖispǝni/ /em markeʈ ʋiʃuɖispǝmi/
‘I will be going to the market’ ‘We will be coming to the
market
Second person /ni markeʈ ʋiʃuɖispi/ /nɨm markeʈ ʋiʃuɖistri/
‘You will be going to the ‘You (pl) will be going to
market’ the market’
Third person /amokʰ markeʈ ʋiʃuɖiscʰi/ /adam markeʈ ʋiʃuɖiscʰi/
‘He will be going to the market’ ‘They will be going to the
/akuh markeʈ ʋiʃuɖiscʰi/ market

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 ‘She will be going to the market’

ii) Perfective Aspect

It describes an action either completed in the past or to be completed. In the present it

expresses the completion of an action which is just finished. In the past it expresses the action
which is already done. The action to be completed in near future is expressed in future perfect.
In Toda language examples of perfective aspect is expressed by present, past perfect tense. For
future tense, perfective aspect is not used in Toda language.

Present Perfective Aspect

Person Singular Plural

First person /ʋon markeʈ ʋikuʃni/ /em markeʈ ʋikuʃmi/
‘I have gone to the market’ ‘We have gone to the market
Second person /ni markeʈ ʋikuʃpi/ / nɯ m markeʈ ʋikuʃri/
‘You have gone to the market’ ‘You (pl) have gone to the
market’
Third person /amokʰ markeʈ ʋikuʃi/ /ǝdam markeʈ ʋikuʃi/
‘He has gone to the market’ ‘They have gone to the market
/akuh markeʈ ʋikuʃi/
‘She has gone to the market’

Past Perfective Aspect

Person Singular Plural

First person /ʋon markeʈ ʋigusni/ /em markeʈ ʋigusmi/
‘I had gone to the market’ ‘We had gone to the market
Second person /ni markeʈ ʋiguspi/ /nɨm markeʈ ʋigusri/
‘You had gone to the market’ ‘You (pl) had gone to the
market’
Third person /amokʰ markeʈ ʋiguʃi/ /adam markeʈ ʋiguʃi/
‘He had gone to the market’ ‘They had gone to the market
/akuh markeʈ ʋiguʃi/
‘She had gone to the market’

iii) Habitual Aspect

It describes an action which happens/happened or will happen habitually or regularly.

The Habitual Aspect denotes the action of the verb takes place from time to time. Habitual
formations of Toda are given below.

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Present Habitual Aspect

In Toda, present habitual is formed in the following way

/bi:r aɽcnə sɯ ʈɯ cci/

The sun east side-LOC rise-PRS. SG

‘The sun rises in the east.’

/emɯ nə:ʈkiɽ mӕɽuɡə:rskɯ mi/

we everyday cow milk-PRS.PL

‘We milk the cows everyday.’

Past Habitual Aspect

In Toda, past habitual is formed in the following way

/ ɔn et̠ʋɔm ɔmbɔnmɔnɪk kelʃkʋippi/

1SG everyday 9 time-LOC office go-PRS.SG
‘I used to go to office at 9 o'clock.’

/ ni et̠ʋɔm ɔmbɔnmɔnɪk kelʃkippɪni/

2PL everyday 9 time-LOC office go-PRS.PL
‘You (sg) used to go to office at 9 o'clock.’

/ nəm et̠ʋɔm ɔmbɔnmɔnɪk ɔhɔʈkʋɪt̠ɾɛ /

2PL everyday 9 time-LOC shop go-PRS.PL
‘You (pl) used to go to shop at 9 o'clock.’

/ nɔm et̠ʋɔm ɔmbɔnmɔnɪk kelʃkit̠ɾɛ /

1PL everyday 9 time-LOC office go-PRS.PL
‘We used to go to office at 9 o'clock.’

/ mɔh et̠ʋɔm ɔmbɔnmɔnɪk ɔhɔʈɪkʋɪcɛ/

3SG.M everyday 9 time-LOC office go-PRS.SG
‘He used to go to market (bazaar) at 9 o'clock.’

/kʰɔ et̠ʋɔm ɔmbɔnmɔnɪk kelʃkʋicɛ /

3SG.F everyday 9 time-LOC office go-PRS.SG

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 ‘She used to go to office at 9 o'clock.’

c) Mood

Mood expresses the attitude of the speaker towards what he is saying in terms of the
degree or kind of reality in terms of indicative, imperative, subjunctive, obligatory, dubitative,
permissive of the propositional content of the sentence.

Indicative
Most verbs we use are in indicative mood, which indicates the action. Indicative moods
are expressed in present tense.
/idam en arijӕ/
these I-GEN house-IND
‘These are my houses’

/adɯ an durijӕ/
that he-GEN knife-IND
‘That is his knife’

/adəm en pustakki/
those I-GEN book-PL-IND
‘Those are my books’

/adɔʈɯ kitirije/
That horse-IND
‘That is a horse’

/itu edduʋən pit tetrijӕ/

this I-GEN usual food-IND
‘This is my usual food’

/idu oru uɭɭi ɡolmijӕ/

this story good-IND
‘This is a good story’

Imperative
Verb in the imperative mood denotes command or request. This mood usually occurs
with second person. For example
• /en haʃ fãɡə/
I-GEN house-LOC go-IMP
‘Go to my house’

• /en haʃ fã/

I-GEN house-LOC come-IMP

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 ‘Come to my house’

• /ʈɔ̃kɯ ʈu tə dӕs nilɯ /

table-on-LOC stand-IMP
‘Stand on the table’

• /meɭi aʋəɽʈɯ /
slowly speak-IMP
‘Speak slowly’

• /omboʃə muttukas ʋarɯ /

words DET neatly write-IMP
‘Write the words neatly’

• /i pustək ɔtu/
book this read-IMP
‘Read this book’

• /pullɯ kettɯ /
grass DET remove-IMP
‘Remove the grass’

• /baʋərərʈɯ /
door DET close-IMP
‘Close the door’

• /ӕɽɡərɯ /
sit-IMP
‘Sit down’

• /nən mӕɳ pinnɯ ʋə/

four time after come-IMP
‘Come after 4 o’clock’

• /nir ʋirʃ ʋə/

water some bring-IMP
‘Bring some water’

• /i pustək tirik kesaʋ/

book DET bring-IMP
‘Bring the book back’
Subjunctive

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 When verbs show something contrary to the fact, they are in the subjunctive mood. It
is used to express wishes, commands, emotions, possibility, judgment, necessity etc.
• /udʋeɭikkɯ ni sarijana ʈəittɯ kku odunɔ ummark serkistijӕ/
you (in time) come-SUBJ we (will examine this)
‘If you come in time we will examine this’

• /pol eccəm ʋɔdunɯ ɡoɭ paʈʋicci/

polise come-SUBJ thief catch-FUT.PASS
‘If the police come than the thief will be caught’

Conditional Mood

When the completion of one verbal action is conditioned by another verb that particular
manner of expression is called as conditional modal category.
• /ɔrɯ ʋelɪk ɔn urt̪ɪsuʈɪʋɪt̪ə ɔn mukkɔlʋɪrppɪni/
‘If I am well I will come tomorrow’

• /ɔrɯ ʋelɪk mɔh kɔʃʈɔmbɔʈʈɯ kӕlickɪʃʋɪɵə mɔh kӕlicɪʋɪʈci/

‘If he works hard hewill succeed’

Obligatory (Compulsive)

The compulsion on the part of the subject is expressed in compulsive mood. In Ayarani
language the examples of compulsive mood are
• /ni aɖu pəuʋəm tittuʋi/
you banana two eat-OBLIG
‘You should eat two bananas’

• /amɔ̃ɡh bustək ʋarti/

he book one write-OBLIG
‘He should write a book’

• /ɔ̃n ʋɔddɯ ʋini/

I come-OBLIG
‘I should come’
Dubitative or Potential Mood

Dubitative mood which expresses doubt or uncertainty on the part of the speaker. The
potential action is expressed in potential mood. In this language the example of Potential mood
is mentioned below.
• /amɔ̃ɡh ponər ʋərt keʈukӕjimɔ/
he-NOM bird DET kill-DUBIT
‘He may kill the bird’
• /amɔ̃ɡh etɔk inӕ ʋɔtu kinӕ/

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 he still come-DUBIT
‘He may still come’

• /ɔ̃n ʋaʃkan/
I come-DUBIT
‘I may come’

Permissive Mood

Permissive mood expresses permissions.

/ɔd̪əm pɔkkəm ɔt̪tɪ̪ je/
3PL-GEN come.INF give-IMP
‘Let them all come.’

Optative Mood
The optative mood expresses a desire, wish, permission or request in a sentence which
is expressed in following ways in Toda.
/ ɔd̪əm pɔkkəm ɔt̪tɪ̪ je /
‘Let them all come’

/ nəmʃ pɔʃkɑlʋɪʃ nir ɔsɔʃ/

‘Let some of you go and fetch ’

Interrogative Mood

The interrogative mood is realized by a question in sentence.

/ni ɪnd̪ӕnki? /
‘What do you eat?’

/ ɔrjɔ ɔɵ? /
‘Who is he?’

/ ɔrt̪ kɪt̠ɯ rɔ? /

‘Whose horse is that?’

Negative Mood

In Toda the negative mood is expressed by the negative words like / keʈɯk/, /ɔd̪ənɑl/
etc.

/t̪ɪt̪ keʈɯ k ʋiʈʈi/

‘Do not go near the fire’

/tӕ ɔd̪ənɑl ɪd̪ɯ muɖɪjɛ/

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 ‘They cannot do it’

3.6.4. Non-Finite verb Formation

In Toda non-finite verb or verbals are any of several verb forms which cannot serve as
the root of an independent clause. In other words, a non-finite may be described as ‘a verb
derived words’ which has ability to serve as a noun or adjective. It may further be categorized
into Infinitives, Gerund and Participles as follows:

Verbal Noun

A verbal noun is formed by adding a noun suffix to a verb. Here the process is Verb +
noun forming suffix = Noun (verbal Noun) /√ + non-finite marker/.
/ka:r tera:m ponni kɔ:ɭ nərʃisi/
‘Falling leaves look beautiful in Autumn’

/ɡoɽt nɔjəm paɽutijӕ/

‘Barking dogs seldom bite’

Infinitive

An infinitive form is to + the verb. The infinitive in the language is marked by /-ci/
which is attached to the verb as exemplified below
/em pəkʋi mi:n ʋeʈtək ʋi:pmi/
We to catch fish
We go to the sea to catch fish

Gerund

Gerunds and infinitives are forms of verbs that act like nouns. Since it is a kind of noun,
it may be the subject or object to some verb. Example
/ piɖissisttɯ k ollətijӕ/
Smoking health-GEN for.POSTP dangerous be.PRS
‘Smoking is dangerous for health.’

Participle
A participle is a word that shares some characteristics of both verbs and adjectives. It
is also called verbal adjective. A participle is a word formed from a verb that can function as
part of a verb phrase.
/paruʋipustaka mujətəkə suɭɯ ʋiji /
Print-ADJ.PTCP book-PL read-LOC easy be.PRS.SG
‘Printed books are easy to read.’

/aɡuɡh hər kati bummən beʈci/

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 3SG fall-ADJ.PTCP fruit-ACC collect-INF do.PST.3
‘she collected the fallen fruits’

3.6.5. Negation

In a SOV ordered sentence the negative element comes with the verb of the sentence.
/ɔ̃n makkaɭ ʋar niʃkini /
‘I shall not-NEG come tomorrow’

/idam uɭɭi ʋar ɟaɡəji/

‘These are not-NEG good words’

/amɔ̃ɡh ponɖeɭijӕ/
‘He did not-NEG do the work’

/ni ill uɖiʃ taji/

‘You (sg.) must not-NEG remain here’

3.6.6. Causation

A causative is a grammatical or lexical indication of the causal role of a referent in

relation to an event or state expressed by a verb. In Todasome examples of causative
constructions are given below. Here the verbs take the Causative marker.
/ɔ̃n kaɽɯ n duʋar kɯ ʈʃni/
‘I feed the baby’

/ɔ̃n sonmən ɡaɽӕcini/

‘I make the people laugh’

3.6.7. Passivization

A passive sentence is created from an active sentence by

1. Subject changes into object.
2. Adding “by”.
3. Object changes to the subject.
4. Changing the verb form to its participle form.

In this language the verb is not found in passivized form. For example,

Active
/ɔn t̪uʈʈɪ ɔʃpɪni/
1SG bread-ø eat-PRS.SG
‘I eat bread.’

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 /sɔrkɔr elɪjən pɪllikɔʈcɛ/
Government poor-DAT money give-PRS.PL
‘The Government gives money to poor.’
Passive
/t̪uʈʈi ennɑl t̪irt̪ɔk muʈcɛ/
bread 1SG.GEN-INS eat.INF be-PRS.PROG.3PL
‘Bread is being eaten by me.’

/sɔrkɔr elɪjɔnk pɪllikɔn suɖɖi /

Government by.POSTP poor-ACC money give.INF be-PRS.3PL
‘Money was given by the Govt. to the poor’

3.7. Adverb

Adverbs are the classes of words, which are used to modify the verb. Morphologically
adverbs are indeclinable and syntactically adverbs are the modifiers of verbs. Accordingly, the
Todaadverbs are classified into three categories and they are discussed below with examples.
Adverbs are semantically divided into different groups as follows.

/mellɪ ɑ:ʋɔʈɾ/ ‘speak slowly’

Slowly speak-IMP

/t̠ɪrc ɑɯ ʈʈəʈɛ/ / ‘do not speak loudly’

loudly speak do not-IMP

In the above sentences the adverbs are / mellɪ / ‘slowly’and / t̠ɪrc / ‘loudly’

3.7.1. Classification of Adverbs

Generally, Adverb can be classified into three categories:

Adverb of Manner

An adverb of manner modifies or changes a sentence to tell us how something happens.

/paɳiʋə:ɡə/ ‘kindly’
h
/d ɔ:ttəmkӕs/ ‘cruely’
/kircctu/ ‘loudly’
/meli/ ‘slowly’
/peruʋel/ ‘fast (quick)’
/tappijӕ/ ‘badly’
/oɽttɯ kisʋərtɯ / ‘neatly’
/biddijӕ/ ‘smartly’

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Adverb of Place

An adverb of place can indicate an object's position in relation to another object.

/ӕɽəkiji/ ‘east’
/mӕ:lmə:rkɯ / ‘west’
/koɖɖəkkɯ / ‘right hand’
/fə̃diɡi/ ‘far’
/parckoji/ ‘out’
/mɯ ɡɡɯ nɔ:ʈtu/ ‘upward’
/kuɽɯ kku/ ‘across’
/kiɖɯ kkɯ / ‘near’

Adverb of Time

Adverbs of time indicates when an action happened, but also for how long, and how
often.
/maɽcim/ ‘again’
/pʊ̃ɳɳɯ / ‘afterwards’
/madəɭkiʋi/ ‘already’
/na:ʈki:rm/ ‘daily’
/aɡəɖəʋətkɯ / ‘evening’
/maɳɳi/ ‘time’
/eɟ/ ‘today’
/aɡə:ɽɯ / ‘night’

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 4. SYNTAX

4.1 Introduction

Syntax is the study of the interrelationshios between elements of sentence structure, and
of the rules governing the arrangement of sentences in sequences. A syntactic category is a set
of words and/or phrases in a language which share a significant number of common
characteristics. The classification is based on similar structure and sameness of distribution and
not on meaning. Syntax of Toda language is presented below.

4.2 Word order

Word order typology is the study of the order of the syntactic constituents of a language.
The basic word order of Toda is SOV (subject-object-verb). Example

/ona mar gotne/ ‘I see the bird’

I bird see.PRS

subject object verb

/on tuʈ iospne/ ‘I eat bread’

I bread eat

subject object verb

/tun pɔr dutsci/ ‘The cow gives milk’

the cow milk give.PRS

subject object verb

/on ogor ʋipni/ ‘I go to the market’

I market go.PRS

subject object verb

4.3 Structural Classification of Sentences

A sentence is a grammatical unit that is composed of one or more clauses. The sentences
in Toda can be classified into on the basis of formation (Simple, Complex and Compound) and
on the basis of function (Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative and Exclamatory) as follows
(a) Simple, (b) Complex, and (c) Compound. Examples are given below according to the data.

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4.3.1 Simple Sentence

The simple sentence consists of a subject and a predicate. It is a sentence that contains
one independent clause and no dependent clauses.

/tun pɔr dutsci/

cow-NOM milk give.PRS
‘The cow gives milk’

/on kǝdǝrǝn uiʈpini/

I horse run.PRS
‘I run the horse’

/amɔ̃ɡh bustək ʋɔjircci/

he book read.PRS
‘He reads a book’

/amokʰ in uitsi/
he here come.PRS
‘He comes here’

/ɔ̃n tuʈ aʃpni/

I bread eat.PRS
‘I eat bread’

4.3.2 Compound Sentence

A compound sentence is a sentence composed of two or more independent clauses that

are joined with a coordinating conjunction or connective.

As it is reflected in the following examples, any overt connective/ coordinating

conjunction (i.e. and) is not available in this language.

/pǝholʋon pondel ilʋǝn ʋorqʰ/

work.PRS the day sleep. PRS night
‘Work in the day and sleep at night’

/fadk minam ettoɖi fadk minam kaɽɔʈi/

some fish big some fish small
‘Some fish are big and some are small’

In some cases, though any overt connective/ coordinating conjunction is not used, affix
/-im/ is attached after the words for cat /qǝtʰ/, dog /noi/, which are connected.

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 /illor ur qǝtʰim noim uɖɖi/

‘Here is a cat and a dog’

4.3.3 Complex sentence

A sentence having one principal clause followed by one or more subordinate clause(s)
is known as a complex sentence.

Examples–

/i noi den amokʰ paroʈ se/

this dog that the boy bite be.PST
This is the dog that bit the boy’

/mɔ̃ɡh ʋɔtunɔ ɔn ʋipni/

I go.FUT he come.PRS
‘I shall go after he comes’

/po:l eccəm ʋɔdunɯ ɡo:ɭ kocci/

police if come.PRS thief catch.FUT.PASS
If the police comes then the thief will be caught

In the above examples, /amokʰ paroʈ se/ ‘that bit the boy’, /ɔn ʋipni/ ‘he comes’, /po:l
eccəm ʋɔdunɯ / ‘ If the police comes’ are subordinate clauses whereas /i noi/ ‘This is the
dog’, /mɔ̃ɡh ʋɔtunɔ/ ‘I shall go’, /ɡo:ɭ kocci/ ‘the thief will be caught’ are main clauses.

4.4 Semantic Classification of Sentences

Sentence is an independent linguistic form. Single or multiple sentences contruct

discourse. Semantically, Toda sentences can be classified into the following types

1. Statement Sentence
2. Interrogative Sentence
3. Imperative Sentence
4. Obligatory Sentence
5. Optative Sentence
6. Conditional Sentence
7. Passive Sentence
8. Causative Sentence
9. Negative Sentence
10. Exclamatory Sentence

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4.4.1 Statement Sentence

The sentence which presents a statement is termed as statement sentence.

Examples -

/pustǝk ʈebildǝr uɖɖi/

the book on the table be. PRS
‘The book is on the table’

/on ogor ʋipni/

I market go.PRS
‘I go to the market’

/mǝheʃ mǝdǝnbum ǝsguse/

Mahesh the mango eat.PST
Mahesh ate the mango

4.4.2 Interrogative Sentence

The sentence which is generally used to ask a question in order to gather information
about something.

/nin pe:r enna?/

your name what
What is your name?

/nin ke:t koɽəʈrӕʃkɯ ?/

you how old
‘How old are you?’

/ettɔk ni e:ɻɯ cci/

when you get up
When do you get up?

4.4.3 Imperative Sentence

The sentence which indicates the reader an instruction, makes a request, or issues a
command are called imperative sentence.

/ær kɔr/
sit go-IMP
‘Sit down.’

704
 /mili aʋǝr/
Speak.IMP slowly
‘Speak slowly’

/paʋar ʈar/
door close-IMP
‘Close the door’

4.4.4 Obligatory Sentence

The sentence which indicates obligation, is called obligatory sentence.

/amɔ̃ɡh pustək ʋarti/

he book write. Obligatory
‘He should write a book’

/aɡɡədir mɔddi/
the horse sell. Obligatory
The horse is to sold

4.4.5 Optative Sentence

The sentence with which desires, wishes, blessings, curses, prayers are expressed are called
optative sentences.

/ʋon ʋondǝm ʋodne/

1SG may can.FUT.SG
‘I may come.’

4.4.6 Conditional sentence

When two actions are conditioned by each other in a single sentence then a conditional
sentence is formed.

/udskas kels kistə ke:lc ʋicci/

‘If he works hard he will succeed’

/udʋeɭikkɯ rəjil meɭi ʋəttə ʋətti/

‘If the train is late we may catch it’

4.4.7 Passive sentence

The sentence where the main action is expressed in passive sense is called passive sentence.

705
 /ka:ʃ enna la:kʃni/
the money me take.PRF.PASS
The money has been taken by me

/duɖ enna:l tirʃni/

bread me eat.PRF.PASS
Bread is being eaten by me

4.4.8 Causative Sentence

The causative sentences are formed by suffixing causative marker to the verb which
varies according to the person. When the subject causes some agent to do the action we get
causative sentence. Here the verb takes the Causative marker.

/ɔ̃:n kӕtərən oɖӕsni/

I horse run. PRS.CAUS.PROG.
‘I am making the horse run’

/ɔ̃:n sonmən ɡaɽӕcpini/

I people laugh.PRS.CAUS
I make the people laugh

4.4.9 Negative sentence

The sentence which expresses the negation is called Negative sentence.

/ɔ̃:n makkaɭ ʋa:r niʃkini/
I tomorrow come.FUT.NEG
I shall not come tomorrow

/amɔ̃ɡhən ʋo:ɽi/
that man come.PRS.PRF.NEG
That man has not come yet

4.4.10 Exclamatory Sentence

A sentence which exclaims sudden feeling of surprise, liking, disliking is called

exclamatory sentence.

/idӕttɯ knərʃ baliʋa:rɔ/

what- beautiful- temple- be.PRS.EXCL
‘What a beautiful temple it is!’

706
 /amɔ̃ɡh ɦem koʃtərɯ suɖӕ/
You how tall grow.PRS.PRF.EXCL
‘How tall you have grown!’

4.5 Structure of phrases

A phrase is a syntactic structure that consists of more than one word but lacks the
subject-predicate organization of a clause. A phrase is a syntactic structure which acts like a
constituent of a sentence. It may be realizsed in Todas in 4 types of phrases i.e. Noun Phrase
(NP), Verb Phrase (VP), Adjectival Phrase (AP), Postpositional Phrase (PP) and Adverbial
Phrase (AdvP). The phrasal sub-division in Toda is mentioned below.

4.5.1 Noun Phrase

A noun phrase or nominal phrase (NP), combines with other words, optionally
accompanied by modifiers like adjectives and intensifiers. A noun as well as a pronoun may
act like a noun Phrase. For example,
/uili moɡhə/
good boy
‘The good boy’

/bidhijɔ:ɖ moɡhə/
clever boy
‘The clever boy’

In above noun phrases adjectives /uili/ ‘good’, /bidhijɔ:ɖ/ ‘clever’ have been used as
modifiers for /moɡhə/ ‘the boy’

4.5.2 Verb Phrase

A verb phrase (VP) is a phrase that has the syntactic role of a simple verb, and is
composed of a main verb and auxiliary verbs or verbal particles related syntactically to the
verb. In generative grammar, a verb phrase is a syntactic unit that corresponds to the predicate.
In addition to the verb, this includes auxiliaries, objects, object complements and other
constituents apart from the subject. These are inflected for person, number and gender. The
predicate may be a finite intransitive or transitive verb. In Toda some examples of verb phrases
are given below

/ɔn pɔnmæk nɔʈpӕnɪ/

I bird see
‘i see the bird’
/pɔnmæk nɔʈpӕnɪ/ ‘see the bird’ is the verb phrase

707
 /ɔn tuʈʈɪ ɔʃpɪni/
‘I eat bread’
/tuʈʈɪ ɔʃpɪni/ ‘eat bread’ is the verb phrase

4.5.3 Postpositional Phrase

A postposition is an adposition that occurs after its complement. An adpositional phrase

is a syntactic category that includes prepositional phrase (PP) and postpositional phrases
(POSTP). In this language we find Postpositional Phrases. For example,

/kiɭmӕr mejintak kiʈʃi/

parrot tree-on-LOC be.PRS
‘The parrot is on the tree’
Here /tak/ is the postpositional phrase

/amɔ̃ɡh mejinber ʋərikicci /

hetree-under-LOC sleep-PROG
‘He sleeps under the tree’
Here /ber/ is the postpositional phrase

4.5.4 Adjectival Phrase

In an adjectival phrase, the adjective acts as the head of the phrase. An adjectival phrase
consists of an adjective followed by a noun.
Example Examples of Adjectival Phrase is not available in the questionnaire for data collection

4.5.5 Adverbial phrase

An adverb is a lexical category whose members have the same syntactic distribution
and which modifies adjectives, other adverbs, verbs, or whole clauses or sentences. An
adverbial phrase has an adverb that complements the verb. For example,

/ni iʃdə:k mudəl kamɔ̃ɡh kikuʃӕ/

you do.PST before he
‘He did the work before you did’

/mɔ̃ɡh ʋɔtunɔ ɔ̃:n ʋi:pni/

he come.PRS I go.FUT
‘I shall go after he comes’

In these above examples, /ni iʃdə:k mudəl/ ‘before you did’, and /mɔ̃ɡh ʋɔtunɔ/ ‘after
he comes’ are adverbial phrase.

708
4.6 Structure of clauses

A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb that have a relationship.
This relationship is crucial; a clause conveys information about what that subject is or is doing,
rather than simply being a random grouping of words. Because a clause expresses an action or
a state of being, a clause can often—but not always—function as an independent sentence. A
sentence can have just one clause or it can have multiple clauses. The only defining
characteristic of a clause is that it must contain a related subject and verb.

4.6.1 Relative clause

A relative clause is a kind of subordinate clause, one of whose arguments shares a

referent with a main clause element on which the subordinate clause is grammatically
dependent.
/nin boɖəʋɔʈʈiko ɔ:ɽijɔ ennɔ kijӕ/
you my sister who the woman talk.PST
‘The woman who talked to you is my sister’

/I noi den amokʰ paroʈ se/

this dog that boy bite.PST
‘This is the dog that bit the boy’
/ɔ:ɽijɔ ennɔ kijӕ/ ‘who talked to you is my sister’, den amokʰ paroʈ se/ ‘that bit the boy’
are subordinate clauses.

4.6.2. Correlative clause

Correlative Conjunctions are pairs of words that work together to connect two parts of
a sentence that hold an equal value, or correlate with one another. Either..or, neither..nor are
examples of correlative conjunctions. Clauses formed with correlative conjunctions are termed
as correlative clause.
/on markeʈ kojani amokʰ ʋaje/
I market neither he go.PST
‘Neither he nor I went to the market’
/on…kojani amokʰ/ ‘neither he nor I’ is the example of correlative clause.

4.7 Syntactic Transformation

4.7.1 Negativization

Negation is in the first place a phenomenon of semantic opposition. In a SOV ordered

sentence, generally the negative element comes with the verb of the sentence. In Toda,
negation is expressed through /ni/, /ri/, /ji/, /ɽi/which is added after the verb.

/ɔ̃:n makkaɭ ʋa:r niʃkini/

I tomorrow come.FUT. + NEG
I shall not come tomorrow

709
 /amɔ̃ɡhən ʋo:ɽi/
That man come.PRF+ NEG
That man has not come yet

/nəm ka:ɭari/
you (pl) read.PRS.PROG+ NEG
You (pl.) are not reading

/idu durəʈtu kustə koji/

this eat be.PRS+NEG
This is not edible

/idɯ muɖiʋi iji/

it possible be.PRS+NEG
It is impossible

4.7.2 Causativization

The causative sentences are formed by suffixing causative marker to the verb which
varies according to the person. Causative indicates that a subject cause someone or something
else to do or be something. This formation is termed as 1st causative. When the subject causes
someone or something (causer) to make someone/ something do the work is termed 2nd
causative In Toda some examples of causative constructions are made using /-ʃni/ suffix to
the verb.
1st Causative formation-
/ɔ̃:n kaɽɯ n duʋa:r kɯ ʈʃni/
I the baby feed.PRS.1st CAUS
I feed the baby

2nd Causative formation-

/ɔ̃n narʃ kəijar kaɽɯ n duʋar kɯ ʈʃni /
I nurse by feed feed.PRS.2nd CAUS
‘I make the nurse feed the baby’

4.7.3 Passivization

A passive sentence is created from an active sentence where subject changes into
object, adding “by” and object changes to the subject, Changing the verb form to its participle
form. In this language the verb is not found in passivized form. For example,

Active voice-
/ɔ̃:n duʈ tirisni/
I bread eat.PRS.
‘I eat bread’

710
 /duʈ enna:l tirisni/
bread by me eat.PRS
‘Bread is being eaten by me’

As it is reflected in the example, subject and object change their respective position
but verb form remains unchanged in passive construction of Toda language.

711
 5. CONCLUSION

As the Report shows that Toda Language belongs to South Dravidian family of
Languages and it is an agglutinating type of language. Though various anthropological,
ethnographic studies have been done on Toda Tribe, their complex linguistic system needs to
be studied thoroughly to capture peculiarities of the language.

712
 6. TEXT

TWO FRIENDS AND A BEAR

/har tan gor huis gaɽ tanualor nuit hui ram som ʈuʋalaɽ/
two friends ramu and shyam walked through a forest

/rui sui dise nui sudi sin ge ailuɽ kas gut nam gun gun/
they promised each other that they would remain united

/wars uiʈa ise sait isme tuʋalaɽ ʋuise stok monar uskar suidise/
in case of any danger once they were walking through a forest

/ kar lodin arm mosi van ʋoɖin ram mosi/

bear came on their way ramu climbed a tree

/mendeɖ ʋose som mup men naiti eɽe/

shyam did not know how to climb a tree he told his friend

/koiɖoro oitisie en nu mei ram keloɽ mio sores/

I do not know how to climb a tree please help me ramu did not respond

/kaɽe som guʈuk pose so mos gusue kon mich/

In fear and grief shyam lay down on the ground breathless

/kedi onoɽ murch kar kuruk pos som ɖitokdit /

the bear came near the man lying on the ground it smelt in his ears and slowly.

/noits kit moist fixes aj nore kaaru keri iz/

left place because bears do not touch dead creatures

/maan noɖie ram arnu sois kaɽ very/

ramu came down from the tree and asked his friend shyam

/nerɖ is som non git nar kit isk nodis/

friend what did the bear tell you into your ear shyam replied

/skuits bidi sie som u helur gars uɖgi/

the bear advised me not to trust a friend who leaves you in times

/he hagol tan bo lo huis tugi halak pie guise/

shyam walked in own way leaving ramu alone in the forest

713
 7. REFERENCE

Emeneau, Murray B. 1984 Collected Papers, The Annamalai

University, Annamalainagar

Census of India, 2001 Language, Table C-16, India, States and

Union Territories.

Census of India, 2011 Language, Table C-16, India, States and

Union Territories.

Grierson, G.A. 1904 Linguistic Survey of India. Vol. IV

Munda & Dravidian Languages.

Krishanamurti, Bhatdriraju, 2003 The Dravidian Languages. Cambridge

University Press.

Singh, K.S.,1994 People of India – The schedule tribes,

Vol III, Oxford University Press.

Walker, Anthony R.,1986 The Toda of South India: A New Look.

Hindustan Publishing Corporation

B.R. Publishing Corporation, 1989 Between Tradition and Modernity and

Other Essays on the Toda of South
India.

Mohanty, PK, 2004 Encyclopaedia of Primitive Tribes in

India, In Two volumes, Kalpaz
Publications, Delhi-110052

-----****-----

714
 URALI
R. Nakkeerar
1. INTRODUCTION

The state of Tamil Nadu consists of numerous Dravidian tribes and they appear to
have similar characteristics and physical traits, like having a dark skin tone, sturdy and
brawny, and short height. The interiors of Tamil Nadu are populated by different tribes like
Urali, Paniyan, Toda, Kota, Irula/Iruliga, and others. The Urali tribe, also known as Urli,
Uraly, and Oorazhi, are generally found in Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Urali means 'ruler' (‘ali’)
'of locality or village' (‘ur’).

The Urali mother tongue is described as the language of the highlands of Kerala and
Tamil Nadu, mostly found in the Cardamom hills of Kerala state, but according to another
source published in The Hindu, the Urali are the people of the hills near Bargur in North-
western Tamil Nadu. Urali is connected to Kannada since it is a member of the Kannada-
Bagada language group, which is a sub-group of the Tamil-Kannada language group, which
is part of the Dravidian language family. However, it is also influenced by the Tamil
language.

According to the dated facts of the 1891 Madras Census Report, the Uralis were
mainly a tribe of agricultural workers. Again, as per the 1901, Travancore Census report, the
Urali were mainly residents of the Cardamom Hills. The tribal chief was known as
Kanikkaran. According to legends, they were peasants of the ruler of Madura, and during
State parades, they had the duty of holding umbrellas. The legends state that, once the tribal
members had escorted the ruler of Madura to Neriyamangalam, and were left behind to rule
that entire region. According to other legends, the Uralis were believed to be Kshatriyas, who
came to the south leaving behind their family, in pursuit of exploration and adventure.
Several other origins exist relating to the origins of the Urali tribes.

Agriculture is considered as the main occupation of the Urali. Although they depended
on fruits and nutritious roots, now the Uralis consume different food crops. Rice, vegetables,
tapioca, etc. are among their staple food, which is widely cultivated by the Urali. Cash crops
such as cardamom, coffee, and areca nut are also farmed. The Uralis are also engaged in
hunting. Other than these, mat and basket weaving, pottery, and working as a farm laborer.
There is also adequate evidence to point out that the Uralis even attempted rubber plantation.

The Urali tribes like many tribes in south India, worship nature as gods and believe
that it is the creator of the world. They consider the Sun as 'the creator of all souls' and moon
as the mother of all creation. Worshipping the sun comprises an important aspect of their
religion. They also possess various superstitious beliefs and consider that the local hills are
possessed by evil spirits. They also conduct frequent exorcisms, conducted by the village
shamans or witchdoctors. The shamans undergo long and hard training to prepare for

715
becoming a trained exorcist. They also worship the Betta Chikamma, a goddess who is
supposed to protect them from disaster.

The Uralis generally do not engage in inter-tribal marriage, instead, they prefer to
marry within their tribe. It is customary amongst them to wear a sacred thread on special
occasions like weddings and funerals. The female members wear special dresses and an
elongated ornament, named Kuchu, is worn around the neck. Music is an intrinsic part of
their culture, and drums and flutes comprise the main musical instruments. The Uralis
perform traditional Urali dances matching the rhythms of the music.

Special hunting expeditions are conducted on Sivaratri, as offerings are presented to

the gods. Kavettaikaran is the leader of the hunting group, and each hunted animal is offered
the first share of each hunted animal before distributing the remaining portions among the
other members. Moreover, the Urali tribe has its native language known as the Urali
language.

Family Affiliation

Urali is a Dravidian speech language mainly spoken in Tamil Nadu and Kerala. R.C.
Nigam in his Language Handbook on Mother Tongues in Census also describes Urali as the
mother tongue name after the name of the scheduled tribe in Tamil Nadu and Kerala. This
was classified under Kannada in the 1961 Census based on Sir George Abraham Grierson
in Linguistic Survey of India (LSI) Vol. V Part-I . Linguistic classification of Urali in
Dravidian family of languages is presented below,

Dravidian

Northern Central Southern

Tulu Tamil-Kannada

Kannada Tamil-
Kokagu

Urali Kannada

716
Location

At the time of Grierson’s study under LSI, the Uralis inhabited the nearby
Sathyamangalam area in Erode district of Tamil Nadu. As per the latest appeared Census data
on Urali in 1961 is.

Speaker’s Strength

According to the 2011 Census Report, there are around 12,986 native speakers of
Urali in their community.

Bilingualism

The Urali people use Urali as their mother tongue at home, although Tamil as their
state language is spoken in markets. Tamil is also used as a teaching and communication
medium in schools and educational institutions. Aside from that, the Urali people are also
conversant in Kannada.

Review of earlier literature:

The Urali mother tongue has no standard form and they also have no written
literature. Elder generations of this community use some oral fables and moral stories for
younger generations. As per the information from the informants, nowadays this community
has started publishing one half-yearly magazine which presents matrimonial advertisements,
small poems and songs regarding marriage ceremonies, small stories, etc. They are using
Tamil script for their writing purpose.

Present Study

The present grammatical description of the Urali has been developed from the
collected data by the in-house linguist of Language Division in the year 2021-22 for the
present LSI volume for Tamil Nadu. The field data is collected for this language from the
Erode district of Tamil Nadu state. The data has been collected from a male informant named
Sri P. Prakash and again this data was verified by another male person named Sri G. Anand.
Both are residing at the Erode district.

Apart from this study, during the Mother Tongue Survey of India Project (MTSI)
audio visual linguistic data of four samples of Urali had been collected from the Thingalur
village, Maathan/Sathiyamangalam taluk of Erode district of Tamil Nadu, by officials of
Directorate of Census Operation of Tamil Nadu, Office of the Registrar General, India during
2015. Name of the informants are Sri. Nagarajan, Masilamani
All the data had been transcribed and analysed by linguistic Resource Persons namely
Dr.V. Shanmugaraj, Ms. D. Jenifer Jeni, Ms. Suba Harish and Sri Ramesh Kumar. The

717
analysed reports had been consolidated by Prof. S Rajendran, Department of Computational
Engineering and Networking, Coimbatore.

The present study is a humble attempt to present the detailed phonological,

morphological and syntactical features of Urali based on the field data collected from in and
around Hassanur area of Erode district of Tamil Nadu during December 2021. The name of
the Informants are Dr Satyamurthy, Sri Muniyappan and Sri Mahalingam.

Based on these analysed reports of four samples and a consolidated report and the
collected information in the field survey by the in-house linguist of Language Division
linguistic description of the Urali is presented here in the following chapters.

718
 2. PHONOLOGY

The present study is a humble attempt to present the detailed phonological,

morphological, and syntactical features of Urali based on the field data collected from in and
around Hassanur area of Erode district of Tamil Nadu during December 2021.

Phonology is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.
The phonological system of a language includes an inventory of sounds and their features,
and rules which specify how sounds interact with each other. The phonemic analysis consists
in allotting all the indefinite number of sounds occurring in utterances to a definite and
limited set of phonemes contrastive in at least some environments.

The phonemic inventory of Urali shows the distinctive sound units occurring in the
Urali speech. The Phonological system of Urali is presented below based on the data
collected from the informants of Sathiyamangalam taluk, Erode district of Tamil Nadu,
during a field investigation in December 2021.

1.1. Phonemic Inventory (Segmental)

The segmental phonemes of Urali comprise 19 vowels and 25 Consonants. An effort
has been made to present them with suitable examples.

Vowel Chart
Segmental Vowel Phonemes

FRONT CENTRAL BACK

HIGH /i/ /i: / /ɨ/ /u/ /u: /
/ʊ/
/ ɪ/
MID /e/ /e: / /ә/ /ә: / /o/ /o: /
MID-LOW /Ɛ/ /ɔ/ /ɔ:/
/ӕ/
LOW /a/ /a: /

Consonant Chart
Segmental Consonant Phonemes

Bilabial Labio Alveolar Palatal Retroflex palatal Velar

Dental
Plossive Vl /p/ /t/ /ʈ/ /c/ /k/
Vd /b/ /d/ /ɖ/ /ɟ/ /g/
Fricative Vl /s/ /ʃ/ /h/

719
 Vd */ʒ/
Nasal /m/ /n/ /ɲ/ /ɳ/ /ŋ/
Trill /ʋ/ /r/
approximant /ɻ/ /j/
Lateral /l/ /ɭ/
approximant

*/ʒ/ does not occur in the native words of the language. The use of this consonant is mainly
found in loan words, so the phonemes can not be posited in the inventory of the regular
phonemes of the language.

This voiced postalveolar fricative has a pronunciation corresponding to the sound /z/, which
is most frequent in European languages. Due to the extensive use of English borrowed terms,
it is found in Dravidian and notably in Urali.

3.1. iv. Distribution of the vowel phonemes

Vowels Postitions of Occurrence

Initial Medial Final
/ibbanɪkkəʈʈiɻ/ /mi:nɨ/ ‘fish’ /su:ləsi/ ‘prostitute’
‘ice’ ni:ɳɨ/ ‘you’ /ʋalə da:ji/ ‘step mother’ /ʋƐsi/
/i/ /in̪dɨ/ ‘today’ /ninnəʋəli/ ‘to you’ ‘sharp’
/illɛ/ ‘not’ /ninnəʋəli/ ‘to you’
/mərija:ti/ ‘kindly’
/i:pi/ ‘ fly’ /ni:rduɡʊtɨ/ ‘brook’
/sukki:/ ‘star’
/i:rəʋa:ŋɡi/ ‘onion’ /mi:ʃƐ/
/e:di:/ ‘where’
/i:/ ‘moustache’ /si:rana:/
/ti:/ ‘fire’
‘chisel’ /si:ŋge:ka:j/
/ɛnnɨɡa:səʈʈi:/ ‘eunuch’
‘shikakai’
/ɪrʊʈʈɨ/ ‘darkness’ /ʋɪʃlɨ/ ‘heat’ /erkeɪ/ ‘nature’
/sorɪkədɨ/ ‘itch’ /ʋə:nɪleɪ/ ‘weather’
/ɪ/
/ʋɪklɨ/ ‘hiccough’
/hiccup’
/e:me/ ‘tortoise’ /ole:p/ ‘river’ /aʋare:/ ‘beans’
/e:lɨ/ ‘seven’ /te:lɨ/ ‘centipede’ /rɛkke:/ ‘wing’
/e:/ /e:laka:ji/ /se:rɨ/ ‘chair’ /parəɖɨɛrume:/ ‘yak’
‘cinnamon’ /ke:raʈʈɨ/ ‘carrot’
/e:ccənə/ ‘to think’ /ne:ɲɟa:ku:ɖɨ/ ‘chest’
/edɨ/ ‘which’ /belɪjə:lƐ/ ‘high tide’ /e:me/ ‘tortoise’
/eddə:/ ‘mother's /neʋlɨ/ ‘Peacock’ /bɛlijasape/ ‘assembly’
/e/
father’ /perika:ji/ ‘berry’ /eɭɭe/ ‘boundary’
/elle/ ‘border’ /nelli/ ‘amla’

720
 /etiri/ ‘enemy’
/erudɨɈakaɭa:/
‘bull-fight’
/selƐoɖʊɡʊtɨ/ ‘echo’
/Ɛlʊdɨkəʋɛ/ ‘clerk’
/mƐləkpətti/ ‘wax /belɪjə:lƐ/ ‘high tide’
/ƐʈʈɪʋƐttæ/ ‘to step
candle’ /ɟeɖɪməjƐ/ ‘storm’
on, tread on’
/ʋerƐhə:dɨ/ ‘to draw /madʊʋƐ/ ‘marriage’
/Ɛ/ /ɛkkɨ/ ‘dirty’
(a picture)’ /bɛlija:sɛ/ ‘greedy’
/ɛlɨʋattion̪dɨ/
/sɛrijəi/ ‘right’ /karuppɨpaləɡɛ/ ‘slate’
‘seventy one’
/ʋɛle:Ɉa:ʃti/ ‘costly’
/ɛluɨ/ ‘seven’
/pɛlijətɨ/ ‘big’
/ərmækrɨkkƐ/ ‘blessing’ /appæ/ ‘father’
/bæʈʈɨ/ ‘ bat’ /accæ/
‘father's
/æ/ ……………… brother .
younger’
/appæ/ ‘father’
/ma:mæ/ ‘father-in-law’
/a:rrorttɛ/ ‘someone /malla:/ ‘soft’
/ma:lɨ/ ‘date’
/a:ŋɡɛ/ ‘but’ /te:ʃa:/ ‘nation’
/ma:ʃə:/ ‘month’
/a:ləm/ ‘deep’ /ra:Ɉa:/ ‘king’
/a:/ /pa:dɨka:ppɨ/ ‘security’
/a:sirʋa:da/ /kirikiɖa:/ ‘crown’
/ra:ni/ ‘queen’
blessing’
/a:ɳɨma:/ ‘student’
/arkƐ:mɨ/ ‘to /marɨmahƐ/ ‘daughter-in- /ubba:ʃa/ ‘fast’
harvest’ law’ /saʋʊra/ ‘thousand’
/allə:mƐ/ ‘all’ /maləhɨ/ ‘black pepper’ /takara/ ‘tin’
/a/ /arɨməkka:/ ‘good’ na:sikpadɨkəðɨ/ /tirɨɖa/ ‘thief’
/ariʋɨ/ ‘clever’ ‘to tickle’ /a:sirʋa:da/ ‘blessing’
/ke:lipaɳɳɨkəðɨ/
‘to tease’
/aʋə:/ ‘her’
/ə:/ /ʋə:ŋgɪɳɖƐ/ ‘to get’
…………………. /ʋambʊɟakalə:/ ‘to quarrel’
/ədʊəllə:/ ‘or’ /kƐʈʈədɨ/ ‘bad’,
/arməndə/ ‘The good’
/əllʊhɨ/ ‘evening’ /pəsɪɻ/ ‘hungry’
/tirʊɖʊhə/ ‘to rob’
(/əʋɛ͂/ ‘he’ /mattəbəti/ ‘otherwise’
/ə/ /illendə/ ‘or’
/əɭɨɡɨ/ ‘evening’ /nannədɨ/ ‘my’
/nakkənə/ ‘other’
/ələxinəmanasɨ/ /aʋənɛ/ ‘himself’
‘kind’
/ɔnnʊɡəsəʈʈɪɻ/ /mɔrƐndɪrdɨ/ ‘to /sərkarɨku:ʈʈɔ/ ‘assembly’
‘eunuch’ disappear’
/ɔ/
/ɔrrƐ:/ ‘rock’ /ʋɔʈʈƐɻ/ ‘out’
/ɔnnɛ/ ‘oil’ /kɔrɻ/ ‘sheep’

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 /tɔɡa:/ ‘god’

/ɔ:ndrɨ/ ‘to get up /pɔ:rɨ/ ‘stomach’

/ɔ:/ ………………..
(arise)’ /ɟɔ:ɟəkarɛ/ ‘astrologer’
/o:ɖʊkƐ:mɨ/ /rə:po:dɨ/ ‘night’ /eppo:/ ‘when’
‘to run’
/o:/
/o:rəkkə:/
‘tomorrow’
/odə:rʊkƐ:mɨ/
‘to jerk’
/kolƐ:/ ‘dirty’
/oji/ ‘through’
/o/ /modəlɨ/ ‘before’ /malla:ppo/ ‘slow’
/oɖagɨ/ ‘valley’
/ole:/ ‘river’
/oppale/ ‘boil’
/u:dʊkə:rɨ/
/ʃu:si/ ‘wicked’
/u:/ ‘to blow /ɡʊɳɖu:/ ‘bomb’
/mu:ɪndɨ/ ‘three’
(with the mouth)’
/ullƐ:/ ‘in’ /muhɪrttɨ/ ‘to drown’ /ereməɳɳu/ ‘clay’
/uli/ ‘chisel’ /muʈʈəlɨ/ ‘wild’ /pu:ko:su/ ‘cauliflower’
/u/ /uruɭɛkaŋɡ/‘potato’ /ɛlɨdukaʋərɨ/ ‘clerk’ /moʈʈɨko:su/ ‘cabbage’
/uri/ ‘sweat’ /sutti/ ‘hammer’ /so:ru/ ‘cooked rice’
/umma:lɨ/ ‘saliva’ /sundi/ ‘dry ginger’
/rəɳɖə:lʊ/ ‘They (two)’
/ɪnnʊmƐ:/ ‘still’
/ro:ɟapʊ/ ‘golap (rose)’
/pʊlli/ ‘gilli danda’
/ɛppʊ/ ‘when’
/idʊmuʈʈɨ/ ‘yet’
/ʊ/ /ka:lsɛjinʊ/ ‘anklet’
…………………. /pudʊsɨ/ ‘fresh’
/ʋikkɨlʊ/
/pudʊsɨ/ ‘new’
‘hiccough/hiccup’
/na:ʊlɨ/ ‘date’
/kəsərʊ/ ‘mud’
/pəmmɨ/ ‘ripe’
/ʋɔʈʈɨkƐɖa/ ‘altar’
/ɨkkƐ:mɨ/ ‘to drag (a /tajə:rɨ/ ‘ready’
/aðɨka/ ‘these’
/ɨ/ heavy object)’ /pa:ttɨ/ ‘towards’
/innɨmɛ/ ‘still’
/ɨʋttƐ/ ‘to stretch’ /edɨ/ ‘ which’
/nanɨkkɨ/ ‘to me
/ni:ɳɨ/ ‘ you’

The vowel phonemes except /ə:/, /ӕ/, /ɔ:/, /u/, and /ʊ/ occur in word-initial, medial,
and final positions. The vowels /ӕ/ /ə:/ and /ʊ/ occur in the word medial and final position
and not in the word-initial position. Similarly, all long vowel phonemes occur in word-
initially, medially, and finally, except /e:/ /ɔ:/ and short vowel /u/. These three phonemes
occur in word-initial and medial positions.

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1.1. v. Distribution of the consonantal phonemes

The distribution of the consonantal phoneme in the three Urali dialects is tabulated
below.

Consonants Positions of Occurrence

Initial Medial Final
/po:dɨ/ ‘sun /i:pi/ ‘fly’ /na:lɪp/ ‘stream’
/pɔɳɖəʈɪ/ ‘female’ /muriponnɨkəʋɛ/
/pu:mi/ ‘/pu:mi/ ‘tailor’
/p/
/pukkɨ/ ’book’ /gəipe:/ ‘bitter’
/pa:ra:korəiʋɨ/‘light’ /rajilɨpandi/ ‘train’
/paʃɨ/ ‘bus’ /kojapammɨ/ ‘guava’
Phoneme /p/ occurs in word initial, medial and final position. /p/ does not occur in the final
position.
/baɳɖɪɻ/ ‘cart’ /tumbɪrdɨ/ ‘to fill’
/baɖʊhʊlɨ/ ‘north’ /sambərɪkə:dɨ/‘to earn’
/b/ bammɨ/ ‘fruit’ /kira:mbɨ/ ‘clove’
………………..
/buʋɨ/ ‘flower’ /ti:ba:/ ‘lamp’
/bi:ha:/ ‘lock’ /kubba/ ‘tumour’
Phoneme /b/ occurs only in word initial and medial position and not in word final position
in Urali.
/satərɛ/ ‘square’
/ti:seɖɪp/ ‘flame’
/metƐ/ ‘stack of
/tɨxɨne:/ ‘bug’
/t/ hay’
/ti:/ ‘fire’
/attərɨ/ ‘so’ …………….
/ti:seɖi/ ‘flame’
/pi:ti/ ‘ground’
Phoneme /t/ occurs only in word initial and medial position and not in word final position.
/dʊkkɛ/ ‘grief’, /a:ɪda/ ‘weapon’
/dɪhʊnƐ:/ ‘bug’ /adɨ/ ‘it’
/d/
/de:kka:/ ‘belch’ /madʊʋƐ/ ‘marriage
……………….
/dubba:/ ‘butter’ /ta:di/ ‘beard’
Phoneme /d/ occurs only in word initial and medial position not in word final position.
/da:ʈɻ/ ‘beard’
/ʈisoppɨ/ ‘tea’
/kəʈlɨ/ ‘cot’
/ʈ/ /ʈəʋnɨ/ ‘city’
/kiʋɨʈɨ/ ‘deaf’
/ʈəʋunɨ/ ‘town’ ………………….
/piricipuʈʈrɨ/ ‘divorce’
Form the given data we can see that phoneme /ʈ/ occurs initial and medial but not in final
position.
/ɖəttʊkkɨ/ ‘left /koɖɪɻ/ ‘flag’
(hand)’ /iɖʊdʊrttɨ/
/ɖ/
/ɖə:hɨ/ ‘curry’ ‘to collapse’
………………
/təmacɨmaɖaðɨ/

723
 ‘to joke’
/kəɳɖrippɨ/
‘to compel’
Phoneme /ɖ/ occur only word initial and medial position not in word final position.
/kəipƐ:/ ‘bitter’ /səɖɨkʊɖɨ/ ‘kabaddi’
/kalƐɟi/ ‘ollege’ /təka:ʈɨ/ ‘tin’
/k/ /kəɲccɨ/ ‘copper’ /oɭe:kəllɨ/ ‘oven’ ……………..
/kɛppukəllɨ/ ‘gem’ (tandoor)’
/kəɳɳa:ɖi/ ‘glass’ /uppinəka:ji/ ‘pickle’
Phoneme /k/ occur only word initial and medial position not in word final position.

/ɡəɳɖƐ/ ‘bell’
/səŋɡɨ/ ‘conch’
/ɡʊɖɪɻ/ ‘temple’
/aʒəɡə/ ‘washer-man’
/ɡ/ /ɡɔðe:/ ‘wet’ /uruɭɛkaŋɡ/ ‘potato’
/aŋɡixa:rərɨ/ ‘grocer’
/ɡu:si/ ’sharp’
/si:ŋɡe:ka:j/ shikakai’
/ɡəipe:/ ‘bitter’

Phoneme /ɡ/ occur only word initial and medial position final position.
/cinnədɨ/ ‘little’ /acci/ ‘mother's
/ciŋgarttɨkatɨ/ ‘to sister’
decorate’ /puccə/ ‘insanity’
/c/
miɲccikkutu/ ………………
‘lightning’
/accoʈʈə/ ‘snail’
Phoneme /c/ occurs only in word medial position.
/ɟəhəla/ ‘war’ /pərɟi/ ‘spear’
/ɟeɪlɨ/ ‘prison’ /maɟɪhƐ/ ‘buttermilk’
/ɟ/ /ɟɛjkkaðɨ/ ‘to win’ /mɛɈareʈʈɨ/ ‘judge’
……………
/Ɉejiɭɨ/ ‘prison’ /ra:Ɉa:/ ‘king’
/Ɉejiɭɨkəiti/ ‘prisoner’ /ra:Ɉijam/ ‘kingdom’
/ɟ/ occur in initial and medial positions only.
/soppɨ/ ‘leaf’ /ʋəgsʊkə:dɨ/‘to bend’
/sorɪkƐ:mɨ/ ‘to itch’ /pudʊsɨ/ ‘fresh’
/s/
/saɭɨ/ ‘cold’ /pu:si/ ‘insect’
……………..
/su:ləisi/ ‘prostitute’ /usuro:ɖɛ/ ‘alive’
/s/ phoneme occurs in word initial and medial postions.
/keʃɨ/ ‘case’
/ʃu:si/ ‘wicked’
/ubba:ʃa/ ‘fast’
/ʃɪnnəma/ ‘boy’
/kaʃɨ/ ‘coin’
/ʃ/ /ʃə:ʋɨ/ ‘death’
/ro:ʃa:/ ‘temper’ …………….
/ʃɨxaðɨ/ ‘to get up
/sa:ʃulɛ/ ‘loin cloth’
(arise)’
/a:ʃpattiri/ ‘hospital’

724
Phoneme /ʃ/ occur only word initial and medial position not in word final position.
/nahəra:/ ‘town’
/kuɳɖɪhƐ/ ‘heart’
/tohakure/ ‘worship
/h/ woom’
/ko:haɭɨ/ ‘drum (types
of drum)’
/anɨsuhəðɨ/ ‘to count’
/h/ occurs only in word medial position and not in word initial and final position.
/o:lƐɟɪmɪki/
/mo:ri/ ‘bridge’
‘ear-ring’
/manəkku:lƐ/
/kɪrƐmbɨ/ ‘clove’ /pa:ʃəm/ ‘affection’
‘weakness’
/m/ /amma:ʋasa/ ‘new /uləxam/ ‘world’
/murɪɻ/ ‘cloth’
moon’ /pa:ləiʋənam/ ‘desert’
/maɳəlɨ/ ‘shade’
/tambi/ ‘brother
/mərəkəʈʈe/‘wood’
(elder, younger)’
The phoneme /m/ occurs initial medial and final positions.
/ni:la/ /ma:nila:/ ‘state’
‘blue (colour /mosəmənəʋɛ/
of sky)’ ‘demon’
/no:ʋɨ/ ‘pain’ /cinna:/ ‘gold’
/n/ /na:bbattirəɳdɨ/ /sunna:/
…………………
‘forty two’ ‘lime’
/nuɳɨkaðɨ/ ‘to pinch’ /ma:nikka:/ ‘ruby’

The phoneme /n/ occurs in word initial and medial positions.

/aɲʧʊkə:dɨ/
‘to threaten’
/paɲʧə:/ ‘miser’
/ɲ/
…………………. /aɲsukəðɨ/ ‘to fear’ …………….
/aɲsɨ/ ‘five’
/kaɲsɨ/ ‘bronze’
The phoneme /ɲ/ occurs only in word medial position and not in word initial and final
position.
/kəɳɳəɖɪkə:dɨ/
‘to wink’
/ʋa:ɳɖə:/ ‘to deny’
/ɳ/ /kalɪməɳ/ ‘clay’
……………………. /ɡuɳɖi/ ‘pond’
/ippəɳi/ ‘dew’
/aɳɖa:ʋɨ/ ‘pan

725
The phoneme /ɳ/ occurs only in word medial and final position and not in word initial
position. /ɳ/ is attested only in medial position.
/ra:ŋɡʊhɛ/ ‘to
descend’
/ŋ/ /koɖʊŋɡəɻ/ ‘elbow’
……………… /aŋla:ppɨ/ ‘sympathy’ ………………
/iŋɡuɖabba/ ‘inkpot’
Phoneme /ŋ/ occurs only in word medial position.
/sƐle/ ‘idol’
/təʋlɨ/ ‘drum’
/lƐʈrɨ/ ‘letter’
/kʊlʊkkaðɨ/ ‘to shake
/l/ /le:sənədɨ/ ‘light’ /bədɨa:l/ ‘for’
(to something)’
/lɛkxaðɨ/ ‘to call’
/mʊlʊɡijoððɨ/
‘to sink’
The phoneme /l/ occurs initially, medially and finally.
/oji/ ‘through’
/poji/ ‘false’ /nɛ:ra:j/ ‘straight’
/j/
…………….. /ku:lija:nə/ ‘short’ /paləma:j/ ‘strong’
/sɛrijəi/ ‘right’
Phoneme /j/ occurs in word medial and final position.
/rəʋɪkkƐ/ ‘blouse’ /ʋəralɨ/ ‘finger’
/ro:ɟapʊ/ ‘golap /pɔ:rɨ/ ‘stomach’
(rose) /a:rəməɪlɨ/ ‘garland’
/r/
/rəmppa:/ ‘saw’ /sorɛkka:ji/ ‘bottle
………………..
/ra:ttalɨ/ ‘balance /ɡourd/
scale’ ‘pumpkin’
Phoneme /r/ occur only word initial and medial position not in word final position.
/perɪkəɻ/ ‘berry’
/ɻ/ /ko:səkəɻ/
……………… ……………… ‘watermelon’
Phoneme /ɻ/ occurs only word final position.
/ʋə:nəm/ ‘sky’ /rəʋɳɖɨ/ ‘circle’
/ʋərɡʊdɨ/ ‘to come’ /sa:lʋƐ/ ‘shawl’
/ʋ/ /ʋələŋɡɨ/ /aʋɛ͂/ ‘his’
‘handcuffs’ /ʋəjjili/ ‘by’ /aʋənɛ/ ‘himself’
/ʋəkukətɨ/ ‘division’
Phoneme /ʋ/ occur only word initial and medial position not in word final position.
/ʒənnɪ no:ʋɨ/
/uʒʊkə:dɨ/ ‘to wipe
/ʒ/ ‘epilepsy’
off’
/ʒʊɖɨ/ ‘hot’

726
Phoneme /ʒ/ occur only word initial and medial position not in word final position.
/ɟɛʈʈehənəðiʋĩ/ ‘to tie
(hair)’
/ɭ/ /ɭeinɨ/ ‘boundary’ --------------------
/oɭe:kəllɨ/ ‘oven (tandoor)’
/xəɭɨ/ ‘money’
Phoneme / ɭ / occur only word initial and medial position not in word final position

1.2 Allophonic Distribution

An allophone is a phonetic variant of a phoneme in a particular language. Although a

phoneme's allophones are all alternative pronunciations for a phoneme, the specific
allophone selected in a given situation is often predictable. The present data show the
following allophonic variation:
Phoneme /n/ has two allophones [ɳ] and [ɲ].

[ɳ]
/n/
[ŋ]

[ŋ] occurs before /k/ or /ɡ/

[ɳ] occurs after or before a retroflex obstruent or in intervocalic position.

Examples:
[ŋ]- /kutɪŋɡal/ ‘heel’
/urʊləkəŋɡɨ/ ‘potato’
/ko:ŋɡəppa:rɨ/ ‘Vulture’
/bu:minəɖɨŋɡɨĸəɨ/ ‘earthquake’
/kodɨŋɡəiji/ ‘elbow’

[ɳ]- /a:ɳɨ/ ‘male’

/səɳɳƐ/ ‘squirrel’
/su:ɳɖi/ ‘mouse’
/kuɳdike:/ ‘heart’
/maɳəlɨ/ ‘shade’

Phoneme /s/ has an allophone [ʃ] when it occurs before retroflex.

For example,
/ʋɪʃə:/ ‘venom/poison’
/sa:ʃulɛ/ ‘loin cloth’ by temperature
/bɛʃmaʈʈa/ ‘foundation’
/kaʃʈa:/ ‘grief’

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1.1. iii Phonemic contrasts

A phoneme is the smallest contrastive unit in the sound system of a language. A

study of minimal pairs in the data exemplifies the phonemic contrast available in Urali.
Phonemic contrasts are used to demonstrate that two phones of a pair constitute two separate
phonemes in the language. Examples of phonemic contrasts in the vowel system and
consonant system of the Urali are given below.

Contrasting pairs Examples

/-o:-/ ~ /-a:-/ /bo:rɖɨ/ ‘slate’ /ba:rɖɨ/ ‘border’
/-i-/ ~ /-ə-/ /kondi/ ‘mother's brother's daughter’
/kondə/ ‘mother's brother's son’
/i/ ~ /o/ /dɪɳɳƐ/ ‘verandah’ /doɳɳƐ/ ‘stick’
/u/ ~ /i/ /ullƐ:/ ‘in’ /illƐ:/ ‘not’
/i/ ~ /e/ /irdɨ/ ‘from’ /erdɨ/ ‘bull’
/e/ ~ /a/ /onnəɻ/ ‘strainer’ /pannəɻ/ ‘gardener’
/o/ ~ /a/ /soddɨ/ ‘property’ /saddɨ/ ‘loud’
/ʊ/ ~ /ə/ /pʊlli/ ‘gilli danda’ /pəlli/ ‘floor’
/a:/ ~ / e:/ /ka:sɨ/ ‘coin’ /ke:sɨ/ ‘case’
/e:/ ~ /i:/ ʋe:rɨ/ ‘root’ /ni:rɨ/ ‘water’
/ə/ ~ /e/ kəllɨ/ ‘stone’ /nellɨ/ ‘paddy’
/u/ ~ /a/ /pullɨ/ ‘grass’ /pallɨ/ ‘tooth’
/a:/ ~ /o:/ /ra:Ɉa:/ ‘king’ /ro:Ɉa:/ ‘golap’ (rose)
/a/ ~ /o:/ /alɛ/ ‘wave’ /o:lɛ/ ‘ear-ring’
/a/ ~ /ə/ /lakkɛ/ ‘dhenki’ (husk) /ləkkɛ/ ‘pestle’

Contrasts in Consonants

/n/ ~ /r/ /no:ʈʈɨ/ ‘notebook’ /ro:ʈʈɨ/ ‘road’

/p/ ~ /m/ /pəllɨ/ ‘tooth’ /məllɨ/ ‘urine’
/p/ ~ /s/ /puddi/ ‘smartly’ /suddi/ ‘hammer’
/n/ ~ /t/ /noɳɖʊkƐ:mɨ/ ‘to pinch’ /to:ɳɖʊkƐ:mɨ/ ‘dig (a hole)’
/ʋ/ ~ /m/ /ʋe:lƐ:/ ‘work’ /me:lƐ:/ ‘Come after’
/p// ~ /b/ /panrɨ/ ‘female’ /banrɨ/ ‘woman’
/n/ ~ /k/ /na:ji/ ‘dog’ /ka:ji/ ‘vegetable’
/t/ ~ /p/ /to:ʈʈa/ ‘field’ /po:ʈʈ ‘picture’
/k/ ~ /p/ /ka:ttɨ/ ‘air’ /pa:ttɨ/ ‘towards’

1.3. Suprasegmental feature

Apart from segmental phonemes Urali also makes suprasegmental distinctions in tone
and nasality that have already been discussed before. Suprasegmentals include tone, stress,
and prosody.

728
1.3.i. Nasalization:

Nasalization is a way of pronouncing sounds characterized by resonance produced

through the nose in the course of which the velum is lowered so that some air escapes
through the nose during the production of the sound by the mouth. In urali, Nasalization
occurs with or without the influence of nasal vowels. The nasalized vowels are /ã/, /ə͂/, /ɛ͂/, /ɔ͂/,
and /ũ/, and the occurrences are given below.

Nasalized Examples
vowels
/ã/ /tajirijã// ‘courage’
/oppan̪tã/ ‘agreement’
/ʋaɭa:dukaʋira͂/ ‘sports-man’
/ə͂/ /aŋɖɪkərə͂/ ‘shopkeeper’
/mɔrəɖə͂/ ‘wild’
/panə͂/ ‘money’
/adikɛka:rə͂/ ‘cook (male, female)’
/ ɛ͂/ /aʋɛ͂/ ‘him’
/əʋɛ͂/ ‘he’
/ ɔ͂/ /paləkkɔ͂/ ‘habit’
/kaʃʈɔ͂/ ‘hard’
/moraʈʈɨtanɔ͂/ ‘roughly’
/buddija:nəɔ͂/ ‘smartly’
/ɡa:ɖa:miruɡɔ͂/ ‘rhinoceros’
/ũ/ /po:kũ/ ‘will come’
/ʋargonũ/ ‘must come’

1.1. ii. Length

In phonetics, length or quantity is a characteristic of sounds that have a noticeably

longer duration when compared to other sounds. Variations in length are likewise called
suprasegmental characteristics, albeit they can affect both single segments and whole
syllables.
Length is phonemically realized in the Urali language. The contrast due to length is given in
the table below.

Contrast between /Ɛ/ and /Ɛ:/ /me:lƐ:/ ‘come after’

/me:lƐ/ ‘over the head’
Contrast between /a/ and /a:/ /adi/ ‘there’
/pa:di/ ‘some’
Contrast of /a:/ and /o:/ /ra:Ɉa:/ ‘ king’
/ro:Ɉa:/ ‘golap’ (rose)

729
1.1.i Diphthongs

A diphthong, also known as a vowel glide, is a syllable-long combination of two

adjacent vowel sounds. A diphthong is a vowel with two distinct targets: the tongue (and/or
other components of the speech apparatus) moves during the vowel's utterance.

As per the data the diphthongs found in the Urali language are /aɪ/, /ia:/, /ie/, /ɪe/, /eɪ/,
/əɪ/, /ɪə/ and /ei/. The occurrence of these diphthongs is realized frequently in the medial and
final positions. The initial occurrence of the diphthong is scanty.

Diphthongs Initial Medial Final

/aɪ/ ---------- /kaɪi/ ‘hand’ --------
/ai/ ---------- /kaindədɨ/ ‘dry’ --------
/ɡanaika:lɨ/ ‘ankle’
/ɪa/ ---------- /o:ŋɡɪardʊʈʈɨ/ ‘to strike’ ---------
/tƐlɪaʈʈʊkƐ:mɨ/ ‘to nod’
/ia:/ ----------- /kammia:nədɨ/ ‘narrow’ /ʋƐndɪa:/ ‘methi’
/Ie/ ----------- /murɪekkʊkə:dɨ/ ‘to put ----------
on (clothes, ornaments,
shoes)’
/parttɪeɖʊkkəʋɨ/ ‘cotton
carder’
/eɪ/ ---------- /seɪnɨ/ ‘anklet’ /erkeɪ/ ‘nature’
/ɟeɪkkadɨ/ ‘victory’
/ei/ /mun̪dəineittɨ/
‘day before yesterday’
/əɪ/ /əɪmbətonnɨ/ ‘fifty /rəɪlbəɳɖɪɻ/ ‘train’ /pəɪnɨ/ /elƐkkəi/ ‘cinnamon’
one’ ‘penalty’
/ɪə/ ---------- /ma:rɪəppə:/ ‘death --------
rituals (shraddha)’
/əi/ /pa:ra:korəiʋɨ/ ‘light’
/kaʈʈəibandi/ ‘cart’
/ie/ ---------- /tiekkə:dɨ/ ‘to burn ---------
(trans)’
/ia:/ /toləia:kkaðɨ/ ‘to bore
(a hole)’
/ɡolia:ʈʈra/ ‘marbles’
/ie:/ /po:lie:ruxaðɨ/ ‘to ascend,
climb (a hill)’
/rəŋɡie:ŋɡəðɨ/‘towake up’
/au/ /bərraullɨ/ ‘hay’

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 The diphthongs /aɪ/, /ia:/, /ie/, /ɪe/, /eɪ/, /əɪ/ , /ɪə/, /ei/, /əi/, /iə/, /eu/, /ai/, /ai:/, /ia:/ ,
/ie:/ , /au/, and /əu/ are found. Diphthongs occur frequently in the medial position, rarely in
the final and very rarely in the initial positions.

1.2 i. Co-articulation

In Co-articulation a conceptually isolated speech sound is influenced or becomes more

like, a preceding or following speech sound. This feature can be observed in retroflection in
Urali.

Retroflection is a sound formation process where the presence of a retroflex sound

casts its impact on the following sound. This is a common feature in Dravidian languages and
Urali is no exception.

Ex.
/ʋerɳɖæ/ ‘to scream’ (before retroflex sound)
/kuɳɖʊɡəl/ ‘pebble’ (after retroflex sound)
/aɳɖa:ʋɨ/ ‘pan box/bag’ (after retroflex sound)
/ʋa:ɖəxɛbəɳɖi/ ‘taxi’ (after retroflex sound)

ii Consonant clusters

A consonant cluster is a group of consonants that have no intervening vowel. The

consonant clusters can be a combination of two identical as well as two non-identical
consonants that generally occurs in the medial position of a word. The former is called
homogenous clusters and the latter is called heterogeneous consonant clusters. The
occurrence of the consonant clusters is most frequently in the medial position. A few
examples of non-identical clusters are given in the following table:

Non-identical clusters Examples

/mp/ /mo:səmpannɪʈʈə/ ‘to abandon’

/elƐmpƐrə/ ‘full moon’
/pimpe/ ‘after’
/mb/ /ɪrʊmbɨ/ ‘ant’
/rəmba/ ‘saw’
/tumbɪrdɨ/ ‘to fill ( a jar with water)
/eɭəmbarɛ/ ‘full moon’
/n̪t/ /porən̪tadɨ/ ‘birth’

/n̪d/ /san̪dɛɡa/ ‘doubt’

/mo:n̪de:/ ‘face’
/nt/ /pantɻ/ ‘pig’
/muntɪnəpəllɨ/ ‘front tooth’

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 /ontare/ ‘one and a half’

/nd/ /kaɖa:ʃkandɨ/ ‘calf (male)’

/səndoʃa/ ‘happiness’
/kəndəja/ ‘tax’
/maɡendɨmaɡɛ͂/ ‘son's son’
/maɡendɨmaɡa / ‘son's daughter’
/nɖ/ /nanɖa:ɨ/ ‘relatives’
nʈ/ /aðinɛnʈʈɨ/ ‘eighteen’
/enʈʈɨ/ ‘eight’
/ ɳɖ/ /muɳɖəsi/ ‘widow’
/məɳɖƐ/ ‘hair’
/kuɳɖʊɡəl/ ‘pebble’
/maɳɖɛ:/ ‘hair’
/ ɳʈ/ /pɔɳʈrɨ/ ‘wife’
/kaɳtɛikkhətɨ/ ‘to untie ( a knot)’
/kəɳʈʈə/ ‘time’
/ŋg/ /ko:ŋɡəppa:rɨ/ ‘vulture’
/səŋɡɨ/ ‘conch’
/teŋɡʊlɨ/ ‘south’
/ciŋɡiʈʈiʋəra:lɨ/ ‘little finger’
/kutiŋɡa:lɨ/ ‘heel’
/ca:mpa:ŋɡi/ ‘tube rose’
/ŋk/ /padəkkə saŋkɪɻ/ ‘necklace’
/pərƐŋkaɪɻ/ ‘ridge gourd – jhinge’
/paləɪŋkə:dɨ/ ‘to study’
/ɲc/ /maɲcaka:ale/ ‘jaundice’
/mubbattiaɲcɨ/ ‘thirty five’
/na:bbattiaɲcɨ/ ‘forty five’
/embattiaɲcɨ/ ‘eighty five’
/ɲɟ/ /maɲɟa/ ‘yellow’
/ɲʧ/ /miɲʧʊɡʊdɨ/ ‘lightning’
/aɲʧʊkə:dɨ/ ‘to threaten’
/ɲʤ/ /maɲʤə:/ ‘haldi (turmeric)’
/rk/ /pa:ʃəməirkarɨ/ ‘love’
/sərkarɨku:ʈʈɨ/ ‘assembly’
/korkɪʈʈərɨ/ ‘to wrestle’
/rd/ /ni:rduɡʊtɨ/ ‘brook’
/mərdɨ/ ‘medicine’
/ulikɪrdɨ/ ‘sprain’
/rt/ /ʋəndʊsƐ:ndʊrttɨ/ ‘to arrive (at a place)’
/suttɪrttɨ/ ‘to surround’

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 /rʈ/ /ko:rʈʈɨ/ ‘court’
/rɖ/ /kerɖa:lə:/ ‘Hawk’
/bo:rɖɨ/ ‘slate’
/rp/ /ʋɔ:rpəsi/ ‘hunger’
/rl/ /pu:milkƐʈəkƐporlɨ/ ‘metal’
/rɻ/ /kɔrɻ/ ‘sheep’
/ma:ɖɨkərɻ/ ‘beef’
/rs/ /katta:irsukatɨ/ ‘cut (cloth)’
/narsue:lipannɨxaðɨ/ ‘to nurse (feed a baby)’
/rc/ /mujarcikkukəðɨ/ ‘to try, attempt’
/ʃp/ /pa:liʃpannʊkə:dɨ/ ‘to polish’
/lk/ /pa:lkərɛ/ ‘milkman’
/ʃt/ /ka:ʃtərɡəʋɛ/ ‘cashier’
/ʃʈ/ /kaʃʈa:/ ‘grief’
/kaʃʈa/ ‘danger’
/Jk/ /Ɉɛjkadɨ/ ‘victory’
/jl/ /kɛjlakadaʋa/ ‘weakness’

The consonant clusters /mp/, /mb/, /nt/, /nd/, /ɳɖ/, /ɳʈ/ , /ŋɡ/ /ŋk/, /ɲʧ/, /ɲʤ/, /rk/, /rd/,
/rt/, /rʈ/, /rɖ/, /rp/, /rl/, /rɻ/, /ʃp/, /lk/, /ʃt/, /n̪d/, /nɖ/, /nʈ/, /ɲc/, /rk/, /rs/, /rc/, /ʃʈ/, /Jk/ and /jl/
are found in all the three dialects.

Tri-Consonantal Clusters

Tri-Consonantal Examples
Clusters
/ɳʈr/ /məɳʈrƐ/ ‘turban’
/rʃl/ /ʋəhɨterʃlɨ/ ‘jealousy’
/rkd/ /sƐŋkənərkdɨ/ ‘red’
/rkr/ /ʋɪrkrəʋarhʊdɨ/ ‘faint’
/mbr/ /təmbra/ ‘copper’
/kʈr/ /ɖa:kʈrɨ/ ‘nurse’
/ɲɳx/ /marə͂erɨɲɳxaðɨ/ ‘to climb (a tree)’
/rn̪d/ /parn̪dupa:kka:ðɨ/ ‘to search for’

The tri-consonant clusters /kʈr/, /ɲɳx/, and /rn̪d/ were found.

Consonant gemination

The following are the examples of some geminated (identical consonant clusters)
consonants:
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Geminated Examples
consonants
/-kk-/ /kukkʊkə:dɨ/ ‘to wash’ /pe:kkɨ/ ‘to need’
/-gg-/ /neɡɡənə:/ ‘many’
/-pp-/ /pəɪppɨ/ ‘life’ /oppan̪tã/ ‘agreement’
/-bb-/ /ubba:ʃa/ ‘fast’ /na:bbattirəɳdɨ/ ‘forty two’
/-cc-/ /pəccɛ/ ‘green’ /muccʊkə:dɨ/ ‘to close (a bag)’
/eccərikəipannɨkəðɨ/ ‘to warn’
/-nn-/ /ɔnnʊkə:dɨ/ ‘to count’ /koɖume:pannɨxa:ðɨ/ ‘to threaten’
/-ɳɳ-/ /kaɳɳəɻ/ ‘mirror’ /kaɳkaɳɳa:dikɛ/ ‘spectacles’
/-mm-/ /nɪmməʋəɻ/ ‘your’ /tombəbammuɨ/ ‘tomato’
/-tt-/ /ɨʋttƐ/ ‘to stretch (something)’
/suttuxaðɨ/ ‘to roll (turn over and over)’
/-dd-/ /maddɪnə:/ ‘afternoon’ /muddɨ/ ‘pearl’
/-ʈʈ-/ /kɪ:ʈʈʊpə:rɨ/ ‘downwards’ /kɔʈʈədɨ/ ‘bad’
/-ɖɖ-/ /ɡuɖɖƐ/ ‘hill’ /miɖɖaja:ŋgikaʋərɨ/ ‘sweetmeat maker’
/-ðð-/ /eððə/ ‘father's father’
/-ll-/ /mullɔrɪndɨ/ ‘to prick (as a thorn)’/ella:me:/ ‘all’
/-rr-/ /ɔrrƐ:/ ‘rock’
/-ʋʋ-/ /aʋʋƐ/ ‘mother’

/-kk-/, /-pp-/, /-bb-/, /cc/ /-nn-/, /-ɳɳ-/, /-mm-/, /-tt-/, /-dd-/, /-ʈʈ-/and /-ll-/ , /-ɡɡ-/, /-
rr-/, /-ðð-/ and /-ʋʋ-/ are found attested in all the three dialects.
* In case of the pronunciation of this cluster the sound /ʋ/ is replaced by the sound /b/.

1.2. ii. Syllable structure

A syllable is a unit of sound composed of a central peak of sonority (usually a vowel)

and the consonants that cluster around this central peak. Syllables are often considered the
phonological "building blocks" of words. They can influence the rhythm of a language, its
prosody, its poetic meter, and its stress patterns. Syllabification is the separation of a word
into syllables, whether spoken or written. In Urali, syllabification can be classified as
monosyllabic, disyllabic, and polysyllabic words.

1. Monosyllabic Pattern

V /i:/ ‘This’ /a:/ ‘that’

CV /ti:/ ‘fire’ /ʋə:/ ‘come’
VCV /u l i/ ‘chisel’ , /avə:/ ‘she’ , /i-d-ɨ/ ‘this’

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2. Disyllabic Pattern

CV-CV /pe:-nɨ/ ‘louse’, /bu:-ði/ ‘ash’

V-CV /u:-ʃɨ/ ‘fart’, /i:-pi/ ‘fly’, /a:-ni/ ‘nail’
CV-CVC /mu-rɪɻ/ ‘of’ /kəl-lɨ/ ‘stone’ /paɭ-ɭi/ ‘lizard
CVC-CVC /moɳ-ɖɪɻ/ ‘lame’
CVC-CV /ʋa:ɳ-ɖə:/ ‘to refuse’ /ni:r-nɨ/ ‘water’

3. Polysyllabic Pattern

CVV-VCV /tai-ɛ-ba:/ ‘death’

V-CV-CV /a-dʊ-nɨ / ‘its’
CV-CV-CV-CV-CV /sa:-mə-tɪ-kə-pʊ/ ‘gendu’
CV-CV-CCV /sə-rʊ-ʈʈɨ/ ‘coat’
CVC-CVC-CV /to:l-pək-ki/ ‘bat’
CV-CV-CV /ɟa-ka-lə:/ ‘to fight’ ,
/ka-ɖɨ-xɨ/ ‘mustard’
CV-CV-CV-CV /me:-lƐ-pə:-rɨ/ ‘upwards’
CV-CCVV-CV-CV /po-ʈʈəi-ma:-dɨ/ ‘cow’
CV-C-CV-CV-CCV /sɛ-m-ba-ra-tti/ ‘jaba (hibiscus)’

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 3. MORPHOLOGY

Urali is an inflexional type of language. That means, the words are formed by adding
syllables or letters (i.e. affixes) or different postpositions to the stem and different endings
are used to form different types of words and these affixes show no traceable signs of having
been independent words. For example, /ku:rƐ:/ ‘house’ is a word and /ku:rƐhә:/ ‘houses’
also is a word which is a combination of /ku:rƐ:/ ‘house’ + /hə:/ (plural marker).

3.1 Word Formation

Word formation is the creation of a new word or lexeme from an existing one or
entirely different. This brings a semantic change. This is a regular process for the creation of
new terms. In urali, word formation processes are formed by affixation, reduplication,
compounding, and suppletion.

3.1.i Affixation

An affix is a morpheme that is attached to a word stem to form a new word. Affixes
may be derivational, or inflectional. In urali, the affixes added to form familial relations are
of inflectional nature, tending to preserve the grammatical class of the base to which it is
attached. Words are formed by adding prefixes or suffixes to base as in given below.

Base = /ʋəralɨ/ ‘finger’

/mi:nɨ/ ‘fish’

/perijaban̪dɨmaxɛ͂/
/accən̪dɨmaɡə͂/ ‘father's brother's son’
/pærijaʋedɨmaxɛ͂/
/accidɨmaxɛ͂/ ‘mother's sister's son’

Prefix +base = /eppəʈʈəʋəralɨ/ ‘ring finger’

/ɡəɳɖəmi:nɨ/ ‘prawn’
/pe:tti/ ‘grand daughter’
/perə/ ‘grand son’

Base+suffix = /madʊʋƐ/ ‘marriage’

/madʊʋəpƐnnɨ/ ‘bride’
/madʊʋjə:nɨ/ ‘bridegroom’
/maduʋe/ ‘marriage’
/matɨʋe:paɳɳɨ/ ‘ bride’
/matɨʋe:a:ɳɨ/ ‘bridegroom’

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/- ʈʈ -/ and /-tt-/ are past tense marker which is acting as a suffix and attached to the verb root
/po:/ to form it past tense.

Examples:
/pa:kkəɻ/ ‘you see’ /pa:rttəɻ/ ‘You saw’
/po:ɡə:/ ‘She goes’ /po:iʈʈə:/ ‘She went’
/po:/ ‘go’ /na:nɨ po:ne:/ ‘I went’
/po:/ ‘go’ /na:nɨ po:ne:/ ‘I went’

2.1.ii. Reduplication

Reduplication is a morphological process in which a root or stem or part of it is

repeated. Following are the examples of the reduplication of urali language. For example,
/kukkʊkə:dɨ/ ‘to wash (clothes)’

2.1. iii Compounding

A compound is a word containing a stem that is made up of more than one root;
a compound is a lexeme that consists of more than one stem. Compounding is a word
formation process by which new words are formed by the process of derivation. In other
words, compounding or word-compounding occurs when two or more words are put together
to make them into one word. The meanings of the words interrelate in such a way that a new
meaning comes out which is very different from the meanings of the words in isolation.

Examples:
/kudʊrƐ/ ‘horse’ + /baɳɖɪɻ/ ‘cart’ =/kudʊrəbəɳɖɪɻ/ ‘horse coach’
/kudɨrɛ/ ‘horse’ + /bəɳɖi/ ‘coach’ = /kʊdɨrɛbəɳɖi/ ‘horse coach’
/kaɟɛkallɨ/ ‘pan’ + /gaʋərɨ/’seller’ = /bo:ʃima:rgaʋərɨ/ ‘pan seller’

/maduʋe/ ‘marriage’
/mətɨʋe:a:xatəʋə/ ‘bachelor’
/matɨʋe:a:ɳɨ/ ‘bridegroom’
/matɨʋe:paɳɳɨ/ ‘bride’

A few more examples are:

/madʊʋƐ/ ‘marriage’
/madʊʋjə:nɨ/ ‘bridegroom’
/madʊʋəpƐnnɨ/ ‘bride’
/ʋe:lƐ seɪkəʋɛ/ ‘labourer’

2.1. iv Coining of new words

In Urali language many words are borrowed from English. For example
/so:ppɨ/ ‘soap’ /nərʃɨ/ ‘nurse’ /ka:rɨ/ ‘car’

737
 /lƐʈrɨ/ ‘letter’ /ke:raʈʈɨ/ ‘carrot’ /ləʈrɨ/ ‘letter’
/pukkɨ/ ‘book’ /si:lɨ/ ‘seal’ /sa:disollɨxaðɨ/ ‘ to complain’

Sometimes new words are coined by joining two morphemes as follows:

/ʋalə dəndƐ/ ‘step father’
/ʋalə da:ji/ ‘step mother’

2.1.v Suppletion

Suppletion is the use of one word as the inflected form of another word when the two
words are not cognate.
/pɪllƐ/ ‘child’
/pullƐhə:/ ‘children’

/cinnama:/ ‘boy’
/padikkamakka:/ ‘boys’

2.2 Word Class

A word unit is the smallest element that may be uttered in isolation having
independent semantic or pragmatic content. A word is a unit which is a constituent at
the phrase level. This stands in contrast to morpheme which is the the smallest meaningful
unit in the grammar of a language. There are open word classes, which constantly acquire
new members, and also closed word classes, which acquire new members quite infrequently.
Based on morphological and syntactical structure, the word classes of Urali are divided into
following classes:

i. Noun: a part of speech, inflected for case, denoting a tangible or intangible entity,
referring to objects in the non-linguistic world or to concepts which are considered as
forming entities parallel to real-world entities.
Eg: /səli:/ ‘cold’ . /ka:ttɨ/ ‘air’

ii. Pronoun: A grammatical component referring to a noun formerly mentioned and thus
serving a deictic or anaphoric function.
Eg: /na:mɨ/ ‘we’ /na:nɨ/ ‘I’

iii. Adjective: A grammatical constituent, the main syntactic role of which is to

qualify a noun or noun phrase, providing additional information concerning the subject or
object signified.
E.g. /arməndə/ ‘good’
iv. Postposition: A part of speech placed before other words in composition and which
expresses the relation it has to other elements in a sentence.
E.g. /me:ɟe: me:le: nilɨ/ ‘Stand on the table’

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 v. Verb: a part of speech without case inflection, but inflected for tense, person and number,
signifying an activity or process, whether ongoing, completed or undergone.
E.g. /ɔ:ndrɨ/ ‘get ’

vi. Adverb: a part of speech without inflection that is a modifier of a verb.

E.g. /cukkuru/ ‘quickly’ as in /ra:m a:// ʋeʃəɻ/ /oɖɪnə/
‘Rama runs quickly’
/bɛcceli:/ ‘quickly’ as in /ra:ma:/ /bɛcceli:/ /o:ɖʊðəʋənə/
‘Rama runs quickly’

vii. Conjunction: a part of speech that connects two

words, sentences, phrases or clauses together and binds together the discourse and filling
gaps in its interpretation.
E.g - /aɖʊttədɨ/ ‘and’

viii. Interjection: An interjection is a form, typically brief, such as one syllable or word,
which is applied frequently as an exclamation or part of an exclamation.
Ex.
/ʋa:nəttɪɻ orʊ aləgə:nə:ʋa:nəʋɪllɨ / ‘What a beautiful rainbow in the sky!’
/banina ɟo:ra:ðə kamnə billɨ/ ‘What a beautiful rainbow in the sky!’

The above mentioned seven word-classes are broadly grouped into two categories:

i. Declinable and
ii. Indeclinable.

Declinable are those which are declined for number, gender and person; for example,
nouns, pronouns, adjectives and verbs are declinable. The Indeclinable are postpositions,
conjunctions, adverbs and participles.

2.3 Noun Morphology

A noun is a member of a syntactic class that includes words which refer to people,
places, things, ideas, or concepts, whose members may act as any of the
following: subjects of the verb, objects of the verb, indirect object of the verb, or object of a
preposition or postposition. Noun Morphology deals with the forms and classification of
Nouns, Pronouns and their declensional/ inflectional pattern in association with gender,
Number, and Adjective etc.

The nouns in the language are marked by two numbers (singular and plural), three
genders (i.e. masculine, feminine and neuter); and seven cases (nominative, accusative,
dative, ablative, genitive, locative and instrumental).

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2.3.i. Nouns

Internal structure

Urali is agglutinating language. The nouns in the language are marked by two
numbers (singular and plural). Nouns thus realised in Urali can be categorized into two
broad classes:

1. Basic Nouns
2. Derived nouns
a) Basic Nouns

Basic Nouns are those which are a class by itself as they are not derived from any
other word class.The examples are
/ra:mɛ/ ‘Rame’ /ku:rƐ/ ‘house’ /ʤə:di/ ‘animal’
/bammɨ/ ‘fruit’ /na:ji/ ‘dog’ /puɭɭe/ ‘child’
The basic nouns can further be divided into two types:
i) Mass nouns
ii) Count nouns

i) Mass nouns

Mass nouns are those which do not show number distribution and cannot be counted
with cardinal numeral. They always occur in singular form.
For example
/ni:rɨ/ ‘water’ / pa:lɨ/ ‘milk’ /ɔnnɛ/ ‘oil’ /arɪʃi/ ‘rice’
/ləttə:/ ‘blood’
/ni:rɨ/ ‘water’ /pa:lɨ/ ‘milk’ /arici/ ‘rice’
/ɭədda:/ ‘blood’

ii) Count nouns

Count nouns are those which can take some suffixes for indicating plurality.
Examples are
/pammʊ / ‘fruit’ /na:ji/ ‘dog’ /pɪllƐ/ ‘baby/child’
/bammɨ/ ‘fruit’ /na:ji/ ‘dog’ /puɭɭe/ ‘child’

b) Derived Nouns
In Urali language some nouns are derived either from the verb or adjective or from
another noun. The derived nouns are formed in two ways
i) By adding derivational suffix to other words
ii) By compounding words.

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 i) Derived nouns by adding derivational suffix

In Urali some nouns can be derived from the verb or from any other noun by the
addition of derivative suffixes. These are as follows:

1. Verb + noun forming suffix = Noun (verbal Noun)

/o:ɖʊ / ‘run’ + -ʊdɨ = /o:ɖʊgʊdɨ/ ‘running’
/pa:ɖʊ / ‘sing’ + - gə: =/pa:ɖʊgə:/ ‘singing’
/o:du/ ‘to run’ + /xaðɨ/ = /o:duxaðɨ/ ‘running’
/kɔrɛk/ ’to bark’ + /kadɨ/ =/kɔrɛkkadɨ/ ‘barking’

2. Noun + Noun forming suffix = Noun (Abstract Noun)

/to:l/ ‘skin’ + /no:ʋɨ/ ‘diseases’ = /to:lno:ʋɨ/ ‘skin disease’
/bu:mɪ/ ‘earth’ + /nəɖʊŋgʊtɨ/ = /bu:mɪnəɖʊŋgʊtɨ/ ‘earthquake’

ii) Derived nouns by Compounding

A compound word is defined as the combination of two or more words to form a new
word.
Ex.
/kəllɨ/ ‘stone’ + /ro:ɖɨ/ ‘road’ = /kəllɨro:ʈʈɨ/ ‘stone road’
/pɔʈʈəma:ɖɨ/ ‘cow’ + /pəʈɻ/ ‘stair/step’ = /ma:ɖʊpəʈɻ/ ‘cowshed’
/kudɨrɛ/ ‘horse’ + /bəɳɖi/ ‘coach’ = /kʊdɨrɛbəɳɖi/ ‘horse coach’
/bo:ʃi / ‘pan’ + /ma:rgaʋərɨ/ ‘seller’ = /bo:ʃima:rgaʋərɨ/ ‘pan seller’

External Structure

The Urali nouns are inflected for gender, Number, and Case. This language has two
genders (i.e. masculine, feminine); and seven cases (nominative, accusative, dative, ablative,
genitive, locative and instrumental). The following description gives the details of Urali
gender-number-case system.

a) Gender
gender in Urali is grammatically determined by two ways – Masculine and feminine.
Most of the Urali nouns end with vowels. The final vowel gives a clue to the gender of a
particular noun. The masculine nouns tend to take /Ɛ/ at the word-final position as opposed
to feminine nouns with /ə: / or / i / word-finally. The word /a:ɳɨ/ is male, prefixed to show
the masculine gender, and /pɔɳɖəʈɪ/ indicates feminine gender as in /a:ɳɨ/ ‘ male’, /pɔɳɖəʈɪ/
‘female’. gender here is natural, not grammatical. Nouns are of masculine and feminine
gender as exemplified in the following examples:

Masculine Feminine
/sɪnnəma/ ‘boy’ /pɔnnɨ/ ‘girl’
/a:ɳɨ/ ‘male’ /pɔɳɖəʈɪ/ ‘female’

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/aʋʋƐ/ ‘mother’ /appæ/ ‘father’
/mahə͂/ ’son’ /mahə:/ ‘daughter’
/tuɳɖə:mplƐ/ ‘dwarf (male)’ /tuɳɖəpoɳɖə:ʈʈi/ ‘dwarf (female)’
/ʋalə dəndƐ/ ‘step father’ /ʋalə da:ji/ ‘step mother’
/kurʊɖɛ/ ‘blind (male)’ /kurʊɻ / ‘blind (female)’
/cinnama:/ ‘boy’ /ponbute/ ‘girl’
/panrɨ/ ‘female’ /a:ɳɨ/ ‘male’
/appæ/ ‘father’ /aʋʋɛ/ ‘mother’
/magə͂/ ’son’ /maxa:/ ‘daughter’
/perə/ ‘grand son’ /pe:tti/ ‘grand daughter’
/ku:lɛ/ ‘dwarf (male)’ /ku:ləisi/ ‘dwarf (female)’
/kuruɖa/ ‘blind (male)’ /kurudi/ ‘blind (female)’
/adikɛka:rə͂/ ‘cook (male)’ /adikɛka:rə͂/ ‘cook (female)’
/u:mɛsi ‘dumb (female) /u:mɛ/ ‘dumb (male)’
/mija:irukkɛ/ ‘fat (man)’ /miya:irukka:/ ‘fat (woman)
/elɛttə/ ‘lean (man)’ /elɛttə/ ‘lean (woman)’

An interesting point is that both the masculine and feminine gender remains
unhindered by number as we can see in the following example.
Masculine Feminine
Singular Plural Singular Plural
/sinnəmə:/ ‘boy’ /makkə:/ ’boys’ /pɔnnɨ/ ‘girl’ /pɔɳʈrɨ/ ‘girls’

However, separate lexemes are also used to refer to gender distinction as we can see
in the following examples.

Masculine Feminine
/pɔɳɖʊləttəʋƐ/ ‘widower’ /muɳɖəsi/ ‘widow’
/kaɖa:ʃkandɨ/ ‘calf (male)’ /po:rɪkandɨ/ ‘calf (female)’
/poɳdila:daʋə͂/ ‘widower’ /mundajsi/ ‘widow’

Examples of common gender include

/pɪllƐ/ ‘baby’ /pullƐ/ ‘child’ piɭɭe/ ‘baby’ /puɭɭe/ ‘child’

We can further classify Urali nouns denoting animate or non-animate, human or non-
human belonging to two genders -Masculine and Feminine.

Examples for Masculine Nouns

Animate and Human Animate and Non- Human Inanimate

/sinnəmə:/ ‘boy’ /kadʊʋə:nƐ/ ‘elephant (male)’ /sa:lʋƐ/ ‘shawl’
/tuɳɖə:mplƐ/ ‘dwarf (male)’ /kaɖəɻ ‘goat’ (male) /sƐrʊppɨ/ ‘shoe’
/appæ/ ‘father’ /kaɖa:ʃkandɨ/ ‘calf(male)’ /ka:lsƐəja/ ‘trousers’
/cinnama:/ ‘boy’ /erumɛ/ ‘buffalo (male)’ /sa:lʋɛ/ ‘shawl’

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/kuruɖa/ ‘blind’ (male) ------ /sɛruppɨ/ ‘shoe’
/appæ/ ‘father’ ------ ------

Examples for Feminine Nouns

Animate and Human Animate and Non- Human Inanimate

/pɔnnɨ/ ‘girl’ / poʈʈƐə:nƐ/ ‘elephant /si:lƐ/ ‘sari’
(female)’
/tuɳɖəpoɳɖə:ʈʈi/ /pɔʈʈeɪa:d ‘goat (she)’ /mu:kkʊpoʈʈɨ/ ‘nose-ring’
‘dwarf (female)’
/aʋʋƐ/ ‘mother’ /po:rɪkandɨ/ ’calf (female)’ /moɳɖɪpa:ʋəʈƐ/ ‘frock’
/ponbute/ ‘girl’ /si:le:/ ‘sari’
/kurɨɖi:/ ‘blind (female)’ ---------------------- /mo:tira ‘ring
/aʋʋɛ/ ‘mother’ ---------------------- /cinnəpa:ʋəɖe:/ ‘frock’

An interesting example of gender difference is observed in Urali in the compound

words where the second component of the word changes its gender naturally.
Examples:

Base term /madʊʋƐ/ ‘marriage’

/matɨʋe/ ‘marriage’
Masculine /madʊʋjə:nɨ/ ‘bridegroom’
/mətɨʋe:a:xatəʋə/ ‘bachelor’
/madɨʋe:a:ɳɨ/ ‘bridegroom’
Feminine /madʊʋəpƐnnɨ/ ‘bride’
/matɨʋe:paɳɳɨ/
b) Number

From the provided data it can be seen that there are two numbers in Urali language:
singular and plural. The singular has no particular distinguishing marker added. In case of
plural formation, plural marker /kə:/ and its allophone /gə:/ /hə:/ is added with the singular
form and sometimes different lexeme is used for plural number.

Singular Plural
/mahə/ ‘boy’ /makkə:/ ‘boys’
/pullƐ:/ ‘child’ /pullƐhə/ ‘children’
/kəɳɳɨ/ ‘eye’ /kannɨgə:/ ‘eyes’
/bʊkkɨ/ ‘book’ /bʊkkʊhә:/ ‘books’
/ku:rƐ/ ‘house /ku:rƐhə:/ ‘house’
/kaɪi/ ‘hand’ /keiga:/ ‘hands’
/idɨ/ ‘this’ /adʊgə:/ ‘those’
/pukkɨ/ ‘book’ /pukkɨgə/ ‘books’
/ku:re/ ‘house’ ku:rehə/ ‘houses’

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Sometimes different lexemes are used for plural number. Examples are as follows
Singular Plural
/cinnama:/ ‘boy’ /məkka:/ ‘boys’
/ponbute/ ‘girl’ /ponrɨ/ ‘girls’
/i:/ /adɨ/ ‘this’ /aʋɛ͂xə/ ‘those’
/hɛɳɳɨ/ ‘girl’ /eɳɳuga/ ‘girls’

Sometimes plurality is indicated by adding numerals to it. For example,

Singular Plural
/pukkɨ/ ‘book’ /rəɳdɨ pukkɨ/ ‘two books’

c) Person

There are three persons in Urali language. These are: first person, second person, and
third person. All these persons have different concordinal relationship with the verb, tense
and moods. Tense markers also change according to different persons (first person, second
persons and third persons). Depending on the tense and moods these categorize are
distinguished. Examples are tabulated below as per their occurrence in the three dialects:

Person Singular Plural

First /nə:nɨ/ (I) /na:mƐ:/ (we)
/na:nɨ/ (I) /na:m/ (we)
Second /ni:nɨ/ (you) /ni:mɨ/ (you all)
/ni:ɳɨ//ni:/ (you) /nimməʋəli/ (your)
Third /aʋ /, /aʋə:/ /adɨ/ (he/she/it) /aʋərʊgə:/ (they)
/aʋa//aʋərɨ/ /aʋã/ /aʋɛ/ /aðɨ/ /aʋəruga/ (they)
/(he/she/it)

The different concordial relationships are shown below:

First Person: [singular]
/na:nɨ kurɨvijə pa:kk e:/ ‘I see the bird [marker is –kk] (present tense).
/na:nɨ kurʊvinƐ pa:tt e:/ ‘I saw the bird [marker is – tt] (past tense).
Or
/na:nɨ pa:tt e:/ ‘I saw’ [marker is –tt] (past tense)
/na:nɨ kurʊvinƐ pa:tt e:/ ‘I will see the bird ‘[marker is –tt] (future tense).
/na:nɨ sən̪de:kke: po:ge:/ ‘I go to the market [marker is - /ge:/] (present tense).
/na:nɨ sən̪de:kke: po:ne:/ ‘I went to the market [marker is – ne:/] (past tense).
/na:nɨ sən̪de:kke: po:xe:/ ‘I will go to the market ‘[marker is – xe:] (future tense)

First Person [plural]

/na:mɨ kurʊvijə pa:kkƐ:mɨ/‘We see the bird’ [marker is –kk] (present tense).
/na:mɨ kurʊvinƐ pa:ttƐ:mɨ/ ‘We saw the bird’ [marker is – tt] (past tense).
/na:mɨ kurʊvinƐ pa:ttƐ:mɨ/ ‘We will see the bird’ [marker is –tt](future tense).

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/na:mɨ sən̪de:ke: po:ge:mɨ/ ‘We go to the market’ [marker is – ge:mɨ] (present tense).
/na:mɨ sən̪de:kke: po:ne:mɨ/ ‘We went to the market’[marker is – ne:mɨ] (past tense)
/na:mɨ sən̪de:kke: po:xe:mɨ/ ‘We will go to the market’ [marker is–xe:mɨ] (future tense)

Second Person [singular]

/na:nɨ kurʊvinƐ pa:kkəɻ/ ‘You (sg) see the bird’ [marker is – kk] (present tense).
/ni:mɨ kurʊvinƐ pa:tɪrɻ /‘You(pl) saw the bird’ [marker is – t] (past tense).
or
/na:nɨ (you sg.) pa:kkəɻ/‘saw’[marker is –kk] (past tense).
/ni:nɨ kurʊvinƐ pa:ppəɻ/ ‘You (sg) will see the bird’ [marker is –pp](future tense).
/ni:nɨ sən̪de:kke: po:xa:ji/ ‘You (sg) go to the market’ [marker is – xa:ji] (present tense).
/ni:nɨ sən̪de:kke: po:jiʈʈa:ji/ ‘You (sg) went to the market’ [marker is – a:ji] (past tense).
/ni:nɨ sən̪de:kke: po:xe:mɨ/ ‘You (sg) will go to the market’ [marker is – xe:mɨ] (future tense)

Second Person [plural]

/na:mɨ kurʊvinƐ pa:kkirɻ ‘You (pl) see the bird’ [marker is – kk] (present tense).
/ni:mɨ rəɳʈə:lʊ kurʊvinƐ pa:tɪrɻ ‘You (two) saw the bird’ [marker is – ti](past tense).
/ni:mɨ kurʊʋinƐ pa:pirɻ/ ‘You(pl) will see the bird’ ‘[marker is –pi] (future tense).
/ni:mɨ sən̪dekke: po:giri/ ‘You (pl) go to the market’ [marker is – giri] (present tense).
/ni:mɨ sən̪de:kke: po:jiʈʈi/ ‘You (pl) went to the market’ [marker is – jiʈʈi] (past tense).
/ni:mɨ sən̪de:kke: po:xe:/ ‘You (pl) will go to the market’ ‘[marker is – xe:](future tense).

Third Person [singular]

/avɛ kurʊvijə pa:kkƐ:/ ‘He sees the bird’ [marker is –kk] (present tense).
/a:vɛ kurʊvinƐ pa:ddə/ ‘He saw the bird’ [marker is – dd] (past tense).
/a:ʋƐ kurʊvinƐ pa:ppƐ/ ‘He will see the bird’ [marker is –pp] (future tense).
/aʋɛ͂ sən̪dekke: po:kɛ͂/ ‘He goes to the market’ [marker is – kɛ͂] (present tense).
/aʋɛ sən̪de:kke: po:jiʈʈə/ ‘He went to the market’ [marker is – jiʈʈə] (past tense).
/aʋe gətte:kke: po:xə/ ‘He will go to the field [marker is – xə ] (future tense).

Third Person [plural]

/avƐrʊgə: kurʊvinƐ pa:kkəɻ/‘They see the bird’ [marker is – kk] (present tense).
/aʋərɨ kurʊvinƐ pa:rdərɨ/ ‘They saw the bird’ [marker is – d] (past tense).
/aʋərɨ kurʊvinƐ pa:kkərɨ/ ‘They will see the bird’ [marker is –kk] (future tense).
/aʋərɨ a:mble:xa: sən̪dekke: po:xa:rɨ/‘They (men) go to the market’ [marker is – xa:rɨ]
(present tense).
/aʋərɨ sən̪de:kke: po:jiʈʈa:rɨ/ ‘They went to the market’ [marker is – jiʈʈa:rɨ ] (past tense).
/aʋərɨ pərədike: po:xa:rɨ/ ‘They will go to the jungle [marker is – xa:rɨ] (future tense).

2.3.ii. Pronouns

A pronoun is a pro-form which functions like a noun and substitutes for a noun
or noun phrase. Pronouns can take number, gender and case markers like the noun. A

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language may have several classes of pronouns. The Urali dialect has the following types of
pronouns.
1. Personal Pronouns
2. Demonstrative Pronoun
3. Reflexive Pronoun
4. Relative Pronoun
5. Interrogative Pronoun
6. Indefinite Pronoun

1. Personal Pronoun
Personal pronouns are pronouns used as alternates for proper or common nouns. The
personal pronouns are categorized into three persons (1st, 2nd and 3rd).

Person Singular Plural

First /nə:nɨ/ (I) , /na:nɨ/ (I) /na:mƐ:/ (we)
/na:mɨ/ (we)
Second /ni:nɨ/ (you) /ni:mɨ/ (you all)
/ni:mɨ/, /ni:/ (you) /ninna:/ (your)pl
Third /aʋ /, /aʋə:/ /adɨ/ (he/she/it), /aʋərʊgə:/ (they)
/aʋə/ /aʋə/ /adɨ/ /(he/she/it) /aʋərɨ/ (they)

2. Demonstrative Pronoun

Demonstratives are deictic word that specify which entities a speaker refers to and
differentiates those from others. The demonstrative pronoun in Urali can be described in a
two-tier system by taking the spatial distance into account like
i) Proximate demonstrative pronoun referring to the objects nearer to the speaker,
ii) Remote demonstrative pronoun that refers to the objects away from the speaker.

Again, the demonstrative pronoun can be distinguished by two-tier numbers also like
i) Singular
ii) Plural

Proximate Remote
Singular /idɨ/ /i:/ ‘this’ /a:/ , /adɨ/ ‘that’
/a:/
Plural /adʊgə:/ /i/ ‘these’ /a/, /aʋƐgə:/ ‘those’
/ a:/ , /aʋɛ͂xə/ ‘those’

Examples:
This- /idʊ armandə kƐd / ‘This good story’ [marker is-/idʊ/]
/ella:rʊmƐ: i:ʋe:lƐnɨ pannʊgɪl / ‘Anybody can do this work’[ marker is- i:]
/i: manɨsə nanna: paləkkəka:rə/ ‘This man is my friend’ [marker is /i:/]
That- /adʊ orʊ kudʊrƐ/ ‘That is a horse’ [marker is /adʊ/]
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 /adɨ orɨ ku:re / ‘This is a house’[ marker is -adɨ]
/a:mənɨsə kɨnɖa:irɨkkɛ͂/ ‘That man is fat’ [marker is a:]
/adɨ orɨ kudɨre:/ ‘That is a horse’[marker is/adɨ/ ]
These- /iʋe:hə: nannə: ku:rƐhə:/ ‘These are my houses’ [marker is -/iʋe:hə:/]
/i mənɨsərxə uttəma: nəʋərɨgə/ ‘These men are tall’ [marker is i]
Those -/aʋƐgə: nannə: bʊʃdəgə:/ ‘Those are my books’ [marker is-aʋƐgə:]
/a: manuʃə:rʊgə: baləmə:nəʋargə:/ ‘Those men are strong’ [Marker is -a:]
/a: ponnɨxə aləka:irɨkka:rxə/ ‘Those girls are beautiful [marker is a:]
/aʋɛ͂xə nanna: buʃtəxəxə/ ‘Those are my books’[marker is /aʋɛ͂]

We can also classify Urali demonstrative pronouns in terms of distance as

Proximate Remote
/ɪddi/ ‘here ‘ /addi/ ‘there’
/iddi/ ‘here ‘ /addi/ ‘there’
Examples:
Here - /nannə: akkƐtaŋgƐ: ɪddi: irʊkkə:h / ‘My sisters are here’
/ɪddi orʊbʊnƐ irʊkkʊdɨ/ ‘Here is a cat’
/na:nɨ iddi: ʋarʊh / ‘I come here’
/na:mɨ iddi: ʋarʊgƐ:mɨ/ ‘We come here’
/ni:nɨ iddi: ʋə:/ ‘You (sg.) come here’
/idɨ iddi irɨkka ku:ɖa:dɨ/ ‘You (sg) must not remain here’
/na:mɨ na:nɨmɨ iddi ʋarɨge:mɨ/ ‘We are coming here’
/ni:nɨ iddi ʋarɨga:i/ ‘You (sg.) are coming here’
/na:nɨ iddi ʋarɨge:/ ‘I am coming here’
/ni:mɨ iddi ʋarɨgiri/ ‘You (pl.) are coming here’
/adɨ iddi ʋarɨgɨdɨ/ ‘It is coming here’

There –/addi rƐɳɖɨpeliʊrgə: ɪrɪkkinə:/ ‘There are two big villages’

/addi rəɳɖʊma:ɖʊgə: ɪrɪkkinə:/ ‘There are two cows’
/na:mƐ: addi po:ɪnƐ:mɨ/ ‘We went there ourselves’
/na:mƐ: addi po:ɪnƐ:mɨ/ ‘We went there ourselves’
/na:nɨ addi po:ge:/ ‘I go there’
/na:mɨ addi po:ge:mɨ/ ‘We go there’
/ni:nɨ addi po:ga:j/ ‘You (sg.) go there’
/pa:mbɨ addi po:gudɨ/ ‘Snake goes there’

3. Reflexive Pronoun
A reflexive pronoun is a pronoun that is preceded by the noun to which it refers (it’s
antecedent) within the same clause. A reflexive pronoun is an anaphor that must be bound by
its antecedent in its local domain. Reflexive pronouns in Urali language are given in the
flowing table:

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 Pronoun Singular Plural
First /aʋɛ͂ta:ne:/ (myself) /na:mƐ:/ ‘ourselves’
/na:me:/ ‘ourselves’
Second /ni:nƐ/ (youself) /ni:nə/ ‘you all’
/ni:nə/ (youself)
Third /aʋənƐ:/ (himself) /aʋərƐ:/ ‘themselves’
/aʋeɻƐ:/ (herself) /aʋəre:/ ’themselves’
/adƐ:/ (itself)
/aʋəne:/ (himself)
/aʋa:/ (herself)
/aʋɛ/ (itself)

Examples:
First person Singular: There is no separate marker which indicates ‘myself’.
/aʋɛ͂ta:ne: paʈʈəttine: panninə/ ‘I made the kite myself’
First person plural: /na:mƐ: addi po:ɪnƐ:mɨ/ ‘We went there ourselves’
/na:me: addi po:ne:mtɨ/ ‘We went there ourselves’

Second person singular: /ni:nɨ nɪnəmʊrinɨ ni:nƐ gukkʊkəɻ/ ‘You wash the clothes yourself’
/ni:ne: ninə murine: kukkiko:/ ‘You wash the clothes yourself’

Third person singular: /kaləttʊnɨ aʋeɻƐ: tu:kkɪn / ‘She lifted the pot herself’
/kələddɨne: aʋa: dɨkkina:/ ‘She lifted the pot herself’
/aʋ dƐlʊttʊhəlƐ: aʋənƐ: kəldʊɳɖə:/ ‘He studied the lessons himself’
/aʋɛ pa:ɖa:ddɨne: aʋəne: kəlɨttɨʈʈə/ ‘He studied the lessons himself’
/adƐ: sattʊrddɨ/ ‘It died by itself’
/aʋɛ səttɨrɨttɨ/ ‘It died by itself’

Third person plural /aʋərʊkkɨ aʋərƐ: ku:rƐkəʈʈɪɳɖə:rɨ/ ‘They built the house themselves’
/aʋəre: aʋərɨkkɨ ku:re:ne: kɔʈʈnɖa:rɨ/‘They built the house themselves’

Interestingly, Urali speakers employ three different forms for third person singular in
accordance with gender. For example, masculine pronouns are marked by use of /aʋənƐ:/
‘himself’ , /aʋəne:/ ‘himself’ feminine pronouns are marked by use of /aʋeɻƐ:/ ‘herself’
/aʋa:/ ‘herself’ and /adƐ:/ ‘itself’ , /aʋɛ/ ‘itself’is used for inanimate things.

4. Interrogative Pronoun

An interrogative pronoun is used in questions to stand for the item questioned. The
Interrogative pronouns in Urali can be classified into personal and impersonal forms with
examples as-
who, whom (personal)
what, which (impersonal)

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Examples:
Personal Forms: /a:rʊ aʋ / ‘Who is he ?’
/idʊ a:rdɨ kudʊrƐ:/ ‘Whose horse is that?
/a:rɨ aʋɛ͂/ ‘Who is he ?’
/a:rɨdɨ kutirəi adɨ/ ‘Whose horse is that ?

Impersonal Forms: /ninnə pƐ:rɨ ennə:/ ‘What is your name’

/ni:nɨ ennəttƐ tiŋgəɻ/ ‘What do you eat?’
/e:di: nimmə pullƐgə:/ ‘Where are your children?’
/ni:nɨ e:dʊrəilnɨ piɖɪkkək po:həɻ/ ‘Which train will you get?’
/ni:nɨ enna tiŋga:j/ ‘What do you eat?’
/e:ti ninə pullɛga:/ ‘Where are your children?’
/ninɨ e:dɨ rəjile: pudika:kkɨ po:xa:j/ ‘Which train will you get?’

5. Indefinite Pronoun

The pronouns which denote some non-definite person or thing instead of definite
person or thing are called Indefinite pronouns. The examples of indefinite pronoun in Urali
are given below.

Indefinite Pronoun (Singular)

anybody: /ella:rʊmƐ: i:ʋe:lƐnɨ pannʊgɪl / ‘Anybody can do this work’

/alla:rɨme: iʋərɨme: a:ʋele:ne se:xəmsikɨ/ ‘Anybody can do this work’
anyone: /i:ʋe:lƐnɨ e:dʊmanʊsa:nʊmƐ: pannʊgɪl / ‘Anyone can do this work’
/e:to:ra:lɨme iʋe:le:ne se:xəmudikɨ/ ‘Anyone can do this work’
everybody: /ellə:rʊmƐ: i:ku:ʈʈəttʊkkɨ ʋərʊkonũ/
‘Everybody has to come for the meeting’
/alla:rɨme ku:ʈʈəttɨkkɨ ʋərɨkonɨ/
‘Everybody has to come for the meeting’
everyone: /ellə:rʊmƐ adi po:ha:rɨ/ ‘Everyone went there’
/alla:mɨ atti po:jiʈʈe:mɨ/ ‘Everyone went there’
everything: /ella:mƐ: tolƐndɪrttɨ/ ‘Everything is lost’
/alla:me tɔləin̪dɨrɨdɨ/ ‘Everything is lost’
no one:/ordƐndʊnə:lƐ kallʊnɨ tu:kkə:kkɨ muɖijə:dɨ/ ‘No one can lift this stone’
ja:rɨdɨ na:le:mɨ i:kalɨne:l tu:kkɨ ʋa:kkɨ mudija:dɨ/
‘No one can lift this stone’
none: /i:madʊʋəɪkkɨ aʋərʊgə: a:rʊmƐʋantƐlƐ:/
‘None of them came for this marriage’
/aʋərɨkəli a:rɨme: imədɨʋe:kkɨ ʋən̪te:le:/
‘None of them came for this marriage’
nobody: /i:ʋe:lƐnɨ ja:rnə:lƐmɨ pannʊkə:kkɨ muɖijəmə:ɖdɨ/
‘Nobody can do this work’
/a:ra:le:mɨ iʋe:le:ne se:xəmudija:dɨ/ ‘Nobody can do this work’

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one: /orʊttƐ: ʋe:lƐnidƐ:ɖi parəkgonũ/ ‘One should go to find a job’
/orɨddə ʋe:ləj pa:ra:n̪dɨɳɖɨ po:gɔnɨ/ ‘One should go to find a job’

2.3. iii Case

Case is a grammatical category determined by the syntactic or semantic function of
a noun or pronoun. Like other languages, in Urali also, semantic relation between a noun
phrase or subject and a predicate is expressed by the grammatical category of case. There are
seven case markers in Urali.
1. Nominative Case
2. Accusative Case
3. Dative Case
4. Instrumental Case
5. Ablative Case
6. Genitive Case
7. Locative Case

Nominative Case

The nominative case generally marks the subject of a verb or the predicate noun or
predicate adjective which is either a noun or a pronoun. In Urali, the marker for nominative
is /Ø/.
Examples:
/na:nɨ iddi: ʋarʊh / ‘I come here’
/na:mɨ kurʊvijə pa:kkƐ:mɨ/ ‘We see the bird’
/aʋ ku:rƐli:/ /irʊkk / ‘He is in the house’
/na:jgə:/ /kurakkinə:/ ‘The dog barks’
/ma:ɖʊgə:/ /pa:lɨ/ /targʊdɨ/ ‘The cows give mlk’
/na:nɨ//kuriʋinəi//pa:kke:/ ‘I see the bird’
/na:mu/ /kuriʋinəi//pa:kke:mɨ/ ‘We see the bird’
/na:nɨ//ku:re:kke://po:xe:/ ‘I go to the house’
/na:jxə/ /kɔrikkɨdɨ/ ‘The dog barks’
/ma:ɖɨga:/ /pa:lɨ/ /tarɨkɨdɨ/ ‘The cows give milk’

In the above examples /na:nɨ/ ‘I’, /na:mɨ/ ‘we’, /ma:ɖʊgə:/ ‘cows’, /aʋ / ’he’ and
/na:jgə:/ ‘dogs’ are the subject in nominative case with no case marker attached . Thus we
see here the nominative case marker is null or absent.

Accusative Case
Accusative case is the case in nominative-accusative languages that marks certain
syntactic functions, usually direct objects. In Urali, the marker for Accusative is / Ɛ:/
Examples-
/aʋ na:ɪttɨ kurʊʋinƐ: koindʊʈʈƐ:/ ‘He killed the bird yesterday’
/pullʊnƐ: kettɨ/ ‘Remove the grass’

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 /paɖəɻnƐ: muccɨ/ ‘Close the door’
/adɨ kurɪʋinƐ: pa:ttʊɳɖɨirʊkkɨ/ ‘It will have been seeing the bird’
/na:nɨ o͂ɖəi tin̪dɨn̪rɨkkɛ/ ‘I eat bread’
/na:nɨ kuriʋinəi pa:kke:/ ‘I see the bird’
/na:mɨ ma:dɨxələi adite:mɨ/ ‘We beat the cows’

Dative Case

The dative case designates the indirect object of a transitive verb. Nouns having the
role of recipient (as of things given), beneficiary of an action, or possessor of an item are
datives. The context plays a crucial factor in differentiating between dative and accusative.
In Urali, the marker dative is /-kkɨ/ ,/kkƐ:/.
Examples-
/nənʊkkɨ/ ‘to me’
/aʋərʊkkɨ/ ‘to them’
/ra:mɨ so:mʊkkɨ puʃtəh koɖʊtt / ‘Ram gave the book to Shyam’
/aŋgɪɖɪpi:dikkƐ: ʋə:/ ‘Come to the bazar’
/nannə ku:rƐkkƐ: ʋə:/ ‘Come to my house’
/nanɨkkɨ/ ‘to me’
/aʋərukkɨ/ ‘to them’

Instrumental Case

This case is used to denote instrument with which the action is performed. It is a
case indicating that the referent of the noun. In Urali, the marker is /-li/.
Examples:
/marəttinƐ ko:ɖə:lili ʋɔʈʈɨ/ ‘The tree is cut with axe’
/ra:mɨ nannə pe:nəʋɪli lƐʈʈƐrelʊdin / ‘Ram wrote the letter with my pen’
/maɳɖƐnƐ: kattrɪkolli ʋɔʈʈɨ/ ‘The hair is cut with scissors’
/marədɨnɛ͂͂ kɔɖa:lili ʋeʈʈɨ/ ‘The tree is cut with axe’
/mande:nɛ kattiri kɔlili ʋeʈʈɨ/ ‘The hair is cut with scissors’
/pa:ɖəkunəi kere:li kanili kɔʈʈɖa:rɨ/ ‘The boat is tied to the shore with rope’

Ablative Case
Ablative case is a case that expresses movement of the subject or the object from one
place to another either at the spatial plane or at the temporal plane is expressed by the
ablative case. In this language ablative case marker is /-irdə:/ .
Examples:
/pullƐ: marəttilirdə: pammʊnɨ pardədɨ/
‘The child plucked the fruit from the tree’

/marəttilirdə: elƐ: koʈʈukʊdɨ/

‘The leaves fall from the tree’

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 /o:rəkkɪrdə: baʃnɨ uɖəma:ʈʈə:rɨ/
‘Tomorrow onwards the buses will not run’

/aʋɛ͂ nənnə ɟənnəlrɨdɨ kɨʈʈɨ ʋɨn̪də/

‘He fell down from my window’. (marker is - /kɨʈʈɨ/).

/marəttilirɨdɨ ɛləixa kɔʈʈirɨddɨ/

‘The leaves fall from the tree’ (marker is -/kɔʈʈirɨddɨ/).

Genitive Case

Genitive case is a case in which the referent of the marked noun is the possessor of
the referent of another noun. This case expresses the meaning of belonging to or possession
of something by the subject. In Urali, the genitive case markers are /ttʊ/ and / - dɨ /.
Examples:
/aʋənttʊ ku:rƐ/ ‘His house’(marker is /-ttʊ).
/aʋərttɨ ku:rƐhə:/ ‘His houses’ (marker is /-ttɨ/).
/aʋəndɨ ku:re/ ‘His house’(marker is /-dɨ/).
/aʋəndɨ ku:rehə/ ‘His houses’ (marker is /- dɨ /).
/aʋәnəttɨ mah / ‘Their son’
/aʋәnəttɨ hә:/ ‘Their sons’
/aʋərədɨ məxɛ͂/ ‘Their son’ (marker is /- dɨ /)
/aʋәɻƐdɨ makkәrɻ/ ‘Her basket’
/aʋәɻƐdɨ kannɨgə:/ ‘Her eyes’ (marker is /-dɨ/)
/aʋəðɨ kannɨxə/ ‘Her eyes’ (marker is /-ðɨ/)

However another variety / -nnә/ has been found in use of second person forms as in
the following examples.
/ninnә ku:rƐ:/ ‘Your (sg) house’ (marker is / -nnә/).
/nannә pullƐ:/ ‘My child’
/nannә keiga:/ ‘My hands’
/ninə ku:re/ ‘Your (sg) house’ (marker is / -ə/).
/nimmə ku:rehə/ ‘Your (sg) houses’ (marker is / -ə)

This variation may occur because of phonological conditioning. But again, we see,
/nimmərəɳdɨ pukkuxə/ ‘Two books of yours’, here /-dɨ/ is used.

Locative Case

Locative case is a case that expresses location at the referent of the noun it marks.
The location of the subject or object is expressed by the locative case marker. In Urali, the
locative case markers are /-iɻ/
/parəɖʊɟə:di: pu:miɻ irʊkkɪnə:/ ‘The animals are in the field’
/palliguɖ pakkəttɪɻ ʋə:/ ‘Come near the school’

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 /aʋ to:ʈʈəttiɻ kurʊʋɪɨ koɪnd/ ‘He killed the bird in the garden’
/na:nɨ sən̪de:kke: po:ge: ‘I go to the market’. (marker is /- ge:/)
/na:nɨ u:rili ʋa:lɨgɛ/ ‘I live in the village.’

2.5 Adjectives

An adjective is a word that belongs to a class whose members modify nouns. An

adjective specifies the properties or attributes of a noun referent. In this language adjectives
occur before noun and remain unchanged for any change in gender and number.

Attributive adjectives

These are noun phrases headed by the modified noun. For example:
/idʊ/ /armandə/ /kƐd / ‘This good story’
/ʋeɻijə:/ /bʊkkɨ/ ‘The big book’
/sƐriləttƐ/ /pullƐhə:/ ‘The bad children’
/arməndə/ /mə:/ ‘The good boy’
/puddiullƐ/ /mah / ‘The clever boy’
/arumən̪təma:/ ‘The good boy’
/arumən̪da:/ /məkka:/ ‘The good boys’
/sinna:/ /pulle:/ ‘The small child’
/pelija/ /pukkɨgə/ ‘The big books’
/belija:/ /puʈʈa:xa:/ ‘Big baskets’
/puttija:/ /nəmaxẽ/ ‘The boy is clever’

Predicative adjectives

These are linked via a copula or other connecting device to the noun or pronoun they
modify. For example:
/a:manuʃə:rʊgə:/ /baləmə:nəʋargə:/ ‘Those men are strong’
/i:manuʃƐ:/ /uttəmə:nəʋ / ‘These men are tall’
/a:manuʃƐ:/ /dondɪjəirukkƐ/ ‘That man is fat’
/a:pƐnnʊhə:/ /armə:kɪrkkə:rʊhə:/ ‘Those girls are beautiful’
/aʋərdɨ/ /makkə:/ /komarəna:/ /irʊkkə:h / ‘His children are young’

Numerals

Urali exhibits numerals of both the Cardinal and the ordinal type:

Cardinal Numerals

/ondɨ/ ‘one’
/rəɳɖɨ/ ‘two’
/mu:ɪndɨ/ ‘three’
/nalɨ/ ‘four’

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 /aɲʧɨ/ ‘five’
/arɨ/ ‘six’
/e:lɨ/ ‘seven’
/eʈʈɨ/ ‘eight’
/ombætɨ/ ‘nine’
/pəttɨ/ ‘ten’

Ordinal Numerals

Ordinals are formed by adding inflectional suffixes /- aʋdɨ/ to the cardinals. For
example,
/onnaʋdɨ/ ‘first’
/rƐɳɖaʋdɨ/ ‘second’
/mu:naʋdɨ/ ‘third’

/mun̪te:/ ‘first’
/raɳɖa:ʋadɨ/ ‘second’
/mu:n̪ɖa:ʋadɨ/ ‘third’

Fractions: Fractions for the three dialects are formed by following ways.

/ontare/ ‘one and a half’

/on̪te:ka:lɨ/ ‘one and a quarter’
/ka:lɨ/ ‘quarter’
/rɛkkə/ ‘half’
/mukka:ɭɨ/ ‘three fourth’

Formation of numerals

One /ondɨ/ two /rəɳɖɨ/ three /mu:ɪndɨ/ four /nalɨ/

/on̪dɨ/ two /rəɳdɨ Three /mundɨ/ four /na:lu/
ten /pəttɨ/ twelve /pənnƐɳɖɨ/ thirteen /pətɪmu:ɪndɨ/ fourteen /pətɪnalɨ/
/pattɨ/ twelve /pannəndɨ/ thirteen /patimun̪dɨ/ Fourteen /patina:lɨ/
Hundred /orʊnu:rɨ/ twenty /irʊʋətɨ/ thirty /mʊppətɨ/ forty /nappətɨ/
/nu:ru/ twenty /irɨʋadɨ/ Third /mu:n̪ɖa:ʋadɨ/ Forty ---------
five /aɲʧɨ/ six /arɨ/ seven /e:lɨ/ eight /eʈʈɨ/
/aɲsɨ/ six /a:ruɨ/ seven /ɛluɨ/ Eight /eʈʈɨ/
fifteen /pətƐnəɲʧɨ/ sixteen /pətɪnarɨ/ seventeen /pətɪne:lɨ/ eighteen /pətɪnƐʈʈɨ/
/patinəɲsɨ/ sixteen /patina:rɨ/ seventeen /patinɛ:lɨ/ Eighteen /patinɛʈʈɨ/
fifty /əmbətɨ/ sixty /arəʋətɨ/ seventy /elƐʋətɨ/ eighty /embətɨ/
------------ sixty --------- Seventy ------------- Eighty ----------
nine /ombætɨ/ ninety /pəttombodɨ/

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 /ombadɨ/ ninety ---------
nineteen /tonnʊrɨ/
/pattambo:dɨ/

From the above data we can see that the numerals fourteen, fifteen, twelve, nineteen
etc are formed by adding suffixes /pətɪ-/ /pətƐ-/ /pann- / /ton-/ etc. while twenty, fifty, forty
etc have an ending with / tɨ/.
Again thirty-one, ninety-one is formed in the following way :
/mʊppətɨ/ ‘30’ + /ondɨ/ ‘1’ = /mʊppəteɪndɨ/ ’31’
/tonnʊrɨ/ ‘90’ + /ondɨ/ ‘1’ = /tonnʊttonnɨ/ ‘91’
/mʊppətɨ/ ‘30’ + /ombotɨ/ ‘9’ = /mʊppətombodɨ/ ‘39’
/tonnʊrɨ/ ‘90’ + /ombætɨ/ ‘9’ = /tonnʊttonnɨ/ ‘99’
/pəttɨ/ ‘10’ + /aɲʧɨ/ ‘5’ = /pətƐnəɲʧɨ/ ‘15’
/pəttɨ/ ‘10’ + /nalɨ/ ‘4’ = /pətɪnalɨ/ ‘14’

Classifiers
The classified is denoted by the use of cardinal numerals like /orʊ/, /on̪dɨ/ and etc. to
refer to a person. For example
/orʊttƐ:/ /ʋe:lƐnidƐ:ɖi/ /parəkgonũ/ ‘One should go to find a job’
/orɨddə/ /ʋe:ləj/ /pa:ra:n̪dɨɳɖɨ/ /po:gɔnɨ/ ‘One should go to find a job’

/ orʊ/ , /orɨ/ is also used to denote singularity as in

/idʊ/ /orʊ/ /ku:rƐ:/ ‘This is a house’
/adɨ/ /orɨ/ /ku:re ‘This is a house’
/iʋe:hə:/ /nannə:/ /ku:rƐhə:/ ‘These are my houses’

/ɟanəgə:/ /ɟəna:/ is sometimes used to denote multitude. The examples are:

/ɟanəgə:/ /adi/ /po:kərɨ/ ‘The people go there’
/ɟəna:/ /atti/ /po:xa:rɨ/ ‘The people go there’

2.4 Verb Morphology

A verb is a member of the syntactic class of words that signals events and actions
constitute, singly or in a phrase, a minimal predicate in a clause, govern the number and
types of other constituents which may occur in the clause. Verb is a form class that marks
tense – aspect – mood – personal markers distinguished by number and gender.
In inflectional languages, verbs may be inflected with tense, aspect, and voice, and modality,
agreement with other constituents in terms of person, number and gender PNG.

Verb Morphology refers to the way in which verbs are inflected or modified to
indicate tense, aspect, mood, voice and other grammatical features, i.e. it is the study of the
structure and formation of verb in a language.

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2.4.i Types of verb

A verb denotes action. Different types of actions from the provided data are given
below.

a) Physical Activity Verbs

List of different physical activity verb from the provided data is given below.
/o:ɖʊ/ ‘run’ /naɖɪ/ ‘act (take part in a drama)’
/kaɖɪ/ ‘bite’ /pəɽip(pə)/ ‘break (stick)’
/murɪ ‘break (stick)’ /orʊhɨ/ ‘learn’
/nadikadɨ/ ‘act (take part in a drama)’
/murikadɨ/ ‘break (stick)’ /dekkadɨ/ ‘break (a pot)’
/otaikatɨ/ ‘kick’ /kadikadɨ/ ‘bite’

b) Instrument Verbs

List of different instrument verb from the provided data is given below.
/ʋɔ:ʈʈƐa:ɖʊ / ‘hunt’ /to:ɳɖʊ / ‘dig (a hole)’
/katta:irsukatɨ/ ‘cut (cloth)’ /ʋəʈʈɛa:dukatɨ/ ‘hunt’
/tondukatɨ/ ‘dig (a hole)’

c) Verbs of fighting

List of different verbs of fighting from the provided data is given below.
o:dɪ/ ‘attack’ /to:kkəɖʊttʊʈʈə:rɨ/ ‘ to defeat’
/koɪ / ‘kill’ /kuttʊ/ ‘stab’
/adikatɨ/ ‘attack’ /to:ttɨta:ru/ ‘defeat’
/koɭɭɨkaðɨ/ ‘kill’ /su:rilikuttɨxaðɨ/ ‘stab’

d) Music Verbs: List of different music verb from the provided data is given below.
/a:ʈʈaɖʊ ‘dance’ /pa:ɖʊ / ‘sing’
/aʈʈa:a:ɖɨxaðɨ/ ‘dance’ /pa:duxaðɨ/ ‘sing’

e) Motion verbs

List of different motion verb from the provided data is given below.
/ʋəndʊsƐ:ndʊr/ ‘arrive (at a place)’ /ɨk/ ‘drag (a heavy object)’
/muhɪ / ‘drown’ /tƐ:lɪ / ‘float’
/ʋan̪duse:n̪ɨʈʈe:mɨ/ ‘arrive (at a place)’ /ʋɨxaðɨ/ ‘drag (a heavy object)’
/mu:guxaðɨ/ ‘drown’ /mətaŋguxaðɨ/ ‘float’

2.4.ii Classification of Verb

The Urali verb stems can be classified into simple and compound verbs.

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a) Simple Verb
A simple verb is composed of monomorphemic single root with or without a suffix.
The verb is conjugated with aspect - gender – number – personal markers. The
conjugational pattern of vowel ending and consonant ending verb roots are given below.

/√pa: / ‘see’
/pa:kk / ‘see’ (1st person) /na:nɨ pa:kk / ‘I see’.
/pa:kkə / ‘see’ (2nd person) /ni:nɨ/ /pa:kkə/ ‘You (sg) see’.
/pa:kkə: ‘see’ (3rd person) /avə: pa:kkə: / ‘She sees’.
/pa:tt / ‘saw’ (1st person sg) /na:nɨ pa:tt / ‘I saw’.
/pa:rttəɻ ‘saw’ (2nd person) /ni:nɨ pa:rttəɻ/ ‘You saw’.
/pa:ddə:/ ‘saw’ (3rd person) /avə: pa:ddə:/ ‘She saw.

b) Compound Verb

A Compound verb consists of more than one root and may include one or more
suffixes. The examples are given below.
Compound verb with root /- kə:dɨ/
/ali/ ‘destroy’ + /- kə:dɨ/ ‘to do’ = /alikkə:dɨ/ ‘to destroy somthing’
/ma:rʊ/ ‘sell’ + /- kə:dɨ/ ‘to do’ = /ma:rʊkə:dɨ/ ‘to sell somthing’
/gƐʋnɪ / ‘serve’ + /- kə:dɨ/ ‘to do’ = /gƐʋnɪkkə:dɨ/ ‘to serve (food)’

/ka:ttʊkƐ:mɨ/ ‘to remove (take away)’

/koɖʊttʊʋa:ŋgə:dɨ/ ‘to trade, barter’

2.4.iii Inflection of Verb

The verbs in Urali can be studied with respect to their Transitivity, Finiteness, Non-
finiteness, Negation, Causativizati on and Passivization.

Transitivity

Transitivity refers to the relationship between a verb and its objects or complements.
It is the property of verb that shows whether or not it takes a direct object. A trasitive verb
requires a direct object to complete its meaning, while an intrasitive verb does not require a
direct object. Further ditransitive is a term used to describe a verb that takes both a direct
object and an indirect object in a sentence. It means that the verb has two objects, one that
receives the action of the verb directly, and another that is affected by the action in some
way.

Intransitive:
The verbs which do not take any object are intransitive verbs. Examples of
intransitive verbs are:

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 /po:/ ‘go’ /ʋə:/ ‘come’ /nində/ ‘stands’,
/kurakki/ ‘bark’ /po:xaðɨ/ ‘go’ /kɔrɛkkadɨ/ ‘bark’etc.

/aʋə: addi: nindəʋələ:/ ‘She stands there’

/na:jgə: kurakkinə:/ ‘The dog barks’

The examples of Intransitive verbal formation are:

/na:jxə kɔrikkɨdɨ/ ‘The dog barks’.
/na:nɨ po:ge / ‘I go’.

1. Transitive
The verbs which take an object are transitive verbs. The examples of transitive
verbs are:
/pa:/ ‘see’
/tiŋgaðɨ/ ‘eat’
/pa:kkəðɨ/ ‘see’
/na:nɨ/ pa:kk / ‘I see’.
/na: o͂ɖəi tin̪dɨn̪rɨkkɛ / ‘I eat bread’.
/na:nɨ kuriʋinəi pa:kke:/ ‘I see the bird’.

2. Ditransitive

The verbs that take a subject, a direct object and an indirect object are ditransitive verbs.

Eg. /targə:/ ‘give’ tarɨkɨdɨ/ ‘give’

/pa ʃərgərdɪɻ ƐlƐgəlʊkkɨ tarɡə:rũ/

‘Money was given by the govt. to the poor’

/pənə sərka:irɨtə eləikkɨ tan̪tədɨ/

‘Money was given by the govt. to the poor’

Finiteness

A finite verb is a verb form that which occurs in an independent clause and is
fully inflected according to the inflectional categories marked on verbs in the language.
Having the verb roots as the base both Finite and Non-finite verbal formations are realised in
Urali. The components of finite verb are: 1. Tense, 2. Aspect, and 3. Mood.

In Urali, finite verbs are formed by adding different suffixes to the verb root and
different forms are available for different person and tense.

The finite verbal formation is √ + tense marker ± aspect marker +personal marker.

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The formations of the verb /po:/ ‘to go’ for three different persons and different tenses are
given below.

Tense

Accordingly verbs in Urali are morphologically marked for having three way
opposition of tense as
1. Present Tense
2. Past Tense
3. Future Tense

Following are the person wise tense formations in Urali taking / po: / ‘go’ as the
model verb root.

Present indefinite Tense

Person Singular Verb form Plural Verb form

/na:nɨ/ (I) /po:ʋ / /na:mɨ/ (we) /po:hƐ:mɨ/
First
/na:nɨ/ (I) /po:ge/ /na:mu/ (we) /po:ge/
/na:nɨ/ (you) sg /po:həɻ/ /ni:nɨ/ (you pl) /po:hirɻ/
Second
/ni:nɨ/ (you) sg /po:xa:ji/ /niʋɨ/ (you pl) po:giri/
/avə:/ /po:gə:/ /aʋarɨ /po:kərɻ/
/po:kɛ͂/
Third /aʋɛ/ /aʋə/ adɨ/ (he/
/po:kə/ /aʋərɨ/ (they) /po:ne:mɨ/
she/ it)
/po:kudɨ/

The markers for singular and plural forms are as follows: /po:ge/, /po:xa:ji/, po:kɛ͂/,
/po:kə/, /po:kudɨ/, /po:ge/, /po:giri/ and /po:ne:mɨ/.

/na:nɨ ku:rƐkkƐ: po:hƐ/ ‘I go to the house’

/na:mɨ rəɳɖə:lɨ sandƐkkƐ po:hƐ:m ‘We(two) go to the market’
/na:mɨ sandƐkkƐ po:hƐ:mɨ/ ‘We go to the market’
/na:nɨ sandƐkkƐ po:həɻ/ ‘You (sg) go to the market’
/ni:nɨ sandƐkkƐ po:hirɻ ‘You (pl) go to the market’
/a:v sandƐkkƐ po:h / ‘He goes to the market’
/avə: sandƐkkƐ po:gə:/ ‘She goes to the market’

/na:nɨ sən̪de:kke: po:ge:/ ‘I go to the market’

/na:mɨ rəɳɖa:lɨ sən̪de:kke: po:xe:mɨ/ ‘We(two) go to the market’
/na:mɨ sən̪de:ke: po:ge:mɨ/ ‘We go to the market’
/ni:nɨ sən̪de:kke: po:xa:ji/ ‘You (sg) go to the market’
/ni:mɨ sən̪dekke: po:giri/ ‘You (pl) go to the market’
/aʋɛ͂ sən̪dekke: po:kɛ͂/ ‘He goes to the market’

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 /aʋa: sən̪de:kke: po:kə/ ‘She goes to the market’
/adɨ sən̪dekke: po:kudɨ/ ‘It goes to the market’
/aʋərɨ a:mble:xa: sən̪dekke: po:xa:rɨ/ ‘They (men) go to the market’

Past indefinite Tense

Person Singular Verb form Plural Verb form

/na:nɨ/ (I) /po:n / /na:mɨ/ (we) /po:nƐ:mɨ/
First
/na:nɨ/ (I) /po:ne:/ /na:mɨ/ (we) /po:ne:mɨ/
/na:nɨ/ (you) sg /po:ɪʈʈəɻ/ /ni:nɨ/ (you pl) /po:iʈrɪɻ/
Second
/ni:nɨ/ (you) sg /po:jiʈʈa:ji/ /niʋɨ/ (you pl) /po:jiʈʈi/
/avə:/ (she) /po:iʈʈə:/ /aʋarɨ/ (they) /po:iʈʈərɨ/
Third /aʋɛ͂/ /aʋa:/ /adɨ/ /po:jiʈʈə/
/aʋərɨ/ (they) /po:giri/
(he/ she/ it) /po:jiʈʈa:/

The markers for singular and plural forms are as follows:

/na:nɨ sandƐkkƐ po:n /
(I) (market) (go - past)
/na:nɨ sandƐkkƐ po:n / ‘I went to the market’
/na:mɨ sandƐkkƐ po:nƐ:mɨ/ ‘We went to the market’
/ni:nɨ sandƐkkƐ po:ɪʈʈəɻ/ ‘You(sg) went to the market’
/ni:mɨ sandƐkkƐ po:iʈrɪɻ/ ‘You(pl) went to the market’
/a:vƐ sandƐkkƐ po:iʈʈ ‘He went to the market’
/avə: sandƐkkƐ po:iʈʈə:/ ‘She went to the market’
/avə:rʊgə: sandƐkkƐ po:iʈʈə:rɨ/ ‘They went to the market’

The markers for singular and plural forms are as follows: /po:ne:/, /po:jiʈʈa:ji/,
/po:jiʈʈə/, /po:jiʈʈa:/, /po:ne:mɨ/, /po:jiʈʈi/ and /po:giri/

/ na:nɨ sən̪de:ke: po:ne:/

(I) (market) (go - past)

Examples

/na:nɨ sən̪de:kke: po:ne:/ ‘I went to the market’

/na:mɨ sən̪de:kke: po:ne:mɨ/ ‘We went to the market’
/ni:nɨ sən̪de:kke: po:jiʈʈa:ji/ ‘You(sg) went to the market’
/ni:mɨ sən̪de:kke: po:jiʈʈi/ ‘You(pl) went to the market’
/aʋɛ sən̪de:kke: po:jiʈʈə/ ‘He went to the market’
/aʋə sən̪de:kke: po:jiʈʈa:/ ‘She went to the market’
/aʋərɨ sən̪de:kke: po:jiʈʈa:rɨ/ ‘They went to the market’

760
Simple future Tense

Person Singular Verb form Plural Verb form

/na:nɨ/ (I) po:h / /na:mɨ/ (we) /po:hƐ:mɨ/
First
/na:nɨ/ (I) /po:xe:/ /na:mɨ / (we) /po:xe:mɨ/
/na:nɨ/ (you) sg /po:v / /ni:nɨ/ (you pl) /po:ʋi:/
Second
/ni:nɨ / (you) sg /po:xa:j/ /ni:mɨ/ (you pl) /po:ʋi:ri/
/avə:/ (she) /po:ʋə:/ /aʋarɨ/ (they)
/po:xə/
Third /aʋɛ/ /aʋə/ /adɨ/
/po:xa:/ /aʋərɨ/ (they) /po:jiʈʈa:rɨ/
(he/ she/ it)
/po:xe:mɨ/

The markers for singular and plural forms are as follows.

/na:nɨ sandƐkkƐ po:hƐ:mɨ/
(I) (market) (go-future)

/na:nɨ sandƐkkƐ po:h / ‘I will go to the market’

/na:mɨ sandƐkkƐ po:hƐ:mɨ/ ‘We will go to the school’
/ni:nɨ paɻɻɪkkuɖə: po:v / ‘You(sg) will go to the market’
/ni:mɨ paɻɻikkɨ po:ʋi:/ ‘You(pl) will go to the school’
/aʋ ʋəilɪkkƐ po:ʋƐ/ ‘He will go to the field’
/aʋə: ʋəilɪkkƐ po:ʋə:/ ‘She will go to the field’
/adɨ sandƐkkƐ po:hũ/ ‘It will go to the market’
/aʋərʊgə: parəɖɪkkƐ po:hə:rɨ/ ‘They will go to the juncle’

The markers for singular and plural forms are as follows:

/po:xe:/, /po:xa:j/, /po:xə/, /po:xa:/, /po:xe:mɨ/, /po:ʋi:ri/ and /po:jiʈʈa:rɨ/.

/na:nɨ sən̪de:kke: po:xe:/

(I) (market) (go-future)

/na:nɨ sən̪de:kke: po:xe:/ ‘I will go to the market’

/na:mɨ sən̪de:kke: po:xe:mɨ/ ‘We will go to the market’
/ni:nɨ palli kuɖa po:xa:j/ ‘You(sg) will go to the school’
/ni:mɨ palli kuɖa po:ʋi:ri/ ‘You(pl) will go to the school’
/aʋe palli po:xə/ ‘He will go to the school’
/aʋa: palli po:xa:/ ‘She will go to the school’
/adɨ sən̪de:kke: po:xe:mɨ/ ‘It will go to the market’
/aʋərɨ sən̪de:kke: po:jiʈʈa:rɨ/ ‘They will go to the market’

761
Aspect

Aspect is a grammatical category associated with verbs that expresses a temporal

view of the event or state expressed by the verb. Aspectual information implies is related
with duration, perfection, habituality etc. Urali has three aspects interpreted in different
tenses, viz.
i. Imperfective
ii. perfective
iii. habitual

i). Imperfective Aspect

Imperfective aspect is an aspect that expresses an event or state, with respect to its
internal structure, instead of expressing it as a simple whole. It depicts an action which is
considered as continuous in the past or present or future tenses.

Examples:
Present continuous markers for different persons for the verb po: are given below:

Present Imperfective Aspect

Person Singular Verb form Plural Verb form

/na:nɨ/ (I) /po:h / /na:mɨ/ (we) /po:kƐ:mɨ/
First
/na:nɨ/ (I) /po:ge/ /na:ʋɨ/ (we) /po:ge:mɨ/
/na:nɨ/ (you) sg /po:kəɻ/ /ni:nɨ/ (you pl) /po:kɪrɻ/
Second
/ni:/ (you) sg /po:ga:j/ /ni:ʋɨ/ (you pl) /po:giri/
/avə:/ (she) /po:kə:/ /aʋarɨ/ (they) /po:kərɨ/
/po:ge/
Third /aʋ / /aʋã/ /aðɨ/
/po:ga:/ /aʋərɨ/ (they) /po:ga:rgə/
/(he/she/it)
/po:gɨdɨ/

The markers for singular and plural forms are as follows:

/na:nɨ sandƐkkɨ po:h /
(I) (market) (go-present cont)

/na:nɨ/ /sandƐkkɨ/ /po:h / I am going to the market

/na:mɨ/ /sandƐkkɨ/ /po:kƐ:mɨ/ We are going to the market
/ni:nɨ/ /sandƐkkƐ/ /po:kəɻ/ You(sg) are going to the market
/ni:mɨ/ /sandƐkkƐ/ /po:kɪrɻ/ You(pl) are going to the market
/aʋ / /sandƐkkƐ/ /po:hə/ He is going to the market
/aʋə:/ /sandƐkkƐ/ /po:kə:/ She is going to the market
/adɨ/ /sandƐkkƐ/ /po:kʊdɨ It is going to the market
/aʋərɨ/ /sandƐkkƐ/ /po:kərɨ/ They are going to the market

762
The markers for singular and plural forms are as follows:
/po:ge/,/po:ga:j/,/po:ge/,/po:ga:/, /po:gɨdɨ/,/po:ge:mɨ/, /po:giri/,/po:ga:rgə/.

/na:nɨ/ /sən̪dɛkke/ /po:ge/

(I) (market) (go-present cont)

/na:nɨ//sən̪dɛkke//po:ge/ I am going to the market

/na:mɨ//sən̪dɛkke//po:ge:mɨ/ We are going to the market
/ni:nɨ//sən̪dɛkke//po:ga:j/ You(sg) are going to the market
ni:mɨ//sən̪dɛkke//po:giri/ You(pl) are going to the market
/aʋɛ//sən̪dɛkke//po:ge:/ He is going to the market
/aʋə//sən̪dɛkke//po:ga:/ She is going to the market
/adɨ//sən̪dɛkke//po:gɨdɨ/ It is going to the market
/aʋərɨga://sən̪dɛkke//po:ga:rgə/ They are going to the market

Past Imperfective Aspect

Person Singular Verb form Plural Verb form

/na:nɨ/ (I) /po:iɳɖrɨdƐ/ /na:mɨ/ (we) /po:iɳɖrʊdƐ:mɨ/
First
/na:nɨ/ (I) /po:jindɨirde:/ /na:mɨ/ (we) /po:jindɨirde:mɨ/
/na:nɨ/ (you) sg /po:iɳɖrɨdəɻ/ /ni:nɨ/ (you pl) /po:iɳɖrʊdɪɻ/
Second
/ni:nɨ/ (you) sg /po:jirɨda:j/ /ni:mɨ/ (you pl) /po:jindɨiridiri
/avə:/ (she) /po:iɳɖrɨndə:/ /aʋərʊgə:/ (they) /po:iɳɖrɨndə:rɨ/
/po:jindɨirdə/
Third /aʋɛ/ /aʋə/ /aʋə/
/po:jindɨirɨkka:/ /aʋərɨ/ (they) /po:jindɨirɨda:rɨgə/
(he/she/it)
/po:jindɨirɨda:/

The markers for singular and plural forms are as follows:

/na:nɨ/ /sandƐkkƐ/ /po:iɳɖrɨdƐ/
(I) (market) (go-past cont.)

/na:nɨ/ /sandƐkkƐ/ /po:iɳɖrɨdƐ/ ‘I was going to the market’

/na:mɨ/ /sandƐkkƐ/ /po:iɳɖrʊdƐ:mɨ/ ‘We were going to the market’
/ni:nɨ/ /sandƐkkɨ/ /po:iɳɖrɨdəɻ/ ‘You(sg) were going to the market’
/ni:mɨ/ /sandƐkkƐ/ /po:iɳɖrʊdɪɻ/ ‘You(pl) were going to the market’
/aʋ / /sandƐkkƐ/ /po:iɳɖrdə/ ‘He was going to the market’
/aʋə:/ /sandƐkkƐ/ /po:iɳɖrɨndə:/ ‘She was going to the market’
/adɨ/ /sandƐkkƐ/ /po:iɳɖrɨndədɨ/ ‘It was going to the market’
/aʋərʊgə:/ /sandƐkkƐ/ /po:iɳɖrɨndə:rɨ/ ‘They were going to the market’

763
 The markers for singular and plural forms are as follows: /po:jindɨirde:/, /po:jirɨda:j/,
/po:jindɨirdə/, /po:jindɨirɨkka:/, /po:jindɨirɨda:/, /po:jindɨirde:mɨ/, /po:jindɨiridiri/,
/po:jindɨirɨda:rɨgə/.

/na:nɨ//sən̪dɛkke//po:jindɨirde:/
(I) (market) (go-past cont.)

/na:nɨ//sən̪dɛkke//po:jindɨirde:/ ‘I was going to the market’

/na:mɨ//sən̪dɛkke//po:jindɨirde:mɨ/ ‘We were going to the market’
/ni:nɨ//sən̪dɛkke//po:jirɨda:j/ ‘You(sg) were going to the market’
/ni:mɨ//sən̪dɛkke//po:jindɨiridiri/ ‘You(pl) were going to the market’
/aʋɛ//sən̪dɛkke//po:jindɨirdə/ ‘He was going to the market’
/aʋə//sən̪dɛkke//po:jindɨirɨkka:/ ‘She was going to the market’
/aʋə//sən̪dɛkke//po:jindɨirɨda:/ ‘It was going to the market’
/aʋərɨgə//sən̪dɛkke//po:jindɨirɨda:rɨgə/ ‘They were going to the market’

Future Imperfective Aspect

Person Singular Verb form Plural Verb form

/na:nɨ/ (I) /poh / /na:mɨ/ (we) /po:kƐ:mɨ/
First
/na:nɨ/ (I) /po:ge:/ /na:mɨ/ (we) /po:ʋe:mɨ/
/na:nɨ/ (you) sg /po:kəɻ/ /ni:nɨ/ (you pl) /po:kirɻ/
Second
/ni:nɨ (you) sg /po:ga:j/ /ni:mɨ/ (you pl) /po:ʋiri/
/avə:/ (she) /po:hə:/ /aʋərʊgə:/ (they) poiaɳɖikku
/po:gẽ/
Third /aʋɛ͂/ /aʋə/ /adɨ/
/po:ga:/ /aʋərɨ/ (they) /po:ga:rɨgə/
/(he /she /it)
/po:gɨdɨ/

The markers for singular and plural forms are as follows:

/na:nɨ/ /sandƐkkƐ/ /poh /
(market) (go-future cont.)

/na:nɨ/ /sandƐkkƐ/ /poh / ‘I will be going to the market’

/na:mɨ/ /sandƐkkƐ/ /po:kƐ:mɨ/ ‘We will be going to the market’
/ni:nɨ/ /ʋəɪlɪkkƐ/ /po:kəɻ/ ‘You(sg) will be going to the market’
/ni:mɨ/ /ʋəɪlɪkkƐ/ /po:kirɻ/ ‘You(pl) will be going to the market’
/aʋ / /ʋəɪlɪkkƐ:/ /po:h / ‘He will be going to the market’
/aʋə:/ /ʋəɪlɪkkƐ:/ /po:hə:/ ‘She will be going to the market’
/adɨ/ /ʋəɪlɪkkƐ:/ /po:hũ/ ‘It will be going to the market’
/aʋərʊgə:/ /ʋəɪlɪkkƐ:/ /po:kərɨ/ ‘They will be going to the market’

764
The markers for singular and plural forms are as follows
/po:ge:/, /po:ga:j/,/po:gẽ/,/po:ga:/, /po:gɨdɨ/,/,po:ʋe:mɨ/,/po:ʋiri/,/po:ga:rɨgə/.

/na:nɨ/ /sən̪de:kke:/ /po:ge:/

(I) (market) (go-future cont.)

Examples:

/na:nɨ//sən̪de:kke://po:ge:/ ‘I will be going to the market’

/na:mɨ//sən̪de:kkɨ//po:ʋe:mɨ/ ‘We will be going to the market’
/ni:nɨ//ʋəjilikke://po:ga:j/ ‘You(sg) will be going to the field’
/ni:mɨ//ʋəjilikke://po:ʋiri/ ‘You(pl) will be going to the field’
/aʋɛ͂//ʋəjilikke://po:gẽ/ ‘He will be going to the field’
/aʋə//ʋəjilikke://po:ga:/ ‘She will be going to the field’
/adɨ//ʋəjilikke://po:gɨdɨ/ ‘It will be going to the field’
/aʋərɨgə//ʋəjilikke://po:ga:rɨgə/ ‘They will be going to the field’

ii) Perfective Aspect

Perfective aspect is an aspect that expresses a temporal view of an event or state as a

simple whole, apart from the consideration of the internal structure of the time in which it
occurs. The examples in Urali are given below.

Present Perfective Aspect

Person Singular Verb form Plural Verb form

/na:nɨ/ (I) /po:irdƐ/ /na:mɨ/ (we) /po:irdƐmɨ/
First
/na:nɨ/ (I) /po:jirʊkke:/ /na:mɨ/ (we) /po:jirʊkke:mɨ/
/na:nɨ/ (you) sg /po:irdƐ/ /ni:nɨ/ (you pl) /po:irdɪrɻ/
Second
/ni:nɨ//(you) sg /po:jirikka:j/ /ni:mɨ/ (you pl) /po:jirikki:ri:/
/avə:/ (she) /po:irdə:/ /aʋərʊgə:/ ‘they’ poiʈә
/aʋə/
/po:jirikka/
Third /aʋa:/
/po:jirikka:/ /aʋərɨ/ (they) /po:jirukka:rɨ/
/adɨ/
/po:jirukkɨdɨ/
(he/she/it)

The markers for singular and plural forms are as follows:

irdƐ/ /irdɪrɻ/ etc…
/na:nɨ/ /sandƐkkƐ/ /po:irdƐ/
(I) (market) (go-pres. perfect)

/na:nɨ/ /sandƐkkƐ/ /po:irdƐ/ ‘I have gone to the market’

/na:mɨ/ /sandƐkkƐ/ /po:irdƐmɨ/ ‘We have gone to the market’

765
 /na:nɨ/ /sandƐkkƐ/ /po:irdƐ/ ‘You(sg) have gone to the market’
/ni:mɨ/ /sandƐkkƐ/ /po:irdɪrɻ/ ‘You(pl) have gone to the market’
/a:v / /sandƐkkƐ/ /po:irdə/ ‘He has gone to the market’
/aʋə:/ /sandƐkkƐ/ /po:irdə:/ ‘She has gone to the market’
/adɨ/ /sandƐkkƐ/ /po:irdədɨ/ ‘It has gone to the market’
/aʋərɨ/ /sandƐkkƐ/ /po:irdərɨ/ ‘They have gone to the market’

The markers for singular and plural forms are as follows:

/po:jirʊkke:/, /po:jirikka:j/, /po:jirikka/, /po:jirikka:/, /po:jirʊkke:mɨ/,
/po:jirikki:ri:/, /po:jirukka:rɨ/.
na:nɨ//sən̪de:kke://po:jirʊkke:/
(I) (market) (go-pres. perfect)

/na:nɨ//sən̪de:kke://po:jirʊkke:/ ‘I have gone to the market’

/na:mɨ//sən̪de:kke://po:jirʊkke:mɨ/ ‘We have gone to the market’
/ni:nɨ//sən̪de:kke://po:jirikka:j/ ‘You(sg) have gone to the market’
/ni:mɨ//sən̪de:kke://po:jirikki:ri:/ ‘You(pl) have gone to the market’
/aʋə//sən̪de:kke://po:jirikka/ ‘He has gone to the market’
/aʋa://sən̪de:kke://po:jirikka:/ ‘She has gone to the market’
/adɨ//sən̪ttekke://po:jirukkɨdɨ/ ‘It has gone to the market’
/aʋərɨ//sən̪de:kke://po:jirukka:rɨ/ ‘They have gone to the market’

Past Perfective Aspect

Person Singular Verb form Plural Verb form

/na:nɨ/ (I) /po:n / /na:mɨ/ (we) /po:ɪnƐ:mɨ/
First
/na:nɨ (I) /po:nɛ͂/ /na:mɨ/ (we) /po:ne:mɨ/
/na:nɨ/ (you) sg /po:nəɻ/ /ni:nɨ/ (you pl) /po:nirɻ/
Second
/ni:nɨ/ (you) sg /po:na:j/ /ni:mɨ/ (you pl) /po:ni:ri/
/avə:/ (she) /po:nə:/ /aʋərʊgə:/ ‘they’ /po:irnərɨ/
/po:ni:ri/
Third / ni:mɨ/ /aʋə/ /adɨ/
/po:na:/ /aʋərɨ/ (they) /po:na:rɨ/
(he/she/it)
/po:jirɨddɨ/

The markers for singular and plural forms are as follows:

/na:nɨ/ /sandƐkkƐ/ /po:n /
(I) (market) (go-past. perfect)

/na:nɨ/ /sandƐkkƐ/ /po:n / ‘I had gone to the market’

/na:mɨ/ /sandƐkkƐ/ /po:ɪnƐ:mɨ/ ‘We had gone to the market’
/ni:nɨ/ /sandƐkkɨ/ /po:nəɻ/ ‘You(sg) had gone to the market’

766
 /ni:mɨ/ /sandƐkkɨ/ /po:nirɻ/ ‘You(pl) had gone to the market’
/a:v / /sandƐkkɨ/ /po:n / ‘He had gone to the market’
/aʋə:/ /sandƐkkɨ/ /po:nə:/ ‘She had gone to the market’
/adɨ/ /sandƐkkƐ/ /po:ɪttɨ/ ‘It had gone to the market’
/aʋərʊgə:/ /sandƐkkɨ/ /po:irnərɨ/ ‘They had gone to the market’

Future Perfective Aspect

Person Singular Verb form Plural Verb form

/na:nɨ/ (I) /po:irpƐ:mɨ/ /na:mɨ/ (we) /po:irpƐ:mɨ/
First
/na:nɨ (I) /po:nɛ͂/ /na:mɨ/ (we) /po:ne:mɨ/
/na:nɨ/ (you) sg /po:irpi:/ /ni:nɨ/ (you pl) /po:irpirɻ/
Second
/ni:nɨ/ (you) sg /po:na:j/ /ni:mɨ/ (you pl) /po:ni:ri/
/avə:/ (she) /po:irppə:/ /aʋərʊgə:/ ‘they’ /po:irppə:rɨ/
/po:ni:ri/
Third / ni:mɨ/ /aʋə/ /adɨ/
/po:na:/ /aʋərɨ/ (they) /po:na:rɨ/
(he/she/it)
/po:jirɨddɨ/

The markers for singular and plural forms are as follows:

/ nanə cat̪t̪eku poitiɳɟitikku /

(I) (market) (go - fut. perfect)

Examples:

/na:nɨ/ /sandƐkkɨ/ /po:irpƐ:mɨ/ ‘I shall have gone to the market’

/na:mɨ/ /sandƐkkɨ/ /po:irpƐ:mɨ/ ‘We will have gone to the market’
‘You(sg) will have gone to the
/ni:nɨ/ /sandƐkkɨ/ /po:irpi:/
market’
‘You(pl) will have gone to the
/ni:mɨ/ /sandƐkkɨ/ /po:irpirɻ/
market’
/a:ʋ / /sandƐkkɨ/ /po:irpp / ‘He will have gone to the market’
/aʋə:/ /sandƐkkɨ/ /po:irppə:/ ‘She will have gone to the market’
/adɨ/ /sandƐkkƐ/ /po:irkkɨ/ ‘It will have gone to the market’
/aʋərɨ/ /sandƐkkɨ/ /po:irppə:rɨ/ ‘They will have gone to the market’

iii) Habitual Aspect

Habitual aspect is used to describe actions that occur repeatedly or habitually over a
period of time. It is important in communication because it helps to describe ongoing or
repeated actions that are important in everyday life.

767
Present Habitual Aspect:
The finite verb ends with /–kũ/

Examples-

/po:dɨ/ /kƐlʊkəɖƐ:/ /molƐkkũ/ The sun rises in the east

/adʊgə:/ /toʈʈəttiɻ/ /mƐ:həkkɨ/
It goes to the garden for grazing at 10 o'clock
/pattʊmanikkɨ/ /po:kũ/

Past Habitual Aspect:

The finite verb ends with /- kƐ:-+ personal marker/
Examples-

/na:mɨ/ /dinə:lɨ/ /ma:ɖʊkalli:/ /pa:lɨ/ /kərəkkƐ:mɨ/ We milk the cows everyday

/na:nɨ//eppʊmƐ://ombodʊmanikkɨ//a:piʃkɨ/
I used to go to office at 9 o'clock
/po:kƐ:mɨ/
/ni:mɨ/ /eppʊmƐ:/ /ombodʊmanikkɨ/ /a:piʃkɨ/
You(pl) used to go to shop at 9 o'clock
/po:ʋirɻ/
/na:mɨ//eppʊmƐ://ombodʊmanikkɨ//a:piʃkɨ/ We used to go to market (bazaar) at 9
po:kƐ:mɨ/ o'clock
/aʋ / /eppʊmƐ:/ /ombodʊmanikkɨ/ /sandƐkkɨ/
He used to go to office at 9 o'clock
/po:ʋ /
/aʋə:/ /eppʊmƐ:/ /ombodʊmanikkɨ/ /a:piʃkɨ/
She used to go to office at 9 o'clock
/po:ʋə:/
/aʋərʊgə:/ /eppʊmƐ:/ /ombodʊmanikkɨ/ /a:piʃkƐ/
They used to go to office at 9 o'clock
/po:gə:rʊgə:/

Mood
Mood is one of a set of distinctive forms that are used to signal modality. The mode
or manner of a speaker is expressed by mood. It incorporates a statement, a command, a
question, a doubt etc. From the given data we have following types of moods in the Urali
language which are presented below:

i) Indicative Mood

Most verbs in this language used are in indicative mood, which indicates the action.

/na:nɨ/ (I) /iddi:/(here) /ʋarʊh / (come)/ ‘I come here’.

/ma:ɖʊgə:/ (The cows)/pa:lɨ/(milk) /targʊdɨ/ (give) ‘The cows give milk’.
/ba:mbɨ/ /adipo:hʊdɨ/ ‘Snake goes there’
/na:nɨ/ (I) /kuriʋinəi/ (bird)/ pa:kke:/ /(see) ‘I see the bird’.
/na:jxə/ (the dog) /kɔrikkɨdɨ/ (barks)/ ‘The dog barks’.
/addi// (There) / rəndɨ/ ( two) /ma:dɨxə/ (cows)’ ‘There are two cows’

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iii) Imperative Mood

Verb in the imperative mood denotes command or request. This mood always occurs
with second person. Though it is not present in the sentence but the sense must be there and
it is always understood that it denotes the second person. For example:

/palliguɖ / /pakkəttɪɻ/ /ʋə:/ ‘(you) Come near the school’.

/ni:r/ /eɖʊttʊnɨ/ /ʋə:/ ‘(you)Bring some water’
/gi:ɖɖɨ/ /ʊkkə:/ ‘(you) Sit down’.
/paɭɭi/ (the school)’ /əkkəttili/ (near) /ʋa:/ (come)/ (you)‘Come near the school’.
/i:/(I) /bɨʃəxəttəi/ (book) /padi/ (read) ‘(you) Read this book’
/ki:ʈʈɨ// (down) /ukka:/ (Sit) ‘(you) Sit down’

iii) Subjunctive Mood

In the subjunctive mood, the sense is to suppose or desire an action.

/oruʋƐ:lə/ /rəilɨ//məlləʋndəni//na:mɨ//adƐnəpo:ji/ /piɖʊdrɨil/

‘If the train is late we may catch it’
/ka:ʋəɻkər /( If the police) /ʋandʊrdəani/( comes then) /tirʊɖƐnƐpɪɖʊdɪrpp / (the thief
will be caught)
‘If the police comes then the thief will be caught’ (I,2)
/kaʃɖama:j/ (if works hard) /ni:/(then) /aʋɛ͂/(he) / ɟejibbe/ (will succeed)/
‘If he works hard he will succeed’.

iv) Optative Mood

The optative mood expresses a desire, wish, permission or request in a sentence

which is expressed in following way in Urali.

/avərɨ/ (them) /ellə:rʊmƐ:/(all) /ʋərʊkilə:/ ‘Let come’/‘Let them all come’

/aʋərɨgə/ (them) /ella:me/ (all) ʋarikila:/ (let come) ‘Let them all come’.

v) Compulsive Mood

The compulsion on the part of the subject is expressed in compulsive mood. In Urali
language the examples of compulsive mood are:

/ellə:rʊmƐ:/ /i:ku:ʈʈəttʊkkɨ/ /ʋərʊkonũ/

‘Everybody has to come for the meeting’.
/na:nɨ/(I) /ninnənƐ:/ (you)/ʋərgiə:sonn / ‘told come’
‘I told you to come’
/aʋɛ͂//(he) /orɨ/ /pʃtəkəddəi/ (a book) / elɨdɨgo:nɨ/ ( should write).
‘He should write a book’

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vi) Potential Mood

The potential action is expressed in potential mood. In this language the example of
Potential mood is:
/na:nɨ/(I) /ʋarʊg / (may come) ‘I may come’.
/aʋ /(he) /kurʊʋɪnɨ/(bird) /kollʊkilə:/ (may kill) ‘He may kill the bird’.
/na:nɨ/ (I) / ʋarɨkila:/ (may come)/ /na:nɨ//ʋarɨkila:/ ‘I may come’
/aʋɛ͂/(he) /parəkka:/ (bird) /ɟa:tinəi/ /kollɨkila:/ (may kill) ‘He may kill the bird’.

vii) Conditional Mood

When the completion of one verbal action is conditioned by another verb that
particular manner of expression is called as Conditional modal category. In this mood two
verbal actions are involved simultaneously. The following are the examples of conditional
moods in Urali language:

/oruʋƐ:lə/ /aʋ / /kasʈəppəʈʈɨ/ /ʋeləseidəni/ /aʋ / /ɟeipp /

‘If he works hard he will succeed’
/oruʋƐ:lə/ /ni:nɨ/ /serijanənƐrədilʋandəni/ /na:mu:/ /adƐnə/ /seripannikilə:m/
‘If you come in time we will examine this’.
/rəjilɨ/ /ma:lla:/ /ʋən̪də/ /adənəi/ /bɨdɨttirkila:/
‘If the train is late we may catch it’.
/ni:/ /se:rija:na//ne:rtti/ /ʋan̪də/ /bənddarɛ/ /saripa:kkila/ /cəkkuma:ɖi/ /iðne:/
‘If you come in time we will examine this’.
/urɨsala://ni:nɨ//se:rija:na//ne:rtti//ʋan̪də//ni://na:mɨ//iðne://saripa:kkila:/

4.4.iv Non-finite

Verbal Noun

A verbal noun is formed by adding a noun suffix to a verb.

Here the process is: Verb + noun forming suffix = Noun (verbal Noun) [√ + non-finite
marker]

/koʈʈʊ/ ’fall’ + -kƐ:lƐ = /koʈʈʊkƐ:lƐ/ ‘Falling’

/o:ɖʊ / ‘run’ + -gʊdɨ =/o:ɖʊgʊdɨ/ ‘running’
/o:duxaðɨ/ ‘to run’ + aðɨ = /o:duxaðɨ / ‘running’
/kɔrɛkkadɨ/ ’to bark’ + ɛja: = /kure:ka:/ ‘barking’

Infinitives

An infinitive form is to + the verb. Some verbs can take either the gerund or the
infinitive with no loss of meaning.

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Examples:

/ra:m / /kɪrʃnə/ /ʋərgəsonn / /a:nə:/ /kɪrʃnənʊkkɨ/ /ne:ramɪllƐ:/

‘Rama asked Krishna to come but Krishna has no time’
/na:nɨ/ /eppʊmƐ:/ /ombodʊmanikkɨ/ /a:piʃkɨ/ /po:kƐ:mɨ/
‘I used to go to office at 9 o'clock’
/aʋə:/ /eppʊmƐ:/ /ombodʊmanikkɨ/ /a:piʃkɨ/ /po:ʋə:/
‘She used to go to office at 9 o'clock’

Gerund

Gerunds and infinitives are forms of verbs that act like nouns. They can follow
adjectives and other verbs. Since it is a kind of noun, it may be the subject or object to some
verb.

Examples:
/kuɖʊrƐ:/ /ʋeʃƐɻ/ /o:ɖʊgʊdɨ/ ‘Running is done by the horse’
/korƐkkƐ:/ /na:ji/ /kaɖɪkkəmə:ɖttɨ/ ‘Barking is being done by a dog’
/aʋ / /iddi:/ /ʋarʊh / ‘He is coming here’
/aʋɛ͂//eppɨme://senɖa:dɨxa:kkɨ//pirijə//pədɨxɛ͂/
‘He is fond of playing cricket’
/na:nɨ//orɨ//pa:dɨxa://parəkka://ɟa:tine://ʋa:ŋgindɨ//ʋən̪te:/
‘I bought a singing bird’
/mi:sə/ /pələkɨkədɨ/ /nəllədɨ/ ‘Swimmimg is good for health’

Participles

A participle is a word that shares some characteristics of both verbs and adjectives. It
is also called verbal adjective. A participle is a word formed from a verb that can function as
part of a verb phrase.
Examples:
/koʈʈinəpommʊnɨ/ ‘fallen fruits’
/accʊʋƐttəbʊttah / ‘Printed books’
/aʋə:/ /koʈʈinəpommʊnɨ/ /pƐrʊkkʊhə:/ ‘She collected the fallen fruits’
/accʊʋƐttəbʊttah / /paɖɪkkə:kkɨ/ /səʋrij / ‘Printed books are easy to read’
/bammɨne:/ /porikkina:/ ‘fallen fruits’
/accɨ/ /ʋettə/ /pɨʃdəxəttəi/ ‘Printed books’
/aʋɑ͂/ /kəʈʈinə/ /bammɨne:/ /porikkina:/ ‘She collected the fallen fruits’
/accɨ/ /ʋettə/ /pɨʃdəxəttəi/ /padika:kkɨ/ /səʋɨrija:/
‘Printed books are easy to read’
2.4.v Negation

Negation is used to express the opposite or absence of something. It is achieved

through the use of negative words such as “no”, “not”, “never” etc. It can be expressed in a

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variety of ways, depending on the language and the context. In Urali, negative verbs are
realized mostly by particles like /lƐ/ /lə/ /dɨ/
Examples:
/aʋ / /ʋe:lƐnɨ/ /pannɪnallƐ/ ‘He did not do the work’
/ɪdu:/ /idirgəkku:ɖə:dɨ/ ‘You(sg) must not remain here’
/aʋərdʊna:lƐ/ /ɪdʊ/ /muɖijə:dɨ/ ‘They cannot do it’
/iʋƐhə:/ /nallə/ /ʋa:rdƐhəlallə/ ‘These are not good words’
/a:mənʊʃ / /ɪnnʊmɨ/ /ʋandƐlƐ:/ ‘That man has not come yet’
/ɪdɨ/ /muɖihƐlƐ:/ ‘It is impossible’
/aʋɛ͂//ʋe:le://sejte:le:/ ‘He did not do the work’
/idɨ//iddi//irɨkka//ku:ɖa:dɨ/ ‘You(sg) must not remain here’
/nannə//ʋəli//edɨme://ile:/ ‘I have nothing with me’
/saddeki//maɳigaɳɖa/ ‘Do not speak loudly’
/idɨ//mudija:dɨ/ ‘It is impossible’

2.4.vi Causation

A causative is a grammatical or lexical indication of the causal role of a referent in

relation to an event or state expressed by a verb. Examples of causatives verbs in Urali are
given below.
/na:nɨ/ /pullƐkkɨ/ /pʊʈʈʊdɪttɪn / ‘I feed the baby
/na:nɨ/ /kudʊrƐnɨ/ /o:ʈʈɪnƐ/ ‘I am making the horse run’
/na:nɨ/ ʤanəddʊnɨ/ /neʋsɪnƐ/ ‘I make the people laugh’
/na:nɨ/ /ɟənəgaləi/ /ngɨgəʋəitte:n/ ‘I make the people laugh’.
/na:nɨ/ /kudɨre:ne/ /o:ɖaʋekkɛ/ ‘I am making the horse run’
/na:nɨ//ʋe:le//ka:rərikale://ʋe:ttɨ//na:nɨ//ʋəjli//ʋe:le//se:ʋicine:/
‘I make the servant work in the field’

2.6 Adverb

Adverb qualifies or describes a verb, an adjective or another adverb. It provides

information about the manner, time, frequency, degree, and place described by the verb.
Following are a few examples the data collected.
/mallə:/ (slowly) /mani:/(speak)/ ‘Speak slowly’.
/ʋa:rttƐnƐ:/ (words) /arməkkə:/ (neatly) /elʊdɨhə/(write)/ ‘Write the words neatly’.
/mallə/ (slowly) /maɳi/ (speak) ‘Speak slowly’.
/arɨma:kkə/ (words) / ʋa:rtte:ne:/ (neatly) /elɨdɨ/ (write)/ ‘Write the words neatly’

In the above sentences the adverbs are /mallə:/ ‘slowly’ /mallə / ‘slowly’ and
/arməkkə:/ ‘neatly’ /ʋa:rtte:ne:/ ‘neatly’ .
In this language adverbs occur before the verb. Here we have following three types
of adverbs.

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Adverb of Time

The time adverbials precede the verb. For example

/na:lƐndɨ/ ‘tommorw’
/nə:jddɨ/ ‘yesterday’
/o:rəka:/ ‘tomorrow
/na:jittɨ/ ‘yesterday’

Adverb of Place:

Place adverbials also precede the verb. /iddi:/ ‘here’ and /itti/ ‘here’ , for
example, are adverbs of place.
/iddi:/ (here) /ʋarʊh / (come) ‘come here’
/itti/ (here) /ʋaruke:/ (come) ‘come here’

Adverb of Manner:

Like all other adverbs this type also occurs before the verb. For example:
/mallə:/ (slowly) /mani:/ (speak)/ ‘Speak slowly’
/ʋa:rttƐnƐ:/ (words) /arməkkə:/ (neatly) /elʊdɨhə/ (write)/‘Write the words neatly’

Here the adverb of Manner is /mellӕ/ ‘slowly’ and /ulʈaitə/ ‘neatly’

/mallə/ (slowly) /maɳi/ (speak) ‘Speak slowly’
/arɨma:kkə/ (words) / ʋa:rtte:ne:/ (neatly) /elɨdɨ/ (write)/ ‘Write the words neatly’

Here the adverb of Manner is /mallə/ ‘slowly’ and / ʋa:rtte:ne:/ ‘neatly’

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 4. SYNTAX

The Syntax is the study of the principles and rules for constructing phrases and
sentences in languages and rules governing the order of combining the words to form
sentences in a language. A syntactic category is a set of words and/or phrases (as
constituents) in a language that share a significant number of common characteristics. The
classification is based on similar structure and sameness of distribution (the structural
relationships between these elements and other items in a larger grammatical structure), and
not on meaning.

.3.1. Word-order

Word order typology is the study of the order of the syntactic constituents of a
language. The primary word order that is of interest is the relative ordering of subject, object,
and verb in a sentence. The Word order in Urali is of SOV (subject-object-verb) pattern.
Examples:
/na:nɨ kurɨvijə pa:kk / ‘I see the bird’
I bird see
/av kurʊvijə pa:kkƐ:/ ‘He sees the bird’
He the bird see
/nannə/ /ku:rƐkkƐ:/(to house) /ʋə:/ (come) / ‘Come to my house’
(My)
/na:mɨ/ (we) /adi/ (there) /po:hƐmɨ/ (go)/ ‘We go there’

/ammə:/ (boy) /ʋɨhʊdɨ/ (falls)/ ‘The boy falls.’

/na:nɨ/ (I) /kuriʋinəi/ (bird) /pa:kke:/ (see) ‘I see the bird’.

/aʋə/ (he) /kuriʋinəi/ (the bird) /pa:kkə/ (see) ‘He sees the bird’

/nannə/ (my) /ku:rɛkkɛ/ (to house) /ʋa:/ (come) ‘Come to my house’

/na:mɨ/ (we) /addi/ (there) /po:ge:mɨ/ (go) ‘We go there’

/amma:/ /ʋɨ:kudɨ/ ‘The boy falls.’

3.2. Types of Sentences

A sentence is a grammatical unit that is composed of one or more clauses and it is a

string of words that expresses a complete thought broadly consisting of a subject and a
predicate. In Urali the basic types of sentences (i.e. – Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative
and Exclamatory) are broadly grouped into two classes. They are-

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 • Major Sentences (having fuller Syntactic units)-
These sentences in Urali can be classified into three as follows:
i. Simple Sentence
ii. Complex Sentence
iii. Compound Sentence

3.2. i. Simple Sentence

The simple sentence consists of a subject and a predicate. It is a sentence structure

that contains one independent clause and no dependent clauses. (It can be classified into two
types- i) Nominal types of Sentences and ii) Verbal types of sentences)
Examples :
/na:nɨ/ (I) /kurɨvijə/ (bird) /pa:kk / (see)/ ‘I see the bird’
/na:nɨ (I) /ɔɖƐ:/ (bread) /tɪŋgƐ:/ (eat)/ ‘I eat bread’
/na:jgə:/ (the dog) /kurakkinə:/ (barks)/ ‘The dog barks’
/na:nɨ/ (I) /kuriʋinəi/ (bird) /pa:kke:/ (see) ‘I see the bird’
/na:nɨ /(I) /o͂ɖəi/ (bread) /tin̪dɨn̪rɨkkɛ/ (eat) ‘I eat bread’
/na:jxə/ (dog) /kɔrikkɨdɨ/ (barks) ‘The dog barks’

The predicate may be a finite intransitive or transitive verb. The most common
simple sentence, however, consists of a nominative subject and a finite verb as predicate.
For example:
/na:nɨ/ (I) /iddi:/ (here) /ʋarʊh / (come)/ ‘I come here’

3.2. ii. Compound Sentence

A compound sentence is a sentence composed of two or more coordinate clauses. In

Urali, the connectives used are /a:nə:/ ‘but’ /ɪnnʊmɨ/ ‘yet’ etc.
Examples:
and - /nannə:/ /aɳɳƐndəmbi:/ /akkƐdaŋkƐ:/ /ku:rƐiɻ/ /irukk /
‘My brothers and sisters are in the house.
and - /pu:nƐ:mna:jdɨ/ /ɪrʊkkʊdɨ/ ‘Here is a cat and a dog’.
and - /nənna:/ /tambimɨ/ /taŋge:mu/ /nənna:/ /ku:re:li/ /irukka:rɨ/
‘My brothers and sisters are going to the house’.
and - /bu:ne:mɨ/ /na:jimɨ/ /itti/ /irɨkkɨdɨ/ ‘Here is a cat and a dog’.
but- /ra:m / /kɪrʃnə/ /ʋərgəsonn / /a:nə:/ /kɪrʃnənʊkkɨ/ /ne:ramɪllƐ:/
‘Rama asked Krishna to come but Krishna has no time’
but- /na:nɨ/ /na:ttʊʋəndʊrp / /na:nnʊməɪkʃƐrɪillədʊpohə:ʈʈi/ /ʋandƐl /
‘I would have come yesterday but due to my ill health I did not come’
But- /ra:mə/ /kirɨsunəne:/ /ʋarɨkə/ /sonnə/ /a:na:/ /kirɨsunənɨkkɨ/ /ne:ramille:/
‘Rama asked Krishna to come but Krishna has no time’
but-/na:tte://na:nɨ//ʋan̪dɨrippe://a:na://nanna://siʋənɨkkɨ//sərilile://na:nɨ/
/ʋən̪te:le:/
‘I would have come yesterday but due to my ill health I did not come’

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 yet- /a:mənʊʃ / /ɪnnʊmɨ/ /ʋandƐlƐ:/ ‘That man has not come yet.’

so- /nannə:/ /mi:nʊʋe:lƐ:/ /illƐ:/ /na:ngƐrƐkkə/ /poɪnƐlƐ/

‘I could not find my net so I did not go today’
So-/nanna://na:le://mi:nɨ//ʋe:lene://kaɳdɨbɨdikka:kɨ//mɨdɨte:le/ /na:nɨ/ /gere:kke/
/po:ne:le:/
‘I could not find my fishing net so I did not go to the river today
otherwise - /ni:nɨ/ /panəttʊnƐ/ /tɪrkɪʃdəndənɪl/ /ni:naɖiʋa:ŋgʊʋɪɻ/
‘You return the money otherwise you will get a beating’
otherwise - /ni:nɨ/ /panətte/ /tirikisita:/ /ile:ɳɖani/ /ni:nɨ/ /adi/ /ʋa:ŋguʋi/
‘You return the money otherwise you will get a beating’
hence- /namkkʊ/ /ʋɔ:nʊŋaləʋʊkkɨ/ /ma:jellƐ:/ /pɪhərʊsƐrɪlƐ:/
‘We did not receive the rain sufficiently hence the crops are not good’

3.2. iii. Complex Sentence

A sentence having one principal clause followed by one or more subordinate clause
(s) is known as a complex sentence. The independent clause can stand alone.
Examples:
/kasʈəppəʈʈɨ/ (hard) /oruʋƐ:lə/ (to do) /ʋeləseidəni/ (if work) /aʋ / (he) /ɟeipp / (will
succeed)/ ‘If he works hard he will succeed’.

In the above sentence principal clause is/aʋ / /ɟeipp / ‘he will succeed’ joined by the
complex marker /- seidəni/ ‘if’ with the subordinate clause/kasʈəppəʈʈɨ/ /ʋeləseidəni/
/ni:nɨɟeipp / ‘if you work hard’.
/kaʃɖama:j/ (hard) /ʋe:ləi/ /səjita/ (If he works) /aʋɛ͂/ /ɟejibbe/ (he will succeed)
‘If he works hard he will succeed’.

In the above sentence principal clause is /ɟejibbe/ ‘he will succeed’ joined by the
complex marker /bbe/ ‘if’ with the subordinate clause/ kaʃɖama:j/ /ʋe:ləi / /ni:/ /səjita/ if you
work hard’.
Examples:
/na:n/ (I am) /oruʋƐ:lə/ /arməkkirdəniɻ/ (if well) /na:n/ (I) /orakkə:/ (tommorrow)
/ʋəndʊrʋ / (will come)/ /na:n/ /ʋəndʊrʋ /
‘If I am well I will come tomorrow’

Here, the principal clause /na:n /orakkə:/ /ʋəndʊrʋ // ‘I will come tomorrow’ is joined
by the complex marker /kirdəniɻ/ with the subordinate clause /na:n/ /arməkkirdəniɻ/ ‘If I am
well’.
/na:nɨ/ (I) /aruma:kka:/ /(if well) /irɨðə/ (am) /o:ra:kka:/ (tomorrow) /ʋərɨke:/(will
come)/ ‘If I am well I will come tomorrow’

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 Here, the principal clause /na:nɨ/ /o:ra:kka:/ /ʋərɨke:/ ‘I will come tomorrow’ is joined
by the complex marker /-dini/ with the subordinate clause /na:nɨ/ /aruma:kka:/ /irɨðə/ ‘If I
am well’.

Sentences in Urali can further be sub-classified into

i. Statement Sentence
ii. Interrogative Sentence
iii. Negative Sentence
iv. Imperative Sentence
v. Passive Sentence
vi. Causative Sentence
vii. Relative Sentences
viii. Co-ordinative Sentences
ix. Purposive Sentence
x. Potential Sentence
xi. Conditional Sentence

i) Statement Sentence: The sentence which affirms a statement.

Ex.
/na:nɨ/ /kurɨvijə/ /pa:kk / ‘I see the bird’
/na:nɨ/ /kuriʋinəi/ /pa:kke:/ ‘I see the bird’

ii) Interrogative Sentence: The sentence which indicates a question.

Ex.
/ni:nɨ/ /ennəttƐ/ /tiŋgəɻ/ ‘What do you eat ?’
/ni:nɨ//enna//tiŋga:j/ ‘What do you eat ?’

iii) Negative Sentence: The sentence which expresses the negation are called so.

/ɪdɨ/ /aɖigƐ/ /pannʊkə:kkʊ/ /a:helƐ/ ‘This is not eatable’

/iʋƐhə:/ /nallə/ /ʋa:rdƐhəlallə/ ‘These are not good words’
/idɨ/ /adike:/ /pannɨka:kkɨ/ /sərille:/ ‘This is not edible’
/iʋe:ga/ /arɨma:n̪tə/ /ʋa:tte:xa:ille:/ ‘These are not good words’

iv) Imperative Sentence: The sentence which implies a request, a command, an advice
etc.
Ex.
/ninnə:/ /mahəlƐ:/ /leji:/ ‘Call your daughter’
/gi:ɖɖɨ/ /ʊkkə:/ ‘(you) Sit down’.
/nimma/ /maxəle:/ /lɛjʋi:/ ‘Call your daughter’
/ki:ʈʈɨ/ /ukka:/ ‘(you) Sit down’

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v) Passive Sentence: The sentence in which the subject of the sentence is not the doer of
the action, but rather the receiver of the action. Passive voice is used to shift the focus
of a sentence from person or thing performing the action to the person or thing thart is
affected by the recipient. In Urali, the passive formation is absent like other Dravidian
languages and the active verb plays the role.

/ɔɖƐnƐ:/ /na:nƐ:tɪndʊɳʈrkk / ‘Bread is being eaten by me’

/bʊʃdəg / /aʋƐnƐ:/ /paɖʊttʊɳʈrg / ‘The book was being read by him’
/na:mɨ/ /nannəne:/ /tiŋgəpadɨkudɨ/ ‘Bread is being eaten by me’
/bukkɨ/ /aʋəntirta:/ /padɨtədɨ/ ‘The book was being read by him’

vi) Causative Sentence: The causative sentences are formed by suffixing causative marker
to the verb which varies according to the person. When the subject causes some agent
to do the action we get causative sentence.
/na:nɨ/ /kudʊrƐnɨ/ /o:ʈʈɪnƐ/ ‘I am making the horse run’
/na:nɨ/ /ɟənəgaləi/ /ngɨgəʋəitte:n/ ‘I make the people laugh’
/na:nɨ/ /kudɨre:ne/ /o:ɖaʋekkɛ/ ‘I am making the horse run’

vii) Relative Sentence: That gives more information about the subject noun in the
sentence.
/ninnu:ɖə mənut̪ə ponnu ja:ɾuintə ani təŋkə/ (‘The woman who talked to you is my
sister’)
/ive: na:nu na:it̪u pa:t̪tə̪ mənusə/ (‘This is the man whom I met yesterday’)
/i: na:iji: amma:t̪une: kuɖut̪uɾukku/ (‘This is the dog that bit the boy’)
/na:ijit̪u sɾɖu viɖɖupo:nə mənusə ive:nte:n/ (‘This is the man whose shirt was stolen
last night’)
/a: eɖətile:kə ma:ɖu me:kut̪u/ (‘That is the place where the cows graze’)

viii) Purposive Sentence: The sentence which expresses a purpose.

Ex.
/a:/ /kudʊrƐ:nɨ/ /ma:rʊgonũ/ ‘That horse is to be sold’
/a:/ /ku:dɨrene:/ /ma:rɔnɨ/ ‘That horse is to be sold’

ix) Potential Sentence : When the potentiality is expressed in a sentence, it thus called.
Ex.
/na:nɨ/ /ʋarʊg / ‘I may come’
/na:nɨ/ /ʋarɨkila:/ ‘I may come’

x) Conditional Sentence: When two actions are conditioned by each other in a single
sentence.
/kudʊrƐkkɨ/ /rƐkɪrdəni/ /aʋƐgəlũ/ /parəndɪrbɪnə:/
‘If horses had wings they would have flown’

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 /kudɨrikkɨ/ /rəkke:/ /irɨdɨtəni//aʋɛ/ /parən̪tirikkila:/
‘If horses had wings they would have flown’

3.3. Structure of Phrases

A phrase is a syntactic structure that consists of more than one word but lacks
the subject-predicate organization of a clause. The phrasal sub-division in Urali is as follows

3.3.i. Noun Phrase

A noun phrase or nominal phrase, (NP) combines with other words in a noun phrase,
optionally accompanied by modifiers like adjectives and intensifiers.
Examples:
/nannəpe:rɨ/ /na:rə:in / ‘My name is Narayan’
/arməndə/ /makkə:/ ‘The good boys’
/ninnә/ /ku:rƐ:/ ‘Your (sg) house.’
/nannə/ /pe:rɨ/ /na:ra:janə/ ‘My name is Narayan’
/arumən̪da:/ /məkka:/ ‘The good boys’
/nannə/ /ku:re:/ ‘Your (sg) house.’

3.3.ii. Verb Phrase

A verb phrase (VP) is a phrase that has the syntactic role of a simple verb, and is
composed of a main verb and auxiliary verbs or verbal particles related syntactically to the
verb. In generative grammar, a verb phrase is a syntactic unit that corresponds to
the predicate. In addition to the verb, this includes auxiliaries, objects, object complements,
and other constituents apart from the subject. These are inflected for person, number and
gender. The predicate may be a finite intransitive or transitive verb.

Examples:
/na:nɨ/ /ɔɖƐ:/ /tɪŋgƐ:/ ‘I eat bread’
/aʋ / /puttəh / /paɖikk / ‘He reads a book’
/po:dɨ/ /kƐlʊkəɖƐ:/ /molƐkkũ/ ‘The sun rises in the east’.
/na:nɨ/ /o͂ɖəi/ /tin̪dɨn̪rɨkkɛ/ ‘I eat bread’
/aʋɛ͂/ /bɨʃdaxa/ /padikkə/ ‘He reads a book’
/po:dɨ/ /kelɨgade/ /mɔləkkidɨ/ ‘The sun rises in the east’.

3.3.iii. Postpositional phrases

A postposition is an addposition that occurs after its complement. An adpositional

phrase is a syntactic category that includes prepositional phrases (PP) and postpositional
phrases (PSP). Here the postposition is in the head position and usually a complement such
as a noun phrase follows it.
Examples:
/kuɖʊrƐ:/ /ʋeʃƐɻ/ /o:ɖʊgʊdɨ/ ‘Running is done by the horse’

779
 /bʊkkɨ/ /me:ɟəkaɖʊtrə:/ /irukkʊdɨ/ ‘The book is below the table’
/kudɨre:/ /pe:sija:/ /o:dɨkɨdɨ/ ‘Running is done by the horse’
/buʃtaxə/ /mɛɟəkkɨ/ /kɨʈʈɨ/ /irɨkkɨdɨ/ ‘The book is below the table’
3.3.iv. Adjectival Phrase

In an adjectival phrase, the adjective acts as the head of the phrase. An adjectival
phrase consists of an adjective followed by a noun, intensifiers or adverbs followed by
adjective and noun, thereby making the structure more complex.
Examples:
/arməndə/ /mə:/ ‘The good boy’
/nimmә:/ /rəɳɖɨ:/ /bʊkkʊhә:/ ‘Two books of yours’
/arumən̪təma:/ ‘The good boy’
/nimmərəɳdɨ/ /pukkuxə/ ‘Two books of yours’

3.3.v. Adverbial Phrase

An adverb is a lexical category whose members have the same syntactic distribution
and which modifies adjectives, other adverbs, verbs, or whole clauses or sentences. An
adverb phrase has an adverb that complements the verb.
Examples:
/səddilədƐ:/ /manɪkkə/ /ʋə:ɳɖə:/ ‘Do not speak loudly’
/mallə:/ /mani:/ ‘Speak slowly’
/ʋa:rttƐnƐ:/ /arməkkə:/ /elʊdɨhə/ ‘Write the words neatly’
/saddeki/ /maɳigaɳɖa/ ‘Do not speak loudly’
/mallə/ /maɳi/ ‘Speak slowly’
/ʋa:rtte:ne:/ /arɨma:kkə/ /elɨdɨ/ ‘Write the words neatly’

3.4. Passivization

Passivization indicates that the subject is the patient or recipient of the action denoted
by the verb. A passive sentence is created from an active sentence by i) bringing object to the
subject position ii) putting subject to the object position iii) adding ‘by’ iv) changing the verb
form to its participle form. In Urali, the passive formation is absent like other Dravidian
languages and the active verb plays the role.
Examples:
/ɔdƐnƐ:/ /aʋənƐtindʊʈʈ / ‘The bread is eaten by him’
/bʊʃdəg / /aʋƐnƐ:/ /paɖʊttʊɳʈrg / ‘The book was being read by him’
/ɔɖƐnƐ:/ /na:nƐ:tɪndʊɳʈrkk / ‘Bread is being eaten by me’
/pan / /ʃərgərdɪɻ/ /ƐlƐgəlʊkkɨ/ /targə:rũ/
‘Money was given by the government to the poor’
/pan / /nannana:li/ /eɖʊttaɖɨ/ ‘The money has been taken by me’
/nimmə/ /ko:ʈʈɨ/ /kɔllin̪dɨ/ /irɨkka:rɨ/ ‘Your coat is being stitched’
/o:ɖe:/ /aʋəna:kə/ /tinɖa:dɨ/ ‘The bread is eaten by him’
/bukkɨ/ /aʋəntirta:/ /padɨtədɨ/ ‘The book was being read by him’
/na:mɨ/ /nannəne:/ /tiŋgəpadɨkudɨ/ ‘Bread is being eaten by me’

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 /pənə/ /sərka:irɨtə/ /eləikkɨ/ /tan̪tədɨ/
‘Money was given by the government to the poor’
/panə/ /nənnə/ /na:le:/ /edɨtta:dɨ/ ‘The money has been taken by me’

3.5. Negation
Negation is a morpho-syntactic operation in which a lexical item denies or inverts the
meaning of another lexical item or construction. In an ordered sentence the negative element
comes with the verb of the sentence
Examples:
/ɪdɨ/ /aɖigƐ/ /pannʊkə:kkʊ/ /a:helƐ:/ ‘This is not edible’
/aʋ / /ʋe:lƐnɨ/ /pannɪnallƐ/ ‘He did not do the work ‘
/aʋərdʊna:lƐ ɪdʊ muɖijə:dɨ/ ‘They cannot do it’
/ɪdɨ muɖihƐlƐ:/ ‘It is impossible’
/iʋƐhə: nallə ʋa:rdƐhəlallə/ ‘These are not good words’
/aʋɛ͂ ʋe:le: sejte:le:/ ‘He did not do the work’
/aʋərdɨna:le: idɨ mudija:dɨ/ ‘They cannot do it’
/idɨ mudija:dɨ/ ‘It is impossible’

3.6. Causativization

The causative sentences are formed by suffixing causative marker to the verb which
varies according to the person. Causative indicates that a subject causes someone or
something else to do or be something.
Examples:
/na:nɨ kudʊrƐnɨ o:ʈʈɪnƐ/ ‘I am making the horse run’

/ra:m / /kɪrʃnə/ /ʋərgəsonn / /a:nə:/ /kɪrʃnənʊkkɨ/ /ne:ramɪllƐ:/

‘Rama asked Krishna to come but Krishna had no time’.

/na:nɨ/ /kudɨre:ne/ /o:ɖaʋekkɛ/ ‘I am making the horse run’

/na:nɨ/ /ɟənəgaləi/ /ngɨgəʋəitte:n/ ‘I make the people laugh’

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 5. TEXT

Two friends ramu and shyamu walked through a forest.

/raɳɖṫ ɟo:ɖikararṫmṫ orṫ karaɖi. ramṫ , so:mṫ ṉdṫ raɳɖṫve:rṫ irṫṉda:rṫ ɟo:ɖixa:rarṫ avarṫ
para:ɖṫ vejilj ṉaɖṉdṫ po:na:rṫ /

They promised each other that they would remain united in case of any danger.
/ettana a:vattṫ vaṉda:nime: raɳɖṫve:r pirija:kkuɖa:dṫṉdṫ avarṫ sattijam paɳɳina:rṫ/

Once they were walking through a forest, A bear came on their way.
/avarṫ paraɖṫ vejilil ṉaɖaṉdṫ po:xa:ʈʈi orṫ karaɖi ðiɖi:rena vaṉdṫrṫttṫ/

Ramu climed a tree. Shyamu did not know how to clib a tree.
/Ra:mṫ marattikke: e:riɳɖa: so:mṫ marae:rṫxa:kkṫ telṫṉde:le:/

He told his friend “I do not know how to climb a tree please help” but ramu did not respond.
/so:mṫ ra:mane: kappa:ttṫṉdṫ ke:kka ra:mṫ adane: kaɳɖuɳɖajile:/

In fear and grief shyam lay down an the ground breathlest.

/so:mṫ kivve: mu:ccupe:ccilla:da kivve:raŋgiɳɖa/

The bear came near the man lying on the ground it amelt in his ears and slowly left the place,
because bears do not touch dead creatures.
/karaɖi usirṫ illa:tta porṫla toɖṫxale adṫ mo:ṉdṫ pa:ttṫʈʈṫ po:jirṫttṫ /

Afters the bear left ramu came down form the tree and asked his friend shyam friend what did
the bear tell you into your ears?
/ṉṫra:ŋgi vaṉdṫ ra:mu karaɖi ka:dṫkke: vettṫ enna: sollittṫ attirṫ ṉdṫ so:mṫne: ke:ʈʈa:/

Shyam replied, the bear advised me not to trust a friend who leaves you in times of trouble to
save himself.
/a:vattṫ ṉe:ra:ttṫkṫ a:xa:tta sine:daxa:ra: ava ͂ sine:daxa:rane: ille: attireṉdṫ karaɖi sollittṫ
attiriṉdṫ ra:mṫke: so:mṫ sollittṫ/

Saying this shyam walked in own way leaving ramu alone in the forest.
/attirṫṉdṫ sollittṫ ra:mumu so:mumu parp:ɖile: raɖṫ pe:rṫm tanittanija: piriṉdṫ po:xa:rṫ/

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 6. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Lal, Sam Mohan, A Desriptive Analysis of Urali (Speech of a Dravidian hill-tribe)-Central

Institute of Indian Languages -1991

E-Magazine on URALI- https://www.indianetzone.com/9/urali_tribe.htm

Saravanan, S. p (2019-06-16). "When 100-odd teachers travel nearly 8-hour to reach

school". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 2019-08-20.

Edifying inheritance of urali tribe in manethadam, Idukki

(https://ijcrt.org/papers/IJCRT1802284.pdf)

------****------

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INDO-ARYAN FAMILY
 SAURASHTRA/ SAURASHTRI

P. Edward Vedamanickam

1. INTRODUCTION

Saurashtra is one of the mother tongue under Gujarati in Scheduled languages of

India. It is an Indo-Aryan language variety spoken by the Saurashtrian community native
to Gujarat, who migrated and settled in Southern India, particularly in the Madurai district of
Tamil Nadu, India. The origin of the name dates back to the time when the ancestors of these
people inhabiting the kingdom of Saurashtra in the modern day state of Gujarat. Different
roots are suggested for the origin of the name 'Saurashtra'. 'Sou' in Hindi refers to the
number '100' and 'rashtra' refers to 'region'. So in general, Saurashtra refers to a province of
100 regions. Another possible origin of the word is: the Sanskrit term 'Saura' means 'sun'.
Since Saurashtra people built and worshipped Sun or 'Saura' God they were called as
Saurashtrians and the region they lived was naturally called as Saurashtra Province.

1.1 The Ethnic Identity

Both Saurashtra and Gujarati branched off from a common parent, and since then,
they have taken completely different paths to modernity. Saurashtra, was influenced by
Marathi, Konkani, Kannada, Telugu, and finally, Tamil.

1.2 Family Affiliation

Saurashtra is an Indo-Aryan language. influenced by the neighbouring languages like

Tamil, Tulu, Kannada, and Malayalam etc. But Saurashtra has been considered as a separate
language because of marked differences from its other counterparts. The Census of India
places the Saurashtra language under Gujarati. Official figures show the number of speakers
as 1,85,420 (2001 census). Saurashtra is classified under the Indo-European Family – Aryan
Sub Family - Indo-Aryan Branch – Inner Sub Branch Central Group.

1.3 Location

The southward flight of the Saurashtrians seems to have been triggered by the
frequent Muslim invasions. They found safe haven in the Vijayanagara Kingdom, with its
capital at Hampi in present-day Karnataka, which was then expanding southwards. It was
during this period that the Saurashtra started absorbing Telugu and Kannada words into its
lexicon. The Saurashtrians had to migrate again, since they no longer enjoyed the royal
patronage they were used to, and so, once again, were on the move. As there were
Saurashtrians already present in Madurai and Thanjavur, they migrated further south to join
their folks living there.

784
 The language would undergo one last alteration, this time influenced by Tamil, to
bring it to its modern form. Vrajlal Sapvadia consider Saurashtra language even older than
original Gujarati and mix of Gujarati, Devanagari, Marathi and Tamil.

1. 4 Religion

Regarding rituals they follow those prevalent in the Vaishnavite cult. They are called
Saurashtra Brahmins. There are purohit families in the community and they have been
performing rituals for the families from generation to generation.

1.5 Education

On educational front, Saurashtra Sabai runs five schools, arts colleges, engineering
colleges and a polytechnic college. This language is not taught in schools and hence had been
confined to being merely a spoken language.

1.6 The Script and Language

An attempt to create a script was made by one Rama Rai. But, it did not materialize
for various reasons. Devanagari or Tamil script is used by many Saurashtrian people. Now
the Saurashtra font is available in computers and this enabled the supporters of Saurashtra
Script to print books in its own script. An electronic journal, printed in the Saurashtra Script,
Vishwa Sourashtram is started at http://sourashtra.info. Another website
http://palkarblogs.com is available for practicing the Saurashtra Script. a journal, namely,
Bhashabhimani, is published from Madurai, in Saurashtra Script. Another journal, 'Jaabaali',
is also published by the same Editor of Bhashabhimani from Madurai. The 'Zeeg' Saurashtra
script practice Magazine is also published from Madurai. All the three journals support the
Saurashtra script only.

In practice, because of lack of printing facilities, books are continued to be printed in

Tamil Script with diacritic marks with superscript number for the consonants like 'ka', 'ca',
'Ta', 'ta' and 'pa' and adding a colon to 'na', 'ma', 'ra', and 'la' for aspirated forms, which
are peculiar to the Saurashtra language.

1.7 Speaker’s Strength

The origin of Saurashtra is Dwaraka, land of Lord Krishna. But today Madurai is the
home town for the members of the whole community. They settled down in the Temple City
some 400 years ago. The king, Tirumalai Naicker, brought around 600 families along with
him, mainly to utilize their great expertise in weaving for catering to the clothing
requirements of his kingdom. Later, they spread to various cities in the State for the same
reason. Today, there are about two lakh members of the community living in the city. In fact,
there is an area named after their community — Saurashtra Colony.

785
 Till sometime ago, they had been leading a comfortable life, but today several
families are languishing in poverty because of a major slump in business. The use of
handlooms throughout the country had fallen drastically, leading to this pathetic state of
Saurashtrians. Now, many of them are switching over to other trades to eke out a living. A
majority has opted for cooking profession.

The field data is collected for this language from Mrs. Rubavathy, Mrs.L.Gunavathy,
Sh.T V Krishna Kumaran & Sh.M R Jegathesan. Mr.S.N Moharaj, Mr.L.B.KishoreKumar &
Dr.K K Lakshmi Priya have submitted a brief grammatical sketch under MTSI project.The
data was collected form mainly from Viranoor Village of Madurai District and form Madurai
in Tamil Nadu State.

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 2. PHONOLOGY

2.1 Introduction

The phonemic inventory of Saurashtra shows the distinctive sound units occurring in
the normal regular speech events.

2.2 Phonemic Inventory (Segmental)

The segmental phonemes of Saurashtra comprise of 9 vowels (excluding long

vowels) and 2 optional vowel phonemes (namely, /ɨ/ and /ɨ:/ having limited occurrences) and
29 consonants. An effort has been made to present them with suitable examples.

2.2.1 Vowel Chart

Segmental Vowel Phonemes: Saurashtra has three (3) front short vowels, three (3)
back short vowels and three (3) central short vowels. Each vowel has its corresponding long
vowels. The segmental vowels Saurashtra are presented below

Front Central Back

High /i/ /i:/ /ɨ/ /ɨ:/ /u/ /u:/
Mid-High /e/ /e:/ /ә/ /ә:/ /o/ /o:/
Mid-Low /ɛ/ /ӕ/ /ɔ/ /ɔ:/
Low /a/ /a:/ /ɑ/, /ɑ:/

2.2.2 Consonant Chart

Segmental Consonant Phonemes: The segmental consonants in Saurashtra are

presented below.

Bilabial Labio Alveolar Palatal Retroflex Velar

Dental
Plossive Vl /p/ /t/ /t̪/ /t/ /c/ /ʈ/ /k/
Vd /b/ /d/ /d̪/ /d/ /ɟ/ /ʤ/ /ɖ/ /g/
Fricative Vl /β/ /f/ /ɵ/ /ð/ /s/ /ʃ/ / ʂ/ /x/ /h/
Vd /v/ /z/
Affricate Vl
Vd
Nasal /m/ /n/ /ṉ/ /ɲ/ /ɳ/ /ŋ/
Trill /r/ /ṟ/ /ɾ/ /ɽ/
Liquid /l/ /Ɩ/ /ʎ/ /ɻ/
Semivowel /v/, /w/,/y/

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2.2.3 Diphthong

A diphthong is known as a gliding vowel is a phonetic sequence, consisting of a

vowel and a glide that is interpreted as a single vowel.. As per the data the diphthongs in
Saurashtra are: /a:i/, /a:u/, /ae/, /ai/, /ɔi/, /ei/, /ɛi/, /əi/, /əu/, /ia/, /ia:/, /ie/, /iə/, /iu:/, /iu:/, /oi/,
/ou/ and /uə/. The occurrence of these diphthongs are realized frequently in word-medial and
word-final positions. The initial occurrence of the diphthong is scanty, as the following
examples show:

Diphthongs Initial Medial Final

/a:i/ /a:iɲɔ kɛɾət̪tɛ/ /ba:ibja:n/ ‘father’s /boʤa:i/ ‘brother’s

‘to command brother’s wife’
(order some)’ dauɡhter’
/pa:in/ ‘leg’
/a:u/ /a:unʈʈi/ ‘curry’ /ha:uri:/ ‘pond’ /itta:u/ ‘fire’
/ai/ /aisttu/ ‘elephant /maino/ ‘Myna’ /bai/ ‘brother
(younger)’
/ei/ ---------- /reil/ ‘train’ /erkei/ ‘nature’
/ɛi/ - /mɛiŋgini/ ‘faint’ -

/əi/ /əitəkɛɾni/ /rəilbəɳɖɪɻ/ ‘train’ /elƐkkəi/ ‘cinnamon’

‘to repair (tool, /ʤəinəhəətu/ ‘right (hand)
etc)’
/ia/ / senmiɑr/ ‘planet’ /bedia/ ‘jackal’
/ia:/ /kammia:nədɨ/ ‘narrow’ /ʋƐndia/ ‘methi’
/ie/ /naʤiekɑ:m/ ‘terrorism’
/iə/ /phivɾiəvni/ ‘to return,’ --------
/iu:/ /ʤiu:/ ‘tounge’
/oi/ /boin/ ‘floor’
/ou/ /monouttrariya/ ‘mercy’
/uə/ - /kuɾtuəŋgili/ ‘pointing -
finger’

2.2.4 Consonant Clusters

A consonant cluster is a group of consonants which have no intervening vowel in

between. The consonant clusters can be a combination of two identical as well as two or more
non-identical consonants that generally occurs in the medial or final position of a word. The
former is called 'homogenous consonant cluster' while the latter is called 'heterogeneous
consonant cluster'. The occurrence of consonants clusters are most frequently noted at the

788
word-medial and word-final positions while their usage at word-initial position is quite
limited.

Consonant Clusters (Two Consonants)

Cluster Examples
/bk/ /ʤibɑ:bkertte/ ‘to wear’
/bl/ /blο:uο/ ‘World’
/brɑɱɑʧɑri/ ‘Bachelor’
/br/ /bɑ:ɭubrɑ:ʝο/ 'Childhood’
/cch/ /kəcchoti/ ‘loin clot'
/dɡ/ /maludɡeri/ ‘to wrestle’
/dr/ /dəɾidru/ ‘poor’
/ds/ /kudsɛ/ ‘hut’
/dv/ /vidvɑ:n/ ‘player’
/ɖg/ /uɖga:la:/ ‘stream’
/ɖk/ /ambaɖkan/ ‘sour’
/ɖp/ /cokkaɖpoɖɘ/ ‘to set’
/hv/ /bahvɑ:n/ ‘god’
/js/ /bhɛjsu gɔɾu/ ‘buffalo male’
/kr/ /əkrəmɔkɛɾni/ ‘to attack’
/kv/ /kva:la/ ‘bottle ɡourd-pumpkin’
/lb/ /rælbaɳɖi/ ‘train’
/lk/ /dɛlkəjɔ/ ‘thick’
/ln/ /solne/ ‘to peel’
/lp/ /dulpuldɔ/ ‘potato’
/lʈ/ /polʈam/ ‘school’
/lv/ / bəlvəm/ ‘chalk’
/ly/ /kalyam/ ‘letter’
/mb/ /kudumbɔ/ ‘family’
/ɱb/ /ḓɑɱbɑɫəʤɨbο/ ‘Tortoise’
/mk/ /kasakɑ:mkirttano/ ‘copper smith’
/ml/ /ɡenamlaʋriyɑ:/ ‘pride’
/ɯɭ/ /kɑɯɭο/ ‘crow’
/ɱp/ /ɫɑɱpɑʝο/ ‘light’
/mr/ /ɡɑɯrɑɱɑ/ ‘butterfly’,
/ms/ /məmsu/ ‘meat’
/ɯṱ/ /ɡɑɯṱu/ ‘pigeon’
/nd/ /ṱəndu/ ‘rice’,
/nḓ/ /ḓenḓο/ ‘tusk’,
/ṉd/ /vesuṉdo:/ ‘daughter-in-law's father’
/nɖ/ /gunɖɔ/ ‘pebble’,

789
/ɳɖ/ /aɳɖo:/ ‘egg’,
/ng/ /ɑɱɑngɑɫɨ/ ‘widow’,
/nk/ /ɑ:nkο/ ‘body’,
/ns/ /nəgunsəku/ ‘eunuch’,
/nt ̪/ / ttu:ɳto/ ‘cripple’
/nt/ /lentum/ ‘there’ ,
/ŋɖ/ /ɑŋɖο/ ‘egg’
/ŋg/ /vəŋgi/ ‘brinjal’,
/ŋʝ/ /puŋʝɑѕṱɑɫοɱ/ ‘holy place’
/ŋk/ /ciŋkul/ ‘to sprinkle (with water)’, ,
/pg/ /sɑ:pgeri/ ‘snake charmer’
/pr/ /prɘv/ ‘affection’,
/rb/ /kərbur/ ‘ember’
/rc/ / marcia:/ ‘chilly’
/rd/ /cordariʎa beɖuko/ ‘student’
/rḓ/ /dɛgərdɛddɛ/ ‘belch’,
/rʤ/ /gɛrʤənɔ/ ‘thunder’,
/rg/ /murgəjɔ/ ‘rotten’
/rʝ/ /su:ɾʝɡrɑŋο/ ‘sunshine/ light’,
/rk/ /kamma:rka:kadi/ ‘papaya’,
/rl/ /korlero/ ‘to love’,
/rs/ /pərsu/ ‘axe’,
/rt/ /ṉarttam/ ‘dance’,
/rṱ/ /hɛdəərṱṱu / ‘innocent’
/rv/ /əəsirvəəṱu/ ‘blessing’
/sk/ /asko/ ‘full’,
/ʃt/ /məhəəʃṱɔ/ ‘greedy’,
/tɡ/ /ɡi:tɡovrittano/ ‘singer’
/ʈʝ/ /ɦοʈʝəṱə/ ‘carpenter’
/tk/ /du:tkeri/ ‘milk man’,
/ʈk/ /vəʈkɛ/ 'habit'
/ʈl/ /bu:tlu:/ ‘shoe’
/tn/ /rattnam/ ‘ɡem’
/ʈp/ /kɑ:ʈpoɖariyo/ ‘to smear’
/tr/ /kottra:/ ‘doɡ’
/ṱr/ /kɛṱrikɛ/ ‘scissors’,
/ts/ /poʈkkiyɑ:tsano/ ‘village cuoncil’
/ṱs/ /mələkpɔṱsəɾni/ ‘diarrhoea’,
/vd/ /cevdu:/ ‘education’,
/vʤ/ /movʤaryɑ:/ ‘to lend’
/vɡ/ /niyɑ:vɡeri/ ‘innocent’
/ʋʝ/ /ḓe:ɦɑʋʝɑ:n/ ‘exercise’

790
 /vl/ /bovlam/ ‘chalk’,
/vn/ / phuvnəənu/ ‘guests’
/vr/ /ɖavro:/ ‘temple’
/vs/ /niyɑ:vsabo/ ‘court’
/wɖ/ /ɡo:dupowɖo/ ‘stack of hay’
/wl/ /kowlini:/ ‘to mix’
/wn/ /cowni:/ ‘to bite’
/yn/ /ʤɑ:ynɘ/ ‘to wrap up’
/yr/ /deyriym/ ‘courege’

Consonant Clusters (Three Consonants)

Clusters Examples
/ rt̪t/ /pərt̪ta:/ ‘husband’
/ vɳʈ/ /bʰɔvɳʈi/ ‘daughter-in-law’
/dcc/ /udccɑ:ɡannɑ:tte/ ‘to doubt’
/lkk/ /molkkokoɖatte/ ‘to strink’
/ɳɖs/ /thsɳɖsnɔthe:tte:/ ‘to prepare’
/ntr/ /manttri/ ‘minister’
/nṱɾ/ /mənṱɾəvəṱi/ ‘sorcerer’
/ptt/ /tirupttiɡeratte/ ‘to know’
/rcc/ /muyarccikerariyo/ ‘to trial’
/rkk/ /surkkamɡanhɑ:tte/ ‘to freeze’
/rnn/ /aɖamdurnne/ ‘behind’
/skk/ /doskkooppukatte/ ‘to taste’
/sʈʈ/ /isʈʈamboɖatte/ ‘to hate’
/ʈcc/ /deʈccan/ ‘right(hand)’
/wll/ /howɖaɲʤowllatte/ ‘to decide’
/ѕṱɾ/ /ѕṱɾɨ/ ‘woman’

Consonant Gemination

Geminated consonants occur in the initial and medial position. The following are the
example of some geminated (identical consonant clusters) consonants:

Consonant
Gemination Examples
/bb/ /kobbim/ ‘afterwards’
/cc/ /recca:n/ ‘wise’,
/dd/ /vəddijər/ ‘teacher’
/gg/ /kuriboɡɡu/ ‘note book’
/ƖƖ/ /piƖƖo:/ ‘baby’

791
 /kk/ /cukko:/ ‘star’
/ll/ /ɡollem/ ‘bolt’,
/ɭɭ/ /kuɭɭο/ ‘dwarf (male/female)’
/mm/ /bomma/ ‘picture’
/ɱɱ/ /ѕοɱɱuŋο/ ‘ornaments’
/nn/ /kanna:/ ‘when’
/ɳɳ/ /pannaɡa:/ ‘festival’
/ŋŋ/ /kɑŋŋɨʝɑ/ ‘spinster’
/pp/ /hoppadi:/ ‘season’
/ss/ /vɔssu/ ‘year’
/t̪t̪ / /ttolbommala:ṱṱa/ ‘puppet show’
/tt/ /uttram/ ‘letter’
/vv/ /guvvo/ ‘Cave’

2.3 Phonemic contrasts

A phoneme is the smallest contrastive unit in the sound system of a language. A study
of minimal pairs in the data exemplifies the phonemic contrast available in the dialect. These
are used to demonstrate that two phones constitute two separate phonemes in the language.
Examples of phonemic contrasts in Saurashtra are as follows:

2.3.1. Contrasts in Vowel

/a/ ~ /ɔ/ /tʃalakero/ ‘to sprinkle’ /tʃɔ:ra:/ ‘boy’.

/a:/ ~ /ə:/ /la:lattro/ ‘to tempt’ /bu:rðə:/ ‘to cover’.
/a:/ ~/e:/ /kel la:/ ‘calf’ / be:dia/ ’jackal’
/a:/ ~/i:/ /βa:t/ ‘cooked rice’ /βi:t/ ‘wall’
/a:/ ~ /u:/ /ta:p/ ‘fever’ / tu:p/ ‘ghee’
/ɑ/ ~ /ο/ /ḓɑɓɓɔnɨ/ ‘To push’ /ḓοɓɓɔnɨ/ ‘To sweep’
/rɑ:k/ ‘anger’ /ro:k/ ‘treatment’
/ɑ:/ ~/i:/ /kullɑ:/ ‘dwarf male’ / kulli:/ ‘dwarf female’
/ɔ/ ~ /i/ /əʤʤɔ/ ‘grand father’ /əʤʤi/ ‘grand mother’
/kuƖƖɔ:/ ‘dwarf (male)’ / kuƖƖi / ‘dwarf ( female)’
/a/ ~ /u/ /mudiɅŋɡli/ ‘ring finger’ /mɅdiɅŋɡli/ ‘middle finger’
/e/ ~ /a/ /onnəɻ/ ‘strainer’ /pannəɻ/ ‘gardener’
/e:/ ~ /i:/ /de:s/ ‘nation’ /di:s/ ‘day’
/guɖe:/ ‘blind (male)’ /guɖi:/ ‘blind (female)’
/e:/~/o:/ /ke:ʈ/ ‘waist’ / ko:ʈ/ ‘leprosy’
/ɘ/ ~/i/ /moɳɖɘ/ ‘skull’ /moɳɖi/ ‘lame’
/i/ ~ /a:/ /ṉovri/ ‘Bride’ /ṉovra:/ ‘bridegroom’
/i/ ~ /ɔ/ /nɔvri/ ‘bride’ /ɴɔvɾɔ/ ‘bridegroom’
/i/ ~ /e/ /irdɨ/ ‘from’ /erdɨ/ ‘bull’

792
 /i/ ~ /o/ /novɾi/ ‘bride’ / novɾo/ ‘bridegroom’
/bɛdi/ ‘daughter’ /bɛdo/ ‘son’
/ɨ/~ /ɔ/ /nɑѕɨŋɨ/ ‘To destroy’ /nɑѕɔŋɨ/ ‘To erase’
/ɨ/~ /e/ /ṱṱɨnɑ/ ‘For’ /ṱṱenɑ/ ‘During’
/i/~ /ο/ /ʋeʒɨnṱο/ ‘bride’s father’ /ʋeʃɨnṱɨ/ ‘bride’s mother’
/i:/ ~ /a:/ /ri:smaro/ ‘enemy’ /ka:jero/ ‘to eat’.
/i:/ ~ /o:/ /ti:n/ ‘three’ /to:n/ ‘face’
/o/ ~ /ɑ:/ /nilo ‘blue’ /nilɑ: / ‘green’
/o:/ ~ /a:/ /co:r/ ‘theft’ /ca:r/ ‘four’
/o:/ ~/u:/ /mo:to:/ ‘biɡ’ /su:nɡero/ ‘to smell’
/o:/ ~ /a/ /po:ni/ ‘to blow’ /pani/ ‘water’
/ο/ ~ /ɛ/ /ṱṱɨʝο/ ‘He’ /ṱṱɨʝɛ/ ‘if’
/u/ ~ /a:/ /luiero/ ‘to wipe off’ /ða:bero/ ‘to squeeze’.
/u/ ~ /ɔ/ /tɛnu/ ‘they’ /tɛnɔ/ ‘she’
/ṱɛʈʈu/ ‘chicken pox’ /ṱɛʈʈɔ/ ‘plate (metal)
/u/ ~ /i/ /koɖu/ ‘bitter’ /koɖi/ ‘flag’
/u/ ~ /o/ /baʂu/ ‘bus’ /baʂo / ‘language’
/u/~ / i/ /muri/ ‘mustard’ /miri/ ‘black pepper’
/u:/ ~ /o/ /mu:li:/ ‘fish’ /moli: / ‘goint’

2.3.2.Contrasts in Consonants

/b/ ~ /k/ /bowlo / ‘bottle gourd’ /kowlo/ ‘ridge gourd’

/b/ ~ /p/ /bɨɭəʈɨ/ ‘Toy’ /pɨɭəʈɨ/ ‘doll’
/b/ ~ /t/ /ba:l lero/ ‘to burn’ /ta:l lero/ ‘to choose’.
/c/ ~ /k/ /ca:l/ ‘marriage’ /ka:l/ ‘week’
/d/ ~ /b/ / piidu/ ‘flour’ /piibu/ ‘pus’
/d/ ~ /k/ /da:di:/ ‘chin’ /kwa:di:/ ‘pickle’
/d/ ~ /ṱ/ /hələdu/ ‘yellow’ /hələṱu/ ‘haldi (turmeric)’
/ʤ/ ~ /p/ /ʤοɭɭο/ ‘Maize (corn)’ /pοɭɭο/ ‘Fruit’
/d/ ~ /s/ /du:t̪/ ‘milk’ /su:t̪ / ‘swelling’
/f/ ~ /k/ /fo:ʈʈo / ‘picture’ /koʈʈo/ ‘room’
/f/ ~ /s/ /fa:tte:/ ‘to give’ /sa:tte:/ ‘to tɨrn over’
/g/ ~ /k/ /ga:m/ ‘village’ /ka:m/ ‘labour’
/g/ ~ /m/ /əga:s / ‘sky’ /əma:s / ‘new moon’
/h/ ~ /p/ /hɑ:t/ ‘hand’ /pɑ:t/ ‘fart’
/k/ ~ /ɴ/ /ɾa:k / ‘ash’ /ɾa:ɴ/ ‘forest’
/k/ ~ /r/ /kɑ:n/ ‘ear’ /rɑ:n/ ‘forest’
/l/ ~ /x/ /mali/ ‘fish’ /maxi/ ‘fly’
/l/ ~ /d/ /muulu/ ‘root’ /muudu/ ‘fist’
/l/ ~ /g/ /mhəli/ ‘fish’ /mhəgi/ ‘fly’
/l/ ~ /n/ /ɡalero/ ‘to soak’ /ɡanero/ ‘to count’.

793
 /l/ ~ /pʰ/ /lɔɖət̪tɛ/ ‘to sweep’ /pʰəɖət̪tɛ/ ‘to tear, rip (cloth)’
/l/ ~ /ɾ/ /muulu/ ‘root’ /muuɾu/ ‘hammer’
/m/ ~ /k/ /məllini/ ‘to fight’ /kəllini/ ‘to kill’
/m/ ~ /p/ /moɖini / ‘to break (stick)’ /poɖini/ ‘to break (a pot)’
/n/ ~ / g/ /tɛnɔ/ ‘he’ /tɛgɔ/ ‘her
/n/ ~ /d/ /pilni/ ‘to crush (oil seeds)’ /pildi/ ‘doll’
/n/ ~ /g/ /ʤənəṱṱɛ/ ‘to feel’ /ʤəgəṱṱɛ/ ‘to hear’
/n/ ~ /k/ /ra:n/ ‘forest’ /ra:k/ ‘Ash’
/n/ ~ /l/ /po:ni / ‘to blow’ /po:li/ ‘ladle’
/n/ ~ /m/ /na:na:/ ‘mother’s father’ /ma:ma:/ ‘mother’s brother’
/n/ ~ /s/ /ko:nɛ/ ‘which’ /ko:sɛ/ ‘where’
/p/ ~ /b/ /poʎi/ ‘father's sister’ /beʎi/ ‘sister (elder)’
/p/ ~ /k/ /po:ʈ/ ‘stomach’ /ko:ʈ/ ‘leprosy’
/p/ ~ /l/ /po:ni/ ‘to blow’ /lo:ni/ ‘butter’
/p/ ~ /m/ /piidu / ‘flour’ /miidu/ ‘salt’
/p/ ~ /n/ /pɑ:t/ ‘fart’ /nɑ:t/ ‘nose’
/r/ ~ /c/ /ro:k/ ‘treatment’ /co:k/ ‘weight’
/r/ ~ /d/ /muuru/ ‘hammer’ /muudu/ ‘fist’
/r/ ~ /l/ /ṱɛɛru/ ‘thirteen’ /ṱɛɛlu/ ‘oil’
/s/ ~ /c/ /nɅsini/ ‘to destroy’ /nɅccini/ ‘to act’
/s/ ~ /ʤ/ /sa:do/ ‘sari’ /ʤa:do/ ‘fat man’
/s/ ~ /d/ /su:t/ ‘swelling’ /du:t/ ‘milk’
/s/ ~ /m/ /saƖi/ ‘wife's sister’ /maƖi/ ‘fish’.
/s/ ~ /t/ /sivi/ ‘needle’ /tivi/ ‘Chair’
/s/ ~ /v/ /dɘs/ ‘nation’ /dɘv ‘god’
/ʈ/ ~ /b/ /ʈɑ:p/ ‘fever’ /bɑ:p/ ‘father’
/ṱ/ ~ /l/ /səṱi/ ‘umbrella’ /sali/ ‘sister in law’
/t/ ~ /ʈ/ /pa:t/ ‘Fart’ /pa:ʈ/ ‘back (of body)’
/v/ ~ /k/ /valo/ ‘curved’ /kalo/ ‘empty’.

2.4 Distribution of Vowel phonemes

From the collected data we see that all vowel phonemes except /ӕ/, /ɔ:/, /ɔ/, /ɨ/, and
/o:/ can occur at word-initial, word-medial and word-final positions. Only /ӕ/ occur in word
medial position and not in word initial position. Similarly, all long vowel phonemes occur
word initially, medially and finally, except the following phonemes /e://ɔ:/ and short vowel
/u/. These three phonemes occur in word initial and medial position.

Vowel Initial Medial Final

/a:/ /a:sa:n/ ‘teacher’ / ka:l/ ‘ yesterday’ /ʤʷa:la:/ ‘flame’
/ɛ:/ /ɛɛdu/ ‘here’ /ṱɛɛɾɛ/ ‘toad’, ----

794
 /a/ /adgelu/ ‘necklace’ /bala:ero/ ‘to call’ /kudumba/ ‘family’

/a:/ /a:ɲaxertte:/ ‘to call’ /ra:n/ ‘forest’ /koŋga:/ ‘what’

/æ/ ----------- /ɟenættanu/ ‘Parents’ -------------

/ɔ/ /ɔnnɔ/ ‘beans’ /bɔgulu/ ‘bat’ /kava:ʈɔ/ ‘Door’

/ɔ:/ /bhulɔɔgu/ ‘world’ /segɔ:/ ‘heat’

/e/ /edɑ:rttu/ ‘innocent’ /kero/ ‘to tell’ /baduɡe/ ‘fall’

/ɛ/ /ɛṱṱənkɛɾəɾijɔ/ ‘to repeat’ /ɦuŋṱɛʈο/ ‘Rabbit’ /nο:ɾɛ/ ‘Bride’

/ə/ /əɖɖəm/ ‘across’ /bʰəɾa:ʈ/ ‘out’ /ɱɑɨʝə/ ‘Honey’

/ə:/ /əəsiɾvəəṱu/ ‘blessing’ /kəəpi/ ‘coffee’ -------
/e:/ /e:lakkailo:/ ‘cinnamon’ /be:ɖi/ ‘eunuch’ /ture:/ ‘with’
/i/ /iŋgini/ ‘sprain’ /bɔixalini/ ‘earthquake’ /ccidamatti/ ‘ Clay’
/i:/ /i:/ ‘this’ /bi:r/ ‘ember’ /guɖi:/ ‘blind
(female)’
/ɨ:/ /ɨ:ḓο/ ‘To surround’ /ʤi:ro/ ‘cumin seed’ /nu:ni:/ ‘butter’
/o/ /oxulu/ ‘Bat’ /koṱi/ ‘monkey’ /fulo/ ‘fire’

/u/ /ulini/ ‘slope’ /burra:/ ‘tambura /divvəəlu/ ‘twice’

/u:/ /u:ð/ ‘incense /bhuugu/ ‘hunger’ /piɖu:/ ‘thunder’
sticks’
/ο/ /οɾu/ ‘Thigh’ /ɾοɡο/ ‘ill’ /ḓɨʃəɭο/ ‘vulture’

/ә/ /ənudəəp/ ‘sympathy’ /uttərero/ ‘to descend’ /elə/ ‘cinnamon’

2.5 Distribution of Consonantal Phonemes

Consonant Initial Medial Final

/b/ /bɑ:l/ ‘baby’ /kobbo/ ‘under’ /ekkilo:b/ ‘to crawl’
/bʰ/ / bʰɔdiɾin/ ‘prostitute’
/c/ /ciɖi/ ‘Sparrow’ /poɳgoƖcce:/ ‘Coal’ /ṉa:c/ ‘acting’

/d/ /da:lava:/ ‘slope’ /addam/ ‘mirror’ /a:sirva:d/ ‘blessings’

/ʤ/ /ʤəni/ ‘to go’ /bəʤi/ ‘leg’ /kɑ:lɘʤ/ ‘college’

795
 /ɖ/ /ɖado:/ ‘elder’ /daɖam/ ‘stream’ /gɛɾuɖ/ ‘hawk’
/f/ /fu:l/ ‘farmer’ /roɟa:fu:l/ ‘marigold’
/g/ /gauri/ ‘pond’ /amaŋgali/ ‘widow’ /bu:ɡ/ ‘hunɡer’
/ɡʰ/ / gʰuvvo:/ ‘cave’
/h/ /ha:tt/ ‘hand’ /ɡohilo/ ‘cuckoo’

/j/ /janasabɑ:/ /uɲjahansatte/ ‘high’ /ɡa:j/ ‘cow’

‘parliament’

/k/ /kela:/ ‘banana’ /cukko:/ ‘star’ /malak/ ‘country’

/kʰ/ /kʰumba:ɾ / ‘potter’
/l/ /lɛɛsu/ ‘picture’ /kɛlim/ ‘ointment’ /kɛṱṱul/ ‘metal seat’

/ɭ/ /ɭombuɭ/ ‘clove’ /guɭɭu/ ‘jaggery’ /keʈʈuɭ/ ‘cot’

/m/ /malau/ ‘crowd’ /ambulo:/ ‘Husband’ /ɡanam/ ‘last’

/n/ /niddi/ ‘river’ /uƖani/ ‘slope’ /viɭɭun/ ‘lightning’

/ɲ/ /ɲa:ʎasabo/ ‘court’ /aŋɡa:r/ ‘fire’ /məjda:ŋ/ ‘ground

/ɲ/ /maɲɈiri/ ‘cat’

/ɲ/ /guɳɖo:/ ‘stone’
/p/ /popu:/ ‘cloud’ /hulpini/ ‘to shake’ /ba:p/ ‘father

/pʰ/ /pʰuvəɾijɔ/ ‘to blow

/r/ /ra:n/ ‘forest’ /varo:/ ‘air’ /bi:r/ ‘ember’

/s/ /suno/ ‘dog’ /piso/ ‘insanity’ /aga:s/ ‘sky’

/ʃ/ /ʃa:l/ ‘paddy’ /iʃtam/ ‘to like’ ------------------
/t/ /taƖɨ/ ‘lake’ /kisti/ ‘tax’ /rexat/ ‘blood’
/ʈ/ /ʈɨppʝɑ:ʋο/ ‘gun’ /beʈki/ ‘female’ /la:ʈ/ ‘wave’
/v/ /vadaɡo/ ‘to lose’ /divɔ/ ‘lamp’ /hannov/ ‘money’

2.6 Syllable Structure

A syllable is a unit of sound composed of a central peak of sonority (usually a vowel),

and the consonants that cluster around this central peak. The syllables are often considered
the phonological "building blocks" of words. They can influence the rhythm of a language,
its prosody, its poetic meter and its stress patterns. Syllabification is the separation of a word

796
into syllables, whether spoken or written. In Saurashtra words are of monosyllabic, disyllabic,
and polysyllabic types. The syllabification system of Saurashtra is of three types:

(a) Monosyllables
(b) Disyllables, and
(c) Polysyllables

(a) Monosyllables

V /i:/ ‘this’
VC /oɽ/ ‘they’
VC /e:ʈ/ ‘here’
CV /mi:/ ‘to him’
CV /si/ ‘their’
CV /tu:/ ‘whom’
CV /ṉi/ ‘ourselves’
CV /du:/ ‘with’
CV /mi:/ ‘who’
CV /ni:/ ‘over’
CV /tu/ ‘you’
CV /mi:/ ‘I’
CV /so/ ‘Hundred’
CV /ṱu/ ‘Whom’
CV /mii/ ‘I’
CVC /kon/ ‘we’
CVC /a:ʈ/ ‘eight’
CVC /ṉou/ ‘nine’
CVC /des/ ‘ten’
CVC /tɘr/ ‘to them’
CVV /ko:n/ ‘we three’
CVC /vɘl/ ‘but’
CVC /mi:s/ ‘myself’
CVC /so:n/ ‘like’
CVC /ku:ɲ/ ‘who’
CVC /ṱun/ ‘you’
CVC /ka:i(ɲ)/ ‘what’
CVV /ɛɛdu/ ‘here’
VCV /o:ti/ ‘throuɡh’
VCV /əmi/ ‘these’

797
(b) Disyllables

V-V /u:-i:/ ‘it’

V-CV /u:-ʃɨ/ ‘fart’
/i:-pi/ ‘fly’
/o:-ti/ ‘throuɡh’
VC-VC /is-ki/ ‘hiccough/hiccup’
VC-VC /ɔɖ-ɖɛ/ ‘sweeper’
VC-CV /al-ʈɔ/ ‘attic’
CV-V /ba:i/ ‘brother’
CV-CV /si-vi/ ‘needle’
/ke-lo:/ ‘banana’
/va-tə/ ‘there’
/khu-bɔ/ ‘boat’
CV-CCV /ṱu-ɱḳo/ ‘To you’
/sɛ-ŋgu/ ‘conch’
CV-CVC /ba-rɑ:ʈ/ ‘north’
/so-ram/ ‘tune’
/ha:-pan/ ‘we’
CVC-CV /kan-na/ ‘when’
CVC-CVC /ciŋ-kul/ ‘to sprinkle’
/ɖom-ɖom/ ‘drum’
CVV-VCV /koy-adi/ ‘by’
CVC-VCV /vɑ:d-amu/ ‘between’
CVC-CV /sɔɾ-gʊ/ ‘heaven’

(c) Pollysyllables

CVC-CVCV /ti:n-mu:-lo:/ ‘triangle’

V-CV-CV /a-ðo-tʃa/ ‘middle’
CV-CV-CVC /so-la-βa:r/ ‘late’
VC-CV-CV /ot-ta-ru/ ‘near’
CVCVCV /ɦo-rə-ɡə/ ‘out’
V-CVCCV /ɑṱenəṱɑ/ ‘so’
VC-V-CV /i:tʃ-e-ro/ ‘to sell’
CV-CVC-CV /di-kam-so/ ‘ninety eiɡht’
CV-CV-CV /or-va:-su/ ‘himself’
VCC-VC-CV /aɖɖ-am-mu/ ‘yesterday’
CVC-CV-CV /tɛŋ-gɔ-jɔ/ ‘their’
CV-CVC-CV /vɔ-ɖət̪-tɛ/ ‘defeat’
CV-CV-CV /viməənu/ ‘aeroplane’
CV-CV-CV /bisunɔ/ ‘chair’
CV-CV-CV /əl-əg-gɔ/ ‘alone’

798
CV-CV- CCV /pəɾəndɔ/ ‘ceiling’
CV-CCV-CCV /ṱuppəəkki/ ‘gun’
CV-CV- CCV /pəɾəndɔ/ ‘ceiling’
CV-CV-CV /bisunɔ/ ‘chair’
CV-CV-CV /viməənu/ ‘aeroplane’
CV-CV-CV /kɔdugu/ ‘bitter’
CVC-CVC-CV /dulpuldɔ/ ‘potato’
CV-CCV-CCV /ṱuppəəkki/ ‘gun’
CVC-VC-CVC /təm-bi-ɾəm/ ‘copper’
CV-CV-CV-CV /ka-li-xo-ʎo/ ‘dirty’
VC-VC-VC-V /ɑʋ-ɑr-əɡ-ɑ/ ‘from’
CVC-CV-CV-CV-CV-CV /thi:s-ṉi-xu-lo-ri-ʎo/ ‘spring’
CVCCV-CVC-CVCV-CCV /margi-ʎa:t-kera-tte:/ ‘to promise’
CVCVC-CVC-CVCCV-CCV /paniv-xan-mella-tte:/ ‘to respect’
CVCVC-CCVCV-CVCV-CCV /muxas-studi-kera-tte:/ ‘to plead’
CVC-CV-CVCCV-CCV /thos-ko-xalla-tte:/ ‘to move’
CV-CV-CV-CVC-CV /pa-re-me-ða:d-də/ ‘day after tomorrow’
CV-CV-CV-CCV /pa-ra-ba:-tti/ ‘morninɡ’
CVC-CVC-CVCV /ka:l-se:t-teanɔ/ ‘little’
VCCV-CVC-CV /unco-se:t-te/ ‘Hard’
CVC-VCVCVC-CV /thi:s-buɖari-ʎo/ ‘suddenly’
CVCC-CVCVC-CVCV /karɖ-muraɖ-xoʎo/ ‘fast’
CV-CV-CV-CV /ko-ni-ka-to/ ‘otherwise’
CV-CVC-CV-CCV-CV /ha-lɑ:m-ɾo:-tte-ne/ ‘woodpecker’
CVC-VC-VC-VC /den-ap-o:h-um/ ‘far’
CVC-CVC-VC-VC-CV-CV /kon-nin-in-ɑ:t-te-ya/ ‘smartly’
CV-CV-VCC-VC-VCC-VC-VC-VC/ɘh-am-ull-ɑ:m-aɲj-uk-al-am/ ‘always’
CV-CVC-CVC-CV /mʊ-dul-la:m-u:s/ ‘already’
CVV-CV-CVC-CVC /hid̪-di-ja:ɾ-tim/ ‘until’
V-CCV-CV-CV /əsṱivəəɾu / ‘epilepsy’
V-CVC-CV-CV /əgəsṱiɾu/ ‘lady’s finger’
CVC-CV-CVC-CV-CV /nəndənəmkɛɾi / ‘gardener’
CV-CVC-CV-CV-CV /ɾudənṱiɾiju/ ‘state’
CV-CV-CV-CV-CV / niɾəpəɾəṱi / ‘innocent’
CVCVCVCVCV /ṱɑlɑṱiriʞə/ ‘downwards’
CVCVCCVVCV /рoɤeṱṱɑ¦ɡi/ ‘without’
CVCVCCVVCV /ɦorəṱṱɑ¦ɦi/ ‘out of’
CVCVCVCV /ɡuɭəʂuḓo/ ‘multiplication’
V-CCV-CV-CV /əsṱivəəɾu/ ‘epilepsy’
V-CVC-CV-CV /əgəsṱiɾu/ ‘lady’s finger’
CV-CVC-CV-CV-CV /ɾudənṱiɾiju/ ‘state’
CV-CV-CV-CV-CCV-CV /ʃusiṱəpusṱəvu/ ‘notebook’
CV-CV-CV-CV-CV /niɾəpəɾəṱi/ ‘innocent’

799
2.7 Suprasegmental Feature

Apart from segmental phonemes Saurashtra make suprasegmental distinctions in tone

and nasality. Suprasegmentals include tone, stress, and prosody. Tone, stress and accent are
not distinctive features in this language.

2.7.1 Length

Length is phonemically realized in Saurashtra. Given below are some examples in

their contrast.

/i/ ~ /i:/ /nittɘ/ ‘before’ /ni:tte/ ‘whom’

/a/ ~ /a:/ /ʤad/ ‘root’ /ʤa:d/ ‘tree’
/o/ ~ /o:/ /poli:/ ‘spoon’ /po:li:/ ‘ladle’

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 3. MORPHOPONEMEICS

It is the study of the phonemic realization of the allomorphs of the morphemens of a

language. The morphophonemic processes in Saurashtra take place in two ways: Addition
and Deletion.

3.1 Addition

Adding of a phoneme between two elements involved in sandhi. The additional

element may be an initial increment or infix.

/pοʈʈɑɱ/ = /pο+ɑʈʈɑɱ/ ‘kite’

3.2 Deletion

The loss or deletion of a phoneme when two elements are involved in sandhi.
Sometimes a deletion will be followed by an addition.

/ʋɨɾuṱu/ = /ʋɨɾə+ uṱu/ ‘Medal’

3.3 Other morphophonemic changes in Saurashtra are as follows:

(a) Nasalisation

In Saurashtra nasalization occurs with or without the influence of nasal vowel. Some
of these occurrences of nasalized vowels are shown below:

/i ͂/ /pa:i ͂m poɖatte:/ ‘to weave (cloth)’

/õ/ /kõbimo:ɾ/ ‘already’
/ĩ/ /bihĩɲjeyæo/ ‘wicked’
/ẽ/ /naɟẽyo/ ‘bed’
/ũ/ /dinnũ:/ ‘daily’

(b) Retroflexion

Retroflexion is a sound formation process where the presence of a retroflex sound

casts its impact on the following sound. This is a common feature in all Dravidian languages
and Saurashtra is heavily influened by it.

/ba:nðkər/ ‘to destroy’ (after retroflex sound)

/cuɳɖatte:/ ‘to shoot’ (after retroflex sound)
/deɳɖo/ ‘ornament’ (after retroflex sound)
/guɳɖɔ/ ‘pebble’ (after retroflex sound)
/guɳɖugan/ ‘circle’ (before retroflex sound)

801
 /tuɳɖu/ ‘towel’ (before retroflex sound)

(c) Pharayngeatisation

Pharayngeatisation is after to an articulation involving a constriction in the pharagms.

/ɦɑɭɑḓο/ ‘Haldi (turmeric)’

/ɦοʈʝəṱə/ ‘Carpenter’
/ʧuŋŋɑɦɑṱənɑ /‘Painter’

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 4. MORPHOLOGY

4.1 Word Formation Processes

In Saurashtra the primary word formation processes are inflection and derivation.

4.1.1 Derivation

The derivation is the formation of new words by affixation or change of form. It

means the words are formed by adding affixes or by internal change.

4.1.2 Inflection

The formation of plural forms from nouns is known by the term inflection.
/ʞʱɑ:ɭu/ ‘this’ : /ѕοɱɱɑʀο/ ‘these’
/ṱɨʝe:nu/ ‘that’ : /ḓɨʝɑnu/ ‘those’

In following phrase the plurality is marked by the inflectional suffix /-ŋu/.

/ṱeɡɑʞʱɛ ɡʱe:ɾuŋu/ ‘His houses’

There two allomorphs for the plural morpheme; they are /-nɔ/, /-uɱ/.
/ṱe:ʈə ḓɨ ɱɑnʧəɾɨnɔ ѕe:ṱṱɛ/
There are two cows’
/ṱe:ʈə ḓɨ ɱοʈɑpοʈəʞʞʝɑ:ʈuɱ ѕe:ṱṱɛ/
‘There are two big villages’

Possessive nouns are formed by adding possessive markers to the noun.

These are /-ʝɨ-, -kkɛ-, -nu, -ѕɨ/
/ѕe:ʝɨ/ ‘their’
/ṱekkɑ:kkɛ nuɾun ʝɑʋɑŋɑkɑ ʒe:ṱṱɛ/ ‘His children are young’
/ɱοɨʝɛ ʄe:nɑnu ʝe ʒe:ṱṱɛ/ ‘My sisters are here’
/ṱɨnο ɑʋəʀɛ kʱe:ɾuɱ ɑʋəɾəѕɨ/ ‘She comes to our house’

In this language cases and tenses are same as the Tamil and Hindi language. Some
plural markers are similar to Malayalam and Hindi language.

4.1.3 Affixation

An affix is a morpheme that is attached to a word stem to form a new word. Affixes
may be derivational or inflectional. In Saurashtra, the affixes are added to form familial
relations are of inflectional nature, tending to preserve the grammatical class of the base to

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which it is attached. Words are formed by adding prefixes or suffixes to base as shown
below:

Prefix +base = Final form

/ba:lu naðini:/ ‘daughter’s son’s daughter’

/ba:lun natte/ ‘daughter’s son’s son’
/gurttiʎ aŋgili/ ‘pointing finger’
/kəəndəmiɾugu/ ‘rhinoceros’
/mhɔʈʈəghɔdɔ/ ‘pony’
/muƟƟiʎ aŋgili/ ‘ring finger’
/nʰənnɔ ɾa:ɳi/ ‘princess’
/nʰənnɔ ɾəʤɔ/ ‘prince’
/sɔɔṱu bhəəv/ ‘step father’
/sɔɔṱu məəj/ ‘step mother’
/so:du bæn/ ‘step brother’
/so:du beɖi:/ ‘step daughter’

Base + suffix = Final form

/ʤɑ: + tte/ ‘going’

/hunɡisa: + tte/ ‘seeing’
/ɟunna + tte:/ ‘obeying’
/kɑɭɑɭɭɑ + ṱṱɛ/ ‘studying’
/poɭga + tte:/ ‘offering’
/taʎa:r kera + tte:/ ‘ploughing’

4.1.4 Reduplication

Reduplication is a morphological process in which a root or stem or part of it is

repeated to form a word. In Saurashtra there is no reduplication process. That means,
reduplication is not a distinctive feature in this language.

4.1.5 Suppletion

Suppletion is the use of one word as the inflected form of another word when the two
words are not cognate. Traditionally suppletion is understood as the use of a new word as the
inflected form of another word (the words are not cognates as in the case of English go and
went). Examples of suppletion in Saurashtra include the followings:

/nhuɾu/ ‘child’ : /nhuɾu/ ‘baby’

/nulu:/ ‘child’ : /beɖo/ ‘son’
/nulu:/ ‘child’ : /nululbra:i/ ‘children’
/nuru/ ‘child’ : /nurun/ ‘children’

804
 /pillɔ/ ‘child’ : /nhuɾu/ ‘baby’

4.1.6 Compounding

A compound is a word containing a stem that is made up of more than one root or
stem. Compounding is a word formation process that creates compound lexemes by the
process of derivation. The process of formation of new words by combining two or more
words is known as compounding. In other words, compounding or word-compounding occurs
when a person attaches two or more words together to make them one word. The meanings of
the words interrelate in such a way that a new meaning comes out which may or may not
differ from the meanings of the words in isolation. Saurashtra has many examples of
compound words, some of which are presented below:

Examples
/ɡo:ɖɑ:/ ‘horse’ + baɳɖi/ ‘cart’ = /ɡoɖɑ:baɳɖi/ ‘horse coach’.
/goru/ ‘Bull’ + /ɟaɖo:/ ‘fight’ = /goruɟaɖo:/ ‘bull-fight’
/haɖɑ:/ ‘bullock’ + /ɡɑ:ɖi/ ‘cart’ = /haɖɑ:ɡɑ:ɖi/ ‘bullock cart’
/ka:banṉdu/ ‘police’+/moɳɖau/ ‘station’ = /ka:banṉdu moɳɖau/ ‘police station’
/kuɖa:/ ‘cock’ + /ɟeɖo:/ ‘fight’ = /kuɖa:ɟeɖo:/ ‘cock-fight’.
/lahanahaɳɖi/ ‘pan’ + /peɖim/ ‘box’ = /lohunɑ:hɑ:t/ ‘pan box/bag’

4.2 Word Class

There are nine word classes: noun, pronoun, adjective, postposition, verb, adverb,
conjunction, participle, and interjection
1. Noun
/xi:m/ ‘cold’
/varɔ:/ ‘air’,
/kɑ:n/ ‘ears’

2. Pronoun
/mi/ ‘I’
/kon/ ‘we’

3. Adjective
/geɖi/ ‘good’
/ðairjamɡan/ ‘biɡ’
/moʈʈe/ ‘big’

4. Postposition
/me:ʤɛ hɔɭɭɔ hibbi ɾʰa:/‘Stand on the table’

5. Verb
/xuɖtte:/ ‘to get’

805
 /ʧɔvdət̪tɛ/ ‘read’
/nəsini/ ‘erase’

6. Adverb
/pakko:i/ ‘loudly’
/bhissə/ ‘quickly’

7. Conjunction:
/i:kolittavu:/ ‘and’
/telle:/ ‘so’
/ellettɑ:mu/ ‘and’
/əŋgun/ ‘and’

8. Participle
A lexical item showing some of the characteristics and functions of both verbs
and adjectives.

9. Interjection
An interjection is a form, typically brief, such as one syllable or word, which is
applied frequently as an exclamation or part of an exclamation as in the followings:

/tenu tra:ʈcai xoɖara:s/ ‘What a beautiful temple it is!’

/əkəsuk kəjondɛ siŋgər indirədhənuʃu/ ‘What a beautiful rainbow in the sky!’, etc.

4.3 Noun.

4.3 .1 Basic Nouns

Basic nouns in Saurashtra are those which are a class by itself as they are not derived
from any other word class. Some examples are given below:
/ge:r/ ‘house’
/kottra:/ ‘dog’
/nhuɾu/ ‘baby’
/nuɾu/ ‘baby/child’

4.3 2 Derived Nouns

In Saurashtra some nouns are derived either from verb or adjective or from another
noun. The derived nouns are formed in two ways by (i) adding derivational suffix to other
words; and (ii) compounding words.

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i) Derived nouns by adding derivational suffix

In Saurashtra some nouns are derived from verb or from any other noun by the
addition of derivative suffixes. These are as follows:

Verb + noun forming suffix = Noun (verbal Noun)

/ʤa:ro/ ’to go’ + -tʃər =/ʤa:ro:tʃər/ ‘going’

/ʤa:t̪tɛ / ‘to go’ + - ɾijɔ = /ʤa:ɾijɔ / ‘going’.
/ðekero/ ‘to see’ + -tʃər = /ðekro:tʃər/ ‘seeing’.

Noun + Noun forming suffix = Noun (Abstract Noun)

/bɔixa/ ‘earth’ + /lini/‘ ‘quake’ = /bɔixa lini/ ‘earthquake’

/beʈkko/ ‘boy’ + /prɑ:u/ ‘hood’ = /beʈkko prɑ:u/ ‘boyhood’.
/keɳɖa:/ ‘skin’ + /ro:k/ ‘diseases’= /keɳɖa:ro:k/ ‘skin disease’

ii) Derived nouns by Compounding:

A compound word is defined as the combination of two or more words to form a new
word, for example,

/gaʎo/ ‘cow’ + /koʈʈaɖi/ ‘shed’ = /gaʎokoʈʈaɖi/ ‘cowshed’

/go:ɖɑ:/ ‘horse’ + /keʈʈɘbasɳɖi/ ‘cart’ = /goɖɑ:baɳɖi/ ‘horse coach’
/kappi/ ‘stone’ + /restto/ ‘road’ = /kappi restto/ ‘stone road’

4.3.3 Mass Nouns and Count Nouns

The basic nouns can further be divided into a) Mass nouns and b) Count nouns.

Mass Nouns

Mass nouns are those which do not show number distribution and cannot be counted
with cardinal numeral. They always occur in singular form. For example

/daṉdɨ/ ‘rice’
/dandu/ ‘rice’
/du:t/ ‘milk’

Count Nouns

Count nouns are those which can take some suffixes for indicating plurality.
Examples are as follows:

807
 /kottra:/ ‘dog’
/nhuɾu/ ‘baby’
/nuru/ ‘child’

4.3.4 Nature of Inflection of Nouns

The Saurashtra nouns are inflected for Gender, Number, and Case. This language has
three genders (i.e., masculine, feminine and neuter); and seven cases (nominative, accusative,
instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive, and locative). The following description gives the
details of Saurashtra gender, number and case system.

Gender

Gender in Saurashtra is grammatically determined by two ways: masculine and

feminine. Most of the Saurashtra nouns end in vowels. There is a two-way distinction of
gender in Saurashtra: masculine and non- masculine .Though most of the nouns do not have
any overt marker for gender, gender of any noun is generally determined by its meaning. All
nouns, both singular and plural, denoting male persons belong to the masculine gender. All
nouns denoting female persons and non-persons like animals, birds, plants, objects, etc.
belong to the non-masculine gender.

(a) The final vowel gives a clue to the gender of a particular noun. The masculine nouns tends
to take /o:/ ending as opposed to feminine nouns with /i/ or /o:/ ending. Gender here is
natural, not grammatical.

Masculine Feminine
/andɔ/ 'male (blind)’ /andi/ ‘female (blind)’
/beɖɑ:/ ’son’ /beɖi:/ ‘daughter’
/bɛɖkɔ/ ‘boy’ /bɛɖki/ ‘girl’
/beta/ ’son’ /beti/ ‘daughter’
/beʈkko/ ‘boy’ / beʈki:/ ‘girl’

(b) Sometimes, separate lexemes are also used to refer to gender distinction as we can see in
the following examples.

Masculine Feminine
/ba:p/ ‘father’ /ja:di/ ‘mother’
/bɘlninattanu/ ‘widower’ /halɑ:ninattanu/ ‘widow’
/beʎilṉi:ttana:/ ‘widower’ /amaŋgali/ ‘widow’
/duɖo:/ ‘calf (male)’ /duɖo:/ ‘calf (female)’
/mo:r/ 'peacock‘ (male)’ /mo:r/ ‘peahen (female)’

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(c) Examples of common gender in Saurashtra nouns include such as the followings:

/nuru/ ‘child’
/p:iƖƖa:Ɩ/ ‘child’
/piƖƖo:/ ‘baby’

4.3.5 Number

There are two numbers in Saurashtra, singular and plural. The singular has no
particular distinguishing marker added. In case of plural formation the following three
strategies are normally employed:

(a) Specific plural marker like /-nu/, /-u/, /-a/, /-n/, /-an/, /-un /, /-in/, and /-no/ is added with
the singular form and sometimes different lexeme is used for plural number.

Singular Plural

/beʈki/ ‘girl’ /beʈkin/ ‘girls’

/bogu/ ‘book’ /bogu:n/ ‘books’.
/doƖo/ ‘eye’ /thila:n/ ‘eyes’
/gar/ ‘house’ /garno/ ‘houses’
/goɖu/ ‘horse’ /goɖu:n/ ‘horses’.
/hɑ:t/ ‘hand’ /hɑ:dun/ ‘hands’
/nuru/ ‘child’ /nuru:n/ ‘children’

(b) Sometimes plurality is indicated by adding numerals to it. For example,

Singular Plural
/bɔkku/ ‘book’ /dii bɔkku/ ‘two books’
/bɛʈki: / ‘girl’ /so: bɛʈki:n/ ‘six girls’
/gar/ ‘house' /doi garlu:/ ‘two houses’
/tʃɔ:ri:/ ‘girl’ /sa:t tʃɔ:ri:/ ‘seven girls’

(c) Sometimes a different lexeme is also used to indicate plurality of words. E.g.

/beʈko:/ ‘boy’ /nuru:n/ ‘boys’

/ʤoko/ ‘child’ /tʃutʃa:bar/ ‘children’
/gu:ɖɘ/ ‘basket’ /puʈkin/ ‘baskets’

4.3.6 Person

There are three persons in Saurashtra language. These are: first person, second person,
and third person. All these persons have different concordal relationship with the verb, tense
and moods. Tense markers also change according to different persons (first person, second

809
persons and third persons). Depending on the tense and moods these categorize are
distinguished. For example,

Person Singular Plural

First /a:mi/ ‘I’ /ami/ ‘we’
/mæɲ/ ‘I’ /ami:/ ‘we’
/mi:/ ‘I’ /əmi/ ‘we’
/mii/ ‘I’ /ham/ ‘we’
Second /ttu/ ‘you’ /ɑ:mʤotto:/ ‘you all’
/ʈu/ ‘you’ /ttam/ ‘you all’
/tume/ ‘you’ /tumi/ ‘you all’
/ṱumiaskki/ ‘you all’
Third /ɛɭɭɛ/ (he/she/it) /əu/ ‘they’
/eno/ ‘h /tenu/ ‘they’
/telle:/ (he/she/it) /tɛnu/ ‘they’
/tellɅ/ ‘she’ /ṱɛnu/ ‘they’
/tɛnɔ/
/teno/
/ṱɛno/
/teno/ ‘it’
/ṱijo/ (he/she/it)
/ṱino/
/u:/ ‘ he/she/it’

The different concordial relationship are shown below-

First Person: [Singular]

/mi səəʈuku ʤɛdərijo/

‘I go to the market' [marker is –dəri] (present tense).

/mi: sa:duk ʤa:ɾijɔ/

‘I go to the market' [marker is – ɾijɔ ] (present tense).

/mæɲ baʤa:rinə ʤa:u:tʃuɲ/

‘I go to the market' [marker is –tʃuɲ] (present tense).

/mi: ʤijɛs/
‘I went’ [marker is -jɛs] (past tense)

/mi ʤijəsi/
‘I went’ [marker is –jə] (past tense)

810
 /mæɲ go:/
‘I went’ [marker is –go:] (past tense)

/mæɲ baʤa:renə go:/

‘I went to the market' [marker is – go:] (past tense)

/mi: sɑ:ɖu ʤiaiyo/

‘I went to the market' [marker is –] (past tense).

/mi paʈcik siʎe:s/

‘I saw the bird' [marker is – siʎe:s] (past tense).

/mi səəṱuku ʤəvu/

‘I will go to the market‘ [marker is –vu] (future tense).

/mi: sɑ:ɖu ʤaʋo/

‘I will go to the market‘ [marker is -ʋo] (future tense).

/mæɲ baʤa:rinə ʤa:u:tʃuɲ/

‘I will go to the market‘ [marker is –tʃuɲ] (future tense)

First Person: [Plural]

/ham baʤa:rinə ʤa:ma:tʃa:/

‘We go to the market’ [marker is –tʃa:] (present tense)

/ami sɑ:du ʤɑ:riyo/

‘We go to the market’ [marker is –] (present tense).

/əmi sa:duk ʤa:ɾa:s/

‘We go to the market’ [marker is – ɾa:s ] (present tense).

/ami sɑ:ɖu ʤɑ:riyo/

‘we go to the market' [marker is –yo] (present tense).

/ami paʈciknuk siʎa:s/

‘We saw the bird’ [marker is – siʎa:s] (past tense).

/ham baʤa:renə ge/

‘We went to the market’ [marker is – ge] (past tense).

/ame sɑ:du ʤiæɑ:cci/

‘We went to the market’ [marker is –] (past tense).

811
 /əmi: sa:duk ʤija:s/
‘We went to the market’ [marker is – ja:s] (past tense)

/ham baʤa:rinə ʤa:ma:tʃa:/

‘We will go to the market’ [marker is –tʃa:] (future tense)

/ami səəṱuk ʤəvɛ/

‘We will go to the market’ [marker is –vɛ] (future tense).

Second Person: [Singular]

/tu: paʈcik sa:re:s/

‘You (sg) see the bird’ [marker is – sa:re:s ] (present tense)

/tu: sa:duk ʤa:ɾe:s/

‘You (sg) go to the market’ [marker is – ɾe:s] (present tense)

/ṱu səəṱuku ʤəərijo/

‘You (sg) go to the market’ [marker is – ri] (present tense)

/tumi paʈcik si:ʎa:s/

‘You(pl) saw the bird’ [marker is – si:ʎa:s] (past tense)

/ttu baʤa:renə go:/

‘You (sg) went to the market’ [marker is – go:] (past tense)

/ttu go:/
‘You (sg.) went’ [marker is –go:] (past tense).

/tu: sɑ:ɖu ʤɘɖitte/

‘You (sg) went to the market’ [marker is –] (past tense)

/tu: ʤɘɖitte/
‘You (sg.) went’ [marker is –] (past tense)

/ṱu səəṱuku ʤɛdijo/

‘You (sg) went to the market’ [marker is –di ] (past tense)

/tumi paʈcik sa:ʎ/

‘You(sg) will see the bird’ [marker is – sa:ʎ](future tense)

812
 /ttu badi:na ʤa:tʃi:/
‘You (sg) will go to school’ [marker is –tʃi:](future tense)

/tu: sɑ:ɖu ʤaʋɑ:y/

‘You (sg) will go to the market’ [marker is –] (future tense)

/tu: sa:duk ʤa:j/

‘You (sg) will go to the market’ [marker is – j ] (future tense)

/ṱu poldəmuk ʤɛdəji/

‘You (sg) will go to the school’ [marker is –də] (future tense)

Second Person: [Plural]

/ttam badi:na ʤa:o:tʃo:/

‘You (pl) go to school’ [marker is – tʃo:](present tense)

/tume sɑ:ɖu ʤɑ:nu/

‘You (pl) go to the market’ [marker is – nu] (present tense).

/ttam baʤa:renə ge/

‘You (pl) went to the market’ [marker is – ge] (past tense)

/ṱumi səəṱuku ʤɛdijəsi/

‘You (pl) went to the market’ [marker is – di] (past tense)

/tumi: sɑ:ɖu ʤɘɖi oriyɑ:t/

‘You (pl) went to the market’ [marker is –ɖi] (past tense)

/ttam badi:na ʤa:o:tʃo:/

‘You (pl) will go to school’ [marker is –tʃo:] (future tense)

/tume sɑ:ɖu ʤɑ:nu/

‘You (pl) will go to the market’ [marker is – nu] (future tense).

/ṱumi poldəmuk ʤɛdənu/

‘You (pl) will go to the school’ [marker is –də] (future tense)

Third Person: [Singular]

/tena sɑ:ɖu ʤɑ:dde/

‘He goes to the market’ [marker is – dde] (present tense)

813
 /tɛnɔ sa:duk ʤa:re:s/
‘He goes to the market’ [marker is – re:s] (present tense)

/teno paʈcik sa:re:s/

‘He sees the bird’ [marker is – re:s] (present tense)

/ṱɛno səəṱuku ʤɛdərəsi/

‘He goes to the market’ [marker is – dərə] (present tense)

/u: baʤa:rinə ʤa:vatʃə/

‘He goes to the market’ [marker is – vatʃə] (present tense)

/tɛnɔ sa:duk ʤe:ɖijɔ/

‘He went to the market’ [marker is – ɖijɔ] (past tense)

/teno paʈcik siʎas/

‘He saw the bird’ [marker is – siʎas] (past tense)

/teno sɑ:ɖu ʤɘɖi ho:dit/

‘He went to the market’ [marker is –] (past tense)

/u: baʤa:renə go:/

‘He went to the market’ [marker is – go:] (past tense)

/tɛnɔ sa:duk ʤa:j/

‘He will go to the market’ [marker is –j ] (future tense)

/ṱɛno pɛyiruk ʤɛdəəji/

‘He will go to the field’ [marker is –də] (future tense)

/teno sɑ:ɖu jɑ:n/

‘He will go to the market’ [marker is –:n] (future tense).

Third Person: [Plural]

/dəllən səəṱuku ʤɛdərəsi/

‘They (men) go to the market’ [marker is –rə] (present tense)

/telle bɘllan sɑ:du ʤeɖarɑ:tti/

‘They (men) go to the market’ [marker is -ɖa] (present tense)

/tɛɭɭɛ dəlla:n sa:duk ʤa:ɾa:s/

‘They (men) go to the market’ [marker is – ɾa:s](present tense)

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 /əu baʤa:renə ge/
‘They went to the market’ [marker is – ge] (past tense)

/teno sɑ:ɖuʤɘɖi ho:riyat/

‘They went to the market’ [marker is –ɖu] (past tense)

/ṱɛnu səṱuku ʤɛdijə/

‘They went to the market’ [marker is –di] (past tense).

/teno sa:du ʤɑ:n/

‘They will go to the market’ [marker is – n] (future tense)

/tenu paʈcik sa:n/

‘They will see the bird’ [marker is -vve:] (future tense)

/ṱɛnu rəənuk ʤɛdənu/

‘They will go to the jungle’ [marker is -də] (future tense).

4.3.7 Case

There are seven cases in Saurashtra: Nominative, Accusative, Instrumental, Dative,

Ablative, Genitive and Locative. Seven ways contrast of inflection are found in neuter
singular as well as in plural nouns.

Nominative Case

In Saurashtra, the marker for nominative is: Ø.. A nominative form of a noun is free
and uninflected.

/mi ghɛɾuk ʤərhɛsi/ ‘I go to the house’

/mi: gʰe:ɾ ʤa:ɾijɔ/ ‘I go to the house’
/mi e:ʈ au/ ‘I come here’
/ca:r genʈo palso avo/ ‘He is in the house’
/gorunu duud dɛnu/ ‘The cows give mlk’
/pa:ni banri:tʃər/ ‘Water boils’
/sunɔ uskəj/ ‘The dog barks’

Accusative Case

Accusative case is the case in nominative-accusative languages that marks certain

syntactic functions, usually the direct objects. In Saurashtra, the marker for accusative is /Ɛ:/,
/-ѕɨ/, /-ʝο. and /Ø/, as the following examples show:

815
 /mæɲ ba:ti ka:ðo/ ‘I eat bread’
/mi bhəjri khərisi/ ‘I eat bread’
/mi: paiyri tææo:/ ‘I eat bread’
/ami pacci sɑ:riyo/ ‘I see the bird’
/mæɲ pittinə ðeko:tʃuɲ/ ‘I see the bird’

Instrumental Case

This case is used to denote instrument with which the action is performed. It is a case
indicating that the referent of the noun. In Sawrashtra, the markers are: /-ɑ:/, /-am/, /-əm/,
/a:ɭ/, /-hɔɭɭɔ/, /-hɛru/, /-hullo/, /-kʰəɭɭi/, /-li/, /-tti/, /-ullo:/, /-um/. Somertimes the instrumental
case is also marked by the postpositions : -ʋuɱ, -ѕuɾə, as the following examples show:

/ma: pennutti læk/ 'Write with my pen’

/mɔɾɔ pɛjnɔ ha:ɭ likki/ 'Write with my pen’
/morə pɛjinəm likki/ 'Write with my pen’
/more pɘnɑ: likki/ 'Write with my pen’

/ʤɑ:r kaɖaihullo ʤekki/ ‘The tree is cut with axe’

/ʤədu pərsurum ʧɛkki/ ‘The tree is cut with axe’
/kora:letti ʤa:dena ka:tte/ ‘The tree is cut with axe’
/mɔɾɔ pɛjnɔ ha:ɭ likki/ ‘The tree is cut with axe’

Dative Case

The dative case designates the indirect object of a transitive verb. Nouns having the
role of recipient (as of things given), beneficiary of an action, or possessor of an item are
datives. The context plays a crucial factor in differentiating between dative and accusative. In
Saurashtra, the marker dative case markers are :/-kkɨ/, /kkƐ:/, /-æo:/, /-yo/, /æo:/, /-gɔ/, as the
follwoing examples show:
/mɔgɔ/ ‘to me’
/morɘ/ ‘to me’
/ma:da:iɲ/ ‘to me’
/xoʎo/ ‘to me’

/əvɾɛ ʤɔvvəɭ/ ‘to us’

/əvɾəʤəlu/ ‘to us’
/kɑ:yo/ ‘to us’

/koltim xaɳɳav to:v/ ‘Come to the bazar’

/more: ge:r au/ ‘Come to my house’

816
/ra:m siɭa:m ɟo:l bostak diʎe:s/ ‘Ram gave the book to Shyam’

/teŋgaʎo:/ ‘to them’

/tɛŋgɔ/ ‘to them’
/tɘr/ ‘to them’

Ablative Case

Ablative case is a case that expresses movement of subject or object from one place to
another either at spatial or at temporal plane. The ablative case markers in Saurashtra
includes: /-tti/, /-ɳɖri/ and /-rhi/, as the following examples show:

/ʤa:departti pa:n baduge/

‘Leaves fall from the tree’ [marker is -tti]

/ʤɑ:ɖumɳɖri pɑ:n lɘlet/

‘Leaves fall from the tree’ [marker is -ɳɖri]

/ʤhədum rhi pəən ləlɛsi/

‘Leaves fall from the tree’ [marker is -rhi]

Genitive Case

Genitive case is a case in which the referent of the marked noun is the possessor of
the referent of another noun. This case expresses the meaning of belonging to or possession
of something by the subject. The genitive case markers in Saurashtra are /-e/, /-əur/, /-gə/, /-
go/, /-ŋgɔ/, /-unðu:r/, and /-xo/, as the following examples show:

/əur gar/ ‘His house’ [marker is -əur]

/tɛgɔ gʰe:r/ ‘His house’ [marker is -gə]
/tego ge:r/ ‘His house’ [marker is -go]
/tehe ger/ ‘His house’ [marker is -e]
/ṱɛŋgə ghɛru/ ‘His houses’ [marker is -ŋgə]
/unðu:r garlu/ ‘His houses’ [marker is -unðu:r]
/texo thila:n/ ‘Her eyes’ [marker is -xo]
/texo puʈki/ ‘Her basket’ [marker is -xo]

Locative Case

Locative case is a case that expresses location of the referent of the noun it marks.
The location of the subject or object is expressed by locative case marker. Locative case
markers in Saurashtra are /nə/, /par/, /-ma:ð/, /ɑ:/, /-le/, /-e:/, /-um/, /-uk/, /-hɔɭɭɔ/, /Ø/, /-ɭɛ/, /-
lu/, etc.

817
 /ami sɑ:ɖu ʤɑ:riyo go/
‘I go to the market’ (marker is /-o/)

/mæɲ baʤa:rinə ʤa:u:tʃuɲ/

‘I go to the market’ (marker is /nə/)

/mi səəṱuku ʤɛdərijo/

‘I go to the market’ (marker is /ri/)

/mi: sa:duk ʤa:ɾijɔ/

‘I go to the market’ (marker is /-uk/)

/balla: par hubar/

‘Stand on the table’ (marker is /-par/)

/me:ʤɛ hɔɭɭɔ hibbi ɾʰa:/

‘Stand on the table’ (marker is /-hɔɭɭɔ/)

/mɘʤɘ hollo ibbi:/

‘Stand on the table’ (marker is /-i:/)

/mɛɛʤəhor hibbi/
‘Stand on the table’ (marker is /-hor/)

/mæɲ ga:mema:ð ru:tʃuɲ/

‘I live in the village’ (marker is /-ma:ð/)

/mi porkjədum ʤivərijo/

‘I live in the village’ (marker is /-um/)

/teno: ge:ru unccari thunke:s/

‘He killed the bird in the garden’ (marker is /-e:s/)

4.3.8 Pronoun

A pronoun is a pro-form which functions like a noun and substitutes for a noun or a
noun phrase. Pronouns can take number, gender and case markers like nouns. A language
may have several classes of pronouns. There are three types of pronouns: personal pronoun,
demonstrative pronoun and interrogative pronoun. The Saurashtra has the following types of
pronoun: (a) personal pronoun, (b) demonstrative pronoun, (c) reflexive pronoun, (d) relative
pronoun, (e) interrogative pronoun, and (f) indefinite pronoun.

818
Personal Pronoun

Personal pronouns are pronouns used as alternates for proper or common nouns.
Personal pronouns are categorized into three persons: 1st, 2nd and 3rd person.

Person Singular Plural

First /mæɲ/ 'I' /ame/ 'we'
/mi:/ 'I' /ami/ 'we'
/mii/ 'I' /ami:/ 'we'
/əmi/ 'we'
/ham/ 'we'
Second /ttu/ 'you' /ttam/ 'you (pl)'
/ṱu/ 'you' /tume/ 'you (pl)'
/tu:/ 'you' /tumi/ 'you (pl)'
/tu:/ 'you' /ṱumi/ 'you (pl)'
Third /eno:/ 'he/she/it' /əu/ 'they'
/telle/ 'he/she/it' /teno/ 'they'
/tɛɭɭɛ/ 'he/she/it' /tenu/ 'they'
/telle:/ 'he/she/it' /tɛnu/ 'they'
/tɛnɔ/ 'he/she/it' /ṱɛnu/ 'they'
/teno/ 'he/she/it'
/ṱɛno/ 'he/she/it'
/ṱijo/ 'he/she/it'
/ṱino/ 'he/she/it'
/u:/ 'he/she/it'

Demonstrative Pronoun
Demonstratives are deictic words that specify which entities a speaker refers to and
differentiates those from others. The demonstrative pronoun in Saurashtra can be described in
a two-tier system by taking spatial distance into account: proximate demonstrative pronouns
that refer to the objects nearer to the speaker, and remote demonstrative pronouns that refer to
the objects away from the speaker.

Proximate Remote
Singular /elle:/ ‘this’ /telle:/ ‘that’
Singular /i:/ ‘this’ /u:/ ‘that’
Singular /ijə/ 'this' /u/ ‘that’
Singular /ɛ/ ‘this’ /u/ ‘that’

Plural /elle:/ ‘these’ /elle:/ ‘those’

Plural /je/ ‘these’ /əu/ ‘those’
Plural /ijənu/ ‘these’ /ṱɛllɛ/ ‘those’
Plural /ɛn/ ‘these’ /ṱɛllɛ/ ‘those’

819
Examples
This
/ɛɭɭɛ ɔɳɖɛ gʰe:ɾ/ 'This is a house’
/elle: cokkaʈ keni/ ‘This good story’
That
/tellɘ dɘha katti/ ‘That is his knife'
/tɛɭɭɛ mɛnik dɛlkɔ se:/ ‘That man is fat'
These
/ɛɭɭɛ mɛnikun əski uɲʤɔ se:/ ‘These men are tall’
/ellɘ moru gɘr/ ‘These are my houses’
/ɛn ʧokkəd vəṱṱən nhə/ ‘These are not good words’
Those
/əu tʃutʃa:bari a:tʃər/ ‘Those girls are beautiful'
/tellɘ mo:ra boggun/ ‘Those are my books'
/telle: more: bostavon/ ‘Those are my books’

The Saurashtra demonstrative pronouns can also be classified in terms of distance as

the followings:
Proximate Remote
/attə/ ‘here' /vattə/ ‘there’
/e:ʈ/ ‘here' /addi/ ‘there’
/e:ʈ/ ‘here' /te:ʈ/ ‘there’
/ɘk/ ‘here' /tɘʈ/ ‘there’
/elləd/ ‘here' /ṱɛd/ ‘there’
/elləd/ ‘here' /ṱɛlləd/ ‘there’

Examples
Here
/attə ek tʃi:litʃər/ ‘Here is a cat’
/əmi e:ʈ əvɛs/ ‘We (excluding me) are coming here’
/kəndipkon ṱu ɛd rhən honə/ ‘You (sg) must not remain here’
/ma:r ba:ibja:niva:l attatʃər/ ‘My sisters are here’
/mɘ ɘɖ aʋt/ ‘I am coming here’
/ami e:ʈ ave:s/ ‘We come here’
/mi mɛllə ʧɛri əvərijo/ ‘We are coming here’
/mi: e:ɖa:vs/ ‘I come here’

There
/mɘ telleʈ ʤɑ:riyo/ ‘I go there’
/ami ṱɛd ʤərijo/ ‘We go there’
/ttu vattə dʒo:/ ‘You go there’
/beʈkop oɖare:s/ ‘We went there ourselves’
/ga:ʎin thi: tðe:ʎ/ ‘There are two cows’

820
 /tɘʈ ti: mandirin sɘtte/ ‘There are two cows’

Reflexive Pronoun

A reflexive pronoun is a pronoun that is preceded by the noun to which it refers (its
antecedent) within the same clause. A reflexive pronoun is an anaphor that must be bound by
its antecedent in its local domain. In Saurashtra language the reflexive pronouns are as
follows:

Pronoun Singular Plural

First /dusre:/ 'myself' /amissi/ 'ourselves'
/ma:roð/ 'myself' /elamɑ:mri/ 'ourselves'
/miissi/ 'myself' /əmi:s/ 'ourselves'
/tɛno:s/ 'myself' /hamməð/ 'ourselves'
/varttar/ 'myself' /unco:/ 'ourselves'
Second /guɲʤuluno/ 'youself' /ttama:r/ 'yourselves'
/ṉi/ 'yourself' /ṱumissi/ 'yourselves'
/tta:rva:su/ 'yourself' /tuɾɛ/ 'yourselves'
/tu:s/ 'yourself'
/ṱuussi/ 'yourself'
Third /ko:nak/ 'himself' /bandiliɑ:tti/ 'themselves'
/orva:su/ 'himself' /telleso:n/ 'themselves'
/tɛno:s/ 'himself' /tɛnu:s/ 'themselves'
/ṱɛnussi/ 'himself' /u:npa:nðalðini/ 'themselves'
/ṱikɔssi/ 'herself'
/moraʎo/ 'itself'
/orva:su/ 'itself'
/teho:/ 'itself'
/tɛlle:s/ 'itself'
/ṱɛllɛsi/ 'itself'

Examples:
First person (Singular)
/ma:ra va:su mæɲ ga:lipatam ttja:rkiðo/ ‘I made the kite myself’
/miisi ṱɛllɛ khəjəjo/ ‘I ate it myself’

First person (Plural)

/amɘtkanu seʈ ʤɑ:ri:yo/ ‘We went there ourselves’

Second person (Singular)

/tta:rlo ðola ttu:n ðoletʃi/ ‘You wash the clothes yourself’

821
Third person (Singular)

/əurva:su pa:tam saðuvo/ ‘He studied the lessons himself’

/teno: bonnattu kicci/ ‘She lifted the pot herself’
/əur ha:iti u:ð margi:/ ‘It died by itself’

Third person (Plural)

/ṱɛnu əplənu ghɛɾu bhəndilijəsi/ ‘They built the house themsleves’

Usually Saurashtra speakers employ three different forms for third person singular in
accordance with gender. For example, masculine pronouns are marked by use of /ko:nak/
‘himself’, feminine pronouns are marked by use of /teno:s/ ‘herself’ and /xe:ṉu:s/ ‘itself’ is
used for inanimate things.

Interrogative Pronoun

An interrogative pronoun is used in questions to stand for the item questioned. The
interrogative pronouns in Saurashtra can be classified into personal and impersonal forms
with examples as: who, whom (personal) and what, which, and where (impersonal).

Who
/ko:n tenɑ:/ ‘Who is he ?’
Whose
/komba go:ɖɑ: telle/ ‘Whose horse is that ?
/koŋgə ghɔdɔ ṱɛllɛ/ ‘Whose horse is that ?
/tu: xobbo: xuɖai/ ‘Whose horse is that ?
What
/tore: ṉa:v ka:ʎo/ ‘What is your name’
/toxo: kaʎxoʎas xoriʎo/ ‘What do you eat?’
/ttam ka: i ka:otʃo:/ ‘What do you eat?’
Which
/pnɲɟal keʈʈo xollo do:r xollo baṉdare:s / ‘Which train will you get?’
/ttu kosə reilen ʤa:tʃi:/ ‘Which train will you get?’
/ṱu kollɛ rɛil dhɛrən ʤərhijo / ‘Which train will you get?’
/tu: ko:n ɾəjl dʰɛɾən ʤa:ɾijɔ / ‘Which train will you get?’
/tu: kollɘ rɅil derɅn ʤɑ:riyɑ:/ ‘Which train will you get?’
Where
/kosə ṱorə nhurhunnu/ ‘Where are your children?’
/ttama:r tʃutʃa:bar kattə/ ‘Where are your children?’
/tu: kɑ:y hossu: hoyrio/ ‘Where are your children?’
/tuɾɛ piɭɭəl ko:sɛ/ 'Where are your children?’
/ko:se: tore: pillal/ ‘Where are your children?’

822
Indefinite Pronoun

The pronouns which denote some non-definite persons or things instead of a definite
person or a thing are called Indefinite pronouns. The examples of indefinite pronoun in
Saurashtra are the followings:

Indefinite Pronoun (Singular)

Anybody
/ko:n paʎat elle: ka:m karam musai/ ‘Anybody can do this work’

Anyone:
/tramdi mekko:ti elako:m kɘruvaiy/ ‘Anyone can do this work’

Everybody:
/əski tɛnu gumbuk əvnɔ/ ‘Everybody has to come for the meeting’

Everyone:
/akkidano telleʈ ʤɘɖarɑ:si/ ‘Everyone went there’

Everything:
/akki: kamdaiyɑ:/ ‘Everything is lost’

No one
/i: ba:ta:na keni pa:de dʒa:eni/ ‘No one can lift this stone’

Nobody
/keni i: ka:m kere dʒa:eni/ ‘Nobody can do this work’
/ko:ɴ pəjnɛt̪ ɛɭɭɛ ka:m kɛɾən musəi/ ‘Nobody can do this work’
/konkkəhəlnə ɛllə kəm kɛrən musəiji/ ‘Nobody can do this work’
/koŋgahɑ:l nɑ: legɑ:m keran muttæ/ ‘Nobody can do this work’

One
/ɔɳɖɛ tɛnɔ ʤi: ka:m vɛkkəɾəs/ ‘One should go to find a job’
/ondə ṱɛno ʤi ondə kəm vɛkkuno/ ‘One should go to find a job’
/teno akkidano avɑ:i:/ ‘One should go to find a job’

4.3.9 Adjectives

In Saurashtra language adjectives occur before noun and remain unchanged for any
change in gender and number. They do not change their form depending on gender or number
of noun they attribute. Adjectives are invariable in the language and may be classified in the
following types based on traditional scheme of adjective classification.

823
Attributive Adjectives

/a:rtto: tʃɔ:ra:/ ‘good boy’

/cokkaʈ beʈko/ ‘good boy’
/buddisəəli nhənnu/ ‘clever boy’
/moʈʈo bostaxo/ ‘big book’
/mhoʈə puʈikinu/ ‘Big baskets’
/moʈʈe puʈkin/ ‘Big baskets’
/elle: cokkaʈ keni/ ‘This good story’
/moʈʈe nuru/ ‘big child’
/na:nəkja: tʃɔ:ra:/ ‘small child’
/ṉannɔ piɭɭaɭ/ ‘bad children’

Predicative Adjectives

These are linked via a copula or other connecting devices to a noun or s pronoun they
modify. For example:

/elle keni cokkaɖiyo/ ‘These men are tall’

elle: kenin cokkoʎo:/ ‘That man is fat’
/əu tʃutʃa:bari a:tʃər/ ‘Those girls are beautiful’
/ṱɛllɛ bɛdki ɛdi/ ‘That girl is deaf’
/tella meiɲʤɑ:n boli uhɑ:ttanu/ ‘Those men are strong’

Formation of Numerals

One: /onʈʈe:/ /ek/ /oɳɖe/ /jo:k/ /ɔndɛ/

Two: /thiʎo/ /ði:/ /diyɑ:/ /dijjɔ/
Three: /ti:n/ /ti:r/ /ti:nɘ/ /tʰi:nɛ/ /ṱiinu/
Four: /ca:r/ /tʃa:r/ /cɑ:rɘ/ /ʧa:ɾɛ/ /ʧəəɾu/
Five: /pa:ne/ /pa:ntʃ/ /pɑ:ɲʤe/ /pa:ɲʤɛ/ /pəənʤu/
Six: /so/ /tʃe:/ /so:ya/ /so:/ /sɔɔṱu/
Seven: /sat/ /sa:t/ /sɑ:dɘ/ /sa:dɛ/ /səəṱu/
Eight: /a:ʈ/ /a:t/ /ɑ:ɖɘ/ /a:ɖɛ/ /aadu/
Nine : /ṉou/ /nau/ /novyo/ /ɴɔvjɔ/
Ten: /des/ /ðas/ /deʂe/ /dɛssɛ/ /dəssu/
Twelve: /ba:re:/ /ba:rə/ /bɑ:rɘ/ /ba:ɾɛ/ /bəəɾu/
Thirteen: /te:re:/ /terə/ /ti:rɘ/ /te:ɾɛ/ /ṱɛɛɾu/
Fourteen: /caude:/ /savaðə/ /cowdɘ/ /sɔvdɛ/ /səṱṱəɾu/
Fifteen: /paṉdare:/ /panðrə/ /pandere/ /pʰəɴdəɾɛ/ /phənṱəɾu/
Sixteen: /sovaɭ/ /solə/ /sovolo/ /sɔvvəl/ /sɔvvəlu/
Seventeen: /settar/ /satrə/ /setter/ /sət̪təɾ/ /səṱṱuɾu/
Eighteen: /divnis/ /aṱa:rə/ /aɖɑ:ru/ /divnis/ /ədəɾu/
Nineteen: /novdiʂe/ /nɔvɔtu/ /nəvəṱu/ /nowɑ:ru/ /nɔvɾu/

824
 Twenty: /vi:se:/ /vi:s/ /vi:ʂɘ/ /vi:sɛ/ /viisu/
thirty: /ti:s/ /ʈi:ʂɘ/ /ti:s/ /ṱiisu/
Forty: /saɭisun/ /tʃa:lis/ /caliʂe/ /ʧəɭis/ /ʧəəlisɛ/
Fifty: /ponna:sun/ /patʃa:s/ /ponnɑ:ʂe/ /pɔɳɳa:s/ /ponnəsɛ/
Sixty: /sa:ɖo:r/ /sa:ta:is/ /sɑ:ɖuʂe/ /sa:ʈʈu/ /səədu/
Seventy: /settarun/ /sa:tan/ /sɑ:duʂe/ /si:ɾu/ /siiɾu/
Eighty: /asio:r/ /asipar/ /asiʂe/ /əsi/ /əʃi/
Ninety: /ṉastarum/
Hundred: /onʈʈte:so/ /so:/ /oɳɖaʂo/ /ɔɳɖɛso:/ /sɔɔvu/

From the above data we can see that the numerals fourteen, fifteen, twelve, nineteen,
etc are formed by adding some suffixes, while twenty, thirty, forty, fifty, etc. have a uniform
ending and an individual term is used to denote eighty. Numerals like ninety-one, thirty-one
etc. are formed in the following ways –

/ðas/ ‘10’ + /tʃa:r/ ‘4’ = /savaðə/ ‘14’

/des/ ‘10’ + /ca:r/ ‘4’ = /caude:/ ‘14’
/deʂe/ ‘10’ + /cɑ:rɘ/ ‘4’ = /cowdɘ/ ‘14’
/dɛssɛ/ ‘10’ + /ʧa:ɾɛ/ ‘4’ = /sɔvdɛ/ ‘14’
/dəssu/ ‘10’ + /səṱṱəɾu/ ‘4’ = /səṱṱəɾu/ ‘14’

/ðas/ ‘10’ + /pa:ntʃ/ ‘5’ = /panðrə/ ‘15’

/des/ ‘10’ + /pa:ne/ ‘5’ = /paṉdare:/ ‘15’
/deʂe/ ‘10’ + /pɑ:ɲʤe/ ‘5’ = /pɅndere/ ‘15’
/dɛssɛ/ ‘10’ + /pa:ɲʤɛ/ ‘5’ = /pʰəɴdəɾɛ/ ‘15’
/dəssu/ ‘10’ + /pəənʤu/ ‘5’ = /phənṱəɾu/ ‘15’

/ʈi:ʂɘ/ ‘30’ + /oɳɖe/ ‘1’ = /ʈi:sanoɳɖe/ ’31’

/ti:s/ ‘30’ + /ek/ ‘1’ = /ti:sanek/ ’31’
/ṱiisu/ ‘30’ + /ɔndɛ/ ‘1’ = /ɔkigiisṱu/ ‘31’
/tis/ ‘30’ + /nau/ ‘9’ = /ti:sanau/ ‘39’
/ʈi:ʂɘ/ ‘30’ + /novyo/ ‘9’ = /ʈi:sannovyo/ ‘39’
/ṱiisu/ ‘30’ + /nəvvu/ ‘9’ = /nəvəgiisṱu/ ‘39’
/ti:sun/ ‘30’ + /ɴɔvjɔ/ ‘9’ = /ti:sunɴɔvjɔ/ ‘39’

/ṉastarum/ ‘90’ + /onʈʈe:/ ‘1’ = /ṉastarumonʈʈe:/‘91’

/novdiʂe/ ‘90’ + /oɳɖe/ ‘1’ = /novdiʂulaoɳɖe/‘91’
/nəvəṱu/ ‘90’ + /ɔndɛ/ ‘1’ = /ugənəvəṱu/ ‘91’
/ṉastarum/ ‘90’ + /ṉou/ ‘9’ = /onʈʈe: uno so/ ‘99’
/novdiʂe/ ‘90’ + /novyo/ ‘9’ = /novdiʂulanovyo/‘99’
/nəvəṱu/ ‘90’ + /nəvvu/ ‘9’ = /nəvənəvəṱu/ ‘99’

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4.3.10 .Classifiers

The classifier is denoted by the use of cardinal numerals like /oru/, /wur/, /ɖare/,
/okka/, /ɔɳɖɛ tɛnɔ/, /ondɛ/, /əskiṱɛnu/ etc. to refer to a person. For example

/ɛɭɭɛ ɔɳɖɛ gʰe:ɾ/ ‘This is a house’

/i ondɛ ghɛɾu/ ‘This is a house’
/ɛɭɭɛ mɔɾɛ gʰe:ɾun/ ‘These are my houses’
/askidenu te:ʈ ɟiʎa:s/ ‘The people go there’
/ɔɳɖɛ tɛnɔ ʤi: ka;m vɛkkəɾəs/ ‘One should go to find a job’
/ondə ṱɛno ʤi ondə kəm vɛkkuno/ ‘One should go to find a job’
/aski meɲʤɑ:n dellaɖ ʤɘɖarɑ:si/ ‘The people go there’
/mɛŋgja:n te:ʈ ʤa:ɾa:s/ ‘The people go there’
/mohokolo tu:me:/ ‘One man is sitting down’

4.4 Verb

Verb is a form class that marks tense, aspect, modal, and personal markers
distinguished by number and gender. In inflectional languages verbs may be inflected for
tense, aspect, and voice, and modality, agreement with other constituents in terms of person,
number and grammatical gender. Verb morphology deals with forms and classification of
verbs, and their pattern in association etc. in the language.

4.4.1.Thematic Classification of verbs

The number of arguments that a verb takes is called its transitivity. Based on
transitivity the verb stems are further divided into three sub-classes, namely, (a) Intransitive,
(b) Transitive, and (c) Ditransitive.

Intransitive Verb

Intransitive verbs are those which do not take any object.

/mi ʤəni/ ‘I go’

/mi: ʤa:/ ‘I go’
/sunənu uskəji/ ‘The dog barks’.
/suno uskai/ ‘The dog barks’
/u: kottra basurotʃər/ ‘The doɡ barks’
/teno: te:ʈ xibbiris/ ‘She stands there’

Transitive Verb

Transitive verbs can take one direct object. Some examples of transitive verbs in
Saurashtra are given below:

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 /mæɲ ba:ti ka:ðo/ ‘I eat bread’
/mi: pəʧʧik sa:ɾɛs/ ‘I see the bird’
/u: pittinə ðitti:/ ‘she saw the bird’

Ditransitive Verb

Ditransitive verbs has a subject, a direct object, and an indirect object. Examples of
ditransitive verbs in Saurashtra are given below:

/targə: xannav raɟaŋgamri durbuɭnuk devaɖiriʎo:/

‘Money was given by the Govt. to the poor’

4.4.2 Semantic Classification of Verb

Physical Activity Verb

/batʃa:na:ko/ ‘break (stick)’
/phɔdini/ ‘break (a pot)’
/cavariʎo/ ‘bite’
/lədəɾijɔ/ ‘kick’
/thami ɟa:tte:/ ‘run’
/sikkatte:/ ‘learn’

Instrument verbs
/kɔvɾət̪tɛ/ ‘dig (a hole)’
/katkar/ ‘cut (cloth)’
/vɛdəkhələɾiɔ/ ‘hunt’
/sɔvɾəm kɛllət̪tɛ/ ‘cut (hair)’
/na:li/ ‘separate’
/ʞο:ɾɨɦeʈɔnɨ/ ‘scoop out’
/pɑ:ʈəʞeʈɔnɨ/ ‘split (wood)’

Verbs of Fighting
/əəkɾəmɔkɛɾni/ ‘attack’
/vɔdənni/ ‘defeat’
/moraɖatte:/ ‘kill’
/kosatte:/ ‘stab’
/suɾikɔvɾini/ ‘stab’
Motion verbs
/aviceratte:/ ‘arrive (at a place)’
/pani mincatte:/ ‘drag (a heavy object)’
/buɖət̪tɛ/ ‘drown’
/celmatte:/ ‘float’

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 /ɑɯŋɨ/ ‘to climb (a tree)’
/prɑѕɑnnɑɦοŋɨ/ ‘to appear (come into sight)’

Occupational verbs
/ḓɑ:ṱɨʞɑ:ɱəʞəʀəŋɨ/ ‘to milk (a cow)’
/kο:ʋɑɾəŋɨ/ ‘to cut (hair)’
/ṱɑppɑʈɑṱṱɛ/ ‘to worship’
/ʋeŋŋuɡɑʈɑʀɨʝο/ ‘to nurse (feed a baby)’

Culinary verbs
/ɦɑnṱɑṱṱɛ/ ‘to chop’
/kɑɯɭɑṱṱɛ/ ‘to grind’
/ɱeɱɱɑṱṱɛ/ ‘to boil (a method of cooking)’
/ʃɨʤɑʈɑṱṱɛ/ ‘to boil’

Stationary verbs (Non-Motion verbs)

/ɱοʀɑṱṱɛ/ ‘to collide (two moving bodies)’
/ʀɨnʞɑʈɑṱṱɛ/ ‘to be silent’

Inchoative verbs
/ɓɨ:ʋɔʤɑʈɑṱṱɛ/ ‘to ripen (as a fruit)’
/nοɱɱɑṱṱɛ/ ‘to thicken (soup or gravy)’
/pοɭɭɑɡɑɭɑṱṱɛ/ ‘to fade (lose colour)’
/uɭɑʈɑṱṱɛ/ ‘to decay’

Cognitive verbs
/kɑɭɑɭɭɑṱṱɛ/ ‘to study’
/ѕɑɯɑѕunʧɑṱṱɛ/ ‘to understand’

Sensory verbs
/ɦuʈɑṱṱɛ/ ‘to tired’
/ɱɨ:nʞɨpοʈɑṱṱɛ/ ‘to cough’
/ʒɨɫe:ṱɑʋɑṱṱɛ/ ‘to read’
/ѕɨʞɑɾɑṱṱɛ/ ‘to smell’

Emotive verbs
/ḓuѕənο:ṱṱɛ/ ‘to embrace (each other)’
/ɨʃəʈʈɑɱpοʈɑṱṱɛ/ ‘to kiss’
/ѕɑɱpupοʈɑṱṱɛ/ ‘to pray’

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4.4.3 Structural Classification of verbs

Saurashtra verb stems can be classified into two types: (a) simple verb, and (b)
compound verbs.

Simple Verb

A simple verb is composed of monomorphemic single root with or without a suffix.

The verb is conjugated with aspect, gender, number and person markers. The conjugational
patterns of vowel ending and consonant ending verb roots are given below.

/sa:riʎa:s/ ‘see’ (1st person) /mi: sa:re:s/ ‘I see’

/sa:riʎa:s/ ‘see’ (2nd person) /tu: sa:riʎa:s/ ‘You (sg) see’
/sa:riʎas/ ‘sees’ (3rd person) /tenu sa:riʎas/ ‘She sees’

/siʎe:s/ ‘saw’ (1st person sg) /mi: siʎe:s/ ‘I saw’

/siʎe:s/ ‘saw’ (2nd person) /tu: siʎe:s/ ‘You saw’
/si:z/ ‘saw’ (3rd person) /tenu si:z/ ‘She saw'

Compound verb

A compound verb consists of more than one root and may include one or more
suffixes.

For example-
/haliɡertte/ ‘empty’ + /suddamɡeri/ ‘clean’ = /haliɡertte/ ‘to empty from a jar’
/khəli/ ‘empty’ + /kɛɾni / ‘to do’ = /khəlikɛɾni/ ‘to empty from a jar’
/bell/ ‘mix’ + /lero/ ‘to do’ = /bell lero/ ‘to mix somethinɡ’
/kimədʒimə/ ‘disarranɡe’ + /kər/ ‘to do’ = /kimədʒimə kər/ ‘to disarranɡe thinɡ’
/kuʈʈisɑ:rkenne/ ‘disarrange’ + /siŋɡarni/ ‘decorate’=/kuʈʈisɑ:rkenne/ ‘to disarrange thing’
/pa:ni/ ‘water’ + /pa:tlo/ ‘dilute = /pa:ni pa:tlo/ ‘to dilute water’
/piri/ ‘remove’ + /dette:/ ‘to do’ = /piri dette:/ ‘to remove (take away)’
/sixicco/ ‘barter’ + /keratte:/ ‘to do = /sixicco keratte:/ ‘to trade, barter’
/vikk/ ‘sell’ + /atte:/ ‘to do’ = /vikkatte:/ ‘to sell somthing’
/aʈkitov/ ‘destroy’ + /atte:/ ‘to do’ = /aʈkitovatte:/ ‘to set (on eggs)’
/gaunc/ ‘serve’ + /atte:/ ‘to do’ = /gauncatte:/ ‘to serve (food)’

4.4.4 Derivation of Verb

The process of forming new verbs from existing verbs by adding transitive markers is
known as derivation. The different base forms of the verb are primary bases, conjunct bases,
and compound bases.

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Primary base
/mi: sa:re:s/ ‘I see’
Conjunct base
/ṱenο ɑʋe:ḓɨѕə ɱɨ:ɱeɫɨ ʤɑʋɑ:ʝɨ/
‘I shall go if he comes’

/ɦοŋʈɑʋe:ŋuɱ ṱenο ɓοɭɨ:nʞɑɱ ʞɑ:ɱʞɑɾe:ѕɨ ṱenο ʤɑɯn ʤɑʝɨ/

‘If he works hard he will succeed’

Compound base
Compound bases are formed from two or more simple bases.

/ѕοṱuʞο ṱenɑ ʤe:ŋɨ ɱɨ ʤe:ŋɨ/ ‘Neither he nor I went to the market’

4.4.5 Inflection of Verb

The components of finite verb are: Tense, Aspect, and Mood. In Saurashtra finite
verbs are formed by adding different suffixes to the verb root and different forms are
available for different person and tense. The finite verb formation is: Root + tense marker ±
aspect marker + personal marker, as given below.

Verb /po:/ ‘to go’

1st person:
/mæɲ ʤa:ro:/ ‘I ɡo’ /mæɲ ɡo:/ ‘I went’
2nd person
/tumi ʤɑ:riyɑ:/ ‘You (sg) go’ /tu: ʤɘɖitte/ ‘You went’
3rd Person
/tɛnɔ go/ ‘He goes’ /tɛnɔ ʤe:ɖijɔ/ ‘He went’
/ṱɛno ʤɛdərəsi/ ‘He goes’ /ṱɛno ʤɛdijo/ ‘He went’

4.4.6. Negation

Negation is a morphsyntactic process in which a lexical item denies or inverts the

meaning of another lexical item or a construction. In Saurashtra, negative verbs are realized
mostly by particles like /ɑ:/, /a:du/, /dəkku/, /iɭə/, /kəəɳi/, /kka/, /ko:ni/, /ɭɛ/, /mer/, /ṉa:/, /ṉi:/,
/tʃei/, etc.

/anɡa:re dær dʒo:mər/ ‘Do not go near the fire’

/kəndipkon ṱu ɛd rhən honə/ ‘You(sg) must not remain here’
/ttu attə rer tʃei/ ‘You(sɡ) must not remain here’
/ṱɛno kəmkɛrrəni/ ‘He did not do the work’
/teno: ka:m kere:ni/ ‘He did not do the work’
/teno: kamkararini/ ‘He did not do the work’
/ma:da: ɲka:itʃeini/ ‘I have nothinɡ with me’

830
 /tele mɑ:nik anɡun aʋrianni/ ‘That man has not come yet’
/elle andadat ho:yɘnɑ:/ ‘This is not edible’
/elle: cokkaʈ vatta:n ṉa:/ ‘These are not good words’
/mɘ kamkarɑ: ahunɑ:/ ‘I should not have done the work’
/teŋga xa:l elle: musuna:/ ‘They cannot do it’

There are terms that denote negation too, like /muʃunhə/, /kuðureni/, /musuna:t̪tɛ/
/ɛɭɭɛ musuna:t̪tɛ/ ‘It is impossible’
/elle: mosuna:tte:/ ‘It is impossible’
/i: kuðureni/ ‘It is impossible’
/iə muʃunhəṱṱəjo/ ‘It is impossible’

4.4.7.Causation

A causative is a grammatical or lexical indication of the causal role of a referent in

relation to an event or state expressed by a verb. The causative form is formed by causative
suffix. In Sowrastra, causatives verbs are –

/mæɲ ɡo:dena ða:sotʃu korotʃuɲ/ ‘I am makinɡ the horse run’

/ɱɨ: ʤɑnɑnəʞɑ ɑѕɑṱṱɑ ṱʱοʋe:ѕɨ/ ‘I make the people laugh’
/boɡɡu tehahɑ:l sowdatto: musɘtti/ ‘I am making her give a book’
/mæɲ ɡo:dena ða:sotʃu korotʃuɲ/ ‘I am makinɡ someone ɡive you money’
/mi: a:ja: mujjəm piɭɭa:k kʰəɴi dijɛs/ ‘I make the nurse feed the baby’

4.4.8.Passiviation

Passive verbs are formed from active verbs by the addition of passive auxiliary verb.

/ɦɑŋŋɑɯ ѕɑɾəʞʱɑɾəɦɑ:ɫə ḓuɾəɓɑɫənɑʞɑ ɡʱɑɭɑn pɑʈe:ѕɨ/

‘Money was given by the Govt. to the poor’

/pʱɑɨɾɨ ṱeɡɑ ɦɑ:ɭə ʞʱɑ:nə ḓɨʝɑʝɛ/

‘The bread is eaten by him’

4.4.9.Tense

Verbs in Saurashtra are morphologically marked for having three way opposition of
tense as: Present, Past and Future. Following are the person wise tense formations in
Saurashtra taking /po:/ ‘go’ as the model verb root.

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Present Indefinite Tense

Person Singular Verb form Plural Verb form

/mæɲ/ 'I' /ʤa:ɾijɔ/ 'go' /ami/ 'we' /ʤa:ma:tʃa:/ 'go'
First /mi:/ 'I' /ʤa:u:tʃuɲ/ 'go' /əmi:/ 'we' /ʤa:ɾijɔ/ 'go'
/mii/ 'I' /ʤɑ:tte/ 'go' /ham/ 'we' /ʤɑ:riyo/ 'go'
/ʤɛdərijo/ 'go' /ʤɛdərijo/ 'go'
/ɟa:riʎo/ 'go' /ɟa:riʎas/ 'go'
Second /tu:/ 'you' (sg) /ɟa:re:s/ 'go' /tumi/ 'you' (pl) /ʤa:otʃo:/ 'go'
/ttu/ 'you' (sɡ) /ʤa:ɾe:s/ 'go' /ttam/ 'you'(pl) /ʤa:ɾa:s/ 'go'
/ṱu/ 'you'(sg) /ʤa:tʃi:/ 'go'
Third /tena/ 'he' /ʤa:ɾe:s/ 'goes' /əu/ 'they' /ʤa:ɾa:s/ 'go'
/teno/ 'he' /ʤa:ɾis/ 'goes' /telle:/ 'they' /ʤa:retʃər/ 'go'
/tɛnɔ/ 'she' /ɟa:re:s/ 'goes' /tellen/ 'they' /ʤɛdərəsi/ 'go'
/ṱijo/ 'she' /ṱɛnu/ 'they' /ɟa:re:s/ 'go'
/ṱino/ 'she'
/tɛɭɭɛ/ 'it'

Example
/ami sɑ:ɖu ʤɑ:tte/ 'I go to the market’
/ami di:danu sɑ:ɖu ʤɑ:riyo/ ‘We(two) go to the market’
/ami sa:duk ɟa:riʎas/ ‘We go to the market’
/ttu baʤa:rinə ʤa:tʃi:/ ‘You (sɡ) ɡo to the market’
/ttam baʤa:rinə ʤa:otʃo:/ ‘You (pl) ɡo to the market’
/tena sɑ:du ʤɑ:riyɑ:/ ‘He goes to the market’
/tena sɑ:du ʤɑ:dde/ ‘She goes to the market’
/əu baʤa:rinə ʤa:retʃər/ ‘They (men) ɡo to the market’
/telle tellen sɑ:du ʤeɖarɑ:tti/ ‘They (men) go to the market’

Past Indefinite Tense

Person Sinɡular Verb form Plural Verb form

First /mæɲ/ 'I' /ʤiaiyo/ 'went' /ame/ 'we' /ʤiæɑ:cci/ 'went'
/mi:/ 'I' /ʤijɛs/ 'went' /ami/ 'we' /ʤija:s / 'went'
/mi:/ 'I' /ɡo:/ 'went' /ami:/ 'we' /ʤijəəsi/ 'went'
/mii/ 'I' /ɟiʎe:/ 'went' /ham/ 'we' /ɡe/ 'went'

Second /ttu/ 'you' (sg) /ʤe:ɖijɔ/ 'went' /ttam/ 'you' (pl) /ʤe:ɖija:/ 'went'
/ṱu/ 'you' (sg) /ʤɛdijo/ 'went' /tumi/ 'you' (pl) /ʤɛdijəsi/ 'went'
/tu:/ 'you' (sg) /ʤɘɖitte/ 'went' /tumi:/ 'you'(pl) /ʤɘɖi oriyɑ:t/ 'went'
/tu:/ 'you' (sg) /ɡo:/ 'went' /ṱumiaskki/ 'you' /ɡe/ 'went'
/ɟe:ɖiʎo/ 'went' (pl) /ɟe:ɖiʎa:/ 'went'
Third /tɛnɔ/ 'he' /ʤe:ɖi/ 'went' /əu/ 'they' /ʤe:ɖi hɔdija:s/

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 /ṱɛno/ ‘he’ /ʤe:ɖijɔ/ 'went' /teno/ 'they' 'went'
/teno/ 'he' /ʤɛdijo/ 'went' /tenu/ ‘they’ /ʤɛdijə/ 'went'
/u:/ 'he' /ʤɘɖi ho:dit/ 'went' /ṱɛnu/ 'they /ʤɘɖi ho:riyat/ 'went'
/ṱino/ ‘she’ /ɡo:/ 'went' /tɛnu/ 'they' /ɡe/ 'went'
/tɛnɔ/ 'she' /ɟe:ɖi/ 'went' /ɟe:ɖixoɖiʎda:s/
/teno/ 'she' 'went'
/ṱijo/ ‘it’

Examples
/mæɲ baʤa:renə ɡo:/ ‘I went to the market’
/ame sɑ:du ʤiæɑ:cci ‘We went to the market’
/ttu baʤa:renə ɡo:/ ‘You(sɡ) went to the market’
/ttam baʤa:renə ɡe/ ‘You(pl) went to the market’
/ṱɛno səəṱuku ʤɛdijo/ ‘He went to the market’
/tɛnɔ sa:duk ʤe:ɖi/ ‘She went to the market’
/teno sɑ:ɖu ʤɘɖi ho:rit/ ‘It went to the market’
/teno sɑ:ɖu ʤɘɖi ho:riyat/ ‘They went to the market’

Future Indefinite Tense

Person Singular Verb form Plural Verb form

First /mæɲ/ 'I' /ʤa:u:tʃuɲ/ /ame/ 'we' /ʤa:ma:tʃa:/ 'will go'
/mi:/ 'I' 'will go' /ami/ 'we' /ʤaʋɑ:y/ 'will go'
/mi:/ 'I' /ʤaʋɑ:y/ 'will go' /ami:/ 'we' /ɟavve:/ 'will go'
/mii/ 'I' /ʤəvu/ 'will go' /ham/ 'we' /ʤəvɛ/ 'will go'
/ɟavu/ 'will go'
Second /ttu/ 'you' (sg) /ʤa:tʃi:/ 'will go' /ttam/ 'you' (pl) /ɟa:n/ 'will go'
/ṱu/ 'you' (sg) /ʤaʋɑ:y/ 'will go' /tumi/ 'you' (pl) /ʤa:o:tʃo:/ 'will go'
/tu:/ 'you' (sg) /ʤɛdəji/ 'will go' /tumi:/ 'you'(pl) /ʤɑ:nu/ 'will go'
/tu:/ 'you' (sg) /ɟa:ʎ/ 'will go' /ṱumiaskki/ 'you' /ʤɛdənu/ 'will go'
(pl)
Third /tɛnɔ/ 'he' /ʤa:vatʃər/ /əu/ 'they' /ʤɑ:n/ 'will go'
/ṱɛno/ ‘he’ 'will go' /teno/ 'they' /ʤa:vatʃər/ 'will go'
/teno/ 'he' /ʤəəji/ 'will go' /tenu/ ‘they’ /ʤəənu/ 'will go'
/u:/ 'he' /ʤəəji/ 'will go' /ṱɛnu/ 'they /ɟa:n/ 'will go'
/ṱino/ ‘she’ /ʤəəji/ 'will go' /tɛnu/ 'they'
/tɛnɔ/ 'she' /jɑ:n/ 'will go'
/teno/ 'she' /ɟa:ʎ/ 'will go'
/ṱijo/ ‘it’

Examples
/mæɲ baʤa:rinə ʤa:u:tʃuɲ/ ‘I will ɡo to the market’
/ame sɑ:ɖu ʤaʋɑ:y/ ‘We will go to the market’

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 /ttu badi:na ʤa:tʃi:/ ‘You(sɡ) will ɡo to the school’
/ttam badi:na ʤa:o:tʃo:/ ‘You(pl) will ɡo to the school’
/teno boaluk ɟa:ʎ/ ‘He will go to the field’
/eno sɑ:ɖu ʤɑ:i/ ‘She will go to the market’
/telle sɑ:ɖu ʤɑ:i/ ‘It will go to the market’
/əu adibi:nə ʤa:vatʃər/ ‘They will ɡo to the junɡle’

4.4.10 Aspect
Aspect is a grammatical category associated with verbs that expresses a temporal
view of the event or state expressed by the verb.

Imperfective Aspect
Imperfective aspect is an aspect that expresses an event or state, with respect to its
internal structure, instead of expressing it as a simple whole. It depicts an action which is
considered as continuous in the past or present or future tenses.

Present Imperfective Aspect

Person Singular Verb form Plural Verb form

First /mæɲ/ 'I' /ʤa:ɾijɔ/ 'am going' /ame/ 'we' /ʤa:retʃa:/
'are going'

Second /ttu/ 'you' (sg) /ʤa:ɾijɔ/ 'are going' /ttam/ 'you' (pl) /ʤa:ɾa:s/ 'are going'

Third /tɛnɔ/ 'he' /ʤɑ:rɑ:tti/ 'is going' /əu/ 'they' /ʤilɛsɛṱṱɛ/ 'are going'

Examples
/mæɲ baʤa:rinə ʤa:ro:tʃuɲ/ 'I am ɡoinɡ to the market'
/ame sɑ:du ʤɑ:riyɑ:/ 'We are going to the market'
/ttu baʤa:rinə ʤa:ro:tʃi:/ 'You(sɡ) are ɡoinɡ to the market'
/ttam baʤa:rinə ʤa:retʃo:/ 'You(pl) are ɡoinɡ to the market'
/tɛnɔ sa:duk ʤa:ɾɛs/ 'He is going to the market'
/eno: sɑ:du ʤɑ:ritti/ 'She is going to the market'
/telle sɑ:du ʤɑ:ritti/ 'It is going to the market'
/əu baʤa:rinə ʤa:retʃər/ 'They are ɡoinɡ to the market'

Past Imperfective Aspect

Person Sinɡular Verb form Plural Verb form

/mæɲ/ 'I' /ʤilɘ sedde/ 'was /ame/ 'we' /ʤilɘ sɘtte/ 'were going'
going'

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Second /ttu/ 'you' (sg) /ʤile hoditti/ 'were /ttam/ 'you' /ʤilɘ hodiyɑ:tti/
going' (pl) 'were going’
Third /tɛnɔ/ 'he' /ʤa:ro:tto:/ 'was /əu/ 'they' /ʤa:rette/
/ṱɛno/ ‘he’ going' /teno/ 'they' 'were going'
/teno/ 'he' /ʤilɘ hodiyɑ:tti/ /tenu/ ‘they’ /ʤilɘ hodiyɑ:tti/
/u:/ 'he' 'was going' /ṱɛnu/ 'they 'were going'
/ṱino/ ‘she’ /ʤile:t̪ hɔdɛs/ /tɛnu/ 'they' /ʤile:t̪ hɔdija:s/
/tɛnɔ/ 'she' 'was going' 'were going'
/teno/ 'she' /ʤile:t̪ hɔdis/ /ʤilɛhodijəsi/
/ṱijo/ ‘it’ 'was going' 'were going'

Examples:
/mæɲ baʤa:rinə ɡo:tto:/ ‘I was ɡoinɡ to the market’
/amɘ sɑ:du ʤilɘ sɘtte/ ‘We were going to the market’
/ttu baʤa:rinə ɡo:tto:/ ‘You(sɡ) were ɡoinɡ to the market’
/ttam baʤa:rinə ɡette/ ‘You(pl) were ɡoinɡ to the market’
/tɛnɔ sa:duk ʤile:t̪ hɔdɛs/ ‘He was going to the market’
/eno: sɑ:du ʤilɘ hoditti/ ‘She was going to the market’
/tɛɭɭɛ sa:duk ʤile:t̪ hɔdɛs / ‘It was going to the market’
/əu baʤa:rinə ʤa:rette/ ‘They were ɡoinɡ to the market’

Future Imperfective Aspect

Person Sinɡular Verb form Plural Verb form

First /mæɲ/ 'I' /ʤa:o:tʃuɲ/ /ame/ 'we' /ʤa:ttera:tʃa:/
/mi:/ 'I' 'will be going' /ami/ 'we' 'will be going'
/mi:/ 'I' /ʤa:ttoretʃi:/ /ami:/ 'we' /ʤaʋɘ/
/mii/ 'I' 'will be going' /ham/ 'we' 'will be going'
/ʤaʋu:/ /ʤəvɛ/
'will be going' 'will be going'
/ʤəvu/ /ʤilɛṱurhəvɛ/
'will be going' 'will be going'
/ɟile:t xodaʎo/ /ɟile:t xodaʎo/
'will be going' 'will be going'
Second /ttu/ 'you' (sg) /ʤa:ttoretʃi:/ /ttam/ 'you' (pl) /ʤa:tterotʃo:/
/ṱu/ 'you' (sg) 'will be going' /tumi/ 'you' (pl) 'will be going'
/tu:/ 'you' (sg) /ʤilɛdrhəji/ /tumi:/'you'(pl) /ʤile:t̪ ɾʰa:n/
/tu:/ 'you' (sg) 'will be going' /ṱumiaskki/ 'you' 'will be going'
/ʤa:j/ (pl) /ʤilɛdrhənu/
'will be going'
Third /tɛnɔ/ 'he' /ʤɑ:i:/ /əu/ 'they' /ʤa:n/
/ṱɛno/ ‘he’ 'will be going' /teno/ 'they' 'will be going'
/teno/ 'he' /ʤa:j/ /tenu/ ‘they’ /ʤa:tteratʃər/

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 /u:/ 'he' 'will be going' /ṱɛnu/ 'they 'will be going'
/ṱino/ ‘she’ /ʤa:tto:ratʃər/ /tɛnu/ 'they' /ʤənu/
/tɛnɔ/ 'she' 'will be going' 'will be going'
/teno/ 'she' /ʤəəji/ /ɟile:t xodiʎa:s/
/ṱijo/ ‘it’ 'will be going' 'will be going'

Examples
/mæɲ baʤa:rinə ʤa:o:tʃuɲ/ ‘I will be ɡoinɡ to the market’
/amɘ sɑ:du ʤaʋɘ/ ‘We will be going to the market’
/ham baʤa:rinə ʤa:ttera:tʃa:/ ‘We will be ɡoinɡ to the market’
/ttu sa:duk ʤa:ttoretʃi:/ ‘You(sɡ) will be ɡoinɡ to the market’
/ttam sa:duk ʤa:tterotʃo:/ ‘You(pl) will be ɡoinɡ to the market’
/tɛnə sa:duk ʤa:j / ‘He will be going to the market’
/eno: pɘru ʤɑ:y/ ‘She will be going to the market’
/delle pɘru ʤɑ:y/ ‘It will be going to the market’
/əu sa:duk ʤa:tteratʃər/ ‘They will be ɡoinɡ to the market’

4.4.11. Mood
Mood is one the sets of distinctive forms that are used to signal modality. The mode
or manner of a speaker is expressed by mood. It incorporates a statement, a command, a
question, a doubt, etc. From the given data the following types of mood in the Sourashtra
language and found and presented below:

Indicative Mood

Most verbs in this language used are in indicative mood, which indicates the action.

/kottra basrotʃər/ ‘The doɡ barks’

/ami pacci sɑ:riyo:/ ‘I see the bird’
/te:ʈ di: ga:jin se:t̪tɛ / ‘There are two cows’
/e:ʈ onʈe: manɟiri se:rtte:/ ‘cat goes there’
/mie:ʈa:vs/ ‘I come here’

Imperative Mood

Verb in the imperative mood denotes command or request. This mood always occurs
with second person. Though it is not present in the sentence but the sense must be there and it
is always understood that it denotes the second person. For example:

/ɛllɛ bɔggu ʧɔvdi/ ‘(you) Read this book’

/badi daiɲa:o/ ‘(you) Come near the school’.
/pani kaɭɭI a:v/ ‘(you) Bring some water’

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Subjunctive Mood

In the subjunctive mood, the sense is to suppose or desire an action.

/ɔɳɖɛ ve:ɭum kʰɛʈi:n kɔn vɔɭʧɛt̪ tɛnɔ ʤɛjəm pɔɴdəj/ ‘If he works hard he will
succeed’.
/gʰɔɖa:nuk ɾɛkkɛn ɾʰijɛt̪/ ‘If horses had wing..’

Optative Mood
Optative mood expresses a desire, wish, permission or request in a sentence which is
expressed in following ways in Saurashtra.

/tɛnu əski tɛnu əva:j/ ‘Let them all come’.

Conditional Mood

When the completion of one verbal action is conditioned by another verb that
particular manner of expression is called as conditional mood. In this mood two verbal
actions are involved simultaneously. Examples of conditional moods in Saurashtra language
are as follows:

/ɔɳɖɛ ve:ɭum dʰu:m bɔɳɖi təməs pɔɖi əvɛt̪ əmitɛɭɭɛ dʰɛt̪tuva:j/

‘If the train is late we may catch it’.

/ɔɳɖɛ ve:ɭum tu: kuɾip kɔn səŋgɛ ve:ɭ əvɛt̪ əmi ɛɭɭɛ sɛɾkɔ səva:j/
‘If you come in time we will examine this’.

/onʈe: ve:lum teno: geɖubgaɳ oɭcat teno ɟaʎam boṉda/

‘If he works hard he will succeed’

Potential Mood

The potential action is expressed in potential mood. In this language the example of
Potential mood is:

/mæɲ a:ja va:su/ ‘I may come’.

/tɛnɔ pəʧʧinik məɾuva:j/ ‘He may kill the bird’.

Compulsive Mood

The compulsion on the part of the subject is expressed in compulsive mood. In

Saurashtra language the examples of compulsive mood are:

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 /teno boɡɡu hoɳɖe likkunɑ:/ ‘He ought to write a book’.
/u: bokku lakkuno/ ‘He ouɡht to write a book’.
/ṱɛno ondə bokku likkunə pəʤɛ/ ‘He should write a book’
/askidenu gumpuk avuno/ ‘Everybody has to come for the meeting’.
/mɘ aʋnɑ:t paʤɘ/ ‘I ought to come’.
/mi: toxo: a:vmanaʎo:/ ‘I told you to come’

4.4.12. Non-Finite Verb Formation

The list of non-finite verb formation includes (a) Verbal Noun, (b) Infinitive, (c)
Gerund and Participle (Present Participle and Past Participle)

Verbal Noun

A verbal noun is formed by adding a noun suffix to a verb. Here the process is: verb +
noun forming suffix = Noun (verbal Noun) [√ + non-finite marker]

/uskariyo/ ’to bark’ + /-0 / = /uskariyo/ ‘barking’

/vuskət̪tɛ/ ’to bark’ + - = /vuskəɾijɔ/ ‘barking’
/damai/ ‘run’ + - = /damai/ ‘running’
/dami:ʤɑ:tte/ ‘to run’ + /-ʤɑ:tte/ = /adamai/ ‘running’
/pa:nna/ 'fall’ + /-te:/ = /pa:nnate:/ ‘falling’

Infinitive

An infinitive form is to + the verb. Some verbs can take either the gerund or the
infinitive with no loss of meaning.

/eno: kobim uddio:k nowɡeɳɖɑ: ʤɑ:i:/

‘She used to go to office at 9 o'clock

Gerund

Gerunds and infinitives are forms of verbs that act like nouns. They can follow
adjectives and other verbs. Since it is a kind of noun, it may be the subject or object to some
verb.

/balla: dʒoko kottra ka:teni/ ‘Barkinɡ doɡs seldom bite’

/ghɔdɔ bhisso dhəməji / ‘Running is done by the horse’
/i:ta: ma:rer dʒi:ven a:tʃo/ ‘Swimminɡ is ɡood for health’

Participle

A participle is a word that shares some characteristics of both verbs and adjectives. It
is also called verbal adjective. A participle is a word formed from a verb that can function as
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part of a verb phrase. Participles are divided into two categories, verbal participle and relative
participle.

Verbal Participles

Verbal particles are followed by a verbs

/acca anɘ boɡɡun/ ‘Printed books’

/polla:n vekkaris/ ‘fallen fruits’

/acca anɘ boɡɡun sowdatta sali:su/ ‘Printed books are easy to read’
/tɛnɔ ləlɛ pɔɭɭa:n vɛkkəɾis/ ‘She collected the fallen fruits’

Relative Participle

Relative particliples are followed by a noun. It show that the person who does the
action is also the person who is affected by it.
/mi: teɭɭe kʰejejɛes/ ‘I ate it myself’
/teno:s ne pɔʈʈam taja:ɾ keɾes/ ‘I made the kite myself’
/ teɭɭɛ ka:nu:s moɾije:ɖijo/ ‘It dued by itself”
/oɑ:ɫə ɱοʀɨʝο ɱɨnɨɡu οŋɖɛ ɓʱɑɯṱuɫu/'The man who died yesterday was a singer’

4.4.13 Adverb

Adverb is a word that syntactically functions as an attribute to a verb or a verb phrase.

Adverb qualifies verb, adjectives and also an adverb. In Saurashtra language adverbs occur
before the verb. Here there three types of adverbs: (a) Adverb of Place, (b) Adverb of Time,
and (c) Adverb of Manner. From the given data following examples are collected,

Adverb of Place
/a:o: attə/ ‘come here’
/a:v e:ʈ/ ‘come here’
/e:ʈ au/ 'come here’
/əəv ɛd / ‘come here’
/əəv ɛd/ ‘come here’

Adverb of Time
/aɖɖammu/ ‘yesterday’
/ka:l/ ‘yesterday’
/ka:lenə/ ‘yesterday’
/kal/ ‘yesterday’
/kəəlu/ ‘yesterday’

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 /sava:rə/ ‘tomorrow’
/sɔɴdɔ/ ‘tomorrow’
/sɔnṱɔ/ ‘tomorrow’
/soṉdo/ ‘tomorrow’
/vɑ:ru/ ‘tomorrow’

Indeclinable

The words which cannot be inflected are called indeclinable. Certain adjectives,
adverbs and postpositions are indeclinable in Saurashtra language.

/ṱenɑ ʤɑ:ŋɑ ɱuɭɭɑ ɱɨ: ṱe:ʤɨ ʤeɭɭuʈukο/ ‘He might have gone before I reached there’
/ṱenο ṱοkɑѕοɱ ɱəɭɑ:ɱɔ ѕοɭɑ:ṱuɱ ѕe:ṱṱɛ/ ‘He is before you in the line’

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 5. SYNTAX

The syntax is the area of study of principles and rules of construction of phrases and
sentences in natural languages. It studies the rules that govern the order of combining the
words to form sentences in a language. A syntactic category is a set of words and/or phrases
in a language which share a significant number of common characteristics. The classification
is based on similar structure and sameness of distribution (structural relationships between
these elements and other items in a larger grammatical structure), and not on meaning. The
syntax of Saurashtra is discussed below.

5.1 Word Order

Word order typology is the study of the order of the syntactic constituents of a
language. The primary word order that is of interest is the relative ordering of subject (S),
object (O), and verb (V) in a sentence. The Word order in Saurasthra is of SOV (Sbject-
Object-Verb) pattern. That means, normally the subject occurs in the initial position, the
object in the middle position and verb in the final positions of a sentence.

Examples
/amiṱɛd/ ʤərijo/ ‘We go there’
/bɛdko podɛsi/ ‘The boy falls’
/mɔɾɛ/ gʰe:ɾ a:v/ ‘Come to my house’
/tɛnɔ pəʧʧik sa:ɾɛs/ ‘He sees the bird’

Sometimes the object may be absent in a simple sentence. It then consists of a subject
and a finite verb only, as in case of the following sentences.

/bɛdko podɛsi/ ‘the boy falls’

5.2 Types of Sentences

A sentence is a grammatical unit that is composed of one or more clauses.

Structurally, the sentences in Saurashtra can be classified into three types: Simple, Complex,
and Compound. The examples are given below based on the available data.

5.2.1 Simple Sentence

The simple sentence consists of a subject and a predicate. It is a sentence structure

that contains one independent clause and no dependent clauses.

Examples
/kottra basurotʃər/ ‘The dog barks’
/mæn ba:ti ka:ðo/ ‘I eat bread’

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 The predicate may be a finite intransitive or a transitive verb. The most common
simple sentence, however, consists of a nominative subject and a finite verb as predicate. For
example:

/mæɲ attə a:u:tʃuɲ/ ‘I come here’

5.2.2 Complex Sentence

A sentence having one principal clause followed by one or more subordinate clause(s)
is known as a complex sentence. The independent clause can stand alone.

Examples
/onʈe: ve:lum teno: geɖubgaɳ oɭcat teno ɟaʎam boṉdaʎ/
‘If he works hard he will succeed’.

In the above sentence principal clause is

/teno/ /ɟaʎam/ /boṉdaʎ/ ‘he will succeed’ joined by the complex marker
/- seidəni/ ‘if’ with the subordinate clause
/onʈe:/ /ve:lum/ /teno:/ /geɖubgaɳ/ /oɭcat/ ‘if you work hard’.

/mi onʈe ve:lum mi: onʈe ve:lum mi: savriamgaɳ riyat mi soṉdo avu/
‘If I am well I will come tomorrow’.

Here principal clause

/mi:/ /soṉdo/ /avu/ ‘I will come tomorrow’ is joined by the complex marker
/kirdəniɻ/ with the subordinate clause
/onʈe:/ /ve:lum/ /mi:/ /savriʎamgaɳ/ /riʎat/ ‘If I am well’.

5.2.3 Compound Sentence

A compound sentence is a sentence composed of two or more coordinate clauses. In

Saurashtra, the connectives used are as follows:

/ əŋgu:/ ‘but’
/ellettɑ:mu/ ‘and’
/əŋgun/ ‘yet’
Examples

And
/attə ek tʃi:li attə ek kottra:tʃər/ ‘Here is a cat and a dog’
/mɔɾɔ bʰəjin əŋgun bʰɛjnən gʰɔmmɔ se:/ ‘My brothers and sisters are in the house’
But
/mar dʒiv a:tʃinttə ka:lin a:jokoni/
‘I would have come yesterday but due to my ill health I did not come’

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Yet
/tele mɑ:nik anɡun aʋrianni/ ‘That man has not come yet’
/tɛɭɭɛ ɴəbəɾ əŋgun əvəɾijo:s ɴʰi:/ ‘That man has not come yet'

Otherwise

/ttu kanna pi:sa ha:tona ðastto ttona ma:rena dʒa:tʃər/

‘You return the money otherwise you will ɡet a beatinɡ’
Hence
/ami paɟaxoʎo xottupovus abuna:tta xa:l peʎirun cokkaʈ ɖi:/
‘We did not receive the rain sufficiently hence the crops are not good’

5.3. Semantic Classification of Sentences

Sentences in Saurashtra can further be sub-classified into several types based on

semantic content of a sentence, such as, Statement Sentence, Interrogative Sentence,
Imperative Sentence, Purposive Sentence, Potential Sentence, Conditional Sentence,
Negative Sentence, Causative Sentence, Passive Sentence, etc. Some examples are furnished
below:

5.3.1 Statement Sentence

The sentence which affirms a statement is a statement.
/mæɲ pittinə ðeko:tʃuɲ/ ‘I see the bird’
/mi pəʧʧiku səərəsi/ ‘I see the bird’
/mi: pəʧʧik sa:ɾɛs/ ‘I see the bird’
/mi: pacci sɑ:tte/ ‘I see the bird’
/mi: paʈcik sa:re:s/ ‘I see the bird’

5.3.2 Interrogative Sentence

The sentence which indicates a question is an interrogative sentence:
/ttam ka: i ka:otʃo:?/ ‘What do you eat ?’

5.3.3 Imperative Sentence

The sentence which implies a request, a command, an advice, etc is an imperative
sentence:
/a:ɖilә aya/ ‘(you) Sit down’
/trɘ bɘɖik bo:vo/ ‘Call your daughter’

5.3.4 Purposive Sentence

The sentence which expresses a purpose like is a purposive sentence:
/tella ɡoɖo: viɡɡanno:/ ‘That horse is to be sold’

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5.3.5 Potential Sentence
When the potentiality is expressed in a sentence, it thus called.
/mæɲ a:ja va:su/ ‘I may come’

5.3.6 Conditional Sentence

When two actions are conditioned by each other in a single sentence, it is a
conditional sentence:
/gʰɔɖa:nuk ɾɛkkɛn ɾʰijɛt̪ tɛnu huɖɾʰəva:j/ ‘If horses had wings they would have flown‘

5.3.7 Negative Sentence

The sentence which expresses the negation are called so.
/ɛllɛ həɴdət̪tɔk hɔjɛjɔɴʰa:/ ‘This is not edible’
/ɛɭɭɛ ʧɔkkəʈ vət̪ta:n ɴʰa:/ ‘These are not good words’
/kɑ:m keraranni/ ‘The work was not done’

5.3.8 Causative Sentence

The causative sentences are formed by suffixing causative marker to the verb which
varies according to the person. When the subject causes some agent to do the action we get
causative sentence.
/mæɲ ɡo:dena ða:sotʃu korotʃuɲ / ‘I am making the horse run’
/mɘ boɡɡu ɖɘi: eno amaɖattɘ/ ‘I am making her give a book’

5.3.9.Passive Sentence

The sentence where the main action is expressed in passive form is called passive
sentence. In Saurashtra, the passive formation is absent like other Dravidian languages and
the active verb plays the role.
/bhəjiri morəhəl khənpodɛsi / ‘Bread is being eaten by me’
/boɡɡu tehahɑ:l sowdatto: musɘtti/ ‘The book was being read by him’

5.4 Phrases

A phrase is a syntactic structure that consists of more than one word but lacks
the subject-predicate organization of a clause. The phrasal sub-division in Saurashtra is as
follows: . Phrases are five types: Noun phrase, Verb phrase, Postpositional phrase, Adjectival
phrase (Attributive, Predicative) and Adverbial phrase.

5.4.1 Noun Phrase

A noun phrase or a nominal phrase (NP) combines with other words in a noun phrase,
optionally accompanied by modifiers like adjectives and intensifiers. Noun phrase can occur
as a subject or an object of a sentence. A noun phrase contains an obligatory head noun which
can be preceded by optional determiner and adjective.

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Examples
/a:r tʃutʃa:bar/ ‘The good boys’
/cokkaʈ beʈka:n/ ‘The good boys’
/ma:r na:m na:ra:jana:/ ‘My name is Narayan’
/teɡa ɡu:ɖɘ/ ‘her basket’
/tumre: ge:r/ ‘Your (sg) house’

5.4.2 Verb Phrase

A verb phrase (VP) is a phrase that has the syntactic role of a simple verb, and is
composed of a main verb and auxiliary verbs or verbal particles related syntactically to the
verb. In generative grammar, a verb phrase is a syntactic unit that corresponds to
the predicate. In addition to the verb, this includes auxiliaries, objects, object complements,
and other constituents apart from the subject. These are inflected for person, number and
gender. The predicate may be a finite intransitive or transitive verb.

Examples
/surid kəvnəsur uʤəji/ ‘The sun rises in the east’.
/mæɲ ba:ti ka:ðo/ ‘I eat bread’
/ṱɛno bokku ʧovdərhəsi/ ‘He reads a book’

5.4.3 Postpositional Phrase

A postposition is an addposition that occurs after its complement. An adpositional

phrase is a syntactic category that includes prepositional phrases (PP) and postpositional
phrases (PSP). Here the postposition is in the head position and usually a complement such as
a noun phrase follows it.

Examples

/goɖo: bisso damai/ ‘Running is done by the horse’

/teno moraseŋɡɑ:ɖi avitti/ ‘He works under me’

5.4.4 Adjectival Phrase

In an adjectival phrase, the adjective acts as the head of the phrase. An adjectival
phrase attributes the noun. Adjectives can occur in attributive phrase and predicative phrase.
An adjectival phrase consists of an adjective followed by a noun, intensifiers or adverbs
followed by adjective and noun, thereby making the structure more complex.

Examples
/a:rtto: tʃɔ:ra:/ ‘The good boy’
/ture: thi: bostaun/ ‘Two books of yours ’
/uʤɑ:l ɡoɖu/ ‘The white horse

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5.4.5 Adverbial Phrase

An adverb is a lexical category whose members have the same syntactic distribution
and which modifies adjectives, other adverbs, verbs, or whole clauses or sentences. An
adverb phrase has an adverb that complements the verb.

Examples
/di:lo vatte kar/ ‘Speak slowly’
/geʈʈi vaʈto: gkennaxo/ ‘Do not speak loudly’
/je va:ttena a:tʃo: lak/ ‘Write the words neatly’

5.5 Passivization

Passivization indicates that the subject is the patient or recipient of the action denoted
by the verb. In Saurashtra, the passive formation is absent like other Dravidian lanɡuaɡes and
the active verb plays the role.

Examples
/bhəjiri morəhəl khənpodɛsi / ‘Bread is being eaten by me’
/boɡɡu tehahɑ:l sowdatto: musɘtti/ ‘The book was being read by him’

5.6 Negativization

Negativization is a morphosyntactic operation in which a lexical item denies or

inverts the meaning of another lexical item or a construction. In an ordered sentence the
negative element comes with the verb of the sentence.

Examples
/elle: mosuna:tte:/ ‘It is impossible’
/tɛnɔ ka:m kɛɾɛni/ ‘He did not do the work ‘
/kɑ:m keraranni/ ‘The work was not done'

5.7 Causativization

Causative sentences are formed by suffixing causative marker to the verb which
varies according to persons. Causative indicates that a subject causes someone or something
else to do or be something. It is the process of forming causative form of a verb from
transitive form.
Examples
/mæɲ ɡo:dena ða:sotʃu korotʃuɲ/ ‘I am making the horse run’
/mɘ boɡɡu ɖɘi: eno amaɖattɘ/ ‘I am making her give a book’

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 6. TEXT

Two friends and a Bear

Two friends, Ramu and Shyam walked through a forest.
/sʈudun hɔjə ɾamu kinu sɔmu ɾanuvədu ʧəli ʤijəsi/

They promised each other that they would remain untied in case of any danger.
/khɔbbim abəṱ ikkəjɔ əvəṱ mɛlli ɔndɛnək sɔɖɖi ɔndɛnɔ ʤhəphənə mɛni sɛṱṱu kɛllijəsi/

Once they were walked through a forest.

/ɾənu ʤilɛ ɾhəṱṱə vɛlɔ/

A bear came on their way.

/ṱɛŋgə vɛṱuɾu ɔndɛ bhəllu əvlɛ hɔdɛsi/

Ramu climbed a tree.

/ṱiɛɛ dɛkkɛ ɾamu dhəmiʤi ʤhədum hiŋgilijɛsi/

Shyam did not know how to climb a tree.

/sɔmuku ʤhəd hiŋgən kələnə /

He told his friend, “I donot know how to climb a tree, please help me.”
/ṱe həl səkəv kɛɾmɛni mɛllijɛsi /

But Ramu did not respond.

/hɔjɛṱ ɾamu ṱɛkɔ pəɾvəṱ kɛɾɛni/

In fear and grief, shyam lay down on the ground breathless.

/sɔmu dhəguɾ ɔŋgi ʤəjili svəsɔ ənʤili mɔɾɛṱṱɛnɔsɔnu bhɔjjuɾ ninʤilidijɔ/

The bear came near the man lying on the ground.

/lɛvuṱṱə əvɛ bhəllu aŋgu ʧuʈʈu phiɾisi/

It smelt his ears, and slowly left the place,

/ ṱɛkɔ kənlɛvuṱṱɔʤi huŋgi sijɛsi mɔɾəṱɛnɔs mɛni həvdi ṱɛdɾi bhəllu ʤɛdijɔ/

because bears do not touch dead creatures.

/ kəkə mɛnɛṱi mɔɾə ʤivinuku bhəllu khənə/

After the bear left, Ramu came down from the tree and asked his friend Shyam,
/ɛllijɔ ʤhədumɾhi silɛṱhɔdɛ ɾəmu khəlhuṱṱiɾi əvi/

847
“Friend what did the bear tell you into your ears?”
/bhəllu ṱɔɾək kənum kəj səŋgəjɔ mɛni sɔmuʤɔl pusɛs/

Shyam replied,
/ ṱɛlləkɔ sɔmu/

“The bear advised me not to trust a friend who leaves you in times of trouble to save
himself,”
saying this Shyam walked in own way,

/ abətkəlumu səkəp kɛnnəttɛ siŋgədiʤɔl suvɾit thɔvlunəkɔ mɛni ɾəmuʤɔl səŋgidi/

leaving Ramu alone in the forest.
/tekə əllədəm sɔɖɖi tənikən ʤedijɔ/

848
 7. REFERENCES

1. Thurston E. 1909 Castes and Tribes of South India, Cosmo Publictions,

Delhi
2. Renuga Devi, V. 2005 An Indi-Aryan language in Madurai, Priya Publications,
Trichy.
3. Sethuraman, K R. 2003 Trilingual Saurashtra Dictionary (Saurashtram-Tamil-
English). K.S.Meera Publications, Chennai.
4. Linguistic Survey . 1967 Censusus of India 1961, Volume-1, India Part !!-C
of India (ii) Delhi
5. Lakshmi Priya,K K. 2008 A Semi Bilingual Dictioanry of Sourashtra food
terminology. M.A Dissertation, MKU, Madurai

849
Comparative Lexicon
 DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
Sl. English Irula/
Tamil Badaga Chetti Bhasha Kathodi Kota
No. Gloss Iruliga
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
I. Earth, Sky and Water etc.
1 air /ka:rru/ /ɡa:ji/ /kə:ʈʈu/ /ɡaːɻi/ /ʋaɽo/ /kat/
2 ashes /ca:mpal/ /bu:di/ /pʊːdi/ /buːɖiː/ /kulsa/ /puide/
3 cloud /me:kam/ /maɲcʊ/ /mɔːɖɑ/ /məɲcɯ/, /moːɖə/ /məbbɛ/ /kiɖim/
4 cold /kuɭir/ /ɡɔɽʊʋɔ/ /səli/ /səɭi/ /tanɖo/ /kʰǝru/
5 darkness /iruʈʈu/ /kattəla/ /santə/ /kəittəleː/ /andaro/ /kǝɡutu
m/
6 earth /pu:mi/ /bu:mi/ /bumi/ /buːmi /buĩ/ /buim/
7 eclipse /kirakana /gerenǝ/ /ɡɾəhən//ɡɾa:na /ɡrəɡənəm/ /gran/ /ɡrenǝm/
m/ /
8 fire /ti:/ /kiʧʧʊ/ /kicʊː/ /diː/ /gusto/ /nep/
9 fog /mu:ʈu /aɳiki:ʈə/ /pʊːsʊlu/ /məɲcɯmuːɖɯkɯ /məbbɛ/ /kiɖum/
pani/ tɯ/
10 forest /ka:ʈu/ /so:la/ /ka:ʈu/ /cɔlɛ/ /Ɉəŋɡəl/ /kʰaɽ/
11 hill /malai/ /kuññɛʈʈu/ /kunnʊ/ /sinə kɯiʈʈəj/ /ɖoŋɡaɽ/ /ʋiʈǝm/
12 ice /pani /aɳikaʈʈi/ /jɑɳəkəllu/ /aːɳikəlɯ / /aislunɖo/ /pǝnikǝl/
kaʈʈi/
13 pond /ti:vu/ /ba:ʋi/ /sʊɳ.ɖə.keɾə/ /kɾɯ/ /ɡunʈo/ /akʰ nir/
14 flood /veɭɭam/ /aɭɭə:/ /ɱɔːdɪ.kət.tʊtʊ/ /ʋɛilləim/ /ədik paɳi/ /doɖɖu
peʋer/
15 moon /caṇtran/ /tiŋɡʊʋə:/ /nelaʋu/ /nilaː/ /cəndrəmam /tiɡil/
o/
16 mountai /malai/ /doɖəpɛʈʈu/ /ɱəleː/ /bɔiʈʈɯ/ /ɖoŋɡəer/ /ʋiʈǝm/
n
17 rain /maLai/ /m :/ /ɱəle/ /mɛ/ /pous/ /mai/
18 river /nati/ /doɖɖʊ aɭə:/ /pɔːlə/ /kɛɾeː/ /pani Ɉasər /doɖ
Ɉaɡa/ peʋer/
19 road /ca:lai/ /da:ri/ /rɔːɖʊ/ /ɾoːɖɯ/ /ɡəlli/ /onaɖ/
20 sand /manal/ /maɳalʊ/ /maɳəlu/ /məɳəlɯ/ /maʈi/ /mǝn/
21 valley /kaʈal/ /aɭɭadɔrə/ /kɛl.lɑ.kʊɭɪ/ /əiɡɡɯ/ /moʈokaʈo/ /ʋetǝm/
22 sky /va:nam/ /ba:nʊ/ /ɱɔːɖɑː/ /ʋaːnə/ /abəl/ /ʋanǝm/

850
 INDO-ARYAN
DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY LANGUAGE
FAMILY
Solaga/ Saurashtra/ Sl. English
Maliyad Paniya Toda Urali
Soliga Saurashtri No. Gloss
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
I. Earth, Sky and Water etc.
/ga:li/ /ka:ttu/ /ka:ɻi/ /kɔʈ/ /ɡaɭi/ /varo:/ 1 air
/pu:ɾɟi/ /mannə:r/ /mannaru/ /pu:ʤi/ /budi/ /ɾa:k / 2 ashes
/ma:maɉ/ /moʈʈə:/ /mo:ʈa:/ /beɽmad/ /moɽa/ /popu:/ 3 cloud
/i:ʈa:/ /taɳpu/ /ʃaɭi/ /kɔarʋ/ /səli/ /xi:m/ 4 cold
/mappu/ /irəʋ/ /ʤavu/ /kɔarʋ/ /ɡəwəna/ /hʌndəːɾ/ 5 darknes
s
/təɾɑɡumɪ/ /pu:mi/ /bu:mi/ /bumi/ /bumi/ /bɔixa/ 6 earth
/kɑɾnɑm/ /grəgənəm/ /pirp /ɡərənə/ /ɡhiɾəːɳ/ 7 eclipse
/grahan/
təɡəlm/
/nerɨppɨ/ /tiʋu/ /tivu/ /titte/ /ti/ /itta:u/, 8 fire
/munsumudik /ʋeɭɭəm/ /a:ɳi/ /nərməko:lp /mənʤər /mɔɲʤu/, 9 fog
kɨðɨ/ / uɽɽe/ /səmbəːvu/
/ka:dʊ/ /maɲcumu:ʈi /ka:ʈu/ /bʰərs/ /paɽaɖe/ /rɑ:n/ 10 forest
uɭɭə:/
/kuɳɳdɨ/ /hə:ʈu/ /ɦuʈʈə/ /kərtəʈ/ /ɡuɖɖe/ /khoːɖu/ 11 hill
/pən̪ikkətti/ /kuɳʈu/ /a:ɳi kaɭɭu/ /ponniɡəʈi/ /ibbəni /məːɡɛɖɖɔ/ 12 ice
kaɖɖi/
/tɪʋ/ /maɲcukaʈʈi/ /ni:ru aritatə/ /ɡəɽbɛɻ/ /ɡunɖi/ /ɡauri/ 13 pond
/nilə:ʋu/ /boɭɭʤə:/ /tarəʋərte/ /kerəi /vɛvlo/ 14 flood
/ʋεɭɭ / eɖuʈʰuʈʰuʈʰ
u/
/nila:/ /məlɛ/ /tiŋɡə:/ /tikkil/ /nila/ /ʧɛndəːm/ 15 moon
/mələ/ /koɭam/ /bɛʈʈa:/ /ʋitto:ʈ təʈ/ /boli/ /dɔŋɡəɾ/ 16 mountai
/biʈʈə/ n
/məxəɔ̃/ /malai/ /maɻa/ /ma:r/ /mæ/ /pɔvs/ 17 rain
/a:ɾʊ/ /pujə/ /ɦɔɭa/ /bhə̃ɻ/ /hoɭe/ /niddi/ 18 river
/ʋahni/
/ɾo:dʊ/ /ro:ʈu/ /ra:ste/ /nəutɛ:ri/ /tar roɖə/ /restto/ 19 road
/məɳɳɨ/ /maɳəl/ /neiinamaɻaɭu /məɳəl/ /maɳalu/ /vəɭu/ 20 sand
/
/ʋa:nam/ /koɭɭə/ /tar/ /nɛli/ /ɡɛʤəpɔlləmu/ 21 valley
/ma:nəɔ̃/ /mənɉu/ /ba:nu/ /po:n/ /ʋahana/ /əɡa:s / 22 sky

851
 DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
Sl. English Chetti Irula/
Tamil Badaga Kathodi Kota
No. Gloss Bhasha Iruliga
23 snow /pani/ /hǝni/ /aɳi/ /paɳi/ /mənc/ /paiŋɡ/
24 star /naʈcatram/ /mi:nʊ/ /nəcətdirɑː/ /ʋəillimiːnə/ /nəcəttər/ /min/
25 stone /kal/ /kallʊ/ /kəllu/ /kəillɯ/ /donɖo/ /kǝl/
26 storm /pujal/ /ɡhiɽɔ:/ /ɑɖəɱələ/ /buːdəɡaːli/ /ʋaɽo pous/ /ɡuiɖiɡo/
27 sun curijan /oddʊ/ /sʊːrjɑː/ /pɔdɯ/ /surit/ /ʋil/
28 water /taɳɳi:r/ /taɳɳi:ɽu/ /niːrʊ/ /niːiɾ/ /paɳi/ /nir/
29 weather /va:nilai/ /si:mɛ/ /məlɑɱɔːɖɑː/ /ʋaːnəkəiɾkət /ʋanǝm
/mɔbbə//
ɯ/ eluvǝ/
30 wind /ka:rru/ /kaməɭʊ /ɔllekɑːɖrʊ/ /lɛsənəɡaːli/ /ʋaɽo/ /olidkat/
ɡə:ji/
31 wood /marakkaʈʈai/ /mɔɽəkaʈʈə/ /cɑvtə /məɾəikkəiʈʈɛ /laɡɖo/ /pǝlǝɡǝ/
ɱʊɖɖi/ /
II. Mankind, Sex, Family and Relationships etc.
32 baby /cicu/ /kəiku:ʃʊ/ /ʤibbi məjdi/ /pəiccəpɯiɭɭɛ /bacco/ /muɡ/
/
33 boy /paijan/ /ku:ʃʊ/ /kəjtɑː/ /məɡə/ /poʈʈo/ /ɡǝnmuɡ/
34 bride /manappeɳ/ /maʈuʋəi /mɔɖə keɳɳʊ/ /mətɯʋɛpɛiɳ/ /nəlli/ /pʰiɖoi ɡi
ɦɛɳɳʊ/ pemuɡ/
35 bride- /ma:ppiɭɭai/ /ajijə pɛʈʈə:/ /mɔɖə /mətɯʋɛməip /nəllo/ /mǝduɡist
groom kəjtɑːn/ ɭɛ/ ɡǝnmuɡ/
36 brother/el /annan/ /aɳɳə /kʊːɖə kɔʈʈi /əiɳnæ/ /bai/ /doɖǝn/
der(e.)/yo təmmə:/ tɑːkkɑː (toʈʈe,
unger (y.) təɱmɑ)/
37 child /kuLantai/ /ku:ʃʊ/ /ʤibbi məj /pɯiɭɭɛ/ /bacco/ /kun muɡ/
di/
38 daughter /makaɭ/ /ɦɛɳɳʊku:ʃ /ɱəɡɑː/ /məɡə/ /beʈi/ /moɭ/
ʊ/
39 father /appa/ /appa:/ /ɑ̃ppɑː/ /əimmæ/ /bap/ /ain/
40 friend /ṇanpan/ /sinɛ:su/ /kʊːʈʈʊ /ɟɔɖi kəiɾ/ /dost/ /koʈal/
kɑːrɑːɴ kʊːʈʊ
kɑːrʊ/
41 girl /cirumi/ /ɦɛɳɳʊ/ /sʊɳɖɘ /cinəpɔdɛ/ /əɡəl/, /pailo/ /pemuɡ/
keɳɳʊ/
42 husband /kanavan/ /kaɳɖa:/ /keɳɖɑː/ /aːɭæ/ /laɖo/ /aɭin/
43 male /a:n/ /ɡaɳɖʊ/ /kɛɳɖʊ/ /ɡəiɳɖɯsɯ/ /damus/ /ɡǝnmuɡ/
44 man /manitan/ /manʊʃə:/ /ɱəɳəsɑː/ /mənɯsæ/ /damus/ /pemuɡ/
45 marriage /tirumaɳam/ /maduʋ / /ɱɔːtə /mətɯʋɛ/ /leɡna/ /mǝdʋum/
kəlibətʊ/

852
 INDO-
ARYAN
DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
LANGUAGE
FAMILY
Solaga/ Saurashtra/ Sl.
Maliyad Paniya Toda Urali English Gloss
Soliga Saurashtri No.
/monse/ /boɻɻi/ /enimu/ /ponni/ /ibbəni/ /ɔsu/ 23 snow
/sukkiŋgə/ /kallu/ /cokki/ /ponʈmɛn/ /min/ /cukko:/ 24 star
/kiɭɭɨ/ /ka:ɽaʈikunt /kaɭɭu/ /kars/ /kallu/ /ɡuɳɖo:/ 25 stone
u/
/puɉəlɨ/ /cu:rijai/ /toʈʈɛ /ko:lko:ʈ/ /iɖimæ/ /ulivəɾɔ/ 26 storm
ka:ɻi/
/su:riɉan/ /kuj/ /ottu/ /bi:r/ /podu/ /suɾit/ 27 sun
/təɳɳɳi/ /taɳɳi/ /ni:ru/ /ni:ru/ /nirə/ /pani/ 28 water
/moppɨmənt /bə:nilai/ /baɳueŋɡi /ɡəŋɡəru /pəʈa/ /sidɔɾsnɔ/ 29 weather
a:ra:ɔ̃/ tatə/ kətci/
/Ɉillɨnɨ xə:ɭi/ /ka:ttu/ /ʃaɳɳa /ko:ʈʈəc/ /ʋisakatʊ/ /vəɾɔ/ 30 wind
ka:ɻi/
/pədɨko:ɻi/ /marə:komb /ʃi:ɭu/ /mɛnkʰəʈʈi/ /maɽkaʈʈe/ /kɛʈʈɛ/ 31 wood
u/
II. Mankind, Sex, Family and Relationships etc.
/kulla:/ /cinnə /kaiko:cu/ /ɡəroʈ/ /pille/ /bɑ:l/ 32 baby
koɻantai/
/kirɨ/ /moʈʈai/ /ajinta/ /mɔɡʰ/ /sinnama/ /bɔixa/ 33 boy
/kəlja:ɳət̪tʊ̪ /kaɳɳa:ə /matuʋai /pirətko/ /mədəlepon /ṉovri/ 34 bride
poɳɳʊ/ moʈa:ti/ ɦeɳɳu/ na/
/kəlja:ɳət̪tʊ̪ /kaɳɳa:lə /matuʋai /ɦənno:n/ /mədʰuʋe 35 bride-groom
ke:ɾʊ/ moʈʈai/ gaɳɖu/ anu/
/əɳɳəñ/ /aijeai/ /aɳɳa/ /tənəɳam/ /anna/ /bai/ 36 brother/elder(e
/t̪embi/ /su:ɟɟe/ /tamma/ tənəɳ/ /tambi/ .)/younger (y.)
/pullə/ /makkə:/ /ko:cu/ /karoɖ/ /pille/ /nhuɾu/, 37 child
/məxə/ /maɡa:ɭ/ /maɡaɭa/ /koh/ /maɡa/ /beɖi:/ 38 daughter
/a:va:/ /oʈʈaŋɡa:/ /appa/ /eieije/ /appɛ/ /ba:p/ 39 father
/ammɛ/
/sino:d̪ɨkəɾo /daʈiuɭɭaʋar /kaɳɖisera /təŋɡo:l/ /ʤori/ /siŋɡəit/ 40 friend
:m/ u/ ʤo:ɖ/
/poɳɳʊ/ /appɛn/ /ʃaɳɳa /koh/ /pənpullɛ/ /beʈki/ 41 girl
ɦeɳɳu/
/mənəko:/ /phranɖu/ /ɡaɳɖa:/ /enor/ /aɭæ/ /pərt̪ta:/, 42 husband
/ambulo:/
/a:mbələ/ /moʈa:ti/ /kaiɭi /ɔrʃ/ /aɳə/ /dəlləmɛni/ 43 male
a:katitaʋə
n/
/aɾija:ga:lʊ/ /manisaɡa /ɔrʃ/ /mænse/ /mɛnik/ 44 man
/məncɛ:n/
/
/kəlɉa:ɳo:/ /uɽa:ɭiŋɡ/ /matuʋe/ /mauʋərət/ /madəwe/ /ca:l/ 45 marriage

853
 DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
Sl. English Chetti Irula/
Tamil Badaga Kathodi Kota
No. Gloss Bhasha Iruliga
46 maternalu /ma:ma/ /mammə:/ /ɑveː kʊːʈə /ma:ma/ /mamo/ /mamǝn/
ncle kɔʈʈi tɑːʋɱɑː/
47 maternalu /ma:man /mammə:nə /ɑveː kʊːʈə /kɔindi/ /mamǝn mol/
ncle’sdau makaɭ/ ɦɛɳɳʊ/ kɔʈʈi tɑːʋlə X
ghter məɡʌ/
48 mother /amma/ /ɦəʋʋə/ /ɑveː/ /əiɡɡɯʋɛ/ /mai/ /au/
49 nephew /marumak /mammə: /kʊːɖə kɔʈʈi /təimbitməɡ /Ɉəməi/ /akǝn men/
an/ ma:tti/ tɑːvɳə æ/
ɱəŋɡɑː/
50 niece /marumak /mammə:nə /kʊːɖə kɔʈʈi /təimbitməɡə /ʋouɖi/ /akǝn mol/
aɭ/ ɦɛɳɳʊ/ tɑːvɳə / /kǝɖac mol/
məɡɑː/
51 twin /iraʈʈaijar/ /aʋəɭikuñəʋɛ/ /irəʈʈeː/ /əʋɯli /don /ail muɡ/
siɾɯʋɛ/ bacca/
52 people /a:ʈkaɭ/ /ʤanəku:ʈʈa:/ /makkalo/ /ɟənə/ /Ɉən/ /ɟenmum/
53 tall /vaɭarthi/ /uddə:/ / /nəiʈʈaːlɯɡə/ /unco/
pːɾʊŋdʰʊkɑːr
ʊ/
54 lean /meliṇta/ /pi:ɭʊ/ /mɛliɳɑːkkɑ/ /ɡəiɖɖiməins /pətlo/ /tarɡeʈi pon/
ə/
55 fat /koLuppu/ /ɡʊɳɖʊ/ /oppɑː/ /ɖɔiɳnɛ/ /daŋɡo/ /dǝpmǝlon/'m
ale'/dǝpmǝɭol/
'female'
56 dumb /u:mai/ /mu:ŋɡũ/ /kʊʈʈʊ /uːmɛ/ /mukko/ /muŋɡene/'ma
/mu:ŋɡə:/ kɔʈʈɑːtɑːkkɑː /uːmɛci/ /mukki/ le' /muiŋɡi/
/mu:ŋɡi/ (kɔʈʈɑː, 'female'
pɔʈʈiː)/
57 relatives /uɾavinar/ /sontakararʊ/ /cɔintə kəɾɯ/ /saɡɡa ʋi̪a:l/
sojra/
58 sister/elde /akka/ /akka: /kʊːʈə kɔʈʈi /əikkaː/ /bəin/ /akǝn/,
r(e.)/youn taŋɡəijarʊ/ tɑːʋvɑː /kǝɖacǝ/
ger(y.) ɑkkɑː,
diŋɡeː/
59 sister-in- /aɳɳi/ /ʧaʈʈʊkatti/ /ɑdije/ /əittiɡeː/, /bəin/ /natʰʋi/
law
60 son /mahan/ /ma:tti/ /məŋɡɑː/ /məɡə/ /beʈo/ /mein/
61 widow /vitavai/ /muɳɖəkiɖi/ /keɳɖrʊ /mɯinɖəci/ /ɽanmun/ /munɖeɡirc/
sətɑːvɑː/
62 wife /manaivi/ /ɦɛɳɳʊɽʊ/ /keɳɖrʊ/ /pɛiɳɖɯ/ /ber/ /peɖ/
63 woman /pen/ / mməɡatti/ /kɛnnɑːkɑː/ /pɔiɳpɔteː/ /baiko/ /pemmuh/
III. Animals, Birds, etc.
64 ant /erumpu/ /iruppʊ/ /eːrʊpʊː/ /ɾuːɖɯ/ /muŋɡi/ /irǝb/
65 bird /paravai/ /akkilʊ/ /kɛkkilu, /pəikki/ /pəcci/ /paikin/
mərɑ kɔːʈʈɑː/
66 cat /pu:nai/ /kotti/ /pʊːʤeː/ /puːnɛ/ /blæɖi/ /pis/
67 claw /nakam/ /ka:ʈu ʤa:ti /ɱirʊkətə /ʋɔinɖəɟɛ/ /sap/ /koluk/
aʤʤə/ kəʈʤe/
68 cock /ce:val/ /kɔ:ji / /kɔːɭi, ʊːvɑː/ /saʋa/ /murɡo/ /ko:i/

854
 INDO-
ARYAN
DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
LANGUAGE
FAMILY
Solaga/ Saurashtra/ Sl. English
Maliyad Paniya Toda Urali
Soliga Saurashtri No. Gloss
/me:n̪ɨmme:n̪ /daʈi /auvaija: aɳɳa /mum /mama/ /ma:ma:/ 46 maternalun
ɨməmu/ illa:ttaʋaru/ tamma mum/ cle
ma:ma:/
/e:nmomogə/ /a:ɳ/ /auvaija: aɳɳa /mocsɛ:nə /kundi/ 47 maternalun
tamma maɡa :l ɡo/ /məməbɛdi/ cle’sdaught
na:tuɳi/ er
/amma:/ /məncɛ:n/ /auvɛ/ /aʋopʰ/ /aue/ /ja:di/ 48 mother
/tempi mago/ /kaɳɳalə:/ /auvaija: aɳɳa /uʈərʋɛ:t /annetu 49 nephew
tamma maɡa mo:r/ maŋe/ /bʰəjibɛdɔ/
na:tuɳi/
/tempi /ma:mɛn/ /auvaija: aɳɳa /uʈərʋɛ:t /annetu 50 niece
maga:/, /taci tamma maɡa ɡo/ maɡa/ /bhəjibɛdi/
maga:/ na:tuɳi/
/aɾija:ga:lʊ/ /ma:mɛna /aʋaiko:cu/ /kellə:l /auli /divvɔnnu/, 51 twin
maɡa:ɭu/ ɔrʃ / makka/ /diːsɛːmu/
X /ammɛ/ /sunmam/ /a:luɡa/ /mɛŋɡjəːn/ 52 people
/ujəɾəma:n̪ə /accina /udda tamə/ /nərtɔɽ/ /uddəman /uɲʧo/ 53 tall
a:ɭʊ/ maɡɛn/ əʋe/
/melisa: /accina /sʌnnʌkɪjʌʋane /tɔjʋiɔɽ/ /eletʈɛ/ /nhəːn/ 54 lean
iɾɨkkɨt̪ʊ/ maɡa:ɭu/ /
/kuɳdʊ /o:rməkkə/ /tabba:ɡiaʋara/ /pajpɔɽ/ /meijərkɛ /dɛɭko/ 55 fat
a:gɨt̪ʊ/ /
/ələɾət̪ʊ/ /contaka:ru/ /dut/ /əʋəʈ /umeæ/ /muɡudɔ/ 56 dumb
kərʋiɔɽ/
/kurɨɖo:ͻ̃/ /reʈʈa /ontataʋaru/ /kuɽʋilam/ /nanʈɾe/ /bəndhun/ 57 relatives
makka:/
/əkka:, t̪əsi/ /acci/ /akka//taŋɡa/ /akko:k/ /akke/ /bɛj/, /məːj/ 58 sister/elder
(e.)/younge
r(y.)
/miccenci/ /maitini/ /natuɳi/ /uʈərəʋɛ:t/ /atiɡe/ /nɛːndu/ 59 sister-in-
law
/məxɨͻ̃/ /maɡɛn/ /mum/ /mɔɡʰ/ /maŋe/ /bɛɖɔ/ 60 son
/mʊɳɖəsi/ /punɖatti/ /muɳɖaici/ /ɔɽɭ /munɖesi/ /ɾəɳɖi/ 61 widow
ɔɽʋiam/
/moɳɖɨ/ /ura:ʈʈi/ /iɖatti/ /angotijes/ /pənɖə/ /bɛjl/ 62 wife
/pɔnnɨta:ɉi/ /beɭɭijaʋaru/ /mutukki/ /tosmɛ/ /pənɖɾə/ /bɛɭmɛɳi/ 63 woman
III. Animals, Birds, etc.
/erɨmbɨ/ /uɽumbu/ /iɽuppu/ /irb/ /iɽʊmbə/ /miŋɡi/ 64 ant
/kuɲʈ∫ɨ/ /paɽəʋe/ /ɦakkija:/ /mar / /paɽak /pəʧʧi/ 65 bird
ʤati/
/pu:na:/ /pu:ccɛ/ /bekkina kotti/ /qoᴂθ/ /pune/ /mənʤiɾi / 66 cat
/ka:lɨŋgə/ /suʋə:ʈu/ /mikka:ʤe/ /kʋətʰjur/ /uɡʊru/ /ʧuŋɡul/ 67 claw
/ʃæʋəɭ/ /pu:ʋəi/ /kombba/ /uɡ kʋiɽ/ /koji/ /kuɖo/ 68 cock

855
 DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
Sl. English Chetti Irula/
Tamil Badaga Kathodi Kota
No. Gloss Bhasha Iruliga
69 cow /pacu/ /dañə:/ /kǝsʊ/ /pɛiʈʈɛmaːɖɯ/ /ɡãi/ /ao/
70 crab /ṇanʈu/ /nǝlli/ /nanɖo/ /nanɖə/ /kekɽo/ /nailer/

71 dog /na:i/ /ñɛ/ /nɑːjeː/ /naːij/ /kutro/ /nai/

72 egg /muʈʈai/ /mɔʈʈə/ /ɱɔɖɖe/ /mɯiʈʈɛ/ /anɖro/ /mɔt/
73 feather /iɾaku/ /bɛkk / /erəŋɡəlu/ /irəɡɯ/ /faɽ/ /keɾuhulu/

74 fish /mi:n/ /mi:nʊ/ /ɱiːɳʊ/ /miːnɯ/ /macʰli/ /min/

75 hen /koLi/ /khɛɖɖəɡɔ:ji/ / kɔːɭi, ʊːvɑː/ /ko:ji/ /murgi/ /koi/
76 fox /nari/ /nari/ /nɛri/ /kɯiɭɭənəɾi/ /nari/ /nəiɾu/

77 goat /kiʈa/ /a:ʈu/ /ɑːɖʊ,(ɱɔʈ /kəɖəj/ /baɡro/ /a:du/

/kaɳɖa:ʈu/ ɑːɖʊ, keɳ
ɑːɖʊ)/
78 peacock /majil/ /məijilu/ /ɱəj.lu/ /nəʋɯɭɯ/ /mo:/ /məilu/
79 guts /tembu/ /dǝiria/ /dairija/ /ɖeiria/ X /ɡuinɖəm/
80 horn /kompu/ /kombʊ/ /kɔːmbʊ/ /kɔimpɯ/ /pe:ð/ /kob/

81 horse /kutirai/ /kutərə/ /kʊtərə/ /kɯitɾɛ/ /goɽo/ /kudire/

82 lion /ciȠkam/ /ʃiŋɡə:/ /siŋɡɑː/ /siŋɡəim/ /sɛr/ /siŋɡum/
83 louse /pe:n/ /jɛ:ñʊ/ /keɳʊ/ /peːnɯ/ /ɟume:/ /pe:nu/

84 monkey /kuraȠku/ /ko:ʈə:/ /kɔːrɑŋɡʊ/ /koːɖə/ /koti/ /kodunu/

85 nest /ku:ʈu/ /akkilʊ kʊ:ʈʊ/ /ɑkkeli kʊːʈʊ/ /pəikkikuːɖɯ/ /ciɽi ko ɡər/ /pəikkikku:du/
86 tail /va:l/ /ba:ɭʊ/ /bɑːlu/ /ʋaːil/ /ɖamp/ /ʋa:lum/

87 tiger /puli/ /uɭi/ /nɛri/ /pɯli/ /wak/ /puɟɟu/

88 tortoise /a:mai/ /a:mə/ /ɑːɱe/ /ɛmɛ/ /ɑ:məi/ /a:mu/
89 wing /iɾakkai/ /bɛkkə:/ /jerɑŋɡɑlu/ /ɾəikkɛ/ /rakko/ /ɾek/

IV. Body parts, Bodily functions and conditions, etc.

90 body /uʈampu/ /oʈəɭʊ/ /ʋərɯ/ /aŋ/
91 back /pinpuram/ /idd ɭʊ/ /neʈlu/ /kɯiɳɖɛ/ /piʈʰ/ /pittel/

856
 INDO-ARYAN
DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY LANGUAGE
FAMILY
Solaga/ Saurashtra/ Sl. English
Maliyad Paniya Toda Urali
Soliga Saurashtri No. Gloss
/pa:suma:ɖɨ/ /pajʋu/ /tana:/ /tɯn/ /dana/ /ɡəːj/, /ɡɔɾu/ 69 cow

/nənɖuŋa/ /menɖu/ /e:di/ /teɡuɭ/ /njunɖi/, /kiɾvil/ 70 crab

/na:ɉi/ /na:j/ /na:ji/ /noi/ /naji/ /sunɔ/ 71 dog

/mʊʈʈiŋgə/ /moʈʈə/ /muʈʈə/ /muʈʰ/ /muʈʈe/ /ənɖɔ/ 72 egg

/rəkkə/ /du:ppe:ɽu/ /rekka/ /tuf/ /tuppuɽu/ /buvvɔ/ 73 feather

/mi:nɨ/ /mi:n/ /ʋara mi:nu/ /min/ /minə/ /mhəli/ 74 fish

/i:/ /ko:ɻi/ /aɖɖu/ /kaka /koji/ /kuɖi/ 75 hen

purmərjam/
/kuntə /neri/ /nari/ /nəri/ /kullənæri/ /khɔlɔ/ 76 fox
nəkka:/
/po:t̪ta̪ :dʊ/ /a:ʈu/ /o:nʈu/ /oɖ/ /ãɽə/ /bhɛnɖu/ 77 goat

/mεjɪl/ X /ba:ttu/ /məjil/ /naʋidə/ /mhɔːɾ/, /muɡɾu/ 78 peacock

/pɪttəku /kombu/ /dəlləpən/ 79 guts

/ka:ru/ X
mɑɲe/
/ko:l/ /kutire/ /kompu/ /kʋər/ /kʊmbə/ /kɔmmu/ 80 horn

/kuðɨra:/ /ʃiŋɡa:m/ /kutira/ /kədər/ /kudre/ /ɡhɔɖɔ/ 81 horse

/siŋgɨɔ̃/ /be:n/ /simma:/ /simnu/ /siŋɡʰə/ /simmu/ 82 lion

/penmuʈɑ/ /kura:ŋɡu/ /e:nu/ /pɛnu/ /pe:nə/ /liːk/ 83 louse

/go:ntti / /bakki ku:ɖu/ /kabi/ /tɯroɪn/ /koɽæ/ /koːtəː/, /koːti/ 84 monkey

/kuɲʈ∫ɨ /majilu/ /ɦakki /kuɽ/ /kʰuɽə/ /ɡhuːʈ/ 85 nest
kɨɳɖɨ/ ku:ɖu/
/to:kkə/ /ʋa:l/ /ba:ɭə/ /bo:sk/ /ʋalo/ /puːs/, /pusuɖi/ 86 tail

/pʊli/ /puli/ /ɦuɭi/ /kuʈɡif/ /puli/ /bəːp/ 87 tiger

/a:ma:/ /a:mə/ /a:ʋə/ /ɔ̃h/ /eme/ /təmbəlʧippɔ/ 88 tortoise

/rəkkə/ /paɽa:ʋe/ /rekka/ /tuʋ/ /ɽoikkɛ/ /piŋɡu/ 89 wing

IV. Body parts, Bodily functions and conditions, etc.

/nəʈʈalu/ /mai/ /pi:rə/ /məji/ /əːŋɡu/ 90 body

/ɡuɲɑ/ /co:ru/ /peɳɳu/ /uf/ /bennə/ /pəskəʈ/ 91 back

857
 DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
Sl. English Chetti Irula/
Tamil Badaga Kathodi Kota
No. Gloss Bhasha Iruliga
92 chin /na:ʈi/ /daʋəʈə/ /tɑːɖi/ /ɡəiɖɖə/ to be /pit/
/təɖɯ kəɖɯ/ Replaced
93 blood /irattam/ /nɛtt rɔ/ /sɔːreː/ /nɛittɛɾɯ/ /rəɡət/ /nettuɾ/
95 bone /elumpu/ /irũ/ /jellu/ /bɔiɖɖeː/ /aɽko/ /eluʋ/
96 finger /viral/ /bɛrəlʊ/ /ne.ɖi/ /nɛitdi/ /aŋɡli/ /ʋeɾl/

97 chest /neɲcu/ /ma:rʊ/ /kɛɳɳeː/ /nɛiɲcɯ/ /sinno/ /etu maɾ/

98 ear /ka:tu/ /kiʋi/ /kijː/ /kaːdɯ/ /kan/ /kiʋ/
99 eye /kaɳ/ /kaɳɳʊ/ /kəɳɳʊ/ /kəiɳnɯ/ /dola/ /kəɳ/

100 face /mukam/ /moɡ :/ /ɱɔʃiɳi/ /mɔindɛ/ /tuɳ/ /mond/

101 fever /ka:ccal/ /ʤaɽə:/ /pəɳi/ /pəinnisəiŋɡəʈə/ /tap/ /əɾl/
102 finger /viral/ /bɛrəlʊ/ /pərlu/ /ʋiɾə/ /aŋɡli/ _

103 flesh /catai/ /b :ʈʊ/ /ɛrɑʤi/ /kəɾi/ /mas/ /pot/

104 life /vujir/ /ba:ɭʊ/ /ʤivitɑː / /pɔləjpɯ/ /nandasar/ /ʋətuk/
105 hair /muʈi/ /maɳɖəʋərəma/ /telu nɑːru/ /məiɳɖɛ/ /kesa/ /məɳdumiɾ/

106 hand /kai/ /kai/ /eʈəkai/ /kɑjɨ/ /ʋələkəj/ /at/ /kəi/

107 head /talai/ /maɳɖ / /teleː/ /tɛlɛ/ /mato/ /məɳɖu/
108 heart /irutajam/ /etə/ /neɲsʊː/ /iɾɯʋə/ /sinnõ:/ /neɲɟ həɳ/

109 leg /ka:l/ /ka:lu/ /kɑ̃ːlu/ /kaːlɯ/ /pãi/ /kal/

110 lip /vutaʈu/ /tuɖi/ /ɡiri/ /məittɯ/ /oʈ/ /tus/
111 liver /kalliral/ /ʃũɖɖəɡ / /kəlluɳdɛ/ /ɡɯiɳɖikəij/ /popso/ /iɾu/

112 lung /nurai:ral/ /ñurəi e:rəl/ /tɔrkkːu/ /pɔɾəli/ /kalɈi/ /pɔtun/

113 mouth /va:i/ /bɛ: / /pɑːjɛː/ /ʋaːij/ /tun/ /ʋai/
114 neck /kaLuttu/ /kaddʊ/ /kəluttu/ /kəittɯ/ /ɡəlo/ /kəduttul/

115 nose /mu:kku/ /mu:kkʊ/ /ɱʊːkkʊ/ /muːikkɯ/ /nak/ /muk/

116 spine /tanʈu /impujilʊ/ /neʈlu/ /kɯinɖɛbɔiɖɖɛ/ /piʈ aɽko/ /pittuleluʋ/
vaʈam/

858
 INDO-ARYAN
DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY LANGUAGE
FAMILY
Solaga/ Saurashtra/ Sl. English
Maliyad Paniya Toda Urali
Soliga Saurashtri No. Gloss
/dəʈi/ /kaɖɖa:/ /mi:dh/ /ɡiɖɖa/ /siːbu/ 92 chin

/rəxəɔ̃/ /ellu/ /ratta:/ /pɔh/ /lətta/ /ɾɛɡət/ 93 blood

/elɨmbɨ/ /ta:ɖɛ/ /eɭu/ /eɽɭf/ /mule/ /hʌʈko/ 95 bone

/ʃoʋɖu/ /beʈʈu/ /nitti/ /ʋæɽalə/ /əŋɡiɭi/ 96 finger

/neɲcɨ/ /kaɳɳu/ /ɡuɳɖiɡa/ /nəsɡuɽi/ /ninʤəkuɽu/ /hɛːmu/ 97 chest

/soki/ /mu:ɖu/ /keʋi/ /kif/ /kãdə/ /kəːn/ 98 ear

/kəɳɳɨ/ /cuməikuɲcai/ /kaɳɳu/ /konɖ/ /kannə/ /dɔlo/ 99 eye

/mu:ɲɈi:/ /ʋiral/ /moɡa:/ /konmun/ /munde/ /tɔːn/ 100 face

/sorəm/ /irəcci/ /ʤaɽa/ /səkɔɳ/ /pæni/ /əːŋɡuhunno/, 101 fever

/təːp/
/verakka:/ /neɽɽi/ /beʈʈu/ /peɟət/ /ʋæɽalə/ /əŋɡiɭi/ 102 finger
/kəri/ /ʋa:ɻkɛ/ /ba:ɖu/ /pət/ /kəri/ /ʧəinɔ/, /məːmisɔ/ 103 flesh

/tile/ /ba:ɭu/ /poɻciʋid/ /pəipə/ /ʤivnəm/ 104 life

/tələkka:ɉ /kajiʋu/ /taɭaiuʋaru/ /məʈmi:r/ /manɖe/ /khɛːs/ 105 hair

məðɨrə/
/ʃu:ɾɡɪ/ /tile/ /kai/ /nəʈɡo:j/ /ɖəkkei/, /həːt/ 106 hand

/tə /idajam/ /taɭa/ /məʈ/ /tele/ /dɔsko/ 107 head

la:kka:ɉi:/
/neɲcɨ/ /ka:l/ /ʤi:ʋən/ /nic/ /ɡunɖiɡe/ /hɛːm/ 108 heart

/ka:lɨ/ /ciri/ /ka:ɭu/ /ɡo:l/ /kalə/ /pəːĩ/ 109 leg

/ɔtɨɖɨ/ /kali:ral/ /tuɖi/ /utaʈu/ /məttə/ /ɔːʈ/ 110 lip

/məɳɳi irəl/ /norai:ral/ /maɳɳe:ri/ /ko:rməm/ /iɽʋa/ /kəʤəli/ 111 liver

/nurəɉ irəl/ /ba:jʋu/ /i:rituraɭa/ /pərt/ /porali iɽʋa/ /kɔvso/ 112 lung

/va:ɉi:/ /doɳʈə/ /ba:ji/ /po:ji/ /ʋaji/ /toːn/ 113 mouth

/kɛʋvo:ɔ̃/ /mu:kku/ /kattu/ /moʈəkəj/ /tʰəddə/ /ɡɛlɔ/ 114 neck

/mu:kkɨ/ /niɖɖalellu/ /mu:kku/ /mito:p/ /mukə/ /nəːk/ 115 nose

/eməkkɨɳɖɨ/ /paɭɭə/ /neʈʈiɭumu:ɭa/ /pɛnəpɛʈ/ /nəʈʈiboɖɖe/ /pəːɖuhəʈkɔ/ 116 spine

859
 DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
Sl. Chetti Irula/
English Gloss Tamil Badaga Kathodi Kota
No. Bhasha Iruliga
117 tongue /na:kku/ /na:ləŋɡ / /nɑːʋʊ/ /naːləiŋɡɯ/ /Ɉip/ /naluɡ/
118 tooth /pal/ /ɦaɭɭʊ/ /ɡəllu/ /pəillɯ/ /dat/ /pal/
119 waist /manikkaʈʈ/ /naʈʊkaʈʈʊ/ /məɳi /nəɖɯ/ /ɔdukət/
/kambər/
kəʈʈʊ/
V. Foods Drinks, Cooking and Utensils etc.
120 flour /ma:vu/ /ma:ʋ/ /pɔːlutʊtʊ/ /pɯɖimə/ /piʈ/
121 bread /rotti/ no word /roʈi/ /roʈʈi/ /roʈi/
122 milk /pa:l/ /ɦa:ɭʊ/ /ɡɑːlu/ /paːlɯ/ /dut/ /pal/
123 salt /uppu/ /uppu/ /ʊppʊ/ /uippɯ/ /miʈ/ /up/
124 smoke /pukai/ /ʋ ɡə/ /kɔːɡeː/ /pɔɡɛ/ /dummo/ /beɡɡu/
125 rice- /arici/ /akki/ /ǝkkiː/ /əɾisi/ /bat/ /pittu/
uncooked(uc.)/cooked(c.) /co:ru/
VI. Clothing, House, Parts of House etc.
126 banian /uɭ a:ɖai/ /baɽi/ X /banien/ /bənino/ /kamisk/
127 cloth /tuni/ /baʈʈ / /tɔːppi/ /bəiʈʈɛ/ /kapəɽ/ /bət/
128 cotton /paruti/ /parutti /pərti/ /kəʈn/ /baʈ/
X
kuʋəmə:/
129 sari /ce:lai/ /sɛ:lə/ /pəʈʈʊ /ʋəiɳɳə/ /luɡɽo/ /pɔduʋ/
mʊɳ.ɖʊ/
130 shoe /ka:lani/ /bu:ʈʃʊ/ /kɑːl /kiːrə/ /ʃu/ /keʋɾu/
se.ɾʊp.pʊ /
131 frock /ɡəuno/ /kəɱɱəlu/ /prɔk/ /ɡaun/ /prɔk/
132 loom /taɾi/ X /oɳosər/ /ɖres
X X
kuitet/
133 stick /kampu/ /kokkətəʈi/ /kʊttʊ pəɖi/ /kɔikkətəɖi/ /banɖi/ /kəi təs/
134 bed /paʈukkai/ /middɛ/ X /paɽuke/ /kaʈlo/ /oiriɡɡed/
135 door /katavu/ /aʈi/ /ɡɛɖi/ /pəɖilɯ/ /banno/ /ʋal/
136 house /vi:ʈu/ /mənə/ /ʊːrʊ/ /kuːɾɛ/ /ɡər/ /pai/
137 roof /ku:rai/ /bari/ /ɱɔːndʰɛː/ /kuːɾɛ/ /dələm/ /pɔtumel/
138 rope /kajiɾu/ /kanni/ /kəɳɳiː/ /kəinni/ /dulli/ /nar/

860
 INDO-ARYAN
DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY LANGUAGE
FAMILY
Solaga/ Saurashtra/ Sl.
Maliyad Paniya Toda Urali English Gloss
Soliga Saurashtri No.
/na:kkɨ/ /na:ʋu/ /na:ɭaɡa/ /no:pʰ/ /nalaŋɡe/ /ʤiːv/ 117 tongue
/pɪllɪ/ /pallu/ /ɦaɭɭu/ /pərs/ /pallə/ /dəːt/ 118 tooth
neɖɨu /arɛ/ /naɖu/ /pem/ /aɭɭe/ /kɛːʈ/ 119 waist
V. Foods Drinks, Cooking and Utensils etc.
/roʈʈi/ /aiʈʈu/ /maɻuʋ/ /poɖimɛ/ /piːʈ/ 120 flour
/ʋænɑɾɪɑ/ /ma:ʋu/ /toʈʈija:/ /sorej/ /bannu/ /ɾɔʈʈi/ 121 bread
/pa:l/ /ɦaɭu/ /pa:l/ /palə/ /duːd/ 122 milk
/uppʋɨ/ /uppu/ /puppu/ /uppu/ /upə/ /miːʈ/ 123 salt
/pʊxa:/ /puɡe/ /ɦoɡə/ /pərk/ /poɡir/ /dhuːmu/ 124 smoke
/so:ɽu/ /uruɻai /aʃki/ /arʊsi /təndu/ 125 rice-
/εsi/ keɭau/ uncooked(uc.)
/cooked(c.)
VI. Clothing, House, Parts of House etc.
/bənɪne/ /bənije/ /olaɽ /hɛːmuvəstəɾ/ 126 banian
/banijan/ /banilu/
əʈɡɯdɯm/
/bəʈʈəɉ /kirɛkɛ/ /pa:ʈaiɡa:/ /kəms/ /muri/ /bɔʈʈɔ/ 127 cloth
bəʈʈa/
/pənɟ/ /kuppəija /doti /punɟ/ /kəbus/ 128 cotton
X
:/ ercaʋararu/
/kʊʋa:kka:/ X /se:ɭa/ /se:li/ /sile/ /səvlɔ/ 129 sari
/pʊlləkuɻəl /kappalɛ/ /ʤo:ɖu/ /boɡɔɽutst /buʈs/ /ʧɛvini/ 130 shoe
ʊ/ ɯ/
/tətto:r /tuɳɖu /cin/ /cinnapauɽ /ɡəvun/ 131 frock
/sarʈʈu/
ba:ʋəɖa: kacca/ e/
/təɾɪ/ /piɽə/ /magga/ /tʰari/ /məɡɔ/ 132 loom
/muke:ɭi/ /kokkɔitinn /ko:rʋ/ /dunne/ /ɡudɛ/, /ləiɖɔ/ 133 stick
/ko:l/
a/ /taɖi/
/bundɡuɖɪ/ loom /pɔtʰ /ɡəvɖi/ 134 bed
/haci:ge/ /beɖɖu/
judam/
/təlʊppɨ/ /uɡɛra:/ bidi:ru /pəʋər/ /kaɡaɡu/ /kəvəːɖ/ 135 door
/ʋ:ɖɨ/ /kajiru/ /meɳa/ /a:r/ /kuɽe/ /ɡhɛːɾ/ 136 house
/kʊra:/ /sa:ri/ /ba:ɻə:uɭɭu/ /pəri/ /melkoppə /kɔvɖəmu/ 137 roof
/
/kərɨɡɨ/ /cu:ʋu/ /aɡadakaɳɛ /a:nmə/ /kəɳɳi/ /dɔɾi/ 138 rope
/

861
 DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
Sl. English Chetti Irula/
Tamil Badaga Kathodi Kota
No. Gloss Bhasha Iruliga
139 wall /suvar/ /ɡhɔ:ɖə/ /mɛllɛ/ /ɡɔɖɛ/ bit/ /ɡod/
140 kitchen/kinaɾɾu /iʈʈʊ mənɛ/ /ɑʈʊ /bəʋi/ /rəndəkkaɳo/
taɳɳi/ koɭimɛːɳe /
141 window /jannal/ /ʤənnəlʊ/ /ʤeɳɳəlu/ /ɟəinnəlɯ/ /Ɉənnəlbanno/ /ɟəllu/
VII. Trees, Vegetables, Fruits and Flowers etc.
142 bamboo /mu:Ƞkil/ /muŋgiɭu/ /muŋɡil/ /muŋɡa/ /bambu/ /ʋet/
143 banana /va:Lai /bɛɦɛɳɳʊ/ /pɔːlutə koli /ʋɛpəimmɯ/ /keɳa/ /ʋai ʋən/
paLam/ kɑːjɛ/
144 banyan /arasamaram/ /bɛɦɛɳɳʊ/ /a:l məra/ /aləmarə/ /Ɉaɽ/ X
145 brinjal /kattarikka:i/ /kattiriɡə/ /pətəɳeː/ /ʋədənɛkaːij/ /waŋɡi/ /kəttiɾikkai/
146 chilly /mi:ɭakai/ /ma:ʃũ/ /ɱəɳə ʃʊ/ /pəɾəiŋkaːij/ /kaca miɽi/ /meluh/
147 coconut /te:Ƞkai/ /tɛŋɡə/ /teŋɡɛː/ /tɛɡinəkaːij/ /naɽel/ /tenkkəi/
148 creeper /paʈar koʈi/ /kuɽi seɽi/ /cɛɖər ceri:/ X X /pandel/
149 flower /pu:/ /u:/ /pʊːvʊ/ /puː/ /ful/ /puʋ/
150 fruit /paLam/ /ɦəɳɳʊ/ /pɔːlutʊtʊ/ /pəimmɯ/ /panɖu/ /pən/
151 garden /toʈʈam/ /u: to:ʈʈə:/ /toːʈʈɑː/ /toːʈə/ /bak/ /kad/
152 grass /pul/ /ullʊ/ /kʊːllu/ /pɯillɯ/ /piltot/ /pul/
153 guava /koija: /kojijəɦaɳɳʊ/ /seːɱbʊ /kɯijjə/ /Ɉam/ /kɔijakkai/
paLam/ kɑːjɛː/
154 cucumber /pala: paLam/ /bɛlləri/ / pel.lɛrɪ.kɛː / /ʋəiɭɭəɾi/ /ʋɛlri:/ /ʋelliɾkai/
155 leaf /ilai/ /elə/ /jɛleː/ /ɛlɛ/ /israk/ /el/
156 lotus /ta:marai/ /ta:mərə/ / tɑː.ɱə.ɾɛ / /taːməɾɛ/ /tamɽo pʰul/ /taməɾəi/
157 mango /ma:mpaLam/ /ma:ɦəɳɳʊ/ /pɔːlutə /məʋɛpəimmɯ/ /ambo/ /maŋɡai/
ɱɑːŋɡeː/
158 paddy /nel/ /nɛllʊ/ /pəttɑː/ /nɛillɯ/ /da:n/ /nel/
159 plough /kalappai/ /e:rʊ/ /nɛŋɡɔlu/ /kəlɯpɛ/ /ma:ʈʈibɛɈa/ X
160 potato /uruɭai /ɡha:ʃʊ/ /səjpə kəlu /dɯɾəɡəikɡɯ/ /ullakərɛɳ/
/ɡelusum/
kiLanku/ ʃʊ/
161 root /ve:r/ /be:rʊ/ /pɛːrʊ/ /ʋeːɾɯ/ /pe:ɖo:/ /ʋeɾ/

862
 INDO-
ARYAN
DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
LANGUAGE
FAMILY
Solaga/ Saurashtra/ Sl. English
Maliyad Paniya Toda Urali
Soliga Saurashtri No. Gloss
/ɡo:ɖa:/ /ʋaɖi/ /ko:ɖə/ /kɛ:pʰ/ /koʈe/ /bhiːt/ 139 wall
X /matilu/ /aʈekɛmena/ /keɳər/ /aɖiɡe /həndəv 140 kitchen
sarle/ təvɾəm/
/sɛnɖɨlʊ/ /cənəlu/ /kiɖikki/ /cənəl/ /ʤənnəlu/ /viɖi/ 141 window
VII. Trees, Vegetables, Fruits and Flowers etc.
/muŋɪle/ /muɭɛ/ /bidi:ru/ /mu:nɡa/ /boŋɡu/ 142 bamboo
/vɑ paŋgu/ /kulle paɡa/ /e:bu/ /bə:ʋəm/ /wɛpammə/ /kɛɭɔ/ 143 banana
/ha:leməra/ /kammikiʃt /pimbəl ʤhəːʈ/ 144 banyan
/alada/ /a:ləmara/
ɯ/
/udɑ kələɾ/ /baina:nɛ/ /batanaika:ji/ /kəttərikə:j /ʋəɡəmikai/ /vəŋɡi/ 145 brinjal
/malakaλi/ /muɭa:ɡu/ /manacika:ji/ /ʋo:rʋɛrik/ /pæræŋɡi/ /miɾkəjlɔ/ 146 chilly
/pɑccetæŋɑ/ /te:ŋɡɛ/ /biɭikappu/ /tɛnkəy/ /tenakai/ /nəɾəl/ 147 coconut
/bɑɾɑtɑmbule /pəɖəltəamerɛ /ceɽəimaɳiɡa /ʧiːnu/ 148 creeper
X
/ / /
/pu:ʋɨ/ /ʋeɭɭariɡɛ/ /uvu/ /po:ʋ/ /puɡʊ/ /phuːl/ 149 flower
/pəŋɡɨ/ /pu:ʋu/ /ɦaɳɳu/ /bum/ /pammə/ /poɭɭo/ 150 fruit
/to:ʈʈəm/ /paɡa/ /karikappu /ko:r/ /toʈa/ /ʤiːnu/, /həːku/ 151 garden
ɦaɳɳu/
/piɭɭʊ/ /to:ʈʈa:/ /biɭikumbaɭa /pul/ /pullu/ /pɔskkɛ/ 152 grass
ka:ji/
/koλλa /pillu/ /traccai/ /kojə: pəm/ /kojapamm /kɔjjə pɔɭɭɔ/ 153 guava
paŋku/ ə/
/ba:mpaɻa/ /teŋɡinaka:ji/ /ʋelləri/ /minikikai/ /vəlkɔ/ 154 cucumbe
/ke:ɾʌka:j/
r
/elə/ /pəʃɛ/ /ʋeɳɖai ka:ji/ /ars/ /soppə/ /pəːn/ 155 leaf

/da:mʌɾεppu:/ /ilɛ/ /tamara/ /ta:mar/ /tamare/ /təməɾə phuːl/ 156 lotus

/maŋka /ta:mɛrə/ /embi ka:ji/ /məʋən /maɡəpam /kəʧʧəmbəː 157 mango
paŋku/ pəm/ mə/ pɔɭɭɔ/
/nɛllʊ/ /ma:ŋɡɛ/ /padda:/ /nərs/ /nillə/ /səːl/ 158 paddy
/məɖəkkə/ /nellu/ /araɭi mara/ /kəlppəi/ /neʋlʊ/ /khəlɔ/ 159 plough
/uləʈʈə/ /u:ɲcai/ /ne:kiɭu/ /kic/ /uɽlekaŋɡə/ /dulpulɖɔ/ 160 potato
/ve:rɨ /uruɭakijaŋɡu/ /muɻɻaŋɡi/ /be:r/ /ʋeɽə/ /muːlu/ 161 root

863
 DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
Sl. English Irula/
Tamil Badaga Chetti Bhasha Kathodi Kota
No. Gloss Iruliga
162 sweet /inippu/ /miʈʈəj/ /ɱʊʈʈɑi/ /inipə/ /miʈʈo/ /titip/
163 tree /maram/ /moɽə:/ /mǝrɑː/ /məɾə/ /Ɉaɽ/ /marǝm/
164 vegetable /ka:ikaɾi/ /darka:ri/ /nəɖʊ kɑjɛː/ /kaːjikəsəimb /tərkaɽe/ /ka:iɡəɾi/
ɯ/
165 wheel /cakkaram /sakkara/ /sakkara/ /ɡəiŋɟɛ/ /nirǝittǝd
X
/ ǝ/
166 gum /u:n/ /gu:ndu/ X X /ləɡɽasər/ /oʈesed/
VIII. Profession and Professional equipments etc.
167 labourer /toLila:ɭi/ /kɛlasəka:rə:/ /kɛləʃə kɑːrɑːn/ /pəɖɯpəɖɯɡ /kawalo/ /kek son/
əʋɛ/
168 barber /muti /ña:ʃʊʋə:/ /diɾʊnɑːɾʊpɛʈʈɑɱ /naːsɯɡɯ/ /ɔɈəm/ /məɳd
tirutupava bɑ/ miɾ
r/ kətəɾson/
169 carpenter /tacaar/ /a:sə:ri/ / ɑːʃeɾi / /aːsəɾi/ /laɡɖo kam /nəɾus/
kərnaɽo/
170 mason /kaʈʈaʈa /mɛ:stri/ / /mɛistiɾi/ /salum
toLila:ɭi/ kɛləʃənɔːʈɑːʋɑːn /mɛʃiri/ kɔttoɾ/
/
171 net /valai/ /bərepinnodo/ /end
X X X
kolo/
172 potter /kujava/ /maʈəikkəma: /kʊɱbɑːrɑːn/ /kɯimbəɾɛ/ /aɳɖikaɳɳɑ:r /əɾatteico
ʈɔ:mə:/ o:/ n/
173 weaver /necava:ɭi/ /baʈʈəniʋəmə: /pəʃdʰdirɑɱəɖʊt /bəiʈʈənəjɡəʋə /waɽnaɽo/ /neccu
/ ʊ/ / ʋoɾ/
174 bullockcart /ma:ʈʈu /dɛrɑbənɖi/ /ɛttʊvəɳɖi/ /dənəbəiɳɖi/ /ɡai ko /maʈoinɖ/
vanʈi/ bənɖi/
175 bus /pe:runtu/ /baʃʊ/ /bǝ ʃʊ/ /bəiɳɖi/ /bəs/ /bəs/
IX. Sense perception, Emotion and temperament etc.
176 bitter /kacappu/ /kəim / /kəjɱbʊ/ /kəjpɛ/ /kaɽuk/ /kəcco/
177 short /kuʈʈai/ /kuɭɭə:/ / kʊl.lɑː / /kɯiɭɭə/ /nallo/ /ku:ra:id
u/
178 blind /kuruʈu/ /duɭɭʊ/ /kəɳɳʊkɑːnɑː /kɯɾɯɖə/ /andlo/ /kəɳ
tɑːvɑːn (kʊrʊɖɑː, /kɯɾɯɖi/ kaɳaʋoɾ/
kʊrʊɖiː)/
179 blue /ni:lam/ /ni:lə:/ /niːlɑː/ /niːlə/ /abal rəŋ/ /nilǝm/
180 bright /piraka:ca /bi:ʃəlʊ/ /pɔːɭiʤɑː/ /pəlicənə/ /uɈalo/ /ʋelup/
m/
181 brown /paLuppu/ /ka:ʋi/ /kɑːvi/ /kaːʋi kələɾɯ/ /cənd/ /kapi
kələɾ/
182 coldness /kuɭumai/ /kui:ru/ /səli/ /kulucci/ /koɡlo/ /kordo/
183 green /paccai/ /paʧʧa/ /ɡəcɛː/ /pəiccɛ/ /hiruo/ /pǝc/

864
 INDO-ARYAN
DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY LANGUAGE
FAMILY
Solaga/ Saurashtra/ Sl. English
Maliyad Paniya Toda Urali
Soliga Saurashtri No. Gloss
/tɪʈɪpe/ /ʋe:ru/ /miʈʈaji/ /titip/ /enippu/ /midəːj/ 162 sweet
/sɛɖiŋɡə/ /mədira/ /onaice /menə/ /məɽa/ /ʤhəːʈ/ 163 tree
ɦaɳɳu/
/ka:ɉsərɨ/ /mara:/ /ka:jiɡa:/ /ko:likəri/ /kaji/ /kɛjləɡɛsuɾnu/ 164 vegetabl
e
/cəkkɑɾõ/ /pacca kari/ /cakra/ /nirǝittǝdǝ/ /səkkara/ /phiɾvini/ 165 wheel
/pɑʃɪne /ɡo:təmbu/ /osadu/ /oʈesed/ /ɡondʰu/ /hɪɾuɖi/ 166 gum
ʋeʈʈɑdu/
VIII. Profession and Professional equipments etc.
/kuliceraciŋk /muʈiʋeʈʈipiki /kəlɨsədavar /ust bƏ:l/ /ʋeleseɡaw /kəːmkɛttɔ/ 167 labourer
a/ ɲcai/ o:/ arə/
/maŋgalaʈu/ /a:sɛri/ /keɭace/ /na:sdarn/ /manɖewoʈ /vəiɖɛ/ 168 barber
kaʋæru/
/narcu/ /paɳika:ren/ /a:cari/ /u:sek bal/ /pəʈreʋeles /tuʧʧunəːɾ/ 169 carpenter
eɡawarə/
/kaʈantaraciŋ /me:siri/ /me:tiri/ /ɡərʋƏt bə:l/ /kəʈərəkəʈɡ /gəvunʤulnəɾ/ 170 mason
ka/ awarə/
/ʋɑle/ /urumiccɛ/ /nivvala/ /end kolo/ /velai/ /nikəɾu/ 171 net
/kumaraciŋka /kalakka:ren/ /kumbara/ /aʈɛkɛ bə:l/ /kumbarə/ /khumbəːɾ/ 172 potter
/
/kəʈɖɨlʊ /tuɳi /ʤeɖaru/ /narsbə:l/ /siləneiɡaw /viŋɡəɾ/ 173 weaver
ɑi:ciŋɡa:/ uɳɖa:kkuɲcai arə/
/
/mɑʈ bənɖɪ/ /kaʈʈa ʋaɳʈi/ /ettina /maʈoinɖ/ /kaʈʈeʋənɖi /ɡɔɾu bɔɳɖi/ 174 bullockc
bandi/ / art
/bəssɨ/ /baʃu/ /bau/ /bas/ /bəsə/ /mhɔɖə bundu/ 175 bus

IX. Sense perception, Emotion and temperament etc.

/kɛccɨ/ /kaippɛ/ /kaijɛ/ /kasd/ /kəipe/ /ɔɡuɾ/ 176 bitter
/hukullo/ /kaɳɳu /tuɳɖakiate/ /kʊɽt/ /kuliɛ/ /nhənnəjɔ/ 177 short
ka:natai/
/kuruʈa/ /ni:la/ /kuruʈi/ /pɛʋərtri/ /kʰuruɖɛ/ /ɡuɖɖɛ/, 178 blind
/kuruʈi/ /kʰuruɖi/ /ɡuɖɖin/
/nilaga/ /boɻi/ /uɖɖa:/ /ni:lm/ /nila/ /niːlu/ 179 blue
/ʋəɭiccəma:x /ka:ppi /buɭukka:/ /paci/ /velusa/ /kəːnti/ 180 bright
ərɨkkɨðɨ/ kolaru/
/eranʈukutu/ /tənupəicu/ /ka:ʋi/ /harʤin/ /kaʋi/ /kɛsəɾi/ 181 brown
/ɟʰɪɭɑnɖɪ/ /paccɛ/ /sitalate/ X /səli/ /sillo/ 182 coldness
/paccakitu/ /su:ɖupaʈe/ /accur/ /paccai/ /pəʧʧe/ /nilɔ/ 183 green

865
 DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
Sl. English Irula/
Tamil Badaga Chetti Bhasha Kathodi Kota
No. Gloss Iruliga
184 hot /cu:ʈu/ /su:ʈʊ/ / sʊː.ʈɑːjʈ.ʈʊ / /ɾɯsi/ /ɡərəm/ /ʋeppum/
185 light /veɭicam/ /mɛɭisa:tə:/ /kənəlɑːkkʊ/ /leːsaːnə/ /diʋo/ /ʋil/
/uɈalo/
186 red /cikappu/ /kɛbbʊ/ /kəɳɳʊmʊːʈʊtʊ/ /kəinpɛ/ /lal/ /netrǝ/
187 sour /pulippu/ /ʊji/ /koːliʊllutʊ/ /pɯɭipɯ/ /kaʈʈo/ /pulus ʋut/
188 violet /uda:/ X /katri pukalər/ /uda/ X X
189 white /veɭɭai/ /bɛɭɭə/ /pɔlʊtʊtʊ/ /ʋɛɭɛ/ /uɈlo/ /ʋel/
190 yellow /maɲcaɭ/ /ariʧʧinə:/ /ɑrsəɳɑː/ /məiɲcə/ /pilo/ /əɾsun/
191 hungry /paci/ /ɦaʃubbʊ/ /kɔʈʈəj ʃi/ /pəsi/ /rak pər se/ /pəttin/
192 tall /vujarṇta/ /uddə:/ / ʊt.tɑː / /ɯitdəməinsə /unco/
/
193 pain /vali/ /uɽiʧʧ / /pɛdiɳe/ /nɔɡətɯ/ /dərəd/ /uɾup/
194 TRUE /unmai/ /unm / /neɟɟoʋaŋɡa/ /unme/ /kəɽɽo/ /nǝlajŋɡe/
195 taste /a:cai/ /ruʃi/ / sɔː.hɑː / /ɾɯsi/ /caʈasər/ /səіʋə/
X. Education
196 ink /mai/ /iŋki/ /məʃi/ /kəpɯ/ /rəŋɡ/ /iŋk/
197 school /paɭɭi/ /paɭɭiʈʈʊ/ /iʃkʊːlu/ /iskɯil/ /palʈum/ /pəɭikudum
/
198 student /ma:navan/ /paɭɭiʈʈʊ /məjdiː/ /pəɖikəmə/ /palʈum /pəlihudum
ku:ʃʊ bəca/ mɔh/
199 teacher /a:cirijar/ /ba:ttirʊ/ /jeluttəccɑː /ʋətijəiɾ/ /aiwarni/ /ʋateɾ/
n/
XI. War & Law
200 bullet /kunʈu/ /tuppa:kki /teːreː/ /kəiʈɾɛsɯ/ /ɡoli/ /ɡoi ɡuɳɖ/
kuɳɖʊ/
201 drum /ekka:ɭam/ /ʈrəmʊ//mad /pəɾɛ/ /ʋaɈo/ /kol/
X
trumpet dələ:/
202 enemy /pakaivan/ /aɡəika:rə:/ /ɛxeː/ /ɛɡəkaːɾə/ /ʋirot/ /aɡaʋon/
203 victory /kaʈan/ /ɡɛbbətʊ/ / ʤeːj.pətʊ /ɟɛjə/ /sa:ltin/
/suɈəttər/
/
204 divorce /viva:ka /buɖiʧotʊ/ /kɑːrjeːdiːp /kɯcimɯɾikətɯ/ /nandənesər /ʋidus ʋut/
rattu/ pətʊ/ /
205 theft /tiruʈʈu/ /kaɭɭəʤɔ:li/ /ɡəllʊtʊ/ /kəiɭɭə/ /curawəsər/ /kəlt ʋut/

866
 INDO-
ARYAN
DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
LANGUAGE
FAMILY
Solaga/ Saurashtra/ Sl. English
Maliyad Paniya Toda Urali
Soliga Saurashtri No. Gloss
/uɖɨkkɨ/ /paɭɭakattuɲc /bisi/ /aro:ʈ/ /suɽu/ /hunnɔ/ 184 hot
ai/
/kɔrɈikkɨðɨ/ /ʋejiʈ illa:ttai/ /ma:caɭu/ /ʈajʋe/ /barpʰorebə/ /nhəːnjɔ/ 185 light
/erra/ /no:ɲcai/ /ɦembu/ /potəʋəɡuʈ /siŋɡa/ /lhɔvɔ/ 186 red
/
/puɭippʊ/ /cuʋappu/ /uɭija:kijate/ /pers/ /aʈʈakuli/ /əmbəʈ/ 187 sour
/kuɭɭan/ /titsərɡudə /kəlle pu: 188 violet
X /ne:rale/ X
/ ʧolor/
/veliλeɳʈu/ /puɭikicaj/ /ʋiɭijatu/ /pʰərt/ /ʋille/ /huʤa:l/ 189 white
/məɲcɨlʊ/ /uɡɛrapaʈe/ /ɦariana/ /harɟən/ /mənʤa/ /hələd/, 190 yellow
/həlɖunɔ/
/be:si/ /ne:raiccu/ /oʈʈaiɦai/ /ʋillimo:s/ /pasi/ /bhuːɡ/ 191 hungry
/ka:ta:l/ /sa:tu/ /udda tamə/ /naɽdam /uddəmanəʋ /uɲʧo/ 192 tall
e/
/nɛppi/ /niɭə/ /no:ʋu/ /bo:rt/ /noʋu/ /duno/, /duvno/ 193 pain

X /boɭuta:j/ /rusi/ /njaʒin/ /unme/ /niʤʤəm/ 194 TRUE

/ɑʃe:/ /maɲca/ /rici/ /ɔ:z/ /rusi/ /ɾuʧi/ 195 taste
X. Education
/pe:na:məɉ/ /maʃi/ /iŋɡu/ /mo:ji/ /iŋkə/ /səi/ 196 ink
/sku:lʊ/ /iʃko:lu/ /ishukuɭu/ /pəɭɭi ʋa:l/ /pəɭɭikuɖa/ /pɔɭɖəmu/ 197 school
/ʋərkɛrɨ/ /iʃko:l /ɦuɖuɡa:/ /paɭɭikuʈə /aɳma/ /məːnəvɔ/ 198 student
muʈʈai/ rətmo/
/ticcɨrɨ/ /sa:ru/ /ɦuɖuɡa:/ /pottijə:r/ /ʋadiarə/ /vəddijəɾ/ 199 teacher
XI. War & Law
/ɡuɳɖɨ/ /kuɳɖu/ /toʈʈa katti/ /dərsɡuɖ/ /toʈa/ /ɾhəvɔ/ 200 bullet
/molœ/ /duɖi/ /ja:ɭri/ /madale/ /mɛddəl/ 201 drum
trumpet
/etir a:lʊ/ /puʈikattai/ /toʈʈa /a:ʋəijə:l/ /ediri/ /sətɾu/ 202 enemy
tuppa:kki/
/ɖaiʋasu/ /a:jitana/ /kɛ:dɯkɯ /ʤeikadə/ 203 victory
/gεlɨsɨʈʈ / /ʤejam/
ʃi/
/tirmonocetu /kaɖɖai/ /enɖu/ /mokəʋəʈ/ /kalʈiʋʊrʊɡa 204 divorce
/vivəkəɾəṱṱu/
ŋka/ dʊ/
/tiɡɨɖəɔ̃/ /ɟejikiɲcai/ /a:cci/ /ɡoɭt/ /tiriɖiɡadʊ/ /ʧɔddəppən/ 205 theft

867
 DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
Sl. English Chetti Irula/
Tamil Badaga Kathodi Kota
No. Gloss Bhasha Iruliga
XII. Religion, Entertainment and Metals etc.
206 festival /tiruviLa/ /kabbə:/ /ʊɮəkəcinɑː/ /əibbaːɖi/ /karbar/ /deɾʋ/

207 garland /ma:lai/ /u ma:la/ /kʊːmɑleː/ /puːmaːlɛ/ /malo/ /pu mal/

208 heaven /mo:tcham/ /sorɡɡə:/ /sɔrkkɑː/ /sɔiɾɡə/ /punniæ/ /sɔɾh
lohum/
209 hell /narakam/ /nǝraga/ /nəraɡa/ /naraɡa/ /pap/ /nərəɡu/
210 worship /a:ra:tanai/ /ʋɛ:ɳɖɔtʊ/ /kɛriːkkɛː//tɔɡəninəjkə /nəməskar/ /ɡubut ʋut/
tɯ/
211 games /viɭaijattu/ /nəɭiʃuɡɔ:/ /kəʤɑːɖʊtʊ/ /ʋəɭəɖɯɡə/ /kʰelno/ /nəlus ʋut/
212 flute /pullaȠkuLal/ /piliŋɡɔ:lʊ/ /ɔːʈəkɔləlu/ /bɯɡiɾi/ /bandu/ /pilaŋɡ/
213 brass /pittaɭai/ /pittəɭə/ /piʤɑːli/ /pitəɭɛ/ /pittəl /kəɟu/
saman/
214 gold /taȠkam/ /ʃinnə:/ /kɔːnnʊ/ /təiŋɡə/ /soɳo/ /sinum/
215 iron /irumpu/ /kabbʊñə:/ /irʊmbʊ/ /iɾɯimbɯ/ /iɽmbu/ /ibə/

216 lime /cuna:mpu/ /ʃuɳɳə:/ /sʊnnɑ/ /sɯiɳɳaː/ /cunno/ /sunumə/

217 money /ka:su/ /ɦəɳə:/ /kəɳɳɑː/ /pəɳə/ /pəiso/ /pənum/
218 silver /veɭɭi/ /bɛ:ɭɭi/ /pɛlliː/ /ʋɛɭi/ /ruppo/ /ʋeil/

XIII. Numerals
219 first /mutala:m/ /mutala:ʋət /ɑːdijɛttʊ/ /mɯtəlɯ/ /eko/ /mudel/
u/
220 second /irenʈa:m/ /ɛɽəʈə:ʋətu/ /ɛrəɖɑː /ɾəiɳɖaːʋət /dunʋo/ /iɖaʋǝt/
məttʊ/ ɯ/
221 third /mu:nɾa:m/ /mu:ɽə:ʋətu/ /mʊːrɑː /muːinʋətɯ/ /tinʋo/ /iɖaʋǝt/
məttʊ/
222 one /ontɾu/ /ontu/ /ɔndʰʊ/ /ɔinnɯ/ /ek/ /oɖǝ/
223 two /irenʈu/ /ɛɽəʈʊ/ /jɛrʊɖʊ/ /ɾəiɳɖɯ/ /don/ /iɖǝ/
224 three /mu:nɾu/ /mu:ɽʊ/ /mʊːrʊ/ /muːnɯ/ /tin/ /munɖǝ/
225 four /ṇa:nku/ /na:kkʊ/ /nɑkkʊ/ /naːlɯ/ /car/ /naŋɡǝ/
226 five /aiṇtu/ /aitu/ /ɑjtʊ/ /əiɲɟɯ/ /pãc/ /aɲɟ/

227 six /a:ɾu/ /a:ɽʊ/ /ɑːrʊ/ /aːrɯ/ /ce/ /aɽǝ/

868
 INDO-
ARYAN
DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
LANGUAGE
FAMILY
Solaga/ Saurashtra/ Sl. English
Maliyad Paniya Toda Urali
Soliga Saurashtri No. Gloss
XII. Religion, Entertainment and Metals etc.
/tirɨna:ɭʊ/ /ɟesdu/ /de:ʋaru/ /pa:n/ /abba/ /tinnəːl/ 206 festival

/pu:ma:la:/ /ma:lɛ/ /ɦeɳɳu /mo:l/ /pumæle/ /phuːluɡhəjlɔ/ 207 garland

/poma:le/ de:ʋaru/
/sorɡəɔ̃/ /sorɡa:m/ /de:ʋaru /aməna:r/ /melloɡa/ /sɔɾkku/ 208 heaven
seɭa/
/nɑɾɑɡõ/ /nərəgə/ /enɖu/ /amunɔɽɔ/ /naraɡa/ /nəɾəɡu/ 209 hell

/camikumd /to:jɲcai/ /de:ʋara/ /səjmit/ /kumbəɽəɡadə /pəːĩnpɔʈni/ 210 worship

utu/ /
/viɭəɉa:ɖɨŋɡ /buɭa:riɲcai/ /bide/ /nə:jst/ /ʋələɽəɡadʊ/ /khəːlu/ 211 games
ə/
/pullakuλlu/ /cina:/ /tattu/ /boɔko:ri/ /buɡri/ /vɛːnu/ 212 flute

/piððala/ /pittaɭe/ /pittaɭa/ /deb/ /pittəle/ /pittəl/ 213 brass

/məɲʈʃʊlɨ/ /sorɳa:/ /cinna:/ /sin/ /sunna/ /əpɾənʤi/ 214 gold

/irumbɨ/ /irumbu/ /ɦappuna:/ /ɡəppən/ /kəbina/ /lɔhən/ 215 iron

/suɳɳa:mbɨ /cuɳɳa:mmp /suɳɳa:/ /sunƏmp/ /sunna/ /sunnɔ/ 216 lime

/ u/
/kɛʈʈɉa:n/ /paisɛ/ /ɦaɳa/ /bili/ /pəɳa/ /hənnəv/ 217 money

/ʋɛɭɭi/ /boɭɭi/ /beɭɭi/ /biɖil/ /ʋilli/ /ɾuppɔ/ 218 silver

XIII. Numerals

/mʊðəlʊ/ /fəʃʈu/ /onta:ʋatu /mudǝl /unde/ /muduləjɔ/ 219 first

ʤa:ɡa:/ koi/
/re:ɳɖa:va:ð /sekkaɳɖu/ /iraʈa:ʋatu /ᴂɖʋɔθ/ /ɽanɖaʋədʊ/ /divəjɔ/ 220 second
ɨ/ ʤa:ɡa:/
/mʊɖa:va:ðɨ /de:ɖu/ /mura:ʋatu /murɔθ/ /munɖaʋədə/ /thinvəjɔ/ 221 third
/ ʤa:ɡa:/
/onɖɨ/ /ontu/ /ontu/ /uɖ/ /unɖʊ/ /ɔndɛ/ 222 one

/irəɳɖɨ/ /iraɳɖu/ /eraʈu/ /ᴂɖ/ /ɽanɖʊ/ /dijɔ/ 223 two

/mu:ɖɨ/ /mu:ɳu/ /mu:ru/ /muɖ/ /munɖʊ/ /tiːnu/ 224 three

/na:lɨ/ /na:lu/ /na:kku/ /noŋ/ /nalə/ /ʧəːɾu/ 225 four

/ɑɲʈʃɨ/ /aɲʒu/ /aitu/ /itz/ /ænʤə/ /pəːnʤu/ 226 five

/a:rɨ/ /a:ɽu/ /a:ɽu/ /ɔr/ /arə/ /sɔːtu/ 227 six

869
 DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
Sl. Chetti Irula/
English Gloss Tamil Badaga Kathodi Kota
No. Bhasha Iruliga
228 seven /e:Lu/ /i:ɭʊ/ /ɛːlʊ/ /eːɻɯ/ /sat/ /ei/
229 eight /eʈʈu/ /eʈʈʊ/ /eʈʈʊ/ /ɛiʈʈɯ/ /ãʈ/ /eiʈ/
230 nine /onpatu/ /ombəttu/ /ɔmbəttʊ/ /ɔimpətɯ/ /nɔo/ /ɔɾbat/
231 ten /pattu/ /ɦattu/ /ɡəttʊ/ /pətɯ/ /dəs/ /pǝtte/
232 sixteen /patina:ɾu/ /ɦatinə:ɽʊ/ /ɡətənɑːrʊ/ /pətənaːlɯ/ /sola/ /pǝdnaɽǝ/
233 twenty /irupatu/ /ibbattʊ/ /ipəttʊ/ /iɾɯʋətɯ/ /bis/ /irʋad/
234 forty /naɾpatu/ /naləʋə/ /na:lʋotto/ /naːpəit/ /calis/ /nalʋǝt/
XIV. Physical activities verbs etc.
235 to bind /kaʈʈu/ /sɛ:tɔtu/ /ʤɛːrsɔtʊ/ /seːɾɯkədɯ/ /ɡəʈʈa /se:ittuʋut
baɳɳo/ u/
236 to blow /u:tu/ /pi:kɛu:totu/ /ʊrʊʂʊtʊ/ /uːtɯɡətɯ/ /pukni/ /irippǝdǝ/
237 to break /uʈai/ /muɽippatu/ /kʊrippətʊ/ /mɯɭikədɯ/ /lawaɽasər/ /muɾusuʋu
(stick,pot,etc.) tu/
238 to burn /eri/ /bɛ:ʃo:tu/ /kəʋʂʊtʊ/ /sɯɖɯɡətɯ/ /Ɉəltis/ /kəttusu
ʋutu/
239 to carry /cumai/ /eddiɳɖʊɔpp /jɛtdinɖkɑːpp /ɛɖɯtɔinpɔɡəd /cələsər/ /tu:ikkuɾ
(onhead,inhand, ətu/ ətʊ/ ɯ/ (/mata nou ɔipputu/
onshoulder) cələsər/
240 to catch(chase /turathi [o:ʈiiʈippatu] /oɖikəʤɑːɖʊt /kəiɳniʋɛkədɯ /bon/ /iɾikkittu
and catch an piʈi/ ʊ/ / pəccuʋutu
animal,somethi /
ng thrown)
241 to clean /tu:imai /suddəma:ʈɔt /ojtʊmɑːɖʊtʊ /sɯtəməɖɯkə /suddɛ/ /ɔskku
cej/ u/ / dɯ/ ʋutu/
242 to do(non- /cej/ /ma:ʈɔ:tu/ /kiːʋətʊ/ /seːkətɯ/ /ɡussuʋutu
/kʌrəsa/
specific verb) /
243 to falldown /viLu/ /kĩ:jəubbatu/ /kiːləpɔːlʊtʊ/ /kiɻɛʋɯkətɯ/ /pəɽasər/ /ki:hutuk
ʋututtutu/
244 to float /mita/ /mitəppatu/ /nɛʃnɑːkəʈətɛ /mɛdəɡətɯ/ /meidakasə /meccu
ː/ r/ ʋutu/
245 to flow /ni:ro: /ɦaɖɖo:tu/ /pɑːrsʊtʊ/ /nɛɡɛɡətɯ/ /Ɉor/ /əccu
oʈʈam/ ʋutu/
246 to hit /aʈi/ /uʋʋətu/ /kʊjʋʊtʊ/ /əɖikətɯ/ /nakkɔ:bɔɭə /ittu ʋutu/
tta/
247 to hold /piʈi/ /iɖʊppatu/ /kiʈippətʊ/ /piɖikətɯ/ /mudər/ /pəccu
ʋutu/
248 to /ca:j/ /se:ppatu/ /sɑːrʊtʊ/ /ɔɾɯɡɯkətɯ/ /ɡale /sa:ɲɟu
lean(againstso desər/ ʋutu/
mething)
249 to lick /naku/ /nakkɔ:tu/ /nɑkkʊtʊ/ /nəkɯkətɯ/ /caʈəsər/ /nəntu
ʋutu/
250 to make /unʈa:kku/ /uɖɖʊma:ʈɔt /pʊʈʈʊmɑːɖʊt /ɯiɳɖɯməɖɯ /kam kər/ /ɡisu ʋutu/
u/ ʊ/ kətɯ/

870
 INDO-
ARYAN
DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
LANGUAGE
FAMILY
Solaga/ Saurashtra/ Sl.
Maliyad Paniya Toda Urali English Gloss
Soliga Saurashtri No.
/e:ɡɨ/ /e:jiʋu/ /e:ɭu/ /eu/ /eɭə/ /səːtu/ 228 seven
/eʈɖɨ/ /eʈʈu/ /eɳʈu/ /eʈ/ /iʈʈə/ /aadu/ 229 eight
/omʋti/ /ompo:tu/ /ompatu/ /unboθ/ /umbədə/ /nəvvu/ 230 nine
/pᴐtðɨ/ /pattu/ /ɦattu/ /pǝt/ /pəttə/ /dəssu/ 231 ten
/pəðəa:rɨ/ /patina:ɽu/ /ɦata a:ɽu/ /par/ /padinarə/ /sɔvvəlu/ 232 sixteen
/itti/ /iruʋatu/ /iruʋatu/ /ʋǝd/ /iruɡadʊ/ /viːsu/ 233 twenty
/nɑɾpəde:/ /na:ppat/ /n̪aːpət̪ʊ/ /nǝlpǝt/ /napəti/ /ʧəɭiːsu/ 234 forty
XIV. Physical activities verbs etc.
/∫egartu/ /ce:ɽtiɲcai/ /onta:ɡi /sət/ /keʈʈu/ /sɛʧʧini/ 235 to bind
kaʈʈu/
/uθaro/ /u:tiɲcai/ /a:ɭicitaʋana /ʋiʋət/ /katərikad /phuvni/ 236 to blow
/ ʊ/
/oʈikertu/ /ɡo:luɳɖa:kku /oʈaijatu/ /mirst/ /pikkadʊ/ mɔɖni 237 to break
ɲcai/ (stick,pot,etc.)
/neruppil /ɡattakiɲcai/ /kaddatu/ /titiʈt/ /ti /ʤələttɛ/ 238 to burn
nikkuθuŋga pursoɡadʊ
/
/tukkinu /du:kkuɲcai/ /a:sʋit/ /ba:ra/ /dɔskɔhɔllə 239 to carry
/ettʊʈɨbəra:d
portu/ /to:ɭəʋəikkuɲ bisəllətɛ/, (onhead,inhand,
ɨ/
cai/ onshoulder)
/kuɳʈu /ʋalaʋaccupuʈ /uʈuciʋət/ /mudikki /dhɛɾni/ 240 to catch(chase
vacci ikiɲcai / pidi/ and catch an
/o:ɖʊiɖijadɨ/
puʈikertu/ animal,somethin
g thrown)
/cuttəmcɛj/ /neɲca:kincai/ /kuɖisa/ /nə:rt kəsʈ/ /belugu/ /suddikɛɾni/ 241 to clean
/ceλλartu/ /uɳɖakkuɲcai /bakki/ /ɡəst/ /ma:du/ /kɛɾni/ 242 to do(non-
/ specific verb)
/tigle /baikakpaiɲca /keɻake: /po:ʈiʋəsic /kkije vu/ /khəːlpɔʈni/ 243 to falldown
punθuʈʈu/ i/ bidda:n/ e/
/miccurcu/ /boɭɭakuɖaiɲc /te:ɭiɭate/ /pəsʤe/ /tʰenɡuɡit /tɛlni/ 244 to float
ai/ (to float) ʰu/
/panɟurcu/ /paru:ɲcai/ /ni:ru /bərti/ /dhəmini/ 245 to flow
/rechʧʰu/
buʈʈakinu/
/aʈioθœ/ /araiɲcai/ /oɖatiʋi/ /kuleket/ /aɽikadʊ/ 246 to hit
/hənəṱṱɛ/
(to hit)
/piʈikertu/ /puʈikiɲcai/ /iɖitiʋi/ /pəccit/ /pidi/ /dhɛɾni/ 247 to hold
/∫aŋgukerðð /ɟa:riɲcai/ /oɽəkitiʋi/ /keʝəʋənət /vɔɾɡini/ 248 to
u/ / X lean(againstsom
ething)
/nakkerððu/ /nakkiɲcai/ /nakkatu/ /nəccit/ /nakku/ /lədini/ 249 to lick
/uruvakkert /uɳɖa:kuɲcai/ /ma:ʈitiʋi/ /uʈəko:st/ /ma:du/ /hɔvədni/ 250 to make
u/

871
 DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
Sl. English Chetti Irula/
Tamil Badaga Kathodi Kota
No. Gloss Bhasha Iruliga
251 to mix /kuLai/ /kalakkɔ:tu/ /kəmmɑːɖʊtʊ /kələkɯətɯ/ /milau/ /kəlikku
/ ʋutu/
252 to /tira/ /taɽəʋətu/ /tɔrɑjvətʊ/ /tərəintə/ /bənnəoɡəɽ/ /ʋaɭ teɾu/
open(adoor,
eyes,bag)
253 to pick /eʈu/ /ku:ʋatu/ /pəripətʊ/ /piɖɯiŋkətɯ/ /Ɉaʈ nəndu /a:su ʋutu/
kar/
254 to play /viɭaijaʈu/ /naɭaʋatu/ /kəʤɑːɖʊtʊ/ /ʋəɭəɖɯɡətɯ/ /kel/ /nəlusu
ʋutu/
255 to pull /iLu/ /iɡəppatu/ /vəllippətʊ/ /iɻɯkə/ /loc/ /kituttu
ʋutu/
256 to push /taɭɭu/ /undɔ:tu/ /pəllippətʊ/ /ɯintɯɡətɯ/ /dəɡəl/ /tail/
257 to put /vai/ /bi:bbatu/ /piːpətʊ/ /ʋɛikkətɯ/ /ek Ɉaɡa /aijeɾt
rak/ kojɛʧəɾ/
258 to rub /te:i/ /doʈəʋətu/ /mɑjppətʊ/ /tɔɖəjkətɯ/ /pusəsər/ /ila:hisu
ʋtu/
259 to sell /viɾpanai /ma:rɔ:tu/ /mɑːrʊtʊ/ /maːirɡətɯ/ /likkəsər/ /ma:iɾu
cei/ ʋutu/
260 to shut /mu:ʈu/ /muʧʧɔ:tu/ /mʊzzʊtʊ/ /ɖɛikkətɯ/ /olawəsər/ /ətuttu
ʋutu/
261 to sink /mu:Lku/ /mu:ɡɔ:tu/ /mʊnɡʊtʊ/ /muːiɲɡətɯ/ /suruŋɡasər /mu:iɡu
/ ʋutu/
262 to sprinkle /teɭi/ /sɛra/ /tɛɭippʊtʊ/ /tuːɾə/ /cʰupɽasər/ /selccu
ʋutu/
263 to squeeze /nerukku/ /ĩɳɖɔ:tu/ /kiɭiʋʊtʊ/ /iɖɯɡətɯ/ /pillasər/ /piskku
ʋutu/
264 to spit /tuppu/ /uɡʊʋətu/ /tʊːppʊtʊ/ /tɯpɯɡətɯ/ /tʰukasər/ /ulu u:tutu/
265 to serve /parima:ru/ /odda:ʃa /aɽi maɽo/ /ɡəʋəincɯɡətɯ /badɡələsər/ /səʋnus
ma:ʈɔ:tu/ / ʋutu/
266 to tear /kiLi/ /kaɳɳi:ru/ /kiːrʊtʊ/ /kiːkətɯ/ /ləɽasər/ /kəni:ɾu/
267 to throw /vi:cu/ /iɖɔ:tu/ /jɛrivʊtʊ/ /suːɖɯɡətɯ/ /ucʰlitak/ /u:ɾu ʋutu/
268 to wash /tuvai/ /ɦoɡəppatu/ /oːppətʊ/ /təjkətɯ/ /hat dou/ /to:ccu
ʋutu/
269 to wipe /tuʈai/ /doʈəʋətu/ /tɔːɖipətʊ/ /tɔɖɛkətɯ/ /pusasər/ /ɔɾuɲɟu
ʋutu/
270 to work /velai cej/ /kɛlasakijiʋət /kɛləʃəkivʊtʊ /pəɖɯpəɖɯɡət /kam/ /kekkusu
u/ / ɯ/ ʋutu/
XV. Instrument Verbs
271 to cut /veʈʈu/ /kiɽɔ:tu/ /kiːrʊtʊ/ /kikətɯ/ /kapəɽ /katir/
kətrasər/
272 to /to:ɳʈu/ /do:ɳɖɔ:tu/ /tɔːnɖʊtʊ/ /toːiɳɖɯɡətɯ/ /gaɖɖo/ /toɟ ʋɯdǝ/
dig(digup)
273 to hunt /ve:ʈʈai a:ʈu/ /bɛʈʈəika:rə:/ /pɛɖɖɛːkɑːpp /ʋeːʈəjpɔkətɯ/ /marikasər/ ʋe:tta:su
ətʊ/ ʋutu

872
 INDO-
ARYAN
DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
LANGUAGE
FAMILY
Solaga/ Saurashtra/ Sl. English
Maliyad Paniya Toda Urali
Soliga Saurashtri No. Gloss
/oɳɖa:kələkk /kala:kiɲcai/ /kaɭakkatu/ /kəlikitu /kalasu/ /kəvlini/ 251 to mix
ɨ/ /
/toɾu/ /duɽa:kiɲcai/ /teɽitijate/ /paʋartæ /tʰara/ /phuːʈ/ 252 to
r/ open(adoor,e
yes,bag)
/piccukerððu /paɽikiɲcai/ /kiɭatu/ /pərɟit/ /jedu/ (/edu/) /tɔɖni/ 253 to pick
/
/valleλa /buɭɭa:ɖiɲcai /a:ʈʈatatu/ /nə:st/ /valadu/ /khəlni/ 254 to play
kerððu/ /
/i∫ikiððu/ /ʋaɭikiɲcai/ /eɭaijatu/ /e:st/ /ekkatʰu/ /uʧʧini/ 255 to pull
/dobbe/ /untunɲcai/ /untu/ /dolit/ /ʤaɡɡu/ /dɔbbini/ 256 to push
/uɾtaoɭɪ/ /ʋekkiɲcai/ /maɖaɡu/ /pʰəst/ /ve/ (/adhdhi /thɔvni/ 257 to put
ve/)
/giriurððu/ /ma:jikiɲcai/ /doʈatiʋi/ /alist/ /tʰe:ɖu/ /ɡɛsini/ 258 to rub
/vikirððu/ /ʋiɭɭikkiɲcai /ma:r/ /ma:rt/ /ma:ru/ /vikkini/ 259 to sell
/ (/atʰai ma:ru/)
/adɟa∫u/ /mu:ʈuɲcai/ /o:ɖaitumuc /art/ /muʧʰu/ /ʤhəɡini/ 260 to shut
cu/
/mugircu/ /muŋɡicai/ /muɭukuɖat /mo:st/ /mo:ɡu/ /buɖni/ 261 to sink
a/
/tural portu/ /teɭikiɲcai/ /simba:katu/ /se:rse:r/ /Sinukku/ /ʧilinʤi/ 262 to sprinkle
/pi∫kertu/ /pujiɲcai/ /iɳɖatu/ /pərɟit/ /nesukku/ /pilni/ 263 to squeeze
/tupparθu/ /tuppiɲcai/ /ɦɔkijatu/ /diʋət/ /tʰuppu/ /thuvni/ 264 to spit
/u:ɾdɨ/ /kaɳɳiuɳɖai /marija:tai /nələt/ /armakapənɡa /ubəsəɾni/ 265 to serve
/ ma:ʈutiʋi/ dʊ/
/kikerððu/ /hi:ruɲcai/ /kaɳɳuni:ru/ /kɛ:rt/ /ke:/ /phədini/ 266 to tear
/erikerððu/ /eɽiɲcai/ /uritata/ /arəst/ /eri/ (/jeri/) /ʤəlini/ 267 to throw
/tappartu/ /ale:kiɲcai/ /kukkatu/ /do:st/ /kukkuɡadʊ/ /vilinʤini/ 268 to wash
/toʈikerððu/ /duɖaikiɲcai /doʈaijatu/ /a:ʃpitɯ /veitʰu vidu/ /pɔsini/, 269 to wipe
/ / /piɲʤəstɛ/
/paɳiceλrθu/ /paɳieʈukiɲc /ikaɭasa/ /kelskest /vealai/ /kəːmkɛɾni/ 270 to work
ai/ /
XV. Instrument Verbs
/kiekerðu/ /ɡi:ruɲcai/ /ɡiɭatu/ /kest/ /vettu/, /daj/ /phənni/ 271 to cut
/toɳɽaððu/ /kujdo:ɳɖiɲ /to:ʈatu/ /sojimut /tʰoandu/ /kɔvɾini/ 272 to dig(digup)
cai/ /
/veʈʈaikuporð /puʈikiɲcai/ /beʈʈaia:ʈatu /beʈkʋist /veaʈʈaikku /vɛdəkhələɾiɔ/ 273 to hunt
ðu/ / / poɡatʰu/

873
 DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
Sl. English Chetti Irula/
Tamil Badaga Kathodi Kota
No. Gloss Bhasha Iruliga
274 to pound /paʈʈi/ /nellukuttɔ:tu /pətɑmippət /kɯrɯɡətɯ/ /da:ɳka:ɳɖa nel u:ɾutu
/ ʊ/ ʃa/
275 to shoot /cuʈu/ /suɖɔ:tu/ /sʊɖʊtʊ/ /ɔdəiɾɡətɯ/ /bənduk ne /kaɽɈajɾənʈuɖ
cʰuʈ kərasər/ ɖu/
276 to /piɭa/ /oɖəppattu/ /kɔːləppəm /ɖɔikkətɯ/ /labɖo /ʋet kit/
split(woo ɑːɖʊtʊ/ bodasər/
d)
XVI. Verbs of Fighting
277 to fight /canʈai po:ʈu/ /saɳɖə /kəlipʊɖʊtʊ/ /səiɳɖɛkɔɖɯ /ləɽəi/ /səɳduttu
a:kkɔ:tu/ kətɯ/ ʋutu/
278 to kill /kol/ /ɡobbatʊ/ /kɔllʊtʊ/ /kɔillɯɡətɯ/ /maɽao/ /təʋuɾusutu/
279 to quarrel /canʈai po:ʈu/ /ʋampusaɳɖə /pɛɖɑtəkɔːli /ʋinsəiɳɖɛmə /ləɽəi/ /ʋəbbu
ma:ʈɔ:tu/ ɖi/ ɖɯɡətɯ/ səɳduttutu/
280 to stab /kuʈʈu/ /kattijəkuttɔ:t /kətjɑːlə /kəittilikɯtɯɡ /tocʰ/ /kəittilu
u/ kʊtʊtʊ/ ətɯ/ kuittutu/
XVII. Music Verbs
281 to /aʈi/ /uʋətu/ /kɔɖɖʊtʊ/ /ʋæsikətɯ/ /marasər /kəttu ʋutu/
beat(adru ʋaɈo/
m)
282 to sing /pa:ʈu/ /kadəjɛ:ɡo:tu/ /bɑːɖɖʊpɑː /paːɖɯɡətɯ/ /ɡit boɽosər/ /pa:su ʋutu/
ɖʊtʊ/
XVIII. Motion Verbs
283 to arrive /aʈai, se:r/ /bantusɛppətu /pəndippətʊ /ʋəintɯʈɛ/ /awasər/ /ʋətut se:itu
/ / ʋutu/
284 to ascend /mele e:ru/ /malaɦattɔ:tu/ /pəʈʈəkəttʊ/ /baːʈiʈɛiɾɡətɯ/ /cəɽasər/ /ʋettu məittu
ʋutu/
285 to bring /konʈu va:/ /oddʊbappatu /kɔnɖʊkɔːp /kɔɖəɡətɯ/ /kəlnawasər /i:ttuɾ ʋətu
/ pətʊ/ / ʋutu/
286 to climb /e:ru/ /barəo:bba:/ /pəʈʈəkəttʊ/ /ʋəɾiɡətɯ/ /pəɡɽi /ʋettu məittu
cəɽasər/ ʋutu/
287 to come /va:/ /aɲcinaɖʊŋɡɔ /pɔːppətkəl /aɲsu /au/ /ʋəɡul
:tu/ diːrɛː/ nəɽukkə/ kɔllutu/
288 to dance /na:ʈijam a:ʈu/ /da:nʃʊ/ /ɑːɖɖəkɑːrɑ /əʈəaːɖɯɡətɯ/ /nacəsər/ /a:ttum/
ː/
289 to drag /i:Lu/ /iɡabbatɔ/ /pəllippətʊ/ /iɭɯkətɯ/ /locasər/ /iluttutu/
290 to enter /nuLai/ /uɡɡɔ:tu/ /kʊkkʊːtʊ/ /nɯɡɯətɯ/ /ɡusi Ɉa/ /uikku ʋutu/
291 to escape /tappi cel / /tappiʤɔ:tu/ /təppʊtʊ/ /təpɯsɯɡətɯ/ /naʈia/ /tɔppuccu
ʋutu/
292 to /paɾa/ /nɔñə:/ /pərəppptʊ/ /pərəkətɯ/ /uɽasər/ /i:ppu/
fly(asabir
d)
293 to get /peru/ /i:ʃɔtu/ /pɔɖʊsʊtʊ/ /ʋəiŋɡɯətɯ/ /Ɉeina kəli /ʋe:su ʋutu/
ao/
294 to getup /eLumpu/ /ebbatʊ/ /jɛtʊkʊɭivət /ɛintɯnikətɯ/ /uʈ/ /me:kkətəttu
ʊ/ ʋutu/

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 INDO-
ARYAN
DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY LANGUAGE
FAMILY
Solaga/ Saurashtra/ Sl. English
Maliyad Paniya Toda Urali
Soliga Saurashtri No. Gloss
/nellukuððrθ /neɭɭukuttiɲca /batta:ku:ʈʈa /kucko:st/ /ʃəːl kənni/ 274 to pound
X
u/ i/ tu/
/cudððu/ /ʋa:ntieʈukiɲc /suɖatu/ /doʈʈut/ (to /vedulu /bəːɳsɔɖni/ 275 to shoot
ai/ shoot) sudu/
/polekerððu/ /muɽikiɲcai/ /ʃi:ɭu/ /orsɟt/ /daj/ /phəʈkɛnni/ 276 to
split(wood)
XVI. Verbs of Fighting
/pi∫ukuððu/ /ʋaisa:jiɲcai/ /ʤakaʈama:ʈ /uɡɯɖəʃt/ /sandai/, /məllini/ 277 to fight
atu/ /jaɡala/
/guɳʈurcuŋga /kolluɲcai/ /sa:jisatu/ /ke:ɖukəst/ /kondudu/ /kəllini/ 278 to kill
/
/vienaɟagaʈa /ʋaisa:jiɲcai/ /kittaɭuʤak /bəɭimkoɖutt /adi sandai/ /viːmbuməlli 279 to quarrel
m porðu/ aɭa/ ɯ/ ni/
/kuððartu/ /kattikuɳɖuku /kattiɭi /durikuɟt/ /ɡudʰdʰu/ /kɔːsini/ 280 to stab
ttuɲcai/ kuttatu/
XVII. Music Verbs
/va:cikiro/ /duɖiaraiɲcai/ /bantuse:ritu /ʋoirt/ /adi/ /tɛʈini/ 281 to
/ beat(adrum)
/paððuŋgo/ /pa:ɖiɲcai/ /beʈʈa /naɡəst/ /pa:ʈʈu/ /ɡhəːv/ 282 to sing
e:ratu/
XVIII. Motion Verbs
/vanθunukiro /ʋante:ttuɲcai/ /bantuse:ritu /puɟərse/ /varuɡatʰu/ /aviʧɛnni/ 283 to arrive
/ /
/malaλerθu/ /malaika:rɲcai /beʈʈa /tiʈɛɟəittɯ/ /jeruɡatʰu/ /dhɔŋɡəɾhiŋɡ 284 to ascend
/ e:ratu/ ini/
/eʈuθuvaro/ /koɳɖuʋeɲcai/ /ettuɖu /bəsʋəsje/ /edutʰukku /khəlliəvini/ 285 to bring
baratu/ va:/
/malaerθu/ /beɽuʋa:laru/ /mara: /butsuʈe/ /jeru/ /hiŋɡi/ 286 to climb
e:ratu/
/valanθunuki /baiɡaikma:ru /bara:tu/ /kupkɛ:t/ /va:/ /əːv/ 287 to come
ro/ ɲcai/
/nəɖəno:ɔ̃/ /paɽaiɲcai/ /a:ʈʈa: /ɔ:ʈut/ /a:ta/ /nəsini/ 288 to dance
a:ɖutiʋi/
/i∫kirθu/ /muŋɡuɲcai/ /eɭaijatu/ /ne:rʋət/ /eu/ (/e:tʰu /uʧʧini/ 289 to drag
ve/)
/ulle porððu/ /pa:jɲcai/ /nukkatu/ /təpskose/ /ulle niɡɡu/ /tuɾini/ 290 to enter
/tapparððu/ /ta:ɡabi:ɲcai/ /tappicatu/ /arkʋəʈse/ /tʰapsi /tɔmʤini/ 291 to escape
poitaru/
/parakutu/ /ba:ŋɡiɲcai/ /a:ratu/ /a:ti/ /huʈni/ 292 to
/para/
fly(asabird)
/va:gicu/ /e:ɻtikiɲcai/ /i:atu/ /aɖutunuse/ /vancʰu/ /khəllini/ 293 to get
/eððikisu/ /koʈukkiɲcai/ /etdatu/ /korɟe/ /jeandʰu/ /hudini/ 294 to getup

875
 DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
Sl. English Chetti Irula/
Tamil Badaga Kathodi Kota
No. Gloss Bhasha Iruliga
295 to give /koʈu/ /koʈ :ʋtu/ /pɔnʃʊtʊ/ /kɔɖɯkətɯ/ /de/ /kɔttu ʋutu/
296 to go /po:/ /o:bbatu/ /kɔːppətʊ/ /poːɡətɯ/ /Ɉa/ /pɔɾuncca:ɾ
ɔibutu/
297 to jump /kuthi/ /a:ɽɔ:tu/ /sɑːɖʊtʊ/ /nɛɡɛɡətɯ/ /dumka/ /mɛjmul
ɡulɾʧ/
298 to /ṇakar/ /taɭɔ:tu/ /kəɭippətʊ/ /ɟəiŋɡɯətɯ/ /kici Ɉa/ /itɾai kokom/
move(tra /kələkɯɡətɯ/ /pʰiri Ɉa/
m) /kicari rak/
299 to run /oʈu/ /o:ʈi /oːɖʊtʊ/ /oːɖɯɡətɯ/ /naʈ/ /ɔsroɡ/
o:bbatu/
300 to send /anuppu/ /kɛ:ɡɔ:tu/ /kelɑjppətʊ/ /dəʈi ʋiɖɯɡətɯ/ /akal/ /oɈalkep/
301 to slip /vaLuku/ /taɖʊmʊʈʈʊ /terɖipɔːlʊtʊ/ /dəɖiki /pəɽiɡo/ /Ɉaɾdoɾəiɡe/
bubatu/ ʋiɻɯɡətɯ/
302 to standup /eLumbi /eddʊnibba /jetʊnillʊtʊ/ /ɛtɯnikətɯ/ /uʈi upər/ /me:kkətuttut
ṇil/ tu/ niɳduʋutu/
303 to swim /ṇi:ṇtu/ /maʈububb /niːʃʊtʊ/ /niːsɯəʈikətɯ/ /nicəl/ /ni:ndu ʋutu/
tu/
304 to swing /u:ɲcal /du:li/ /zʊkʊlʊ/ /ɖuːɾi/ /baɈuk agəl /du:ɾi/
a:ʈu/ neicəl/
305 to ride /saʋara /səʋɑrimɑr /saʋari o:ɡo/ /saʋari/ /cʰoɽasər/ /olam
sarija/ o/ nɔʧulwudə/
306 to visit /e:ɭudu/ /no:ʈʈa:/ / melənɔːɖi/ /paːkətɯ/ /Ɉatiʋo/ /ka:ɾullu/
307 to walk /naʈa/ /naʈəʋətu/ /neɖivʊətʊ/ /nəɖəkətɯ/ /caltos/ /nətutu ʋutu/
XIX. Occupational Verbs
308 to /pajir cei/ /bɛ:bbatu/ /ɱoɭəʂʊtʊ/ /ʋəilləmɛməɖɯɡ /daɳa/ /ʋelttu ʋutu/
cultivate ətɯ/
309 to comb /talai /aɳiɡɛ/ /telibɑːt͡sʊtʊ/ /tɛlɛʋəsɯɡətɯ/ /fani/ /pənnuɡu/
ci:vu/
310 to graze /mej/ /me:ʃo:tu/ /ɡoːʂʊtʊ/ /meːkətɯ/ /katis/ /me:ccu ʋutu/
311 to harvest /aruvaʈai /kiu:ʋətu/ /kʊjʋʊtʊ/ /kɔijɡətɯ/ /daɳa katar/ /kɔsu ʋutu/
cei/
312 to lend /kaʈan /ʃa:lakɔʈʊʋ /kəʈəkoːɖʊtʊ /kɔɖɯkətɯ/ /wam /sa:lum kɔttu
koʈu/ ətu/ / denaro/ ʋutu/
313 to milk /pa:l kaɾa/ /ɦa:ɭʊ/ /ɡɑːlukərjʋət /paːil kərəkətɯ/ /dut/ /pa:lu/
ʊ/
314 to plant /naʈʈu/ /kiɖo/ /nɑːɖɖinəʈʊt /naːtɯnəɖɯɡət /Ɉaɽ/ ɡetuʋ
ʊ/ ɯ/
315 to reap /aru/ /ku:ʋətu/ /kʊjʋətʊ/ /kɔijɡətɯ/ /aruʋəʈəikar /kɔsu ʋutu/
asa/
316 to saw /aɾu/ /ba:ɭʊ/ /ɑɖʊʂʊtʊ/ /ʋaːɭɯ/ /bolasər/ /ʋa:lu/
317 to /vitai/ /biddɔ:tu/ /bitʊtʊ/ /ʋitɯɡətɯ/ /ʋittu ʋittu
/ʋaɖa:latta/
sow(seed) ʋutu/

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 INDO-
ARYAN
DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
LANGUAGE
FAMILY
Solaga/ Saurashtra/ Sl. English
Maliyad Paniya Toda Urali
Soliga Saurashtri No. Gloss
/kuʈukkutu/ /bo:ɲcai/ /koɖa:tu/ /pɛcse/ /kodu/ /dɛni/ 295 to give
/porððu/ /succʋeɲcai/ /ɦo:ɡatu/ /socʋeɟe/ /poɡadʊ/ /ʤəni/ 296 to go
/mælɪ ɡuɖɪ/ /muʈʈukuttiɲ /neɡaijatu/ /mɛkoʋərci/ /neɡeɡadʊ /dəɖini/ 297 to jump
cai/ /
/nɑɡətte/ /talliʋekkiɲc /kaɭaatu/ /aʈəkinərse/ /kalakəɡa /ottədni/, 298 to
ai/ dʊ/ /kəvləni/, move(tra
/ʤhiɾkini/, m)
/ʋoɽe/ /orððu/ /pa:jiɲcai/ /o:ʈisipuʈutin /oʈci use/ /oɽɡadʊ/ /dhəmini/ 299 to run
i/
/ɑkkeɽɑ /ajəkiɲcai/ /kaɭukiccatu/ /toʈəlospəʈ /anəpəɡad /dhəɖɖini/ 300 to send
ɑɲepe/ ʊ/
/ɟɑɾədde/ /baikalicciʋi: /taɖaɡa:ʈi /e:ʈusmit/ /tarikiʋoɡ /ʤhiɾkini/ 301 to slip
ɲcai/ biɭatu/ adʊ/
/eððininikkar /eɻuntaciniki /ettu niɭatu/ /nərsmo:teri /wəndunik /hudihibbini/ 302 to
ððu/ ɲcai/ / kadʊ/ standup
/nienθarððu/ /ni:ccalaʈikiɲ /mi:ʤu/ /a:t/ /misaɽikad /tiɾəstɛ/ 303 to swim
cai/ ʊ/
/uɳɟalu/ /u:ɲʒaɭ/ /du:ri/ /risəɡəl/ /duri/ /hinduɭo/ 304 to swing
/eððukinupor /o:ʈʈu/ /dɔvdini/ 305 to ride
/sava:ri/ X /oattu/
ððu/
/va:nti/ /mɛlekkameɲ /no:ʈake /nɔ:jirtɯ/ /pakadʊ/ /ʃəːnvɔjini/ 306 to visit
ca:in/ bantaru/
/naʈakerððu/ /naɖa:kiɲca:j /naɖaijatu/ /titnəʈət/ /naɽakadʊ/ /ʧəlni/ 307 to walk
/
XIX. Occupational Verbs
/veliλa /muɭaipikiɲc /beɻaicatu/ /urtkəst/ /ʋolekadʊ/ /pikkəʈni/ 308 to
porððu/ ai/ cultivate
/ci:ppɨ/ /tilai /taɭa /pu:tkoɭi/ /teleʋasəɡ /dɔskə ɔɾpəttɛ/ 309 to comb
ci:ppiɲcai/ ba:citiʋi/ adʊ/
/meλarθu/ /me:jikiɲcai/ /me:ca:tu/ /merkət/ /mekadʊ/ /ʧɔvɾini/ 310 to graze
/akirθuceλλar /kojiɲcai/ /kujijatu/ /bəst/ /arətəkaʈʈə /səːlhɔdəɾijɔ/ 311 to
θu/ ɡadʊ/ harvest
/kaʈakoʈukerθ /kaɖa:koʈuki /ca:ɭa: /a:ɭt/ /salakuɽka /ɾiːndɛɾijɔ/ 312 to lend
u/ ɲcai/ koʈʈatu/ dʊ/
/pa:lʊ / /pa:ɭkaɽa:kiɲ /ɦaɭu/ /nərcke:ls/ /palkaraka /duːdpiləɾijɔ/ 313 to milk
cai/ dʊ/
/naððu /na:ʈʈinaɳʈai/ /na:tta: /uppumnərk /naʈʈəʋikk /vɛnnupiʤʤəd 314 to plant
naʈθuŋga/ naʈʈatu/ əst/ adʊ/ əɾijɔ/
/akiro /kojiɲcai/ /kujiɭu /ubst/ /arətəkəʈʈə /səːlkədəɾijɔ/ 315 to reap
ceλλarððu/ kujijatu/ ɡadʊ/
/rambo/ /i:ralu /akki/ /pɔ:ɭ/ /aɽa/ /siːttɛ/ 316 to saw
/veʈikirððu/ /nelluʋitaikiɲ /bidtana/ /urtkəsnoit/ /wittəɡadʊ /bikkuləɾijɔ/ 317 to
ca:j/ / sow(seed
)

877
 DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
Sl. English Chetti Irula/
Tamil Badaga Kathodi Kota
No. Gloss Bhasha Iruliga
XX. Culinary Verbs
318 to bark /kuɾai/ /kammimaʈɔ: /kɔːrippətʊ/ /kəmimaːɖɯ /bokasər/ /kiɾusuʋutu/
tu/ kədɯ/
319 to bite /kaʈi/ /kaʧʧ :tu/ /kəʤuʂʊtʊ/ /kəɖikədɯ/ /kutro na cau/ /kətusuʋutu/
320 to cook /camai/ /iʈʈʊ ma:ʈɔ:tu/ /pɛːsʊtʊ/ /əɖɯɡətɯ/ /randək /əttu ʋutu/
kərsər/
321 to drink /kuʈi/ /kuʈuppatu/ /kʊɖipətʊ/ /kɯɖikətɯ/ /paɳi pesər/ /uddu ʋutu/
322 to eat /cappiʈu/ /tinbatu/ /diɱbʊtʊ/ /tiŋɡətɯ/ /Ɉumasər/ /tiddutu/
323 to feed /u:ʈʈu/ /u:ʈʈɔ:tu/ /diːɖɖikoɖʊtʊ /tiːʈɯɡətɯ/ /Ɉumən /ti:ccu ʋutu/
/ ɡalɔsər/
324 to suck /uɾi/ /urunʤo:/ /urunɟə/ /locasər/ /illiʈiɖ
X
ʈiɖɖəɖ/
325 to tie /kaʈʈu/ /kaʈʈɔ:tu/ /kɛɖɖʊtʊ/ /ɟəɖɛpiɳɯɡət /dotər ban/ /kʰaʧʧiɾ/
ɯ/
326 to wear /aɳi/ /baʈʈəkkɔ:tu/ /tʊɳihɑːkkʊtʊ /bəiʈʈɛkɔtɯɡə /kapəɽ ɡal/ /bədduttu
/ tɯ/ ʋutu/
XXI. Communication Verbs
327 to /patil col/ /batile:ɡɔ:ʋtu /diriʒzʃəlutʊ/ /bətilsɔlɯɡət /bol/ /bədul peitu
answer / ɯ/ ʋutu/
328 to ask /keLu/ /bɛ:kkʊntɛke: /gəɖitəɳəkeːl /keːɭɯʋikeːik /kai bolu/ /ʋeint ʋutu/
bbatu/ utʊ/ kətɯ/
329 to call /kupiʈu/ /kɔɽəʧʧɔ:tu/ /ʊ̈ːɭʊtʊ/ /lɛikkətɯ/ /tike bəlao/ /a:ttu ʋutu/
330 to say /col/ /e:ɡɔ:tu/ /ʊːɭʊtʊ/ /sɔlɯɡətɯ/ /bol/ /pəitu ʋutu/
331 to shout /ku:cal /sadd a:kkʊʋ /ɔʤeːkəːʈʈʊtʊ/ /laːɾɯɡətɯ/ /olau/ /kiɾus ʋutu/
poʈu/ ətu/
332 to write /eLutu/ /baɽəʋətu/ /ɛɭivətʊ/ /ʋɛɾɛɡətɯ/ /lik/ /eliti ʋutu/
XXII. Stationary Verbs
333 to /kaʈan /sa:lai:ʃɔ:tu /sɛləʋaːɡi/ /maŋgilesər /sa:lum
/kaɖabaɖusut/
borrow va:Ƞki/ / desər/ be:sutu/
334 to /te:rvu cei/ /no:ʈieddɔ:t /teriːteːtʊtʊ/ /ɛɖɯtɯʋɛikk /konto dek/ /no:ccuttittut
choose u/ ətɯ/ u/
335 to die /ca:vu/ /sa:ʋətu/ /sɑːjʋətʊ/ /saːkətɯ/ /məriɡo/ /təttu ʋutu/
336 to hide /oɭittu vai/ /uɳ̃iʧɔ:tu/ /kɪːɭəkeːdədɪpp /kəɖɔiniɾɯkə /Ɉəppasər/ /pəttubutu/
ətʊ / /
337 to earn /campa:ti/ /sambatənə /səɱbɑːrʃʊtʊ/ /səimbaːɾikət /kamawasər/ /səmba:c
ma:ʈɔ:tu/ ɯ/ ʋutu/
338 to hide /maɾaitu /kaɳɳʊmʊʧ /oɳʊʂʊtʊ/ /mɔrɛɡətɯ/ /kəɳ kəccu/
/ɟabbɑ:ɖəʃa/
vai/ ʧʊʋa:ʈʈə:/

878
 INDO-
ARYAN
DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
LANGUAGE
FAMILY
Solaga/ Saurashtra/ Sl. English
Maliyad Paniya Toda Urali
Soliga Saurashtri No. Gloss
XX. Culinary Verbs
/kulikitu/ /kuraikiɲcai/ /koɭaitte/ /ricɡest/ /koraikkutʰu /uskini/ 318 to bark
/
/kaʈikertu/ /kaɖikkiɲcai/ /kaɽij/ /bərəʈ/ /kadikkutʰu/ /ʧəvni/ 319 to bite
/corakerððu/ /ka:cciɲcai/ /aʈike/ /duʋərət/ /aɖiɡemaɽɡ /həndətɛ/ 320 to cook
adʊ/
/kuʈikerððu/ /kuɖikiɲcai/ /kuɖijatu/ /uɖ/ /kuɽikadʊ/ /peːttɛ/ 321 to drink
/tiŋkerððu/ /tiɲcai/ /tinnte/ /deɖ/ /tiŋɡadʊ/ /khəːttɛ/ 322 to eat
/uʈɽaððu/ /u:ʈʈiɲcaj/ /tinisitiʋini/ /poika:st/ /tiʈɡadʊ/, /khəvəɖəttɛ/ 323 to feed
/uʈɡadʊ/
/nɑʋɑl ɽeɖe/ /muttiʋɛɭi/ /i:stitə/ _ /ʤhuɾni/ 324 to suck
/ʋeʃʈɪ kəʈʈe/ /tilaikaʈʈuɲcai /kaɳɖu/ /miɟt/ /ʤəɽe /philləttɛ/ 325 to tie
/ pinɡədʊ/
/uʈuppu /kuppa:juɳɖa /pa:ʈauʈʈiʋi/ /pinsest/ /muriekəɡa /ɡhəlləttɛ/ 326 to wear
porððu/ i/ dʊ/
XXI. Communication Verbs
/paθila /patilpaɽaiɲca /uttara /pinɟt/ /badəlsolɡa /ʤɛvəːvkɛɾəttɛ 327 to
connaθu/ i/ ke:ɭatu/ dʊ/ / answer
/kelvi paʈʈaθu/ /ɟo:jicno:kku /patiɭu /pɛkisʋint/ /koɭʋikəɡa /pusəttɛ/ 328 to ask
ɲcai/ eɭaɔtu/ dʊ/
/aλλkerððu/ /buɭikiɲcaj/ /ku:ku/ /rƏstiorət/ /likkadʊ/ /bɔvəttɛ/ 329 to call
/∫ollarððu/ /paɽaiɲcai/ /e:ɻaatu/ /pəst/ /solluɡadʊ/ /səŋɡəttɛ/ 330 to say
/kolððarθu/ /ka:luɲcai/ /a:ɭa:tu/ /joiʤt/ /kirəsʊɡadʊ /kəttəttɛ/ 331 to shout
/
/ra∫uθu/ /ejitiɲcai/ /ɦaʈa:kku/ /pəkit/ /olʊduɡadʊ /likkətɛ/ 332 to write
/
XXII. Stationary Verbs
/neruppil /kaɖaʋa:ŋɡuɲ /a:ɭa: i:atu/ /kɔ̃ddərt/ /seloʋaŋɡa /ɾiːɳ/ 333 to
nikkuθuŋga/ cai/ dʊ/ borrow
/mʊɖɪʋɨ /puɖikintaier /tada:kkə /koɖtu/ /pərəndəur /vɛkkihɛdəttɛ/ 334 to
sεjjʌrʌðɨ/ aɖu/ utta:do:/ kadʊ/ choose
/∫aguθu/ /sattupo:ʋɲca /a:ja:tu/ /keʈukuse/ /saɡadʊ/ /mɔɾəttɛ/ 335 to die
i/
/sambɛrikiɲc /maraatu/ /fəɽɖtɯ/ /məɽekadʊ/ /likkəɖəttɛ/ 336 to hide
/mʌrεkkɪrdɨ/
ai/
/∫ambaθikkuθu /oɻiciʋaikinta /i:a:tu/ /nənkəst/ /sambərsaɡ /ʤɔdinʤəttɛ/ 337 to earn
ŋga/ i/ adʊ/
/marakkuθuŋg /beccukiɲcai/ /ɦuʈuɡan/ /bõst/ /məɽekadʊ/ /likkəɖəttɛ/ 338 to hide
a/

879
 DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
Sl. English Chetti Irula/
Tamil Badaga Kathodi Kota
No. Gloss Bhasha Iruliga
339 to keep /vai/ /bi:dumbo:tu /biːtdippətʊ/ /ʋɛittɛiŋɡɔ/ /ɽakile/ /ta:ne: a:du
/ butu/
340 to wait /kattiru/ /ka:ttʊɳɖuib / kɑːtdɪppətʊ/ /kəittɔiŋɖɯ /waʈ /pigal tirib/
batu/ iɾkətɯ/ dekəsər/
341 to sit /utka:r/ /kulibatu/ /kiɭivətʊ/ /kɯʋaːʋɯ/ /beʈ/ /kukkuɾsu
ʋutu/
342 to stop /niɾuttu/ /niɭiʧʧɔ:tu/ /kəɖəəɖippət /ni:rtɯɡətɯ/ /ubbər/ /əduttutu/
ʊ/
XXIII. Inchoative Verbs
343 to change /ma:ɾɾu/ /ma:ttɔ:tu/ /ɱɑːɖrʊtʊ/ /maːtɯɡətɯ/ /bədalasər/ /ma:ittu
ʋutu/
344 to freeze /uraija /õɽəbi:ppatu/ /orəʂʊtʊ/ /kəʈiəkɯtɯ/ /ɡaɖɖo/ /ɔɾuʋəccu
vai/ ʋutu/
345 to swell /vi:Ƞku/ /ba:ʋʊ/ /biːŋɡʊtʊ/ /uːtɯɡətɯ/ /suɈiattar/ /ʋa:ttu ʋutu/
346 to /ṇanai/ /nəibbatu/ /kəʤzəɑːtʊ/ /tɔpəlɛətɯ/ /ullo/ /iɾmaiʈolədu/
wet(mskrwe
t)
XXIV. CognitiveVerbs
347 to count /ennu/ /lɛ:kka /nɑŋɡələnɑːɖ /ɛiɳɳikɛ/ /meɈasər/ /ekku:cctu/
ma:ʈɔ:tu/ ʊ/
348 to know /terintu /aɽʊtubippat /terivətʊ/ /kaːʈɯkɯdɯ/ /malum/ /to:iɾu ʋutu/
koɭ/ u/
349 to learn /paʈi/ /o:tɔ:tu/ /pəɖippətʊ/ /pəɖikətɯ/ /wacəsər/ /kattutu/
350 to think /joci/ /jo:ʃəñə /ɑːloːʂʊtʊ/ /ɯintɯpaːɾɯ/ /jocən /ɡeʋun
ma:ʈuʋətu/ kərəsər/ ɡissutu/
351 to /purintu /aɽtə / /pɯɾi:ntɔiŋɡɔ/ /kalelosər/ /artǝm
understand koɭ/ ma:ʈɔ:tu/ kotʊɱɑːɖʊtʊ gitǝʋǝdǝ/
/
XXV. Sensory and Emotive Verbs
352 to cry(weep) /aLu/ /bikki bikki /pɔki pɔki /ləɽəsər/ /unsuɾ
/hikkialutũ/
a:ʋɔtu/ əiɡɡətɯ/ əduttutu/
353 to fear /pajappaʈu /aɲ̃cɔ:tu/ /ɑɳʊʂʊtʊ/ /əiɲɡɯɡətɯ/ /darasər/ /əɲɟu ʋutu/
/
354 to hear /ke:L/ /kɛ:ppatu/ /kɛːlutʊ/ /keːkətɯ/ /aikasər/ /ke:ttu ʋutu/
355 to /ciri/ /nɛɡəʋətu/ /ʤirippʊtʊ/ /siɾikətɯ/ /asasər/ /kʱaɾssutu/
laugh/smile
356 to read /va:ci/ /o:tɔ:tʊ/ /pəɖippətʊ/ /pəɖikətɯ/ /wacəsər/ /o:itu ʋutu/
357 to sleep,lie /tu:Ƞku/ /oɽəɡɔ:tu/ /ɔrəŋɡʊtʊ/ /rɔiŋɡɯətɯ/ /suɽəsər/ /oɾihitu/
358 to smell /mukar/ /mu:ʃɔ:tu/ /ɱəɳəʂʊtʊ/ /moːtɯpaːkətɯ /was/ /mu:ittutu/
/
359 to taste /ruci/ /ruʃino:ʈɔ:tu/ /ʃɔtənɔːɖʊtʊ/ /ɾɯsimaːɖɯɡət /cakasər/ /saiʋu/
ɯ/ /cokoɽ se/

880
 INDO-
ARYAN
DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
LANGUAGE
FAMILY
Solaga/ Saurashtra/ Sl. English
Maliyad Paniya Toda Urali
Soliga Saurashtri No. Gloss
/veccinukkuθ /keʈa:dikkuɲc /maɖaka:tu/ /mi:koʋər /ʋittuŋɡadʊ /thɔvithɔvləttɛ/ 339 to keep
uŋga/ ai/ t/ /
/ʋodɪŋɪ/ /ka:tukkuɲcai /ka:ɖɖuʈate/ /diɽiksʋər /kakədʊ/ /ɾhəkhəttɛ/ 340 to wait
/ t/
/konθukerðð /ilacikkuɲcai/ /ku:ttumatu/ /a:ʋərt/ /ukkaɡadʊ/ /bisəttɛ/ 341 to sit
u/
/muɽɽaððu/ /kaʈaiaʈaikiɲc /mucca:tu/ /ɡəsəsnɛ/ /murtʊɡadʊ /hibbəɖɛttɛ/ 342 to stop
ai/
XXIII. Inchoative Verbs
/maranθurcu/ /ma:ʈuɲcaj/ /ma:tta:ku/ /kəlʤəst/ /matɡadʊ/ /məʧʧəttɛ/ 343 to change
/taɳapikiɲcai/ /kaʈʈija:ɡatu/ /kurkiʋəst /urusuɡadʊ/ /ɔlləkɛɾədəttɛ/ 344 to freeze
/notnon/
/
/ugakiθu/ /bi:ŋɡicai/ /u:ddaɭu/ /nələt/ /udəɡadʊ/ _ 345 to swell
/neɟupo∫u/ /nɛnaikiɲcai/ /ninaiatu/ /piɖoʈəʋi/ /ninikadʊ/ /bivʤədəttɛ/ 346 to
wet(mskrwet
)
XXIV. CognitiveVerbs
/en∫uθu/ /eɳɳiɲcai/ /e:ɳiatu/ /ɡonəʋək /unsɡadʊ/ /mɔvʤədəttɛ/ 347 to count
o:ʈ/
/terinɟaθu/ /aɽiɲcai/ /kottu/ /səkije/ /kanɖəpuŋɡ /dɛkkəɾijɔ/ 348 to know
adʊ/
/paʈikiʈu/ /manasala:ku /kaɭitiʋi/ /kəʈəkos /kalsəɡadʊ/ /ʧɔvdəɾijɔ/ 349 to learn
ɲcai/ mini/
/alo∫aceλλarð /ke:kuɲcai/ /ma:ʈatu/ /i:t/ /eosenimaɽ /jɔsənəkɛɾəttɛ/ 350 to think
ðu/ ɡadʊ/
/kəɾɡɑȷɑnɑ /manasala:ku /kottu /miɽʧtɯ/ /porudəpuŋ /kələlləttɛ/ 351 to
pɪkkeɾde/ ɲcai/ ma:ʈatu/ ɡadʊ/ understand
XXV. Sensory and Emotive Verbs
/tembiaλθu/ /arija:kaʈuppi /tukkiciaɭatu/ /oɟit/ /teŋɡiuɡadʊ /buskiʈi 352 to cry(weep)
kiɲcai/ / ɾɔɖəttɛ/
/piððukiθu/ /mukkimukiɡ /aɲcatu/ /oɟid/ /anʤəɡadʊ/ /dhəkkəttɛ/ 353 to fear
ireɲcai/
/kekkuθu/ /po:ɖikiɲcai/ /ke:ɻatu/ /uɽusni/ /kokadʊ/ /ʤəɡəttɛ/ 354 to hear
/∫irkkuθu/ /ke:kiɲcai/ /naiɡaija/ /ʋo:jt/ /neɡəɡadʊ/ /əʃəttɛ/ 355 to
laugh/smile
/paʈikkiθu/ /sirikiɲcai/ /kaɭi/ /kaɖsni/ /pəɽikadʊ/ /ʧɔvdəttɛ/ 356 to read
/mor∫akiθu/ /muttiɲcai/ /ke:ɖaija:tu/ /miliɡərst /ɽoŋɡəɡadʊ/ /ninʤəttɛ/ 357 to sleep,lie
/poɪȷe/ /
/muccuaʈikiθ /paʈikiɲcai/ /mu:cci /dibt/ /mondpaka /nikuləttɛ/ 358 to smell
u/ no:ʈatu/ dʊ/
/ruci/ /uɽa:ŋɡiɲcai/ /rui/ /ditɟət/ /rusipakadʊ /ɾuʧʧisəttɛ/ 359 to taste
/

881
 DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
Sl. English Irula/
Tamil Badaga Chetti Bhasha Kathodi Kota
No. Gloss Iruliga
360 to touch /toʈu/ /muʈʈɔ:tu/ /ɱʊʈʈʊtʊ/ /tɔɖɯɡətɯ/ /cuasər//muccu
ʋutu/
361 to wakeup /tu:Ƞki /ɔ:ɽiɡiebbatu /jettʊ nillutʊ/ /ɛɡətɯ/ /uʈəsər/ /me:kkədətt
eLu/ / utu/
362 to annoy /ko:pa /oɽəʧʧəbəɽəʧ /ɑrʤɑːʤʊtʊ/ /ɾɔsəmaːɖɯɡət /Ɉəlautos/ /ko:ppum
paʈu/ ɔ:tu/ ɯ/ vəkkussutu/
363 to kiss /muttam /muttə /ɱʊtɑːkkʊtʊ/ /mɯtɯɡətɯ/ /cummades /muŋɡututu/
cej/ a:kkɔ:tu/ ər/
364 to love /ka:tali//ɡəʋə:bi:ppa /ʃɳɛʤʊtʊ/ /mənəsɯɔintɯɡ /asa pəɽsər/ /ɡəʋʋu/
tʊ/ ətɯ/
365 to get /kaɭaipp /dañəkkɛ:/ /ʃəŋɡəʈʈɑː/ /bəimbɯ/ /bəɈar/ /səkkuttumu
tired u/ /
XXVI. Other Verbs
366 to bathe /kuɭi/ /uɽʊkəʈʈɔ:tu/ /miːmbətʊ/ /niːiɾəɖɯɡətɯ/ /aŋ dotos/ /niɾəc ʋutu/
367 to buy /va:Ƞku/ /i:ʃɔ:tu/ /pɔʈʊʤʊtʊ/ /ʋaːiŋɡɯətɯ/ /lestər/ /ʋe:su ʋutu/
368 to drip /oLuga /soʈʈaʋǝrotu /so:ʈʈo/ /soʈʈunir/ /temko X
viʈu/ / paɳi/
369 to meet /caṇtipp /nɛ:rukku /kəɳɖʊmʊʈʈʊtʊ/ /kəiɳɖɯmənikət /dekəsər/ /ku:su ʋutu/
u/ nɛ:r ɯ/
ka:ɳbatu/
370 to repay /tiruppi /tirimbi sələtə/ /pʰaɳmkoʈʈe/
/marcikaʈʈu/ X X
koʈu/
371 to /ke:li/ /gəʤɑːʈʈəɱɑːɖ /ɡeli/ /maskare/ /erkir ɡǝnar/
/negǝceddʊʋ
ridicule,jo ʊtʊ/
ǝtu/
ke
372 to show /ka:ʈʈu/ /do:ɽʧʧɔ:tu/ /kɑːʈʈʊtʊ/ /kaːʈɯɡətɯ/ /deɡaɽ/ /ka:ccu
ʋutu/
373 to scratch /cori/ /kirɔ:tu/ /kiːrʊtʊ/ /ɡirɡətɯ/ /keɈaɽəsər/ /ki:ɾututtuttu
/
374 to stick /oʈʈu/ /kokkətəʈi/ /kʊttʊ pəɖi/ /ʋəɭəjkədɯ/ /laɡɡi ɡi/ /kəi təsu/
375 to vomit /va:ṇti /ɛ:ñʊʤərə/ /kɑːrʊtʊ/ /kaːɾə/ /okare/ /ka:ɾlu/
cei/
376 to wean(a /pa:l /kiɽsinɑ/ /pʰaluɖəsmo
child) marakka X X X ɡ/
pannu/
377 to allow /anumati /uttərʋo /arəmbəducʰtan /anumædi/ /kər/ /ɡim/
/ koʈutɑ/ a/
378 to name /pejar /eʃʊrubi:bba /geːʂərəpeːpətʊ /pɛiɾ ʋɛikkətɯ/ /nau/ /pe:ɾu ʋəccu
cu:ʈʈu/ tu/ / ʋutu/
XXVII. Adjectives
379 all /ella/ /pu:ra:ʋu/ /ɔkkɑː/ /ellame/ /sappibi/ /mucuɖ/
380 bad /keʈʈa/ /keʈʈətu/ /kɔllɑːttʊtʊ/ /kɛʈətɯ/ /kərap/ /aɡad/
381 big /perija/ /do:ɖɖatu/ /tɔːʈʈʊtʊ/ /bilijə/ /moʈʈo/ /doɖɖɔd/

882
 INDO-
ARYAN
DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
LANGUAGE
FAMILY
Solaga/ Saurashtra/ Sl. English
Maliyad Paniya Toda Urali
Soliga Saurashtri No. Gloss
/ɑnʈɨɡirəðɨ/ /maɳapicino:k /muʈʈatu/ /mo:ʈi/ /toɖəɡadʊ/ /dhɛɾni/ 360 to touch
uɲcai/
/eððiki/ /tiɲcino:kkuɲc /eddatu/ /besət/ /ruŋɡiuŋɡad /hudəttɛ/ 361 to
ai/ ʊ/ wakeup
/ro∫anovarakir /doɳʈai/ /ke:ɳɳa /dəskoʈʋəit/ /rosəwæraʋi /ɾəːɡəvədəttɛ/ 362 to annoy
ððu/ baratu/ kkadʊ/
/muððakuʈuk /uɽa:kiliruntue /mutta:ɡatu/ /ulə:rʋəi/ /muttəɡadʊ/ /kɔnʤəttɛ/ 363 to kiss
uθu/ ɻuntikkuɲcai/
/katal/ /ka:dalikiɲcai/ /paɭaɡətiʋi/ /po:t/ /pəɽəoɡadʊ/ /iʃtəmpɔdəttɛ/ 364 to love
/kəlɨppɨ/ /saŋɡaɖa:juɭɭai /saɭido:ttu/ /eɭutunət/ /sokipəjirtʊ/ /sinəːttɛ/ 365 to get
/ tired
XXVI. Other Verbs
/taɳɳiɟauððik /aʈʈitaʋara/ /ni:rɔʈɯt/ /niraɖɡadʊ/ 366 to bathe
/kuɭikiɲcai/ /kallatte/
iððu/
/vaɳiɳikuθu/ /kuɭikiɲcai/ /i:atu/ /a:t/ /vaŋksu/ /khəlləttɛ/ 367 to buy
/ʃuʈʈe tənnɪ/ /ba:ŋɡiɲcai/ /suʈni:r/ /soɖsoʈʈauɽɡa /sɛɾpəsttɛ/ 368 to drip
/tottikalu/
dʊ/
/canθekirððu/ /kaɳɖumuʈʈinc /no:ʈinɛ/ /oɖʋərt/ /pakadʊ/ /dɛkkəstɛ/ 369 to meet
ai/
/tɪppɪ kuɽe/ /pe:ruʋekuɲcai /marupavati /tərikʰkɔrrə/ /tirumbikoɽka /phiɾibhəndəstɛ 370 to repay
/ / dʊ/ /
/kɪnɖel/ /ka:ɳiɲcai/ /pɛikest/ /kinɖəlmaɽka /kɛɭʧəttɛ/ 371 to
/tama:sɨma:
dʊ/ ridicule,j
dadivə:ɔ/
oke
/kaɳbikkerðð /to:riʤitiʋi/ /ke:lɟit/ /kaʈɡadʊ/ /dɛkkəʈɾijɔ/ 372 to show
/ka:ʈʈiɲcai/
u/
/giriurððu/ /ɡi:runtai/ /ɡa:ru/ /ɡoʈest/ /tʰeakkatʰu/ /ɡiɾisɔnni/ 373 to scratch
/ko:lʊ/ /ka:ʈʈikoɖukku /bakkisatu/ /moʈəkit/ /oʈiŋkadʊ/ /dɔvsəttɛ/ 374 to stick
ɲcai/
/va:nti/ /ba:ntiɲcai/ /kakka:ɭu/ /ko:rt/ /kaɡɡa/ /vəmi/ 375 to vomit
/ɑɾukɑ/ /ʋaɭaikiɲcai/ /ku:su/ /karoɖnoirt /marapsu/ /pɛvəɖəttɛ/ 376 to wean(a
e/ child)
/toʈikerððu/ X /anumati/ /a:ʃpitɯ/ /anmeikadʊ/ /dhəɖɖəsttɛ/ 377 to allow
/peravakirððu /pe:ruʋekuɲcai /ɦesaru/ /no:jmort/ /perʋikkadʊ/ /nəːv thɔvəttɛ/ 378 to name
/ /
XXVII. Adjectives
/ɑɖɖijəme:/ /okkə:/ /eɭɭavuɛ/ /həʋəʋe/ /illame/ /əskkijɔ/ 379 all
/kεʈʈa:ðə/ /keʈʈai/ /enta:ɡiɭa/ /ɡoŋɡoʈ/ /kəʈʈadʊ/ /hiːnuhɔjəjɔ/ 380 bad
/pεra:ðɨ/ /beɭijai/ /toʈʈatu/ /dojem/ /biliadə/ /mhɔɖəjɔ/ 381 big

883
 DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
Sl. English Chetti Irula/
Tamil Badaga Kathodi Kota
No. Gloss Bhasha Iruliga
382 dirty /aLukka:na/ /aɭukka:tə:/ /ɱɑːjʂitʊ/ /ɛikkaːnə/ /bruŋɡəl ma:cca:idi
se/
383 dry /ka:iṇta/ /oɳiɡitə:/ /vəɳəŋɡitʊ/ /ʋərəiɳɖətɯ/ /sukkigi/ /ʋarl/
384 few /koɲjam/ /ɖosi/ /kocca/ /silɛ/ /Ɉərra/ /idelam/
385 full /ṇiraija/ /dumba:/ /oːndʰʊ/ /mɯɻɯsaː/ /sappibi/ /tupusʈ/
386 good /ṇalla/ /oɭɭija:/ /ɔːllɛːtʊ/ /nəilləsənɛ/ /cʰoɡoʈ/ /ollidǝ/
387 hard /kaʈinama:n /kaʃʈəʋa:tə: /kiʈʈəɑːttʊ/ /ɡəiʈʈi/ /kəsʈə/ /kǝsʈǝmaiɖǝ/
a/ /
388 honest /ṇe:rmaija:n /sattija:/ /nɛrɑːjʈʈʊ/ /naːɳəjəimənə /Ɉuʈ nei/ /nǝlaimǝnd/
a/ /
389 long /ṇi:ɭama:na/ /udda:/ /ʊtɑːjʈrʊ/ /niːʈə/ /ləmbo/ /nicipǝdǝ/
390 many /atikama:na /abbarə:/ /tʊɱbɑː/ /məim /barik/ /entulu/
/ maːɳijə/
391 narrow /kurukala:n /kuññə:/ /sʊriŋɡʊtʊ/ /kɯriɡənə/ /kunnutu/
/nallo:/
a/
392 new /putija/ /o:sattʊ/ /koʃttʊ/ /pɯdɯsɯ/ /nɔuʋo/ /puddʱudu/
393 old /paLaja/ /ajijattu/ /kəlɛːtʊ/ /pəjaː/ /Ɉunno/ /paitu/
394 raw /mu:la/ /beərəilla:tə /kɔttillɛː/ /əkət̪ə/ /tatos/ ɔkka:ru
:/
395 rotten /aLukina/ /ko:ta:/ /ʃiːtʊtʊ/ /ɛiɡɡinə/ /paɽiɡəl/ /kitti:pputu/
396 right /carija:na/ /sarija:tə/ /ʃɛriɑːjʈʈʊ/ /sɔɾijaː/ /bərabər/ /sera:idu/
397 cheap /maliva:na/ /kəmmi/ /melisane/ /səsto/ /belkəlnaʋəd
X
ə/
398 clever /puthija:na/ /buddia:tə:/ / pivəɾɑːjʈʈʊ / /bɯiddiənə/ /ɡəʈʋano/ /ɡeʈkɛrǝnɛ/
399 sharp /ku:rmaija:n /su:ɳi/ /sʊːɲɟɑːjʈʈʊ/ /uːsittiɾɯ/ /ʋai ulud/
/ku:ʃbər/
a/
400 short /kuraiva:na/ /muɳɳə/ /jɛkərillɑːttɑː /kəiʈʈɛ/ /nallo/ /ku:ra:idu/
mɑː/
401 some /cila/ /ɔntʊɪllɑːttʊt /ɔinɖɯmilɛ/
X X X
ʊ/
402 small /cirija/ /kuññə:/ /sʊɳɖʊtʊ/ /sinnə/ /nallo/ /kunnutu/
403 smart /puttija:na/ /sa:ma:rtti/ /ʃɑːmɑːrttɛ/ /ʋiʋəɾə kəɾə/ /curwaʈ/ /ɡʱettu ʋutu/
404 smooth /menmaija: no data /a:ʈitamanas /mənəsɯɾəɡɪn /ɡaʋaiɖ/
X
na/ u/ əʋə/
405 soft /menmaija: /soɡəʋa:tə:/ /sʊkɑjiʈʈʊ/ /pəɖəmaːnə/ /kaulo/ /pɔsukka:di/
na/

884
 INDO-
ARYAN
DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
LANGUAGE
FAMILY
Solaga/ Saurashtra/ Sl. English
Maliyad Paniya Toda Urali
Soliga Saurashtri No. Gloss
/murəkki/ /aɻaʋattai/ /koɭe/ /artəʋe/ /ukkʰu/ /muɾijɔ/ 382 dirty
/kə:jndə/ /puttiuɭɭa:j/ /onaɡijate/ /serserki/ /oɳatəɡadʊ/ /vəɾələjəjɔ/ 383 dry
/ʃɪɭɑde/ /maɳɳupaʈe/ /kelabu/ /kərʃkuɖ/ /koɲʤa/ /ɾuvvəjɔ/ 384 few
/mɛttɛ/ /unna:ŋɡula: /tummbijate/ /pƏkkən/ /muləsʊ/ /puːɾnuhɔjəjɔ/ 385 full
/mulsə:/ /
/nəllə/ /di:rnta:/ /oɻɻe/ /kəsʈm/ /aɽmaka/ /ʧɔkkədjɔ/ 386 good
/kəsɖa:ma:nə/ /pa:na/ /kejta:re/ /nərst/ /kasʈəmana /kɛsʈəmhɔjəjɔ/ 387 hard
/
/ne:rməj/ /mujimai/ /oɭijatu/ /konə:rʋərt/ /naja/ /nijəːvhɔjəjɔ/ 388 honest
/bεrira:ðɨ/ /nallə:i/ /uddaʈa:/ /aribetʋi/ /uddəmanad /ləmbəjɔ/ 389 long
ʊ/
/mələ/ /uɽaipaʈe/ /e:na/ /solukest/ /liɡɡana/ /ʤhukku/ 390 many
/təddo:rɨ/ /nalla:na/ /iɖɽe/ /bəʋen/ /kuɽukəkad /undəjɔ/ 391 narrow
ʊ/
/piðijəðɨ/ /nallamanas /amace:/ /ɡoɖk/ /pudusʊ/ /nɔvəjɔ/ 392 new
u/
/bəŋɡa:ðɨ/ /niɭapaʈe/ /ɦaɭijatu/ /perkoʈəʋi/ /pajadʊ/ /ʤunnəjɔ/ 393 old
/pəkkɨʋəmərrə /ca:lamɛ/ /baɽa:daɳɖa/ /sereʋi/ /kəʧʧəjɔ/ 394 raw
X
/
/ɑɻʊɡijə/ /cɛɽija:/ /koɭaittu/ /nə:nt/ /koledərtʊ/ /muɾɡəjɔ/ 395 rotten
/sərija:nə/ /puddai/ /oraari/ /ʋebkoʈ/ /ʋalakəi/ /sɛɾkkəjɔ/ 396 right

X /bəijaɡai/ /agga/ /icʰkuɖiʋi/ /kammi/ /moːl unnəjɔ/ 397 cheap

/paija:kkuɲc /ɦe:ɳɳa/ [bitɯɖɯʋi] /aɽibʊ/ /buddisəlijɔ/ 398 clever
ai/
/sonnə/ /ci:ɲcupo:ja: /aritta:kijate/ /milli/ /ku:si/ /mɔːnəjɔ/ 399 sharp
/
/təddo:ɳɖɨ/ /cerija:ttai/ /duɳɖu/ /kurs jə:l/ /koɭeana/ /nhənnəjɔ/ 400 short

X /urukka:ttai/ /birijatu/ /ɡɔɻiʋi/ /sila/ X 401 some

/cinn:ðɨ/ /uɡarailla:tta /ʃaɳɳatu/ /urtesuʈi/ /sunnadʊ/ /nhənnəjɔ/ 402 small
i/
/camaððiλo/ /cippi/ /amaritiɡe/ /nɔ:b/ /samərtja/ /səməttu/ 403 smart
/sa:mertta:/ /oɭimanau/ /uɭɭimənɯʃ 404 smooth
X /nunnana/ X
n/
/vεðɨvεðɨppɨ/ /kaʈʈi /meɭanɛ/ /bʰest/ /pakwa/ /pɔdəŋɡɔ/ 405 soft
illa:ttai/

885
 DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
Sl. English Chetti Irula/
Tamil Badaga Kathodi Kota
No. Gloss Bhasha Iruliga
406 straight /ṇe:ra:na/ /nɛ:rə:/ /nɛrɑːjʈʈʊ/ /nəʈənə/ /sido/ /ne:ɾa:idi/
407 strength /palama:na/ /sa:ma:rtti/ /pɛlɑː/ /bələbəɖəɾ /Ɉoro/ /belumu/
ə/
408 thick /taʈitta/ /dabba:/ /məində/ /barik/ /təb ma:idi/
409 thin /mellija/ /ollija:tə:/ /ɱɛlinəɖɖʊ/ /leːsə/ /pətlo/ /sippa:idi/
410 ugly /aciȠkam/ /ʃiŋɡərəilla: /ʃɔriillɑːttʊt /keːɖɯ/ /asiŋɡapər/ /pəsundula:t
tə:/ ʊ/ u/
411 vice /ma:su/ /keʈʈə /pɔllɑːttəpʊd /kɛʈəpəɻəkə /səɳɡəʈ/ /a:ha:tu
naɖəttə/ ʰdiː/ / ʋəlukkum/
412 virtue /aɾam/ /buddi/ /ɔlleːmɑnɑʃ /nələmənəs /cɔkɔ:ʈʋɑ:ɖɪk /ɔllitu
ʊ/ ɯ/ ki/ ʋəlukkum/
413 warm /cu:ʈa:na/ /dekke /suɖu/ /ɡərəm/ /ʋeddɯdə/
X
marǝdǝ/
414 weak /palavi:nama: /sattuilla:tə /pɛlləillɑːtʊt /bələilətə/ /ɡəlasər/ /belumila:tu
na/ mə:/ ʊ/ /
415 wet /i:rama:na/ /uɳɖə/ /kəʤzəɑːtʊ/ /ɔiddɛ/ /ullo/ /iɾmaiʈoləd
u/
416 wide /akalama:na/ /bila:sǝʋagi /aɡla/ /parande/ /cauɽo/ /miccʰuɖə/
/
417 wild /ka:ttu/ /moɽəʈə:/ /ɱɔrʈəʈʊtɑːm /mɔɾəɖɛ/ /waɽo/ /ɡuɳdu
ɑ/ /keɽo/ ma:di/
418 wise /puttija:na/ /buddija:tə:/ /ɑriʊllɑːmɑː/ /bɯdikəɾə/ /laiɈor/ /bʱuittɔɭutu/
XXVIII. Functional Words
419 east /kiLakku/ /kaləkkʊ/ /kɛləkkʊː/ /pɔdɯ /kelukkulə/
pɯɖɯɡə /suritbaʈʈil/
dikikɯ/
420 end /muʈivu/ /unuʋǝ/ X /muɖibu/ /səreɡi/ /samdikɔ/
421 far /tolaivu/ /du:rə:/ /tʊːrɑː/ /ɖuːɾə/ /dur/ /du:rumu/
422 leftside /iʈatu /eʈəsari/ /jɛʈəpɑːkkɑː/ /dəiŋɡəɖɛ/ /daowat/ /eɽpəkəm/
pakkam/
423 middle /iʈajil/ /naɖʊʋə/ /nəɖʊviɳɑː/ /nəɖɯkɛ/ /naɖumaʈ/ /nǝrtul/
424 near /pakkam/ /sa:rə/ /ɑriːkɛ/ /pəikkəittɛ/ /baɈuk/ /akkǝtǝl/
425 north /vaʈakku/ /ʋaʈəkkʊ/ /ɑriːkɛ/ /ʋəɖəkɛ/ /paʈʈaɳbaʈʈil/ /kimul/
426 out /veɭije/ /oɽə:ʃu/ /kɔrɛkɛ/ /ʋiʈəkɛ/ /bar/ /pɔrunccull
u/
427 rightside/ /valatu /balasari/ /pələvəkkɑː/ /ʋələ kəj/ /Ɉumno at/ /ʋaɾpəkəm/
hand pakkam/
428 south /teɾkku/ /teɽkku/ /tekkʊ/ /tɛrɯkɯ/ /te:rkku/ /terkku/

886
 INDO-
ARYAN
DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
LANGUAGE
FAMILY
Solaga/ Saurashtra/ Sl. English
Maliyad Paniya Toda Urali
Soliga Saurashtri No. Gloss
/ne:ra:xə/ /ni:rulla/ /ne:ra:/ /də:it/ /near/ /nɛːɾɔ/ 406 straight
/ʋəlʊʋɨ/ /bala:/ /baɭa:/ /tadumə/ /bəla/ /bɔləmkɔ/ 407 strength
/kəɖiɖəma:nə /taɖijai/ /dappa:ɡijate/ /nərtəʋe/ /təɖia/ /dɛlkəjɔ/ 408 thick
/
/mεlɨsə/ /sɛɽuŋɡanal /nunnanɛ/ /utumədeʋ /oɭɭia/ /nhəːnjɔ/ 409 thin
la/ i/
/nəlləilla:ðə/ /aɻaʋillatta: /ʤo:ra:ɡiɭa/ /tətməʈəʋe /alaɡille/ /əndusnhiːttɔ/ 410 ugly
/ /
/kɛʈʈəpəɻəkkə /aɡattai/ /keʈʈabutti/ /ʋolləʋəlk /tʰonai a:lu/ _ 411 vice
m/ /
/nəlləmənəsɨ/ /nallabuddi/ /oɭɭibutti/ /ulliʋelip/ /arməndaw /dhəɾum/ 412 virtue
a/
/u:ɖkəyete/ /azor/ warm /ənəl ləvəɖəttɛ/ 413 warm
X
/aror/
/vəlɨʋilla:ðə/ /bɛɭaka:ni/ /baɭa:iɭe/ /morikətʋ /balamille/ /nhiːno/ 414 weak
e/
/ɟillɨɳɖɨ/ /tanupulla/ /kodde/ /enĩt/ /tema/ /ɔɭɭɔ/ 415 wet
/pɑɾɑnɖɑ/ /ʋɛlləpərəp /oɡolmə/ /ɡalla/ /viləːs/ 416 wide
/agala/
pu/
/muraʈʈuððan /arijakaʈicuɭ /muʈʈa:ɭu/ /bƏsn/ /moɽəɖe/ /biɡunʤəttɛɡɔ/ 417 wild
amana/ ɭa:/
/vʊɡɨddiullə/ /aɽiuɭɭa:/ /ɦe:ɳa/ /kest/ /mutti/ /budisɛttəɡɔ/ 418 wise
XXVIII. Functional Words
/tuppɨ/ /iʈate:ku/ /mu:ʈaɻu/ /nərt/ /muɽalə/ /kəvnəsu/ 419 east
/muɟɑde/ X /antya/ /karcʰi/ /modudʰudutʰtʰu/ /əntu/ 420 end
/∫anθuro/ /tu:ra:/ /mu:ʈaɭu/ /kiʈuk/ /dura/ /duːɾ/ 421 far
/pɪʃɪkɪ pəkkõ/ /aŋɡekku/ /du:ra/ /imə:rt/ /ɖakkəi/ /dəiɾəpɔːk 422 leftside
um/
/nεɖɨʋɨli/ /naɖuʋili/ /mattijata/ /koɖək/ /naɖuʋe/ /mhəddi/ 423 middle
/pəkkili/ /aɖukka/ /danʈe/ /pəskoi/ /pakkatili/ /lɛɡuttɔ/ 424 near
/uddirəm/ /minnɛliku/ /taɳɖe/ /imƏ:rt/ /bəɖəɡalʊ/ /təɾu/ 425 north
/pe:li/ /puɽa:tu/ /ʋaɖakaɭu/ /mukno:ʈ/ /ʋʊʈeli/ /bhəɾəːɖu/ 426 out
/ʃuɾɡɪ pəkkõ/ /ʋala:dukaij /oraari/ /kupkno:ʈ/ /ʋalakəi/ /ʤəinəpɔː 427 rightside/ha
u/ kum/ nd
/taccana/ /baikɛku/ /baɭa:kai/ /həɽma:ɟ/ /ʈiŋkʰəlu/ /dɛʧʧəɾu/ 428 south

887
 DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
Sl. English Chetti Irula/
Tamil Badaga Kathodi Kota
No. Gloss Bhasha Iruliga
429 again /mi:nʈum/ /mariʧʧijɔ:/ /kindiːŋ/ /məiɾcimɯ/ /anci/
/məruppəttu
m/
430 always /eppotum/ /e:ɡu/ /jɑːkʊlum/ /ɛippəmɯ/ /kəmmab /e:lkkum/
i/
431 before /mun/ /munda:ʈɛ/ /ɱʊntə/ /mɯindəɖɯ/ /agəl/ /mindǝl/
432 daily /tinacari/ /ʤanə:ɡʊ/ /cinɑːlum/ /dinəmɯ/ /ekdisna/ /e:lukkum/
433 day /na:ɭ/ /aɡəɭʊ/ /kəhɑlu/ /pəɡəlɯ/ /dis/ /pəlu
ma:rum/
434 evening /cajaȠka:lam /sandottu/ /ʃəɳɳərɑːkɑː /ələɡəpɔɖɯ/ /sanke/ /ənde:lpututt
/ / u/
435 fast/quick /ve:kamaka/ /mañəkaɳə: /pirədipətʊ/ /pəittijə/ /Ɉəldi/ /kəʋ kunum/
/
436 full moon /muLu nila: / /unnəʋɛ/ /pɔːluttɑ /mulunilaʋuna /pəunɔmi /tiɡilnal/
day pɑːvʊ/ l/ /
437 late /tamatam/ /mella/ /nɛːrɑjʈʈʊ/ /məiɳnə/ /leʈ/ /paim pe:mu/
438 month /matam/ /tiŋɡʊʋə:/ /ɱɑːʃɑː/ /məsə/ /maino/ /tiŋɡuɭu/

439 morning /ka:lai/ /oɽəkkʊtu/ /pɔllɑːpəŋɡɑ /ɾəʋeː/ /səpɽa/ /u:nukku/

ː/
440 night /iravu/ /iru/ /səntɛː/ /kətəlɛɟəmə/ /rat/ /ilma:rmu/

441 season /paruvam/ /ka:laʤanə: /iːkkɑːlɑː/ /pəɾɯʋə/ /disa/ /po:hum/

/
442 today /intɾu/ /iñdu/ /indʰʊ/ /iniɖɯ/ /as/ /iɳdi/

443 tomorrow /na:ɭai/ /na:jiɡə:/ /nɑːlɛ/ /ɔɾəiŋɡɛ/ /səkal/ /nalk/

444 yesterday /neɾɾu/ /ñɛnnɛ:/ /mɛɳɳɛː/ /naːɖɯ/ /kal/ /ne:ru/
445 after/afterwa /piraku/ /inta:ɖʊ/ /ɡiɳtteː/ /pərəɡɛ/ /məttir/ /piɡa:lu/
rds
446 behind /pin/ /inda:ʈʊ/ /ɡintte/ /pimpəɖɯ/ /baɈuk/ /piha:lu/
447 between /iʈaijil/ /naɖʊʋə:/ /pʊʈʈʊkʊʈʈʊ/ /iɖɛpəɖə/ /aruʋo/ /eduppəttutu/

448 by /mu:lam/ /da:ri da:ri/ /pəʈʈɑjɖrʊ/ /ʋəjəɡə/ /naɈik/ /a:la:tlu/

449 down /ki:Le/ /kijijəno:ʈi/ /tɛlɛkara/ /kiːʋə paːɾɯ/ /hiʈəl/ /kiɡutul/
450 for /badiɭʊɡə:/ /pɛːre/ /bətilɯkɯ/ /ki/ /bətula:di/

451 from /iruntu/ /ĩddʊ/ /indʰʊ/ /ikətɯ/ /ti/ /itturu/

452 he/she /avan/avaɭ/ /amə:/ /ɑʋɑː/ /əimmə/ /ine/ /on/ /ol/

888
 INDO-
ARYAN
DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
LANGUAGE
FAMILY
Solaga/ Saurashtra/ Sl.
Maliyad Paniya Toda Urali English Gloss
Soliga Saurashtri No.
/tiruppi/ /binnɛ/ /kaɭikaɭiɡa/ /kerɡo:lm/ /tireɡi/ /phiːɾu/ 429 again

/eppoλθo/ /eppa:lum/ /e:ʋakaɭuʋe /nə:ʈkesm/ /eppome/ /khɔbbimu/ 430 always

/
/minne:/ /minɛ:li/ /munte/ /madalk/ /modəlʊ/ /ɛkəɾmullɔ/ 431 before

/tinamum/ /eppa:lum/ /ʤinəʋe/ /anmə:rnə:l /ʤinamon /nitte/ 432 daily

/ ne/
/oru kəɳɖə /bahalu/ /aɡəɭu/ /rehəɖʋərt/ /pəɡəle/ /nitte/ 433 day
sεppɨ/
/eʈavala/ /antine:ra:/ /santə/ /noɖəɦəɡəu /sãiɡala/ /viːɭʈɔ/ 434 evening
/
/okkubaðθu /be:ɡa:/ /uʋina /abƏ:t/ /uppasa/ /ʃɛnəm/ 435 fast/quick
/ ma:ɭa/
/pouɾnɑmɪ/ /bəurnəmi/ /unaʋe/ /nərʋ/ /punnawe/ /aməːs/ 436 full moon day
/ta:məðɨm/ /ne:ra:ttə:/ /taɭara:/ /e:ɟʋər/ /neɽmaiɽtu /təməs/ 437 late
/
/ma:cəm/ /ma:sa:/ /tiŋɡa:/ /mƏrɡom/ /masa/ /mhəɖɔ/ 438 month

/uɖɨjəʈʈəli/ /erutɛ/ /e:ɭikka/ pʰiul/ /raʋe/ /sɔləbəːɾu/ 439 morning

/ra:va:rɨ/ /ira:ʋu/ /ja:tu/ /ketʋəm/ /rapodə/ /ɾəːtu/ 440 night

/pərɨʋəm/ /paruʋa:/ /beʃaɡa/ /dəkir/ /kala/ /ɾudu/ 441 season

/inrɨ/ /iɲcu/ /indu/ /koɔrʋ/ /inɖə/ /hindɔ/ 442 today

/na:ɭikki/ /na:lɛ/ /na:ɭɭai/ /mokol/ /oraka/ /sɔndɔ/ 443 tomorrow

/ne:sɨrɨ/ /inale/ /ninna/ /ark/ /næʈə/ /kəːlu/ 444 yesterday

/perrukku/ /pinnɛ/ /iɲca:ri/ /pɯn/ /pimbe/ /phəlʤətu/ 445 after/afterward

s
/pεrɨkkɨ/ /baiɡe:ku/ /inte/ /pərst/ /pimbe/ /aɖɖamtuɾni/ 446 behind

/iɖəjpεrəðɨ/ /naɖuʋili/ /maddijata/ /anmətəlk/ /naɖuʋe/ /vəːdumu/ 447 between

/vəjjəxə/ /peruʋa:jili/ /ta:reɭi/ /a:llər/ /weili/ /hɔjəti/ 448 by

/ɖɪɡɭɪ/ /da:ɡe/ /ku:ttu/ /ærkʰ/ /kʊje/ /phəttiɡu/ 449 down

/pətila:xə/ /batilu/ /batiɭaɡa:/ /ako:/ /bəɽial/ /kuʧʧi/ 450 for

/irɨnrɨðɨ/ /ulai/ /inta:/ /uɖiʃi/ /iɽədʊ/ /tikhɔ/ 451 from

/keru/ /aʋən/ /aʋane/ /amokʰ/ /amɛ/ /tikɔssi/ 452 he/she

/poɳɳu/ /aʋa:/

889
 DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
Sl. English Chetti Irula/
Tamil Badaga Kathodi Kota
No. Gloss Bhasha Iruliga
453 toher,tohim /avaɭukku/ /aʋəddə:/ /ɑʊɳɡɑː/ /əʋə lɯikkɯ/ /cori ke/ /əʋuɭukku
/avanukku/ /aməta:ɡi/ /əimməkɯ/ /
454 here /iȠke/ /iɭɭi/ /illiː/ /idikɛ/ /na/ /iʋulə/
455 his/her /avanuʈaija/a /aʋə:/ /ɑʊvɑː/ /əʋæ/ /maɳus /əʋunutu/
vaɭuʈaija/ /əʋə/ ke/
456 how /eppaʈi/ /eddə/ /jɛɳttɛː/ /ɛinnɛ/ /kau/ /enumə/
457 I /ṇa:n/ /na:/ /nɑː/ /naːnɯ/ /mɛi/ /a:nu/
458 it/this /itu/ /atu/ /ɑdʰʊ/ /ətɯ/ /ʈi/ /əddu/

459 toit/tothis /itaɾkku/ /itu/ /ɑdʰəŋɡɑː/ /ətɯkɯ/ /ʈi/ /id/

460 its/ofthis /itanuʈaija/ /atuñə:/ /ɑdʰənɔːʈɛː/ /ətənɛ/ /tiko/ /ətuna/
461 like /virumpu/ /ma:kkɛ:/ /ɑtəɳəkɑːrɑː/ /pɔnəlɛ/ /pəɡris/ /ənme
ma:tiɾɾu/
462 tome /enakku/ /eñəɡə:/ /nəɳəŋɡɑ/ /naːnɯkɯ/ /mɛi/ /enukku/
463 my /en/ /ennʊtu/ /nənttʊ/ /naːnətɯ/ /mɛi/ /enutu/

464 our /enkaɭuʈaija/ /naŋɡə:/ /nəŋɡɑː/ /nəmɯ/ /amaro/ /a:mu/

465 not /illai/ /illa/ /illɛː/ /illɛ/ /nai/ /ila:/
466 so/thus /a:kave/ /atunɛnta:/ /ɑtəŋɡɑ/ /ətənəlɛ/ /asutobi/ /ənma:ittu
/
467 that /aṇta/ /atu/ /ɑtʊ/ /ədɛ/ /di/ /ad/
468 tothem /avarkaɭukku/ /aʋəkkaɡa:k /ɑkkɑːkə/ /əʋəɾɯkɯ/ /tiko/ /əʋurukku
i/ /
469 then /appotu/ /a:ɡəʋɛ/ /ɡindiʊm/ /əippɯ/ /ti/ /piɡa:lu/
470 those /avai/ /a:ʋuro:/ /andɛ/ /ti/ /ad elam/
X
/ta/
471 there /aȠke/ /aɭɭi/ /ɑlliː/ /ədɛ/ /ti/ /ai/
/ta/
472 they /avarkaɭ/ /ɑk.kʊ.lum/ /əʋæɾɯ/ /tino/ /or/
473 their /avarkaɭukku/ /aʋəkkatu/ /ɑkkʊlutʊ/ /əʋəkɛillə/ /ta/ /ord/
474 these /ivai/ /atə/ /itɔːkkɑː/ /əʋəkɛ/ /te/ /idelam/

475 tous /eȠkaɭukku/ /naŋɡəsa:re/ /nəŋɡəkʊːʈeː/ /nimikɛ/ /hamke/ /əmmut/

476 we /na:m/ /ñəŋɡə/ /nəŋɡɑː/ /naːmɯ/ /ame/ /am/

890
 INDO-ARYAN
DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY LANGUAGE
FAMILY
Solaga/ Saurashtra/ Sl. English
Maliyad Paniya Toda Urali
Soliga Saurashtri No. Gloss
/a:ponnukku /aʋa:ɭukku/ /aʋaɻiɡa:/ /amo:ɡə/ /aʋaləkʊ/ /tɛnɔ/ 453 toher,tohim
/ /a:kerukku/ /aʋenku/ /aʋaɻe/ /a:ɳ/
/iŋɡi/ /u:ɖɛ/ /iɭɭi/ /il/ /iddi/ /ɛlləʈ/ 454 here

/keru/ /aʋena/ /aʋane/ /an/ /amɛ/ /tɛnɔ/ 455 his/her

/poɳɳu/ /aʋa:ɭu/
/enəkɨ/ /e:na/ /e:ɦe/ /ɛɡɛ:ʧ/ /ittəɾu/ /kisɔ/ 456 how

/na:nɨ/ /na:nu/ /na:nu/ /on/ /nanə/ /miː/ 457 I

/aθuŋga/ /atu/ /atu//itu/ /iθam/ /adə/ /tijɔ/ 458 it/this

/aθuga/ /ajiŋɡe/ /atakka:/ /moteri/ /adəkʊ/ /tijɔhɔ/ 459 toit/tothis

/aθe/ /aʋenku/ /atuvaʋe /eŋɡk/ /adəne/ /tɛlləhɔ/ 460 its/ofthis

no:ʈino/
/pɔlε/ /aʋaikanakka:/ /kaɳɖatu/ /o:nɡɛ/ /pola/ /tɛlləsɔːnu/ 461 like

/na:kkɨ/ /ena:kke/ /nanaɡa/ /oʈup/ /nanəkʊ/ /mɔɡɔ/ 462 tome

/naʈʈaθu/ /enna:/ /nannatu/ /en /nannadʊ/ /mɔɾəjɔssi/ 463 my

/nəmbɨrɨ/ /na:m/ /na:mu/ /muk/ /namə/ /ami/ 464 our

/illa:/ /ka:ni/ /iɭɭa/ /ɦɔm/ /ille/ /nhəː/ 465 not

/ana:li/ /aʋanko:ɳɖi/ /a:ɡa:/ /eɡəstɔ/ /adanəni/ /tɛhəːl/ 466 so/thus

/ɑðɨŋɡə/ /aʋara:laka:ʈʈi/ /atu/ /aθ/ /ade/ /dijɔ/ 467 that

/aθulurnθu/ /appa:le/ /aʋariɡa:/ /atəŋɡ/ /aʋɛrəkʊ/ /tɛŋɡɔ/ 468 tothem

/ɑppɔ pe:kkɨ/ /aʋera:/ /a:ottina:/ /ir/ /pimbe/ /phəlʤəːtu/ 469 then

/ɑtte/ aʋaru /a:/ /aθam/ /avaiɡa/ /tɛllɛ/ 470 those

/ɑŋɡi/ /aʈukka/ /aɭɭi/ /al/ /addi/ /tɛːdu/ 471 there

/aθuŋ aʈʈeru/ /iʋera:/ /aʋaruɡa:/ /adam/ /aʋəɽɡa/ /tɛnu/ 472 they

/ɑsiŋɡəiɖɖɨ/ /iʋen/ /aʋaratu/ /adand/ /aʋɛrɡələtʊ /tɛŋɡəjɔ/ 473 their

/
/ɑsiŋɡə/ /aʋeralla:/ /aʋaikaɭe/ /adam/ /adəɡa/ /tijənu/ 474 these

/nəmbərkiʈʈə /nama:ʋu:ʈu/ /nammada /ɔ:l/ /nammalʊ/ /əvɾəʤɔːl/ 475 tous

/ ɳɖa/
/nəmbɨrɨ/ /na:mu/ /na:mu/ /em/ /nam/ /əmi/ 476 we

891
 DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
Sl. English Chetti Irula/
Tamil Badaga Kathodi Kota
No. Gloss Bhasha Iruliga
477 what /enna/ /e:nə/ /jɑːnɑː/ /ɛinnədə/ /kai/ /edin/
478 when /eppo/ /e:ɡʊʋə/ /iɑːkəluɱ/ /ɛippɔɖɯ/ /kəmma/ /e:ppɔduttul
/
479 where /eȠke/ /eɭɭi/ /jɛlli/ /ɛidkɛ/ /ka/ /eʋǝɭ/
480 who /ja:r/ /da:rə/ /jɑːrɑː/ /jaːɾɯ/ /kon/ /dar/
481 whose /ja:ruʈaija/ no data /ærdə/ X /dard/
482 whom /ja:rukku/ /da:rəʋə/ /jɛlliɳɑː/ /ɛdɯʋəɾɛ/ /kon/ /darə/
483 you /ni:/ /ni/ /niː/ /nimɯ/ /tine/ /ni/
484 toyou /unakku/ /ninnəʃa:rɛ/ /niɳɳəkkʊːʈ /ninɔɖɛ/ /tine/ /nintul/
ə/
485 your /unnuʈaija/ /niŋɡətu/ /niŋɡʊlutʊ/ /nimɔɖɛ/ /tine/ /nimmut/
486 year /a:nʈu/ /ʋaruʃa:/ /pɛrəʃɑː/ /ʋəiɾsə/ /ʋərəs/ /ʋərusum/
487 and /maɾɾum/ /iññɔ:/ /ɑrkəlikəlin /məiʈrim/ /məttir/ /əluk/
əʈʈʊ/
488 at /il/ /eʈəiɡɔ:ɡə/ /ʃələtɑːlɛː/ /ɛɖəti/ /ɡənʈa ke/ /eduttul/
489 if /enɾa:l/ /idda:/ /ittʊtʊ/ /iɾɯkə/ /tike/ /ittuput/
490 in /uɭɭe/ /ʋɔ:ɡɛ/ /ɔlijɛː/ /ɯiɭɭɛ/ /mətmən/ /uɭɭuɡuɭ/
XXIX. Mixed Words
491 wave /alai/ /aɭə/ /tereːǝttʊtʊ/ /ɔli/ /alawo/ /əl/
492 ancester /mu:tataijar /mudaderu/ /mu:da /munnorɡəɭ/ _ /peru perin/
/ dijaro/
493 brother- /maittunan/ /ba:məidərʊ /baːʋɛ/ /sauɈi/ /ail/
/majita:/
in-Law /
494 kindly /tajavu /marija:təi /mɛl.lɛː/ /ʋəkinəɖəkə /dəja /natʰʋi/
ceitu/ a:tə:/ / kərine/
495 mouse /eli/ /ʃũɳʈi/ /sʊnɖeɭi/ /pɛinɖɛli/ /mundər /enrɔibut/
mamo/
496 spider /cilanti/ /selandi/ /ɑjɳəkelu/ /ɡoːɾi/ _ /koɟ/
497 beard /ta:ʈi/ /da:ɖi/ /ɛɳɳi/ /ɡəiɖɖaː/ /tonne /mis/
kesa/
498 moustac /mi:cai/ /mi:sə/ /ɱiːʃɛː/ /miseː/ /mucʰi/ /memis/
he
499 navel /toppuɭ/ X /ʈɔppɔl/ X _ /pukku/
500 mirror kaɳɳa:ʈi /kaɳɳə:ʈi/ /kəɳɳɑːɖi/ /kəiɳɳaːɖi/ /ton de /kənnidum/
kəsər/

892
 INDO-ARYAN
DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILY LANGUAGE
FAMILY
Solaga/ Saurashtra/ Sl. English
Maliyad Paniya Toda Urali
Soliga Saurashtri No. Gloss
/enðɨ/ /enna/ /e:na:/ /inno/ /enna/ /kəːjɔ/ 477 what
/eppo:ðɨ/ /eppa:/ /e:ʋaɡa/ /etɔk/ /eppə/ /khɔbbɔ/ 478 when
/eŋɡe:/ /e:ʈa/ /eɭɭi/ / ᴂl/ /edi/ /kɔːɖu/ 479 where
/ɟaru/ /a:ru/ /a:ra:/ /orijo/ /aɽə/ /kɔːnu/ 480 who
/aʋai/ /ya:ra/ /orijamo/ /a:trtʰu/ X 481 whose
/ja:rə/ /a:rne/ /ja:raʋa/ /ɔ:ɽijɔ/ /aɽne/ /kɔŋɡɔ/ 482 whom
/ni:nɨ/ /nijʋu/ /ni:nu/ /ni/ /ninə/ /tuː/ 483 you
/niŋɡəʈə/ /ninnaʋa:ʈʈu/ /ninnae:ri/ /niŋ̃ɡriʃ/ /ninəkʊ/ /tɔɾəʤɔːlu/ 484 toyou
/niŋgiʈʈaθu/ /niŋɡaɭa:ku:ʈ /ni:matu/ /niñtɯ/ /ninnadə/ /tuɾəjɔ/ 485 your
a/
/oruoʈʈakalo /kolla:/ /ʋariʃa:/ /kʋəɽ/ /ʋərsa/ /vɔssu/ 486 year
/
/pakko/ /baikke/ /mandu/ /a:lə:r/ /aɽtadʊ/ /aŋɡunu/ 487 and
/təʋɖɨli/ /tala:ttu/ /ʤa:ɡataɭi/ /i:nəm/ /lei/ /thəːmu/ 488 at
/irɨntə/ /inta:/ /ontukaɭike/ /uɖinɔ:ɖr /irəda/ /ɾhijɔ/ 489 if
ɯ/
/ulle/ /uɭɭuku/ /olɛkka:/ /a:lk/ /ulləkʊ/ /bhiddəɾu/ 490 in
XXIX. Mixed Words
/aleŋka:/ /tələŋgə /aɭa/ /pətulk/ /alej/ /ləːɖ/ 491 wave
ələttəʋeru/
/ta:ɖi/ /munɡoʃ /ɡurumenæ/, 492 ancester
X /pu:rvaja/ X
tɔolam/ /pe:daiɡa/
/mεccɪn / /alije:n/ /iɖattija: /ɪnɡɔʈʋit /bawɛ/ /bhəvɔ/ 493 brother-
aɳɳa tənun/ in-Law
tamma
ba:ʋa:
ba:maita/
/peri naŋka:/ /teɽi/ /aɖaɡa:ki/ /meɭi/ /mariadi/ /təɖəmɔnnukəni/ 494 kindly
/ra:Ɉiŋgə/ /cuɳɖa eli/ /urukki/ /iʃʃə/ /sunɖi/ /pilləhundiɾ/ 495 mouse
/eʈka: /mi:cɛ/ /korukka/ /tuiloz/ /məudi/ 496 spider
/ettuka:lpo:si/
pu:cci/
/ta:ɖi pʊl /kaɳɳaʈi/ /ɡaɖɖa:/ /moi/ /dãɽi/ /dəːɖi/ 497 beard
/mi:səɉ/ /pukkulʋəɭɭi/ /mi:ca/ /mis/ /mise/ /musuŋɡu/ 498 moustach
e
/tɔppɑ/ /uruʋili/ /hokkula/ /pikuf/ /pokku/ /bhɔmbi/ 499 navel
/kəɳɳa:ɖi/ /alai/ /mukɡano:ʈ /konnoɽi/ /kannaɖiɡe/ /əddəm/ 500 mirror
a kaɳɳa:ʈi/

893