Harvard Guide to Using Sources

Citing Sources
Citations provide information to help your audience locate the sources you consulted when
writing a paper or preparing a presentation. Some of your instructors will specify which citation
format you should use; others will tell you to choose your own citation format as long as you use
it consistently. The most common citation formats are MLA (Modern Language Association)
style, which is primarily used for papers in the humanities; APA (American Psychological
Association) style, which is primarily used for papers in the social sciences; and Chicago style
(The Chicago Manual of Style), which is used for both humanities and social science papers.
Some of your courses at Harvard will require you to use other citation formats. Some science
courses may require you to use the citation style of the American Medical Association (AMA).
AMA style is considered a standard citation format for academic writing in the sciences and is
used in many textbooks and medical journals. The AMA Manual of Style is available online.
The American Chemical Society publishes its own style guide, which you may be asked to use in
chemistry courses. The Harvard Department of Economics provides students with a
departmental style guide, which you can find here. If you are not sure which format to use for a
specific course, consult your instructor.
Both APA and MLA styles require you to credit your sources in two ways. First, you must
include a parenthetical citation in the text of your paper that indicates the source of a particular
quotation, paraphrased statement or idea, or fact; second, you must include a list of references at
the end of your paper that enables readers to locate the sources you have used. You can read more
about MLA style here and APA style here.
Chicago style also requires you to credit your sources both in the text and at the end of your
paper. Chicago offers guidance on two types of in-text citations–notes or parenthetical citations.
You can read more about Chicago style here.
If you have questions about which citation style to use, you should always check with your
instructor.

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Citation Management Tools

There are several software programs that can help you organize your sources and generate your
citations. The Harvard Library offers information about Zotero, Endnote, and Overleaf Pro. If
you are new to citation management tools, you might want to start with Zotero, since the
Harvard Library offers extensive guidance for how to use it.

Zotero is a free tool that you can add to either Chrome or Firefox. Once you have Zotero
installed, you can use it to organize, keep track of, and annotate your sources. You can find the
Harvard Library Zotero installation guides here.

The Harvard Library also offers workshops to teach you how to set up and use Zotero for
gathering and organizing your sources.

If you don’t have Zotero installed to manage your sources, you can use their citation generator,
Zoterobib, to create citations for individual sources. When you use citation generators, it’s
important to remember that the machine-generated citations are only as accurate as the
information you put into them. You should always check your citations to make sure they are
correctly formatted.

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MLA
The recommendations in this section are based on the MLA Handbook (9th ed., MLA, 2021),
which you can find through Hollis. If you are logged into Hollis with your Harvard key, you can
check out an online version of the handbook.

No one expects you to memorize the format for every type of source you will include in your
reference list. Instead, you should know where to look for models of each type of source. This
section explains the basics of MLA style and provides samples for the most commonly used
sources. For more information, you should consult the links below:

• You can find templates for generating citations in the MLA quick guide.
• You can find samples of how to cite different types of sources in the MLA Citations by
Format guide.
• You can find answers to questions about MLA format here.
• You can find MLA advice about formatting a research paper here.
• If you are looking for information on how to generate citations using Zotero or other
citation software, you can find links to library resources here.

In-Text Citations

In MLA style, you use parenthetical citations within the text of your paper to credit your sources
and to refer your reader to a more detailed citation of the source in the "Works Cited" list at the
end of your paper. You should use parenthetical citations when you paraphrase, quote, or make
any reference to another author's work. A parenthetical citation in MLA style should include the
author's last name and the page number to which you refer in that author's work.

If you mention the author’s name in the sentence or sentences preceding the citation, then you
do not need to repeat the name in the parenthetical citation. If the work you are citing does not
have page numbers (many articles published online will not have page numbers), or if you are
referring to the entire work, then you do not need to include a page number in the citation. If
you are having trouble keeping track of the MLA guidelines, it might help to think of it this
way: You are including citation information so that your reader will be able to find your sources
easily if they want to take a closer look. That means you only need to include information that
will help readers; you don’t need to repeat information that you have already provided in your
sentence.

You should not use a comma to separate author and page number in an MLA in-text citation.
When the citation appears at the end of a sentence, the period goes outside the parentheses at

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the end of the sentence. If you need to put the citation before the end of the sentence (in cases
where you have more than one citation in a sentence), place any necessary punctuation after the
citation as well.

If you find an article through an online database and you have the option of choosing a PDF
version or an HTML version, you should choose the PDF. The PDF version will have stable
page numbers, which will make it easier for a reader to find the material you cite. You should not
count the pages of a document yourself and add numbers to them. A reader could print or view
that document differently, and your numbering will not make sense in that context.

E-book page numbers vary depending on how someone is reading the e-book. If you are
referring to an e-book that has page numbers, you should not include those page numbers. You
should include stable numbers like section numbers, line numbers, or chapter numbers.

In-Text Citation Examples

• When neither the author nor the page number is mentioned in the body of the sentence, you
should include both the author’s last name and the page number in the parenthetical citation.

Colleges and universities need to create policies that foster inclusion for low-income
students (Jack 24).

• When the author’s name is mentioned in the sentence, you should include only the page
number in your parenthetical citation.

As Anthony Jack argues, colleges and universities need to create policies that foster
inclusion for low-income students (24).

• If the source you are writing about does not have page numbers, or if you consulted an e-
book version of the source, you should include only the author’s name in the parenthetical
citation:

Colleges and universities need to create policies that foster inclusion for low-income
students (Jack).

• If you mention the author in the body of the sentence and there is no page number in the
source, you should not include a parenthetical citation.

As Anthony Jack argues, colleges and universities need to create policies that foster
inclusion for low-income students.

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• If you are referring to an entire work rather than a specific page, you do not need to include a
page number.

In The Privileged Poor, Anthony Jack describes many obstacles that low-income students
face at selective colleges and universities.

• If you are referring to a source that has no listed author, you should include the title (or a
shortened version of the title) in your parenthetical citation.

Harvard College promises “to educate the citizens and citizen-leaders for our society”
(“Mission, Vision, & History”).

• If you are referring to a source that has two authors, you should include both authors in your
parenthetical citation.

The researchers tested whether an intervention during the first year of college could
improve student well-being (Walton and Cohen 1448).

• If you refer to a source that has more than two authors, you should include the first author’s
name followed by et al. (Et al. is an abbreviation for et alia which means “and others” in
Latin.) When you use et al. in a citation, you should not put it in italics.

The researchers studied more than 12,000 students who were interested in STEM fields
(LaCosse et al. 8).

• If you refer to more than one source by the same author in your paper, you should include the
title (or a shortened version of the title) in your parenthetical citation so that readers will
know which source to look for in your Works Cited list. If you mention the author’s name in
the sentence, you only need to include the title and page number. If you mention the author
and title in the sentence, you only need to include the page number.

Colleges and universities need to create policies that foster inclusion for low-income
students (Jack, Privileged Poor 24).

According to Anthony Jack, colleges and universities need to create policies that foster
inclusion for low-income students (Privileged Poor 24).

As Anthony Jack writes in Privileged Poor, colleges and universities need to create policies
that foster inclusion for low-income students (24).

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• If you want to credit multiple authors for making the same point, you can include them all in
one parenthetical citation.

Students who possess cultural capital, measured by proxies like involvement in literature,
art, and classical music, tend to perform better in school (Bourdieu and Passeron;
Dumais; Orr).

• If you refer to a source that includes line numbers in the margins, numbered paragraphs,
numbered chapters, or numbered sections rather than page numbers, you should include the
number in your parenthetical citation, along with “line,” “ch./ chs.,” or “sec./secs.” You can
include stable numbering like chapters even when there are no stable page numbers (as in an
e-book). You should separate “line” or other designation from the work’s title or author’s
name with a comma. If the source does not include this type of numbering, you should not
include it either.

We learn that when he went to the store to buy clothes for his son, “a frantic inspection
of the boys’ department revealed no suits to fit the new-born Button” (Fitzgerald, ch.2).

• If you are citing a play, you should include the act and scene along with line numbers (for
verse) or page numbers, followed by act and scene, (for prose).

Guildenstern tells Hamlet that “there has been much throwing about of brains”
(Shakespeare, 2.2. 381-382).

Chris is in this mindset when he says, “a couple minutes, and your whole life changes,
that’s it. It’s gone” (Nottage, 13; act 1, scene1).

• If you are referring to a video or audio recording that contains time stamps, you should
include the time in your parenthetical citation to make it easy for your readers to find the part
of the recording that you are citing.

In the Stranger Things official trailer, the audience knows that something unusual is going
to happen from the moment the boys get on their bicycles to ride off into the night
(0:16).

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Works Cited Format

What is a Works Cited list?

MLA style requires you to include a list of all the works cited in your paper on a new page at the
end of your paper. The entries in the list should be in alphabetical order by the author's last
name or by the element that comes first in the citation. (If there is no author's name listed, you
would begin with the title.) The entire list should be double-spaced.

For each of the entries in the list, every line after the first line should be indented one-half inch
from the left margin. "Works Cited" should be centered at the top of the page. If you are only
citing one source, the page heading should be “Work Cited” instead of “Works Cited.” You can
see a sample Works Cited on page 14 of this PDF.

Building your Works Cited list

MLA citations in the Works Cited list are based on what the Modern Language Association
calls "core elements." The core elements appear in the order listed below, in a citation punctuated
with the punctuation mark that follows the element. For some elements, the correct punctuation
will be a period, and for other elements, the correct punctuation will be a comma. Since you can
choose the core elements that are relevant to the source you are citing, this format should allow
you to build your own citations when you are citing sources that are new or unusual.

Author.

The author you should list is the primary creator of the work—the writer, the artist, or
organization that is credited with creating the source. You should list the author in this format:
last name, first name. If there are two authors, you should use this format: last name, first name,
and first name last name. For three or more authors, you should list the first author followed by
et al. That format looks like this: last name, first name, et al.

If a source was created by an organization and no individual author is listed, you should list that
organization as the author.

Title of source.

This is the book, article, or website, podcast, work of art, or any other source you are citing. If
the source does not have a title, you can describe it. For example, if you are citing an email you
received, you would use this format in the place of a title:

Email to the author.

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Title of container,

A container is what MLA calls the place where you found the source. It could be a book that an
article appears in, a website that an image appears on, a television series from which you are
citing an episode, etc. If you are citing a source that is not “contained” in another source—like a
book or a film—you do not need to list a container. Some sources will be in more than one
container. For example, if you are citing a television episode that aired on a streaming service, the
show would be the first container and the streaming service would be the second container.

Contributor,

Contributors include editors, translators, directors, illustrators, or anyone else that you want to
credit. You generally credit other contributors when their contributions are important to the way
you are using the source. You should always credit editors of editions and anthologies of a single
author’s work or of a collection of works by more than one author.

Version,

If you are using a particular version of a source, such as an updated edition, you should indicate
that in the citation.

Number,

If your source is one of several in a numbered series, you should indicate this. So, for example,
you might be using “volume 2” of a source. You would indicate this by “vol. 2” in the citation.

Publisher,

For books, you can identify the publisher on the title or copyright page. For web sites, you may
find the publisher at the bottom of the home page or on an “About” page. You do not need to
include the publisher if you are citing a periodical or a Web site with the same name as the
publisher.

Publication date,

Books and articles tend to have an easily identifiable publication date. But articles published on
the web may have more than one date—one for the original publication and one for the date
posted online. You should use the date that is most relevant to your work. If you consulted the
online version, this is the relevant date for your Works Cited list. If you can’t find a publication
date—some websites will not include this information, for example—then you should include a

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date of access. The date of access should appear at the end of your citation in the following
format:

Accessed 14 Oct. 2022.

Location.

The location in a print source will be the page number or range of pages you consulted. This is
where the text you are citing is located in the larger container. For online sources, the location is
generally a DOI, permalink, or URL. This is where your readers can locate the same online
source that you consulted. MLA specifies that, if possible, you should include the DOI.
Television episodes would be located at a URL. A work of art could be located in the museum
where you saw it or online.

Your citations can also include certain optional elements. You should include optional elements
if you think those elements would provide useful information to your readers. Optional elements
follow the source title if they provide information that is not about the source as a whole. Put
them at the end of the entry if they provide information about the source as a whole. These
elements include the following:

Date of original publication.

If you think it would be useful to a reader to know that the text you are citing was originally
published in a different era, you can put this information right after the title of the source. For
example, if you are citing The Federalist Papers, you would provide the publication date of the
edition you consulted, but you could also provide the original publication date:

Hamilton, Alexander, et al., editors. The Federalist Papers. October 1787-May 1788.

Oxford University Press, 2008.

City of publication.

You should only use this information if you are citing a book published before 1900 (when books
were associated with cities of publication rather than with publishers) or a book that has been
published in a different version by the publisher in another city (a British version of a novel, for
example). In the first case, you would put this information in place of the publisher's name. In
the second case, the city would go before the publisher.

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Descriptive terms.

If you are citing a version of a work when there are multiple versions available at the same
location, you should explain this by adding a term that will describe your version. For example, if
you watched a video of a presidential debate that was posted to YouTube along with a transcript,
and you are quoting from the transcript, you should add the word “Transcript” at the end of your
citation.

Dissertations

If you are citing a dissertation or thesis, you should include both the degree granted and the type
of manuscript. (BA thesis, MA thesis, PHD dissertation).

Examples of Commonly Cited Sources

Below you’ll find sample citations for books, journal articles, and websites. To see examples of
other types of citations, you should consult the MLA Citations by Format guide.

Book

To cite the book Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street by Karen Ho, you would follow the
format described in this section, choosing only the core elements that are available for a
published print book. In that case, you would use the following elements and punctuate them the
way they are punctuated below:

Author (last name, first name): Ho, Karen Zouwen.

Title: Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street.

Publisher: Duke University Press,

Publication date: 2009.

Complete citation:

Ho, Karen Zouwen. Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street. Duke University Press,

2009.

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For books with a single author, you do not need to list any other elements. For other types of
sources, you will need to pick other relevant elements that will help interested readers locate the
source.

Academic journal article

If you were going to cite Amanda Michiko Shigihara’s article about restaurant employees, “‘I
Mean, Define Meaningful!’: Accounts of Meaningfulness among Restaurant Employees,” you
would need to decide which core elements a reader would need to locate the version of the article
that you read.

You would start with the author and title.

Author: Shigihara, Amanda Michiko.

Title: “‘I Mean, Define Meaningful!’: Accounts of Meaningfulness among Restaurant

Employees.”

Because this is a journal article, your readers need to know which “container” they need to find in
order to locate the article. In this case, the container is a journal called Qualitative Sociology
Review. So, this would be listed next:

Container: Qualitative Sociology Review

Since there are multiple issues of this journal, your readers also need to know which issue of the
journal to look for. That means you should also supply the volume and/or issue number. In this
case, the journal provides both a volume and an issue number:

Number: vol. 15, no. 1

Publication Date: May 2019

Location: pp. 106-31. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.18778/1733-8077.15.1.05.

Complete citation:

Shigihara, Amanda Michiko. “‘I Mean, Define Meaningful!’: Accounts of

Meaningfulness among Restaurant Employees.” Qualitative Sociology Review, vol.

15, no. 1, May 2019, pp. 106–31. DOI.org (Crossref),

https://doi.org/10.18778/1733-8077.15.1.05.

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Website

If you wanted to cite a page from website version of the Harvard Guide to Using Sources, you
would begin by looking to see if there is an author listed on the page. There is no single author
credited for the Harvard Guide to Using Sources, so you would begin your citation the page about
MLA citations with the title of the page.

Title: “MLA”

You would then include the title of the whole web site, since that is the container in which the
MLA page is located: Harvard Guide to Using Sources.

Then you would include the location: https://usingsources.fas.harvard.edu

Since there is no publication date for each article listed on this site, you would include the date
you accessed the website at the end of your citation.

“MLA.” Harvard Guide to Using Sources. https://usingsources.fas.harvard.edu. Accessed

15 October 2022.

To cite an article published on a website that does provide publication dates, you should list the
article’s publication date instead of an access date. While access dates appear at the end of the
citation, publication dates appear before the location of the source.

Strub, Spencer. “Pandemics have long created labor shortages. Here’s why.” The

Washington Post, 3 June 2021,

https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2021/06/03/pandemics-have-long-

created-labor-shortages-heres-why/.

Frequently Asked Questions about Citing Sources in MLA Format

How do you cite social media posts?

You should cite a tweet, Instagram post, or other social media post using the same format of core
elements that you use for other sources. In this case, the “author” is the author of the post, with
their handle (if it is different from their name) in parentheses. The title is the first part of the
post (if text) or a description of the image (if the post is an image). The container is the platform

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(Twitter, Instagram, or another social media platform). The location is the URL, and the date is
the date posted rather than the date accessed.

Example

Kayyem, Juliette. “A school district police department that did not need to exist should

never exist again.” Twitter, 7 Oct. 2022,

https://twitter.com/juliettekayyem/status/1578447720720699392.

How do you cite an episode of a podcast?

When citing a podcast, the narrator or host should be listed in the author position, and the title
of the episode should be listed as the title. The title of the whole podcast is the “container,”
followed by season and episode numbers. You should then provide either the date of the podcast
or the copyright date of the website, followed by the URL.

Nancy Updike, narrator. “Black Box.” We Were Three, episode 1, 13 Oct. 2022,

https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/we-were-three/id1648534112.

What if the source I am citing has no page numbers?

If the source has no page numbers, then you should not include any in your citations. Don’t
count the pages yourself and number them since a reader may print or view the document
differently, and this will create confusion.

What if I want to cite a quote that is quoted in someone else’s book?

You should avoid citing a source you have not consulted. If you can consult the original source in
which the quotation appeared, then you should do that. If you cannot consult the original source,
you should cite the source where you found the quotation. When you are citing a quotation that
was quoted in someone else’s book, you should indicate this in the following way:

Author Amy Bloom described her husband’s early symptoms of Alzheimer’s as “names
disappearing, repetition, information turned upside down, appointments and medications
scrambled” (qtd. in Van Booy).

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Sample Works Cited List

Below, you’ll find a Works Cited page adapted from a research paper that was written by Sonia
Kangaju for her Expos class about Shakespeare. The Works Cited list should always begin on a
separate page from the paper itself.

Works Cited

Balme, Christopher. “Race and Theatre.” The Oxford Encyclopedia of Theatre and Performance, edited by Dennis

Kennedy, Oxford University Press, 2003. 1096-1098.

Coles, Darrell. “When Will the Black Community Practice Unity?” Minnesota Spokesman- Recorder, 23 Nov.

2018, https://spokesman-recorder.com/2018/11/23/when-will-the-black-community-practice-unity/.

Douglas, Daniel. “Middle Class.” Encyclopedia of African American History 1896 to the Present, edited by Paul

Finkelman, Oxford University Press, 2009, Oxford Reference,

https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195167795.001.0001/acref-9780195167795-e-

0795.

LeRoy, Admiral. “The Black Community Must Find Unity.” Pensacola News Journal, 14 Jun. 2014,

https://www.pnj.com/story/opinion/2014/06/15/black-community-must-find-unity/10482387/

Shakespeare, William. Much Ado About Nothing. Directed by Kenny Leon, Public Theater Company, 22 Nov.

2019, Delacorte Theater, New York City.

Shakespeare, William. Much Ado About Nothing. Edited by Peter Holland, Penguin, 2017.

Thompson, Ayanna. “Race.” The Oxford Companion to Shakespeare, edited by Michael Dobson, et al., 2nd ed,

Oxford University Press, 2015, Oxford Reference,

https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198708735.001.0001/acref-9780198708735-e-

3147.

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APA
The recommendations in this section are based on the standards set forth by the Publication
Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed., APA, 2020), which is available through
Hollis. While you can check out the print edition, they offer only limited online access. The
APA also maintains a Web site (http://www.apastyle.org/) that provides a basic citation tutorial,
answers to frequently asked questions, and a blog.

No one expects you to memorize the format for every type of source you will cite in APA style.
Instead, you should know where to look for models of each type of source. This section explains
the basics of APA-style citations and provides citation examples for some commonly used
sources. For more information, you should consult the links below.

● Here is the APA overview of how to format in-text citations.

● APA also offers a checklist for in-text citations.
● For sample APA citations, visit this section of the APA style website.
● For sample papers written in APA style, visit this section of the APA style website.
● APA also offers a series of webinars that explain their citation and reference list
guidelines.

If you are looking for information on how to generate citations using Zotero or other citation
software, you can find links to library resources here.

In-Text Citations

In APA style, you use parenthetical citations within the text of your paper to credit your sources,
to show how recently your sources were published, and to refer your reader to a more detailed
citation of the source in the reference list at the end of your paper. You should use parenthetical
citations when you paraphrase, quote, or make any reference to another author's work. A
parenthetical citation in APA style includes the author's last name as well as the year in which
the work was published, with a comma between them. If you are referring directly to a specific
page in the source, you should also include the page number in your parenthetical citation. APA
requires you to cite page numbers when you are quoting directly from the source. If you are
paraphrasing, which is more common in the social sciences, you generally do not need to include
a page number. If you have questions about whether you should include page numbers when
citing in APA, you should consult your instructor.

If you mention the author's name and/or the year of publication in the sentence preceding the
citation, you do not need to include them in the parenthetical citation. When you name the

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author in the sentence, you should include the publication year in parentheses right after the
author’s name—do not wait until the end of the sentence to provide that information.

When you include a parenthetical citation at the end of a sentence, the punctuation for your
sentence appears after the citation.

Examples

Citing author and date in a parenthetical citation

When you don’t mention either the author or the date of publication in your sentence, you
should include both the author and the year, separated by a comma, in the parenthetical citation.

Colleges and universities need to create policies that foster inclusion for low-income
students (Jack, 2019).

Citing when author’s name is mentioned in body of paper

When you mention the author’s name in your sentence, the year of publication should
immediately follow the author’s name.

Anthony Jack’s (2019) study of low-income students on an elite college campus revealed
that these schools are often unprepared to support the students they admit.

Jack (2019) studied the ways low-income students experience elite college campuses.

Citing page numbers

When you cite a direct quote from the source or paraphrase a specific point from the source, you
should include the page number in the parenthetical citation at the end of the sentence. When
you refer to a specific page or pages of the text, first list the year of publication and then list "p."
followed by the page number or "pp." followed by the range of pages. If you refer to a specific
chapter, indicate that chapter after the year.

The author contends that “higher education in America is highly unequal and
disturbingly stratified” (Jack, 2019, p. 4).

Jack (2019) contends that “higher education in America is highly unequal and
disturbingly stratified” (p. 4).

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Citing sources with more than one author

When you cite a source that has two authors, you should separate their names with an ampersand
in the parenthetical citation.
The authors designed a study to determine if social belonging can be encouraged among
college students (Walton & Cohen, 2011).

If a work has three or more authors, you should only include the first author's name followed by
et al. (Et al. is the shortened form of the Latin et alia, which means “and others.”)

The implementation of postpartum contraceptive programs is both costly and time

consuming (Ling et al., 2020).

Attributing a point to more than one source

To attribute a point or idea to multiple sources, list them in one parenthetical citation, ordered
alphabetically by author and separated by semicolons. Works by the same author should be
ordered chronologically, from oldest to most recent, with the publication dates separated by
commas.

Students who possess cultural capital, measured by proxies like involvement in literature,
art, and classical music, tend to perform better in school (Bourdieu & Passeron, 1977;
Dumais, 2002; Orr, 2003).

Citing multiple works by the same author

If your reference list includes multiple works by the same author in the same year, identify them
in your parenthetical citations and in your reference list by a lowercase letter after the year,
assigning each letter in alphabetical order by the title of the work. When establishing the
alphabetical order of works in your reference list, do not count the words "A" or "The" when
they appear as the first word in a title.

One union-endorsed candidate publicly disagreed with the teachers' union on a number
of issues (Borsuk, 1999a).

Citing multiple authors with the same last name

If your reference list includes sources by multiple authors with the same last name, list each
author's initials before their last name, even when the works were published in different years.

The question of whether a computer can be considered an author has been asked for
longer than we might expect (B. Sobel, 2017).

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Citing when no author is listed

To refer to a work that is listed in your reference list by title rather than by author, cite the title
or the first few words of the title.

The New York Times painted a bleak picture of the climate crisis (“Climate Change Is
Not Negotiable,” 2022).

Citing when no date is listed

If the work you are citing has no date listed, you should put “n.d.” for “no date” in the
parenthetical citation.

Writing research papers is challenging (Lam, n.d.).

Citing a specific part of a source that is not a page number

To refer to a specific part of a source other than page number, add that after the author-date part
of your citation. If it is not clear whether you are referring to a chapter, a paragraph, a time
stamp, or a slide number, or other labeled part of a source, you should indicate the part you are
referring to (chapter, para., etc.).

In the Stranger Things official trailer, the audience knows that something unusual is going
to happen from the moment the boys get on their bicycles to ride off into the night
(Duffer & Duffer, 0:16).

Reference List Format

What is a Reference list?

APA style requires you to provide, at the end of your paper, a list of the sources you have cited.
The list should be double-spaced, and each line after the first one in each entry should be
indented. The title of the list should be "References" and should be centered at the top of the
page. You can see a sample References list on page 24 of this PDF.

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Each source on your reference list should include the following four elements:

Author: Who is responsible for creating the source?

The author should be listed first in each reference list entry, and the list should be alphabetical by
last name. If there is more than one author, you should list each one last name first, and separate
them by ampersands.

Date: When was the source published?

For books, you should include the date of publication. For journal articles, you should include
the year of the volume listed. For websites and webpages, you should not use the copyright date
on the website footer, which may not apply to the content on individual pages. Instead, look for
a “last updated” date or a date at the top of a web article. If you are citing a website that may
change, you should also include a retrieval date (the date you found and read the source). If you
can’t find a publication date, list “n.d.” for no date in parentheses where the date would be listed.

Title: What is the title of the source?

In an APA reference list, titles are listed in sentence case, which means you only capitalize the
first word of the title, the first word of the subtitle, and any word that appears after a colon, dash,
period, or question mark. You should always capitalize proper nouns.

Sources that stand alone, like books or websites, should be listed in italics like this:

Follow the new way: American refugee resettlement policy and Hmong religious change

If you are citing a source that is contained in another source, such as an article in a book or a
page on a website, you should include both titles. Sources that are part of other sources should
not be listed in italics or in quotation marks like this:

Pandemics have long created labor shortages. Here’s why. Washington Post

Source: Where can the source be found by your readers?

While we talk about sources as the texts, films, and other documents that you cite in your
research, APA uses “source” to mean the place where what you are citing can be found by your
readers. The source for a book chapter is the book; the source for a journal article is the journal;
the source for a web page, database, or social media site should include a URL or DOI.

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Examples of Commonly Cited Sources

Below, you’ll find sample citations for books, journal articles, and websites. To see examples of
other citations, you can consult the APA Common References Guide.

Book

To cite a book in APA style, you should include the following information: author, date, title,
publisher information, and DOI or URL, if relevant.

Tan, V. (2020). The uncertainty mindset: Innovation insights from the frontiers of food.

Columbia University Press.

To cite the Kindle, audiobook, or other e-book version of a book, you should include a DOI or a
stable URL. If you don’t have a DOI or stable URL, you should end the citation after the name
of the publisher.

Tan, V. (2020). The uncertainty mindset: Innovation insights from the frontiers of food.

Columbia University Press. https://doi-org.ezp-

prod1.hul.harvard.edu/10.7312/tan-19688

Academic journal article

To cite a journal article in APA style, you should include the following information: author,
date, title of article, information about the journal (name of journal, volume and/or issue
number, page numbers), DOI or URL.

Derenoncourt, E. (2022). Can you move to opportunity? Evidence from the Great

Migration. The American Economic Review, 112(2), 369–408.

https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20200002

Newspaper or magazine article

To cite a newspaper or magazine article in APA style, you should include the following
information: author, date (including day, month, and year if available), name of publication, page
numbers if available, URL. If you are citing a news website that would not be considered a
newspaper or a magazine, follow the format for websites below.

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Strub, S. (2021, June 3.) Pandemics have long created labor shortages. Here’s why. The

Washington Post.

https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2021/06/03/pandemics-have-long-

created-labor-shortages-heres-why/

Website

To cite a website in APA style, you should include the following information: author, date (if
one is available), title, site name, URL. If there is a chance the content could be updated, you
should include the date that you retrieved the page. If the author is an organization, list that
organization instead of an individual author.

Gross, D. (2021, December 5). Antarctica was once a rainforest. Could it be again? Vox.

https://www.vox.com/22797395/antarctica-was-once-a-rainforest-could-it-be-

again

Harvard University. Citing sources. Harvard Guide to Using Sources.

https://usingsources.fas.harvard.edu/citingsources

Frequently Asked Questions About Cite Sources in APA Format

How do you cite social media posts?

For the in-text citation, cite the author of the social media post as the author and then include
the date of publication.

Regulating this type of study is complicated (Lipsitch, 2022).

For the full citation, you should include the author, date, title (content of the post up to the first
20 words or description of audiovisual), type of post (e.g., Twitter/Instagram/TikTok) in square
brackets, social media site, and URL.

For Twitter and Instagram, you should include both the author’s name and the username. For
other social media sites, you should include the author’s name.

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Tweet example

Lipsitch, M. [@mlipsitch]. (2022, 19 October). The current study has greater scientific and

public health value, did not directly get USG funding, etc. [Tweet]. Twitter.

https://twitter.com/mlipsitch/status/1582583552754929665

TikTok (or other streaming video) example

Harvard Writing Center. (2020, November 2). What makes a thesis good? [Video].

https://www.tiktok.com/@harvardwritingcenter/video/6890615490939571461

How do you cite an episode of a podcast?

For the in-text citation, you should include the host (or producer if there is no host listed) and
the date of the episode.

Listeners learn that Rachel’s father and brother died of Covid (Updike, 2022).

For the reference list citation, the host or producers of the podcast should be listed in the author
position, and you should indicate their role in parentheses. The title should be followed by the
episode number and then by the series name and URL. You should include whether the podcast
is audio or video in square brackets.

Updike, N. (Host). (2022, October 13). Black Box (No. 1). [Audio podcast episode]. In

We Were Three. Serial. https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/we-were-

three/id1648534112

How do you cite a quotation that is quoted in another source?

APA suggests that if you want to use a quotation that is quoted by another source, you first try to
find and read the original source. If you can’t read the original source, you should cite that
quotation in your in-text citation by including the original author and date (if you know it) along
with the words “as cited in” with the name of the source where you found the quotation. If you
mention the original author in the sentence, you do not need to repeat it in the parenthetical
citation.

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In an address in Columbus, Ohio, Roosevelt called for the government to “act as a check
or counterbalance to this oligarchy so as to secure the chance to work and the safety of
savings to men and women” (1932, as cited in Rahman, 2016).

In your reference list, you would include only the source that you consulted, which in this case
would be Sabeel Rahman’s 2016 book. If you did not look at the original speech in the source
that Rahman cites, you would not include that other source in your reference list.

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Sample Reference List

Below you’ll find a Reference list adapted from the references from an essay that was written by
Vanessa Roser for the Expos class The Science of Emotion.

References

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). https://doi-

org.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596

Downey, G., Freitas, A. L., Michaelis, B., & Khouri, H. (1998). The self-fulfilling prophecy in close relationships:

Rejection sensitivity and rejection by romantic partners. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(2),

545–56.

Kross, E., Egner, T., Ochsner, K., Hirsch, J., & Downey, G. (2007). Neural dynamics of rejection sensitivity.

Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 19(6), 945–956. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn.2007.19.6.945

Nijmeijer, J. S., Minderaa, R. B., Buitelaar, J. K., Mulligan, A., Hartman, C. A., & Hoekstra, P. J. (2008).

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and social dysfunctioning. Clinical Psychology Review, 28(4), 692–

708. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2007.10.003

Ochsner, K. N., Bunge, S. A., Gross, J. J., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2002). Rethinking feelings: An fMRI study of the

cognitive regulation of emotion. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14(8), 1215–1229.

https://doi.org/10.1162/089892902760807212

Passarotti, A. M., Sweeney, J. A., & Pavuluri, M. N. (2010). Differential engagement of cognitive and affective

neural systems in pediatric bipolar disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the

International Neuropsychological Society, 16(01), 106. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617709991019

Ronel, Z. (2018). The lateral prefrontal cortex and selection/inhibition in ADHD. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience,

12, 65. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2018.00065

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Chicago
The recommendations in this section are based on the Chicago Manual of Style (17th ed.).
Harvard Library offers access to the online edition of the CMOS. To access this resource, make
sure you log into Hollis with your Harvard key.

No one expects you to memorize the format for every type of source you will cite in Chicago
style. Instead, you should know where to look for models of each type of source. This section
explains the basics of Chicago-style citations and provides citation examples for some commonly
used sources. For more information from the Chicago “Citation Quick Guide,” you should
consult the links below:

• Turabian Student Tip Sheets

• Endnotes/footnotes and bibliography style citations
• Parenthetical author-date style citation
• Database of common questions about Chicago style

You can also find the complete Table of Contents for the online version of the Chicago Manual
of Style here.

If you are looking for information on how to generate citations using Zotero or other citation
software, you can find links to library resources here.

In-Text Citations

Chicago-style citations include a reference within the text itself and a bibliography at the end of
the paper. The Chicago Manual of Style suggests two ways of citing sources in the text. The most
commonly used Chicago format is the endnote or footnote. When you use endnotes, you insert a
number in part of your paper that you want to cite and then list all the notes on a separate page
at the end of your document. When you use footnotes, you insert a number in the part of your
paper that you want to cite and then include the note at the bottom of the page.

To indicate the part of your text that corresponds with the note, you should use a superscript like
the one at the end of this sentence after the text you want to cite.1 If you use Google docs or
Word, you can generate the number and a corresponding footnote by choosing footnote from the
“insert” menu. The first line of footnote text should be indented; subsequent lines should not be.
Here’s a link to a sample footnote that is annotated to show spacing and layout.

Chicago also provides a format for parenthetical author-date style citations. This section of the
Harvard Guide to Using Sources provides an overview of the endnote/footnote style citations

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only. For information about the Chicago author-date style of citations, you should consult the
Chicago Manual of Style through the Harvard library system.

Endnote or footnote style citations

Footnotes or endnotes include the author, title, and other relevant information, separated by
commas. Here’s a list of relevant information that can be included in either footnotes or
endnotes:

• Author
• Title
• Editor, compiler, or translator
• Edition
• Volume
• Series title
• City, publisher, date
• Page numbers
• DOI or URL

The Chicago Manual of Style provides examples of how to create notes and bibliography entries
for different types of sources. To find out how to cite a particular source, search the table of
contents to find examples and guidance.

While CMOS provides a format for both complete citations and shortened citations, they
recommend that you use the shortened citation version as long as you are including a
bibliography with complete citation information at the end of your paper. If you have questions
about whether to provide complete notes or shortened notes, ask your instructor.

What about Ibid?

You may have learned that when you cite the same source more than once in a row in Chicago
style, you should note subsequent uses of that source with ibid., which comes from the Latin
word for “in the same place,” ibidem. The latest edition of the Chicago Manual of Style
recommends using shortened versions of the author, title, page citation instead of ibid. in these
cases. The Chicago team explains the reasons for this change on their Shop Talk blog.

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Bibliography

If you are using Chicago style footnotes or endnotes, you should include a bibliography at the
end of your paper that provides complete citation information for all of the sources you cite in
your paper. Bibliography entries are formatted differently from notes. For bibliography entries,
you list the sources alphabetically by last name, so you will list the last name of the author or
creator first in each entry. You should single-space within a bibliography entry and double-space
between them. When an entry goes longer than one line, use a hanging indent of .5 inches for
subsequent lines. Here’s a link to a sample bibliography that shows layout and spacing. You can
find a sample of note format here.

Examples

Complete note vs. shortened note

Here’s an example of a complete note and a shortened version of a note for a book:

1. Karen Ho, Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street (Durham: Duke

University Press, 2009), 27-35.

1. Karen Ho, Liquidated, 27-35.

Note vs. Bibliography entry

The bibliography entry that corresponds with each note is very similar to the longer version of
the note, except that the author’s last and first name are reversed in the bibliography entry. To
see differences between note and bibliography entries for different types of sources, check this
section of the Chicago Manual of Style.

For Liquidated, the bibliography entry would look like this:

Ho, Karen, Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street. Durham: Duke University Press,
2009.

Citing a source with two or three authors

If you are citing a source with two or three authors, list their names in your note in the order
they appear in the original source. In the bibliography, invert only the name of the first author
and use “and” before the last named author.

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Note:

1. Melissa Borja and Jacob Gibson, “Internationalism with Evangelical

Characteristics: The Case of Evangelical Responses to Southeast Asian Refugees,” The
Review of Faith & International Affairs 17, no. 3 (2019): 80-81,
https://doi.org/10.1080/15570274.2019.1643983.

Shortened note:

1. Borja and Gibson, “Internationalism with Evangelical Characteristics,” 80-81.

Bibliography:

Borja, Melissa, and Jacob Gibson. “Internationalism with Evangelical Characteristics:

The Case of Evangelical Responses to Southeast Asian Refugees.” The Review of
Faith & International Affairs 17. no. 3 (2019): 80–93.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15570274.2019.1643983.

Citing a source with more than three authors

If you are citing a source with more than three authors, include all of them in the bibliography,
but only include the first one in the note, followed by et al. (et al. is the shortened form of the
Latin et alia, which means “and others”).

Note:

1. Justine M. Nagurney, et al., “Risk Factors for Disability After Emergency

Department Discharge in Older Adults,” Academic Emergency Medicine 27, no. 12 (2020):
1271.

Short version of note:

1. Justine M. Nagurney, et al., “Risk Factors for Disability,” 1271.

Bibliography:

Nagurney, Justine M., Ling Han, Linda Leo‐Summers, Heather G. Allore, Thomas M.
Gill, and Ula Hwang. “Risk Factors for Disability After Emergency Department
Discharge in Older Adults.” Academic Emergency Medicine 27, no. 12 (2020):
1270–78. https://doi.org/10.1111/acem.14088.

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Citing a book consulted online

If you are citing a book you consulted online, you should include a URL, DOI, or the name of
the database where you found the book.

Note:

1. Karen Ho, Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street (Durham: Duke

University Press, 2009), 27-35, https://doi-org.ezp-
prod1.hul.harvard.edu/10.1215/9780822391371.

Bibliography entry:

Ho, Karen. Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street. Durham: Duke University Press,
2009. https://doi-org.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/10.1215/9780822391371.

Citing an e-book consulted outside of a database

If you are citing an e-book that you accessed outside of a database, you should indicate the
format. If you read the book in a format without fixed page numbers (like Kindle, for example),
you should not include the page numbers that you saw as you read. Instead, include chapter or
section numbers, if possible.

Note:

1. Karen Ho, Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street (Durham: Duke University

Press, 2009), chap. 2, Kindle.

Bibliography:

Ho, Karen. Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street. Durham: Duke University Press,
2009. Kindle.

Examples of Commonly Cited Sources

Book

When you cite a book, you should cite specific pages consulted in the note. In the bibliography
entry, you should include a page range if you only consulted a chapter or section of the book. In
the note, publication information (place, publisher, date) is in parentheses. In the bibliography,

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this information does not appear in parentheses. See the examples above for more information
about citing books.

Note:

1. Sylvia Houghteling, The Art of Clothing in Mughal India. (Princeton: Princeton

University Press, 2022), 221.

Shortened note:

1. Houghteling, The Art of Clothing in Mughal India, 221.

Bibliography:

Houghteling, Sylvia. The Art of Clothing in Mughal India. Princeton: Princeton University
Press, 2022.

Journal article

If you are citing a journal article, include the volume number, issue, number, and date of
publication. For journal articles, you should cite specific page numbers in the note if the text you
consulted has page numbers. In the bibliography entry, you should provide the page range for the
whole article. If you consulted the article online, you should include a URL or DOI.

Here’s an example of a note, shortened note, and a bibliography entry for a journal article
consulted online.

Note:

1. Maia Silber, “The Home Front: World War I, Tenant Activism, and Housing
Policy Before the New Deal,” Journal of Urban History, (2002): 2,
https://doi.org/10.1177/00961442221083320.

Shortened note:

1. Silber, “The Home Front,” 22.

Bibliography:

Silber, Maia. “The Home Front: World War I, Tenant Activism, and Housing Policy
Before the New Deal.” Journal of Urban History, (2022): 1-24.
https://doi.org/10.1177/00961442221083320.

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Website

In Chicago style, if websites are cited in notes, you do not always need to include them in your
bibliography. But if you do want to include a citation for a website, you should include the
following information:

• Title or description of specific page

• Title of description of website
• Owner of sponsor of site
• URL
• Publication date or date site was accessed if publication date is not available.

Note:

1. “Meet the tutors,” Harvard College Writing Center, Harvard University,

accessed October 26, 2022, https://writingcenter.fas.harvard.edu/people.

Shortened note:

1. “Meet the tutors.”

Bibliography:

Harvard College Writing Center. “Meet the tutors.” Harvard University. Accessed
October 26, 2022. https://writingcenter.fas.harvard.edu/people.

Frequently Asked Questions about Citing Sources in Chicago Format

How do you cite social media posts?

In Chicago style, it is acceptable to limit citations of social media posts to the text itself.

Here’s an example:

Max Larkin tweeted that he had seen “more than a few families give up on their buses
after 15- to 20-minute waits” (@jmlarkin, September 8, 2022).

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If you want to include a link to the post, you should include a note containing the following
elements:

• Author of post
• Up to 160 characters of text of the post in place of a title.
• Type of post (Tweet, Facebook, etc.)
• Description of post if relevant (video, image, etc.)
• Date of post
• URL

Example

1. Max Larkin, (@jmlarkin), “It’s the first day of school in Boston,”, Twitter,
September 8, 2022, https://twitter.com/jmlarkin/status/1567852415931523074.

Chicago suggests that you only include social media posts in your bibliography if you quote from
them extensively or if you are citing a long Twitter thread.

The format for the bibliography is similar to the note but inverts the author’s name and replaces
commas between elements with periods.

Larkin, Max. “It’s the first day of school in Boston.” Twitter, September 8, 2022.
https://twitter.com/jmlarkin/status/1567852415931523074.

How do you cite an episode of a podcast?

Chicago suggests one format for multimedia notes that includes the following elements:

Creator, title, date of episode, additional contributors, publishing organization, medium,

length, URL.

For the note, the date should appear right after the title of the episode. For the bibliography, the
date should appear after the series or show name.

Note:

1. Nancy Updike, “Black Box,” October 13, 2022, in Serial’s We Were Three,
produced by Sarah Koenig, podcast, 00:43, https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/we-
were-three/id1648534112.

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Bibliography:

Updike, Nancy. “Black Box.” Produced by Sarah Koenig. Serial, We Were Three. October
13, 2022. Podcast, 00:43. https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/we-were-
three/id1648534112.

What if you want to cite a quotation that is quoted in someone else’s book?

If you want to cite a source that you found in another source, your best option is to read the
original source and cite that. If you can’t read the original, then you should cite both sources in
your note. You first cite the original source, and then you add a comma, followed by “quoted in”
and include a full citation for the source where you found the cited material.

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Sample Bibliography

Below you’ll find a Bibliography adapted from a research paper written by Aishani Aatresh for
her Technology, Environment, and Society course.

Bibliography

Barnard, Anne, and Grace Ashford. “Can New York Really Get to 100% Clean Energy by 2040?” New York Times,
November 29, 2021, sec. New York. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/29/nyregion/hochul-electrical-
grid-climate-change.html.

Berman, Bradley. “Fuel Cells at Center Stage.” New York Times, November 22, 2013, sec. Automobiles.
https://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/24/automobiles/fuel-cells-at-center-stage.html.

Boudette, Neal E. “First Came the Hydrogen Cars. Now, the Refilling Stations.” New York Times, May 18, 2017,
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