The Fundamental Unit of Life

Chapter Overview

 Introduction
 What are living organisms made up of?
 Discovery of cell
 Cell theory
 Structure of cell
 Plasma Membrane or Cell Membrane
 Osmotic Solutions
 Endocytosis and exocytosis
 Cell wall
 Nucleus
 Cytoplasm
 Cytosol
 Cell Organelles
 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
 Golgi Apparatus
 Lysosomes
 Plastids
 Plastids
 Vacuoles
 Ribosomes

1. Introduction
All the living organisms which we see in our surrounding are essentially complex structures made up of numerous
coordinated compartments usually known as cells. The cell is the fundamental structural and physiological unit of
living organisms. Unicellular organisms consist of just one cell while multicellular organisms consist of several cells,
which are specialised to perform distinct functions. A unicellular organism can perform its all metabolic activities
which a multicellular organism can. The cell contains all the structures and molecular constituents needed for life.

2. What are living Organisms Made up of?

We can compare a cell with a brick. Just as a building is made up of bricks, the body of a plant or an animal is made
up of cells, i.e. all living organisms show cellular organisation, Some organisms such as Amoeba, Paramecium,
Euglena, Bacteria etc. are made up of only single cell, hence are called unicellular or a cellular. There are large
number of other organisms which are made up of millions of cells and are known as multicellular. All cells, whether
the exist as unicellular organisms or as part of multicellular organisms demonstrate certain similar basic functions
such as nutrition, respiration excretion etc. which are essential for their survival.

3. Discovery of Cell
The history of the cell began with the invention of a microscope by the Dutch scientist Anton Van Leeuwenhoek
(1632-1723) who observed the living cells of bacteria, Euglena sperms, eggs and blood corpuscles of invertebrates
in 1683.
Robert Hooke (1635-1703) an English scientist, invented a primitive microscope by using lenses for achieving greater
magnification. In such a microscope, the object to be seen was

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 Fig.: 3.1. Primitive microscope of Robert Hooke Fig.: 3.2. Cells as seen by Robert Hooke

placed on a stage below and light coming from an oil flame was thrown on it by a convex mirror. While studying a
slice of cork Robert Hooke observed a honeycomb like pattern under his microscope in 1665. He coined the term
cell (cellulae), the Latin word, which means "a little room". He published his findings in Micrographic in London in
1665.
Robert Brown (1773-1858) a Scottish botanist, discovered a little sphere like structure in the cells of the orchid root
in 1831. Later he named it Nucleus.
The gel like substance present in all the living cells was termed protoplasm by Hugo Von Mohl (1838) and Joharines
Purkinje (1839).
Huxley (1868) called protoplasm "the physical basis of life".

4. Cell Theory
Jakob Matthais Schleiden (1804-1881), a German botanist, first proposed the idea that all plants consist of cells in
1838. A year later, in 1839, a German zoologist, Theodor Schwann (1810-1882), independently asserted that all
animals and plants are made up of cells. This joint finding forms the concept of cell theory. The theory states that:
Cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all living beings.
In 1855, another German biologist Rudolf Virchow gave a generalization stating "Omnis cellula-e-cellula", i.e., cell
arises from a pre-existing cell.
In context of modem researches, the old cell theory has been modified and it can be stated as follows:
1. All living organisms are composed of cells or cell products (eg. cell secretions).
2. All new cells arise as a result of division of pre-existing cells.
3. Cell is the structural and functional unit of all organisms.
4. All cells are basically alike in chemical composition and metabolic processes.
The function of an organism as a whole is the outcome of the combined activities and interactions of the constituent
cells.

Exceptions to Cell Theory

1. Viruses can be considered as an exception to cell theory. They are made up of one of nuclic acids (DNA or RNA)
enclosed in a protein coat. So they lack protoplasm, the essential Part of the cell.
2. Bacteria and blue green algae which are prokaryotes lack well organised nucleus, nuclear membrane, nucleus and
membrane bound cell organelles. These are also exceptions to cell theory.

5. Instruments for Studying Cells

The cells are very small structure which cannot be seen with naked eyes. In fact, human eye works as an optical
instrument and the eye lens acts as a simple lens. The resolving power of a healthy young human eye is approximately
0.1 mm at 25 cm viewing distance. Any object smaller than this cannot be viewed by naked eyes. A microscope is

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therefore, used for enlargement of the smaller object so that it becomes visible by human eye. Microscope is a high
resolution optical instrument that is used for observing fine details of very minute objects.
Compound microscope: It is also known as laboratory microscope. In this microscope many lenses are combined
together and its magnification power ranges from 300 to 1500 times.

Fig: 3.3. A compound microscope

In this microscope light (usually sunlight) is used to illuminate the object, therefore, it is known as Light microscope.
The light or compound microscope is a strong, heavy metalic instrument. It comprises a U or V-shaped base having
two vertical pillars. A curved arm is movably joined between the pillars to hold the microscope. The arm can be bent
over the pillars of inclination joint to suit the viewer. The upper part of the arm holds the movable body tube. The
body tube has eye piece and objectives. The other parts of the microscope are reflector, condenser lens, stage,
eyepiece objective lens and adjustment screws (coarse and fine).
As light passes through the object, the lens nearest the object, called the objective lens, produces an enlarged image
of the object in the primary image angle. The lens that you look into the eyepiece, acts as a magnifier and produces
an enlarged image of the image produced by the objective lens.
To ascertain magnification, simply multiply, the eyepiece magnification, usually 10x, by the magnification of the
objective lens, usually, 40x and 45x. For example a 10x eyepiece in conjugation with a 40x objective lens, will give
you a magnification factor of 400. The object will be magnified 400 times larger than you can view, it with the naked
eye.

Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells: On the basis of complexity of structural organization .Us can be divided into
two main types:
1. Prokaryotic cells,
2. Eukaryotic cells

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 Fig.3.4: A typical prokaryotic cell of a bacterium

Fig. 3.5.: Photosynthetic prokaryotic cell. Ultrastructure of a cell of blue-green alga or yank bacteria

1 Prokaryotic cells (G. Pro = before; Karyon = nucleus): These cells lack a well-organised nucleis Suclear
membrane around their genetic material and hence are called prokaryotic cells and the organisms which possess
prokaryotic cells are known as prokaryotes.
The genetic Serial in these cells lies in direct contact with the cytoplasm and this region is called nucleiod These cells
also do not contain membrane bound cell organelles like mitochondria, plastids,, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
bodies etc. in the cytoplasm.
Ribosomes are however present 70s type. The prokaryotes include arch bacteria, bacteria and cyanobacteria (earlier
called blue-green algae). The genetic material of prokaryotic cells lacks histones.

2. Eukaryotic cells (G. Eu = true: Karyon= nucleus): These cells possess true nucleus bounded by nuclear
membrane. Organisms whose cells have a nuclear membrane are called Eukaryotes. In these cells, the genetic
material is made of DNA molecule with histones. The nuclear material is enclosed in a nuclear membrane. Thus,
these cells have a well-organized nucleus. These cells have well-developed membrane-bound organelles, such as
mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies etc. The nucleus has nucleoplasm with nucleous. These cells are
found in plants, fungi, protozoa, and animals.

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 Table 3.6. Difference between Prokaryotic cells and Eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells

1. Generally these are smaller in size (1  10m) . 1. These are generally larger in size (5  100m) .
2. True nucleus absent (Genetic material or nucleoid 2. True nucleus present (Nuclear material is bounded
is not bounded by a nuclear membrane. by a nuclear membrane).
3. These cells contain single chromosome. 3. These cells contain more than one chromosome.
4. Chromosome lacks histones. 4. Chromosomes have histones.
5. Nucleolus is absent. 5. Nucleolus is present in nucleoplasm.
6. Membrane bounded cell organelles are absent. 6. Membrane bounded organelles are present.
7. Ribosomes are of 70s type. 7. Ribosomes are of 70s and 80s types.
8. Cell division takes place by fission or budding. 8. Cell division takes place by mitotic or, meiotic cell
division.

Shape and Size of Cells

1. Cell Shape: The shape of cell may be variable, i.e,. Constantly changing (e.g. Amoeba and leucocytes) or fixed.
The amoeba changes its shape at each movement. In fact leucocytes are spherical in circulating blood, but in other
conditions they may produce pseudopodia and become irregular in shape. Fixed shape of cell occurs in most animals
and plants. In this figure, except certain cells such as diatom, creation, ostrich egg and coenocyte, all remaining cells
are showing diversity of cells in human body.

2. Cell size: A great majority of cells are too small to be seen with the naked eye but some of the cells can be seen
without any optical instrument (e.g. egg of birds, reptiles and some insects, jute fibres etc.). The size of cells vary from
the small cells of bacteria (0.2 to 5.0m ) to the very large egg of the ostrich (18 cm). Mycoplasma (Pleuropneumonia
like

Fig. 3.7: Various types of eukaryotic cells showing different shapes

organism; PPLO) is smallest sized cell (0.1 to 5.0m ) while a nerve cell is longest animal cell (about 90 to 100 cm).
Acetabularia, a single celled marine alga measures nearly 10 cm in height. The fiber cells (e.g. Sclerenchyma cells)
of manila hemp similarly are over 100 cm in length.

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 Measurement of Cell
The cell is generally measured in micron ( ) . Micron is a unit of length in the CGS system, equal to one millionth of
a meter. In SI units it is replaced by the micrometer (m) .
1 Micrometer  106 meter
1 Millimeter  103  or 1000
1 Nanometer = Mill micron  1000m
1 Angstrom (Å)  1010 meter  107 mm

Do You Now
*The smallest known cell is Mycoplasma gallisepticum which is 0.1 - 0.3p in diameter.
*Largest cell is egg of ostrich (170 mm  135 mm).
*Acetabularia is a longest unicellular alga up to 10 cm long.
*Longest plant cell is fibre cell of manila hemp up to 100 cm in length.
*Longest Animal cell is nerve cell up to 90 cm in length.

5. What is a Cell Made Up of? What is the Structural Organisation of a Cell (Structure of a Cell)
Although, all cells from different sources do not look similar in their shape, size and activities, but structurally all
eukaryotic cells have three main components:
1. Plasma membrane or cell membrane
2. Nucleus
3. Cytoplasm
Plasma membrane is the outermost boundary of cell, but in plant cell it is also surrounded outwardly by a rigid
structure. Cell wall. Inside the plasma membrane various cell organelles and inclusions are suspended in the
cytoplasm including nucleus, though nucleus is separated from cytoplasm by a membrane known as nuclear
membrane.

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6. Plasma Membrane or Cell Membrane
Every living cell is externally covered by a thin, transparent, elastic, regenerative and selectively permeable
membrane called cell membrane (Now called Plasma-membrane or Plasmalemma). It is present in both prokaryotic
and eukaryotic cells. It separates the contents of the cell from its external environment.
The term "cell membrane" was first coined by Nageli and Cramer in 1885; and the term "Plasmalemma" was given
by Plowed in 1931.
Most cellular organelles such as chloroplast, mitochondria, golgi apparatus, nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum,
lysosomes, peroxisomes, are enclosed by the unit membrane.

Structure of Cell membrane

Various models are proposed to understand the structure of plasma membrane. Some of them are discussed here.
1. Unit membrane model: This model was proposed by J. David Robertson in 1959.
According to this model each membrane is about 75A (1A  1 / 10m) thick structure. In this two phospholipid
layers  35A  lie between two proteins layers each of 20 A thick.
All four layers protein-phospholipid-phospholipid-protein combine to form a unit membrane.

2. Fluid Mosaic Model: The most acceptable model of cell membrane was proposed by S.J. Singer and G.
Nicolson in 1972. According to this model, lipids are arranged in two layers called lipid bilayer and proteins are
arranged in mosaic manner. The lipid bilayer forms highly viscous fluid in which the two types of protein molecules
such as intrinsic proteins and extrinsic proteins are organized in mosaic manner. Intrinsic proteins are embedded in
the lipid bilayer completely or incompletely, and the extrinsic proteins occur superficially. The proteins have
compared to ice bergs floating in a sea of phospholipid bilayer. Due to flexible nature protein, the model is known
as fluid mosaic model.

Fig. 6.1: Plasma membrane

Chemical analysis has shown the membrane to be 75 percent phospholipids. In addition, i.e. membrane possesses
proteins, cholesterol, and polysaccharides. However, these are the phospholipids that form key elements in the
structure of plasma membrane.
Kinds of Permeability
(i) Impermeable: If a membrane does not allow to pass through it both solvent and solute molecules, it is known
as impermeable membrane, e.g. cuticle layer.
(ii) Semi-permeable: If a membrane allows to pass only solvent molecules but not solute) articles through it, it is
called semipermeable membrane, e.g. artificial vapour membrane.
(iii) Permeable: If a membrane allows to pass both solvent and solute molecules through it freely, it is called
permeable membrane, e.g. primary cell wall.
(iv) Selectively permeable: If a membrane allows penetration of solvent freely but selects the passage of specific
solute particles, it is known as selectively permeable membrane, e.g. plasma membrane.

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Functi0ons of Plasma Membrane
The primary function of the plasma membrane is the regulation of various substances in and out of the cell. Some
of the important functions of the cell membrane are given below:
1. Mechanical Barrier: It acts as a mechanical barrier that protects the internal contents of the cell.
2. Shape: It provides a definite shape to semifluid contents of the cell.
3. Permeability: Due to its selectively permeable nature it allows the movements of small ions and molecules in
and out the cell.
4. Recognition: It has substances over its surface which act as recognition sites and centres of attachment. They
help in tissue formation, distinction of foreign substances and defense against microbes.
5. Cell Continuity: At some places plasma membranes of adjacent cells become continuous to form
Plasmodesmata and cell junctions.
6. Specialisation: It gets modified to perform different functions, e.g. absorption in microvilli.
7. Endocytosis: Due to flexible nature of plasma membrane, it enables the cell to engulf food and other substances
(foreign particles) from its external environment by endocytosis.
8. Exocytosis: Undigested molecules are thrown out to cell through plasma membrane, the process is known as
exocytosis.
9. Osmosis: It occurs due to presence of tiny water channels in the plasma membrane.
10. Active and Passive transport: Different types of molecules are transported through plasma membrane in
and out the cell by active and passive transport.

Transport across Cell membrane

The plasma membrane acts as a barrier for the free movement of ions and metabolites across the cell, but at the
same time it allows the transport of selective metabolites across it and thus regulates the flow of meterials into and
out of the cell. Transport of material across the membrane is of two types:
1. Passive transport and
2. Active transport

1. Passive transport: It is the passes of substances across the plasma membrane without expenditure of energy. It
is also two types:
(a) Diffusion
(b) Osmosis

(a) Diffusion: It is the transport of materials (solids, gases or liquids) from a region of higher concentration to a
region of lower concentration, so as to spread uniformly in the given space.
Thus, the process of diffusion continues as long as the substance in the form of molecules or ions is not uniformly
diffused. The diffusion of a substance is independent of the presence of other diffusing substances.

Fig. 6.2: Movement of molecules through a semipermeable membrane

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 Importance of diffusion:
(i) Gaseous exchange: Diffusion helps in gaseous exchange between the cells and the environment.
(ii) Osmosis: It is a type of diffusion where only solvent is allowed to diffuse.
(iii) Intracellular Distribution: It helps in spread of various substances throughout cytoplasm of cell.
(iv) Transpiration: Loss of water in vapour form from the aerial parts of the plant take place through diffusion.
(v) Aroma: Flowers and fruits spread aroma through diffusion to attract insects, bin and other animals for pollination
and dispersal.

(b) Osmosis: The process of transport of water or any other solvent molecules from a region of lower concentration
to a region of higher concentration through a semi-permeable membrane is known as osmosis. In other words
"Osmosis is the process in which water molecules moves from its higher concentration to its lower concentration
through semi- permeable membrane."
Osmosis is purely a mechanical diffusion process by which cell or root hair absorb water without spending any
amount of energy.

Demonstration of Osmosis
Take a thistle funnel and cover its mouth with a piece of an artificial semipermeable membrane like parchment paper
or animal bladder. Invert the thistle funnel and place it into a beaker filled with dean and pure water. Pour
concentrated salt or sugar solution into thistle funnel till it reaches one third of the height of stem. Fix the stem of
thistle funnel in a vertical position by means of a stand. Make a mark at the level of solution as 'A’ with the help of a
glass marking pencil.
Few hours later, a rise in the level of solution in the thistle funnel tube will be observed. Mark this level as 'B’ by
means of glass marking pencil or marker.
The concentration of water molecules in beaker is higher and these water molecules are passed through the
semipermeable membrane, because the sugar solution filled in the thistle funnel has lower water concentration. Thus
there is an increase in the level of solution in the thistle funnel. With the gradual increase in the level of water inside
the thistle funnel the concentration of sugar solution will decrease and gradually the diffusion of water molecules into
thistle funnel decreases.

Fig. 6.3: Experiment to demonstrate the process of osmosis by means of thistle funnel

7. Osmotic Solutions
Osmotic solutions are those solutions which can cause osmosis if separated from solvent by means of a
semipermeable membrane. These solutions are of three types:
(a) Hypotonic Solutions: These are dilute solutions which have an osmotic concentration lower than that of
another solutions.
(b) Isotonic Solutions: These solutions have an osmotic concentration similar to that of another solutions.

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 (c) Hypertonic Solutions: These are concentrated solutions which have an osmotic concentration higher than
that of another solutions.
Types of Osmosis
On the basis of concentration of cell and its external solution osmosis is of two types:
(a) Endosmosis: It is the osmotic entry of water in to a cell.
(b) Exosmosis: It is the osmotic withdrawal of water from a cell.

Importance of Osmosis
(i) Absorption: Osmosis helps in absorption of water and minerals from the soil by root hair.
(ii) Turgidity: It helps in developing turgor pressure which helps in opening and closing of stomata and movements
of leaflets in Mimosa pumice.
(iii) Cell to cell water movement: Cells absorb or loose water to one another through osmosis.
(iv) Seed germination: It helps in growth of radicle and plumule during seed germination.
(v) It maintains turgidity of cells which helps in deeper penetration of roots, extension of leaves, stretching of stem
etc.

2. Active Transport: It is a type of transport across plasma membrane which requires the use of energy. In such
type of transport, materials move against the concentration gradient.
These are energy dependent processes so are rapid, energy is provided by hydrolysis of ATP. By this process
materials can be transported completely across the cell membrane. It is highly affected by low temperature, absence
of oxygen and presence of donator phenol, cyanides etc.
Glucose, amino acids and some ions pass through the plasma membrane by an active transport or transport.

8. Endocytosis and Exocytosis

(a) Endocytosis: It is the process by which large sized liquid or solid particles are taken inside the cell through
plasma membrane. It is further divided into two types-
(i) Pinocytosis: It is also known as cell drinking. It is the process which involves intake of large sized liquid nutrients,
while the cell showing pinocytosis, and is called pinocyte. It Extracellular Fluid Extracellular Fluid was first
observed in Amoeba. In this, the extra cellular solutes are taken into a pocket formed by invagination of plasma
membrane and called pinocytotic vesicle. It later separates from the cell membrane as sin infra cellular food vacuole,
called pinosome. Pinosome is digested by the hydrolytic enzyme of primary lysosome.
(ii) Phagocytosis: It is known as cell- eating. It is the process which involves the intake of large-sized solid particles
including cellular-debris and microbs.
Phagocytosis is the major feeding method in many unicellular organisms (e.g Amoeba), simple metazoa (e.g.
Sponges) and WBC and macrophage cells also. In this, the material to be ingested first binds to the cell surface which
invigilates to form a phagocytotic vesicle. It later separates from cell membrane as an intracellular food vacuole,
called phago-some.

Fig. 8.1. A. Pinocytosis, B. Phagocytosis

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 (b) Exocytosis-It is also called emeiocytosis or cell vomiting or ephagy. It involves the expelling of large sized
particles outside the cell through cell membrane.

Fig. 8.2: Exocytosis by a cell

In this process, the materials to be expelled outside the cell, are accumulated in a membrane round vesicle, called
exocytosis vesicle, which moves outwards, fuses with plasma membrane 3ind the contents are discharged outside
the cell. Exocytosis is responsible for-
(i) removal of undigested food left in the food vacuoles in the cells.
(ii) replacement of internalized membrane by the fusion of exocytosis vesicle with the cell membrane.

9. Cell Wall
Cell wall is the outer most, rigid, protective and supportive covering found in all the plant cells, bacteria,
cyanobacteria and some protists. It is absent in animal cells. It was first discovered by Robert Hooke (1665 AD).
Structurally, the plant cell wall is formed of two coats-
(i) Primary cell wall: It is outer, thinner, elastic coat and is mainly made of cellulose.
(ii) Secondary Cell wall: It lies inner to primary cell wall only in mature and non-dividing cells.
It is chemically formed of cellulose, hemicellulose and further deposited with suberin or lignin.
Cellulose is a complex fibrous carbohydrate (homo polysaccharide) which cannot be digested by human beings and
several other animals. It is most abundant organic molecule. Cell wall of fungi is made up of chitin.

 Middle lamella: A cementing layer is present between the walls of two adjacent cells known as middle lamella.
It is chemically formed of pectates of calcium and magnesium.
 Plasmodesmata: It is a connection between two plant cells.

Functions of Cell Wall

(1) The cell wall provides protection to inner contents from mechanical injuries and entry of germs.
(2) It provides mechanical support (due to rigid cell walls) to the aerial parts.
(3) It maintains shape of the cell.
(4) Cell wall of root hair helps in absorption of water and minerals from the soil.
(5) It prevents undue expansion of the cell.
(6) Suberin and cutin present in cell wall prevent evaporation of water.
(7) It helps in keeping a balance between intracellular osmotic pressure and that of environment.

10. Nucleus
The nucleus was first observed by Robert Brown (1831 A. D.) in orchid cells. It is the most conspicuous and the
largest organelle of a eukaryotic cell. It is visible under light microscope and its fine structure has been revealed by
electron microscope. The nucleus can be called "controlling centre of the cell" since it contains chromosomes and
genes, which control all activities of an individual cell.

Occurrence: A true nucleus is present in all the eukaryotic cells except mature mammalian RBCs, sieve-tube cells
of phloem. The prokaryotic cells have an incipient nucleus, called nucleoid or genophore.

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Position: The nucleus is generally centric but is peripheral in adipocytes and basal in the columnar and gland cells.
In Spirogyra, it is suspended in the centre by the cytoplasmic strands while in most of plant cells, it is extrinsic due to
presence of large central vacuole.

Number: Generally, there is a single nucleus in each cell. Such cells are known as uninucleate. Some cells contain
two nuclei and are known as binucleate(e.g. Paramecium Caudatum).
Some cells possess more than two nuclei. They are termed Multinucleate (e.g. Vaucheria).

Shape and Size: The shape and size of the nucleus varies with the type and function of the cell. The shape of
nucleus is generally spherical cuboidal (germ cells), oval (columnar cells of intestine), discoidal (flat cells of
endothelium), kidney shaped (meganucleus of Paramecium horse-shoe shaped (meganucleus of varticella), bilobed
(acidophils), 3-lobed (basophils), multiplied (neutrophils), long and mpruliform (stentor) and branched (labyrinthine).

Chemical Composition: Chemically, the nucleus is composed of about 80% proteins (65% acidic and 15% basic),
12% DNA, 5% RNA and 3% lipids

Structure: The nucleus is composed of following components:

(i) Nuclear envelop or Karyotheca
(ii) Nuclear sap or Karyolymph
(iii) Chromatin material
(iv) Nucleolus and
(v) Nuclear matrix

(i) Nuclear Envelop: Nuclear envelop or Karyotheca is a double membranous covering which separates the
nucleus from the cytoplasm. Nuclear pores on these two membrane allow exchange of materials between the nucleus
and cytoplasm. The outer membrane of nuclear envelop is usually connected with endoplasmic reticulum (ER). It
also bears ribosomes.

Fig. 10.1: Structure of nucleus

(ii) Nucleoplasm or Nuclear Sap: It is transparent, homogenous, semifluid, colloidal ground substance present
inside the nuclear membrane, in which chromatin and nucleolus are embedded It is chemically formed of water,
sugars minerals, nucleotides, ribosomes, enzymes, m-RNA and + RNA molecules.

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 (iii) Nucleolus: It was first observed by Fontana. It is nearly spherical structure found inside the nucleus. In certain
cases, a nucleus may have two or more nucleolus. Nucleolus not bounded by a membrane. It is rich in protein and
RNA. It is the site of synthesis of ribosome Ribosomes are helpful in protein synthesis in cytoplasm.
(iv) Chromatin Material: The chromatin material is thin, thread like-intertwined substance composed of the
genetic substance DNA (deoxyribo nucleic acid) and proteins (Histone and histone). Chromatin also contains some
RNA, certain metallic ions and some enzymes. During cell division, chromatin becomes highly condensed, thick, rod
like structure known as Chromosomes.

Chromosomes: During cell division, the chromatin fibres condense by spiralisation and dehydration into a number
of rod like structures, called chromosomes. Chromosomes contain hereditary in formations of the cell in the form of
genes.

Fig. 10.2. A Chromosome

Functions of Nucleus
The nucleus performs following functions:
1. It controls all the metabolic activities and all the cellular functions.
2. It brings about growth of the cell by directing the synthesis of structural proteins.
3. It controls the cellular functions by controlling the synthesis of enzymatic proteins.
4. It contains the genetic in formations for reproduction, development and behaviour.
5. Ribosomes are formed by nucleolus part of nucleus.
6. It induces genetic variations which help in organic evolution.
7. It controls cellular differentiation by regulating differential gene expression.

11. Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm is an amorphous colloidal ground substance lying between the plasma membrane and the nucleus. It
contains various organelles and cell inclusions. Often under the free surface of the cell, the cytoplasm is more viscous
and called ectoplasm. The internal cytoplasm is, however, less-viscous and is known as endoplasm.
Cytoplasm is differentiated into three parts:
(i) Cytosol or Cytoplasmic matrix,
(ii) Cell organelles and
(iii) Cell inclusions

12. Cytosol
The liquid and soluble part of cytoplasm is nearly transparent and is called cytosol, or cytoplasmic matrix or
hyaloplasm. It occurs between the cell organelles. Cytosol contains a system of protein fiberes called cytoskleton, but
otherwise appears transparent and structures in the electron microscope. It contains about 90% of water, various cell
organelles and inclusions in it. Cytosol also contain ions and biomolecules such as sugars, nucleotides, amino acids,
minerals, enzymes, vitamins, dissolved gases etc. These are necessary for the biosynthetic, processes of the cell. The
cytosol contains waste materials too. All these substances may be present either as true solutions or as colloids.
Functions:
(i) It provides raw materials to various cell organelles for their functioning.
(ii) It helps in exchange of material between various cell organelles and also with ECF.
(iii) If is the seat of biosynthesis of organic biomolecules like fats, nucleotides, proteins etc.
(iv) It distributes the nutrients, metabolites, enzymes and other substances in the cell.
(b) Streaming of cytoplasmic matrix (cylosis) serves many functions in the cell.

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13. Cell Organelles
Large and complex cells, including cells from multicellular organisms, need a lot of chemical activities to support their
complicated structure and function. To keep these activities of different types separate from each other, these cells
need compartmentalization and use double membranous little structures or cell organelles within themselves. This is
one of characteristic of the eukaryotic cells that distinguish them from prokaryotic cells. Some of these organells are
visible only under the electron microscope. Except plasma membrane and cell wall, all other cell organelles are found
embedded in the cytosol.
We have discussed about the nucleus in a previous section. Some important examples of cell organelles which we
discuss now are; endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, mitochondria, plastids and vacuoles, They are
important because they carry out some very crucial functions in the cells.

Table 13.1: Differences between organs and organelles

Organs Organelles
1. They are found in only multicellular organisms. 1. They are found in all eukaryotic cells.
2. Organs are large sized or microscopic. 2. These are very small sized, either microscopic or
sub microscopic.
3. They may be external or internal. 3. They are always in ternal.
4. The organ is formed of tissues, tissues of cells and 4. An organelle is form of micro molecules and
cells of organelles. macromolecules.
5. Organs coordinate to form organ system, while 5. Organelles coordinate to produce cells.
organ system form the body of organism.

14. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) was discovered independently by Porter (1945) and Thompson (1945) and was named
by Porter in 1953. It is absent in the prokaryotic cells but is present in all the eukaryotic cells except germinal cells
and mature mammalian erythrocytes, (RBCs). The- striated muscle fibres have a special type of ER called
Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR).
Endoplasmic reticulum is a complex network of membrane-bound channels or sheets, tubules and vesicles. It may
be connected to both the plasma membrane as well as outer nuclear membrane. The membranes of endoplasmic
reticulum are similar in structure to the plasma membrane.
Structure: ER consists of membrane lined channels or spaces which have three characteristic forms cisternae tubules
and vesicles.
(i) Cisternae are flattened, unbranched, sack like elements with a diameter of 40 to 50 nm.
They lie in stalks parallel to one another.
(ii) Tubules are tube like extensions which may be connected with cisternae or vesicles to form a reticular system.
(iii) Vesicles are oval or rounded, vacuole like elements. They often occur isolated in the cytoplasmic matrix.

Fig.14.1: (a) Endoplasmic Reticulum (b) Various parts of ER

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 1. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER): If consists mainly of tubules and vesicles. It is free of ribosome on
its surface. It usually lies near the cell membrane. It is well developed in the ells that synthesize and secrete lipids,
steroids.

2. Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER): It consists of cisternae. It has ribosomes attached m its cytoplasmic
surface. This makes the surface look rough or granular. It is particularly highly developed in the cells that synthesize
and secrete proteins.
Table 14.2: Differences between smooth ER and Rough ER

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)

(i) It consists mainly of tubules and vesicles. (i) It mainly consists of cisternae.
(ii) It is free of ribosomes. (ii) It has ribosomes on its cytoplasmic
(iii) It is specialized to synthesize lipids and steroids. (iii) It is specialized to synthesize proteins.
(iv) The products do not pass into lumen, (iv) The products pass into lumen of ER for
transport to other places.

Functions of ER
(i) ER is a component of cytoplasmic-vascular system which acts as structural framework and provides mechanical
support and shape to the cell.
(ii) ER acts as cell circulatory system and helps in transportation of materials in a directional flow.
RER  SER  Golgi body  Primary lysosome out of cell.
(iii) Rough ER is the site of protein synthesis.
(iv) Smooth ER helps in lipid synthesis.
(v) RER also helps in the synthesis of nuclear envelop during telophase of cell division.
(vi) It helps in storage of synthetic products like glycogen.
(vii) SER helps in glycogenolysis in the liver cells.
(viii) In releases Ca  ions required for muscle contraction.

15. Golgi Apparatus

Golgi apparatus, also called Lipochondria, or Golgi body or Golgi complex, was discovered by Camilo Golgi in 1898
in the nerve cells of cats. It is present in all eukaryotic cells except mature red blood cells and sperms of mammals
and absent in prokaryotic cells, In the vertebrate cells Golgi body is single and localized and occupies a fixed position.
It lies around or above centrioles near the nucleus, while a number of Golgi bodies are pronuclear in the nerve cells.
In the invertebrates and plant cells, a number of Golgi bodies are scattered in the cytoplasm and are called
dictyosomes.
Structure: The Golgi body is formed of three types of components.

Fig. 15.1 Golgi apparatus

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 (a) Cisternae: These are elongated double membranous, flat and slightly curved components with swollen ends
present one above the other, also called flattened sacs or macules. These are about 3-12 in animal cells and 10-20
in plant cells and certain protists.
In fungi, a dictyosome is unicisternal.

(b) Vacuole: These are spherical components and lie towards the concave side of the cisternae.

(c) Vesicles: These are small sized components present along the convex surface or edges of the cisternae. Vesicles
are of two types-Smooth vesicles, which contain secretory products of ER and Golgi body and Coated Vesicles with
rough surface and generally lie near the convex surface.

The Golgi body has a definite polarity. Its concave side is always directed towards the cell membrane and is called
maturation face or trans face while its convex surface is directed towards the nucleus and is called formative face or
cis face. It appears that materials are transported from cis to trans face by vesicles.

Origin: Most accepted view is that Golgi apparatus orginates from endoplasmic reticulum.
It is supported by the fact that cisternae of Golgi apparatus are continuous with SER at certain places.

Functions:
1. Secretion is the major function of Golgi apparatus. All types of substances which are to be secreted or excreted
(as in glands) are packed in vesicles by Golgi apparatus for passage to outside.
2. If acts as packaging by condensation membrane and accumulates enzymes, mucus, hormones etc. It condenses
the materials in the secretary vesicles.
3. It takes part in cell plate formation during cytokinesis in plant cells.
4. It helps in synthesis of pectic substances of the cell wall.
5. It helps in the formation of primary lysosome.
6. It is involved in the biosynthesis of glycoproteins.
7. Acrosome of sperm is formed from Golgi apparatus.
8. It takes part in Yolk-synthesis in the eggs.

16. Lysosomes
Lysosomes were first discovered by Belgian cytologist and biochemist Christoin de Duve in 1949. The term was
coined by Novikoff and derived from two greek words: lysis = digestive, soma = body.
Lysosomes are electron microscopic, vesicular structures of the cytoplasm which are involved in intra-cellular
digestive activities, so known as lysosomes.

Occurrence: Lysosomes are present in all eukaryotic animal cells (except mammalian RBCs), some fungi, some
protists and meristem tic cells (root tip cells of maize) in plant cells. These are absent in prokaryotic

Structure: Lysosomes are tiny, globular structures evenly scattered in the cytoplasm. Each lysosome is bounded
by a single unit membrane made up of lipoprotein. It contains a dense, finely granular fluid consists of hydroly tic
enzymes. These hydrolytic enzymes are capable of digesting most

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 Fig. 16.1: Formation of lysosomes and intracellular of organic matter, digestion in them

Lysosomes are of four types:

(i) Primary lysosomes have only digestive enzymes in inactive form and are also called storage granules.
(ii) Secondary lysosomes have digestive enzymes and ingested food. It is formed by fusion of primary lysosomes
and endosomes.
(iii) Auto phagosomes are formed of primary lysosome and some cell organelles, during deficiency of foreign food.
(iv) Residual body or tertiary lysosome is the lysosome with only undigested food.
The Lysosomes may be called "suicide bags" of the cell in view of their autolytic role, or "disposal unit" of the cells
because they remove the foreign bodies, toxic molecules, and debris; or "recycling centres" as they break down worn
out cells and cell organelles.

Functions:
(1) Lysosomes help in intracellular digestion of food particles.
(2) They help in the destruction of foreign particles, such as bacteria and viruses so they provide protection to the
body.
(3) They help in removing cell debris, dead and worn out cellular organelles by digesting them. Therefore called
Cellular scavengers.
(4) During metamorphosis in several animals, the larval organs are digested by lysosomes to provide raw materials
for the formation of adult organs.

17. Mitochondria
Mitochondria are small sausage or rod-shaped bodies, which are called the "power house of the cell". They are
associated with cellular respiration and are the sources of energy.
These were first discovered by Kolliker in 1880 in the voluntary muscles of flying insects.
Term mitochondria (mito = thread; Chondrion = granule) was given by C. Benda in 1897.

Occurrence: These are found in all eukaryotic cells except mature and old mammalian RBCs. These are absent in
prokaryotic cells.

Shape: The shape may be, fibrillar, spherical (in yeast), oval, sausage shaped or discoidal.

Number and Position: The number of mitochondria depends upon the metabolic state of the cell. They are
more in growing, dividing and metabolically active cells.
Minimum number if it is one in yeast, few in green algae and protozoans. Maximum number of mitochondria
(500000' per cell) are found in flying muscle cell of insect.

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The mitochondria are generally located in metabolically active areas of the cells to provide ATP immediately for
quick cellular activities.

Structure: Mitochondria are semiautonomous organelles bound by an envelop of two unit membranes and filled
with a fluid matrix. The outer membrane is smooth and has porous proteins which forms channels for the passage
molecule through it. The inner membrane is semipermeable. It usually produces numerous in folds called cristae.

Fig. 17.1 : A longitudinally cut mitochondrion

The cristae greatly increase the inner surface area of the mitochondria to hold a variety of enzymes. Cristae and inner
membrane bear minute, regularly spaced tennis racket shaped wide particles known as F1 particles or oxysomes. The
membrane of oxysomes have various respiratory enzymes. Cristae increase the surface area for ATP generating
chemical reactions.
ATP synthesis occurs over F1 particles. Mitochondrial membrane encloses a matrix having DNA, ribosomes and
enzymes. The DNA and ribosomes make the mitochondria semi-autonomous as they are able to manufacture some
of their own proteins and enzymes.

Do You Know
Why mitochondria are termed semi-autonomous?
Mitochondria are called semi-autonomous organelles because of the following reasons:
 Mitochondria have their own DNA which can replicate independently.
 All three types of RNAs are present in its matrix eg. mRNA, tRNA, rRNA.
 Its matrix possesses its own ribosomes.
 It synthesizes some of its own proteins.
 New mitochondria develop by division of preexisting mitochondria.
 For the Synthesis of some portions it depends on nuclear DNA.

Functions:
1. Mitochondria are the main sites of cellular respiration. They bring about complete oxidation of food stuffs or
respiratory substrates in to carbon dioxide and water.
2. Intermediate products of cell respiration are used in the formation of steroids, cytochromes, chlorophyll etc.
3. These are also seat of biosyntheis of some amino acids.
4. Also the site of thermiogenesis.

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18. Plastids
The term plastid was introduced by E. Haeckel in 1866. Plastids are semiautonomous organelles having DNA and
double membrane envelop which store or synthesize various types of organic compounds.
Location: Plastids are found in the plant cells and in certain protists but are absent to animal eels.

Types: According to their structure, pigments and functions, plastids are of three types:
1. Chloroplasts (green coloured plastids).
2. Chromoplasts (coloured plastids; except green colour)
3. Leucoplasts (the colourless plastids)

1. Chloroplasts: These were first seen by Leeuwenhoek. They occur mostly in the green algae and higher plants.
Chloroplasts of algae other than green algae are called chromatophores.

Structure: The Chloroplasts of higher plants are usually spherical, ovoid, and discoid or lens- shaped. Each
chloroplast is bounded by an envelope of two unit membranes and is filled with a fluid matrix like a mitochondrion.
It consists of three parts-envelop, matrix and thylakoids.

Fig. 18.1: Internal structure of chloroplast

Matrix is colourless, granular, colloidal ground substance called stromal. It contains proteins, lipids, 70s ribosomes, a
small circular double helical DNA molecule, RNA molecules, enzymes, lipid droplets called plastoglobuli and certain
metal ions.
Inside the matrix there is a series of parallel membranous sheets called lamellae, which form a number of oval-shaped
closed sacs, called thylakoids. Thylakoids are structural and functional elements of Chloroplasts. Thylakoids contain
all the requirements of light reactions eg. chlorophyll, carotenoids, plastoquinone, plastocyanin etc. In eukaryotic
plant cells, a number of thylakoids are superimposed like a pile of coins to form a granum (plural = grana).
Granum is the site of light reaction during photosynthesis where as stroma is the site of dark reaction during
photosynthesis.
Semi-autonomous nature of chlorplast: Like the mitochondria, the chloroplast are semi- autonomous organelles
because these have complete machinery (e.g. DNA, RNA, ribosomes and ATP) to synthesize some of the required
proteins while for some other proteins these depend upon nuclear DNA and cytoplasmic ribosomes.

Functions:
(i) The Chloroplasts trap the radiant energy of sunlight and transform it into the chemical energy of carbohydrates
using water and CO2 in the presence of chlorophyll. Thus these are called kitchen of cell. This process is called
photosynthesis.
(ii) These maintain oxygen/carbon dioxide balance in the biosphere.
(iii) These store the starch in the protenacious bodies called pyrenoids in algal forms.

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 2. Chromo lasts: These are non-green coloured plastids and photo synthetically inactive.
They are found in flowers and fruits and provide them characteristic colours. They contain the pigments carotenoids
which include carotenes and xanthophylls.
The chromaplasts impart various colours to flowers to attract insects for pollination and to the fruits for alluring certain
animals for seed dispersal.

3. Leucoplasts: Leucoplasts are colourless plastids which generally occur near the nucleus in non-green cells. These
are abundantly found in storage parts of the plants. They are of three types-
 Amyloplasts: Starch containing leucoplasts, e.g. potato tuber.
 Elaioplasts: Colourless plastids which store lipids.
 Proteinoplasts: Protein storing plastids e.g. aleurone cells of maize grain.
Leucoplasts store food in the form of starch, fats and proteins. Thus these are called store house of the cell.

Table 18.2: Differences between chloroplast and chromoplast

Chlosoplast Chromoplast
1. They are green in colour. 1. They are coloured (except green colour)
2. They have chlorophyll and carotenoids. 2. Chlorophyll are absent, only carotenoids are
3. Lamellae are present in the chloroplast. 3. Lamellae are absent.
4. Chloroplasts are site of photosynthesis. 4. They add colour to the flowers, fruits, for attracting
pollinators and dispersal agents.

19. Vacuoles
Vacuoles are storage sacs for solid or liquid contents. These are found in all the eukaryotic cells. In animal cells, there
are a number of small sized vacuoles, irregularly scattered in the cytoplasm and are generally in modified form. On
the other hand plant cells, have one or two very large vacuoles. The central single vacuole of some plant cells may
occupy 50-90% of the cell volume.

Structure-A vacuole is formed of two parts-

(a) Tonoplast-It is a outer, single layered, unit membrane and is semipermeable.
(b) Cell sap-It is a liquid filled inside the central vacuole and is formed of water, minerals, sugars, amino acids,
proteins, esters, excretory substances, alkaloids, organic acids etc.
The vacuoles are modified differently to perform different functions-

(i) Food vacuoles-These possess ingested or digested or undigested food and may be in the form of pinosome or
phagosome. These are found in phagocytes and protozoans (e.g. Amoeba).

(ii) Contractile Vacuole-These are found in fresh water protozoans e.g. Amoeba, Paramecium etc. and help in
osmoregulation (regulating water contents inside cell) and excretion.

(iii) Gas or air vacuoles (Pseudo vacuoles)-These are found in cyanobacteria and provide buoyancy as they
contain the metabolic gases.

Functions:
(i) Cell sap exerts turgor pressure which keeps the plant cell turgid.
(ii) It stores water, nutrients and minerals.
(iii) Vacuoles act as dump house of excretory waste products in plant cells.
(iv) Contractile vacuoles take part in osmoregulation and excretion.
(v) Gas vacuoles provide buoyancy in some plant cells.

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20. Ribosomes
Ribosomes were discovered by Robinson and Brown (1953) in plant cell and by Palade (1955) in animal cell. Palade
also coined the term Ribosome.
Ribosomes are smallest known electron microscopic, ribonucleic-protein particles attached either on RER or floating
freely in the cytoplasm and are the site of protein synthesis.
Occurrence: These are found in both prokaryotes as well as eukaryotes except mature RBCs and sperms. In the
prokaryotes these are present only in free form in the cytoplasm while in eukaryotes these are found on RER or free
form.

Types: On the basis of sedimentation co-efficient, ribosomes are of two types-

(a) 80s Ribosomes: These are found in eukaryotic cells. Each 80s ribosome consists of a large 60s sub-unit and a
small 40s sub-unit.
(b) 70s Ribosomes: These are found in prokaryotic cells and in the plastids of eukaryotic cells. Each 70s ribosome
consists of a large 50s submit and a small 30s sub-unit.

Fig. 19.1

Function: Ribosomes are sites for protein synthesis in the cell, hence they are popularly known as protein factories
of the cell. They provide site for attachment of tRNA and mRNA which participate in protein synthesis.

Peroxisomes
These were discovered by Rhodin in liver and kidney cells. These are found in photosynthetic cells of the plants, and
liver and Kidney cells of vertebrates.
These are spherical in shape, about 1  5m in size. Each contains two types of enzymes bounded by a unit
membrane.
(i) Oxidases: These oxidise organic compounds.
(ii) Catalases: These degrade H2O2
Function: are involved in the formation and degradation of H2O2 . Plant peroxisomes are also involved in
photorespiration.

Centrosomes
Centrosome is found only in the animal cells. It is not surrounded by any membrane but consists of two granule like
centroiles. The centrioles commonly pairs, a pair of centrioles is called a diplosome.
A centriole possesses a whorl of nine peripheral fibrils.
Fibrils are absent in the centre. The centre of centriole contains a rod-shaped proteinaceous mass known as hub.
From the hub, arises 9 strands towards the peripheral triplet fibrils called radial fibres of spokes.

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 Fig. 19.2 Centriole
Functions
(i) The centrioles form asters during cell division of animal cells while in the dividing plant cells, the spindle is anastral.
(ii) Distal centriole of sperm gives rise to axoneme of sperm-tail.

Chapter at a Glance and Glossary

 A cellular: Single celled organisms.
 Algae: A group of aquatic plants which lack root, stem and leaves.
 Bacteria: Group of prokaryotic organisms except blue green algae found in all habitates.
 Centrioles: Two rounded dot-like bodies present near the nucleus in animal cells only.
 Chromosome: Thread like structure having genetic material of organism made up of chromatin.
 Chromatin: Thin thread like structure present in the region of the neucleoplasm.
 Chromatid: During cell division, each chromosome consists of two identical longitudinal halves. Each half is
called chromatid.
 Cilium: (Plural = cilia) A minute hair-like cellular process, that beat rhythmically on the cell surface and helps
in the movement of the cell.
 Cytology: The study of various aspects of cells and their organelles is called cytology.
 Diffusion: Movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration.
 Crenation: When an animal cell is placed in hypertonic solution, it shrinks on all sides to give wrinkled
appearance, the phenomenon is known as crenation.
 Eukaryotes: These organisms having true nucleus in their cells.
 Free Energy: The useful energy that a cell requires is called free energy.
 Glycophorin: A glycoprotein found in the plasma membrane of RBC.
 Desmosomes: In folds of plasma membrane found in the bacterial cell.
 Tonoplast: Vacuolar membrane.
 Bulk Transport: It includes pinocytosis and phagocytosis.
 Hydrolysis: Cleavage of molecule with water into two or more smaller molecules.
 Microvilli: Electron-microscopic imaginations of plasma membrane of some cells.
 Gene: A unit of genetic information.
 Autolysis: Process of self-destruction of cell by the release of lysosomes enzymes in the cell itself.
 Centromere: Region of chromosomes at which spindle fibril is attached during cell division.
 Thylakoid: Flattened disc like membranous structures in the stromal of chloroplast.
 Plasmodesmata: Fine cytoplasmic strands interconnecting adjacent cells in many plant tissues.

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