KG22403

GEOPHYSICS
L EC T U R E R : D R K A M I L I A S H A R I R
O F F I C E : RO O M 6 2 , L E V E L 1 , F K J, U M S
PHONE : +6010 2607168
E - M A I L : K A M I L I A . S H A R I R @ U M S . E D U. M Y

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Course Learning Outcome (CLO)
•Describe the principles of sedimentology and stratigraphy for both clastic and
carbonate reservoir rocks with particular emphasis on deposition and diagenesis
•Analysing capillary pressure data to determine fluid migration from a source
rock, to a reservoir and then to a producing well, determine seal properties of
caprocks
•Determine volumetric reserves and Carbon Capture and Storage
•Interpret seismic data and use the information in the exploration for
development of hydrocarbon fields
•Demonstrate effective individual and team work in a group project or
assignment

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 Chapter 5:
Introduction of Seismic Surveying

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What u will learn in this chapter?
1. Types of information obtained from seismic data
2. Basics of the reflection seismic method:
A. The seismic trace, section, and volume
B. The convolutional model – reflection coefficients, travel times, and
wavelet
C. Wave propagation – reflection, refraction, and attenuation
D. Resolution and velocity

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Introduction
❑Seismic surveying is a geophysical method used to explore
subsurface formations by sending seismic waves into the
earth and analyzing the reflected waves.
❑Primary application: Hydrocarbon exploration, but also
used in mineral exploration, engineering studies, and
environmental investigations.

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GROUP ACTIVITY TIME!
❑Form Groups: Groups of 5 students each.
❑Each group will have 30 minutes to research their assigned data type.
They should focus on the following aspects:
• Definition: What is the data type?
• Usage: How is it used in petroleum exploration and production?
• Advantages: What are the benefits of using this type of data?
• Limitations: What are the challenges or limitations associated with this
data?
❑Each group will have 5 minutes to present a summary of their findings. I
will randomly select the group for presentations.
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GROUP ACTIVITY TIME!
Assign Topics: Assign each group one of the following types of data to research:

Group 1: Satellite Imagery

Group 2: 2D Seismic Data
Group 3: 3D Seismic Data
Group 4: 4D Seismic Data
Group 5: Wireline Logs
Group 6: Core Samples
Group 7: Gravimetric and Magnetic Data
Group 8: Well Logs
Group 9: Geochemical Data

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What is “seismic”?
Basic Principles
•Seismic Waves: Generated by an energy source (e.g., dynamite, air
gun) and travel through subsurface layers.
•Reflection and Refraction: Waves reflect off different geological
boundaries and refract through various layers.
•Detection: Reflected waves are detected by sensors (geophones on
land, hydrophones in water).

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Body Waves
Primary Waves (P-waves)

• Fastest type of seismic wave.

• Travels through solids, liquids, and gases.
• Compressional waves that move particles back and forth in the same direction as the
wave propagation.

Secondary Waves (S-waves)

• Slower than P-waves.

• Travels only through solids.
• Shear waves that move particles perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.

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Surface Waves
Love Waves Rayleigh Waves

• Travel along the Earth's surface. • Also travel along the Earth's
• Cause horizontal shearing of the surface.
ground. • Cause both vertical and
• Faster than Rayleigh waves but horizontal ground motion.
slower than body waves. • Slower than Love waves.
• Often responsible for the shaking
felt during an earthquake.

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15
Types of
information
obtained from
seismic data

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2-D Reflection Seismic Data
❑Provides cross-sectional views in both dip and strike directions.
❑Data includes a mixture of in-plane and out-of-plane reflectors.
❑Most important in the earlier stages of exploration programs.
❑Particularly useful in frontier basins where detailed subsurface
information is limited.

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3-D Reflection Seismic Data
❑Provides resolved cross-sectional views along any azimuth within
the survey area.
❑Allows generation of "time slices" on any horizon.
❑More accurate determination of the nature and location of out-of-
plane features.
❑High acquisition costs, typically used to define individual prospects
more accurately.
❑Offers comprehensive subsurface imaging compared to 2-D data

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4-D Reflection Seismic Data
❑Involves repeated acquisition of 3-D seismic data over time.
❑Helps monitor changes in the reservoir, such as fluid movement.
❑Useful for time-lapse studies to observe reservoir dynamics.
❑Enhances understanding of reservoir behavior and aids in
optimizing production strategies.

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 Seismic Process
1. Data acquisition

2. Data processing

3. Data interpretation
1. Data Acquisition
•Energy Source:
• Land: Vibroseis trucks, dynamite.
• Marine: Air guns, water guns.

•Receivers:
• Geophones (land): Convert ground motion into voltage.
• Hydrophones (marine): Convert pressure changes in water into voltage.

•Data Acquisition Parameters:

• Source and receiver spacing.
• Survey geometry (inline and crossline spacing).
• Fold of coverage (number of traces contributing to each subsurface point).

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 2. Data Processing
• The data recorded from a seismic survey is originally in its raw or unprocessed form. Before it
can be used it must go through a series of computerized processes.

Velocity Analysis:
Stacking: Combining Migration: Correcting the
Pre-Processing: Noise Determining the seismic
multiple seismic traces to position of reflected
removal, deconvolution, velocity of subsurface
improve signal-to-noise events to their true
static corrections. layers for accurate
ratio. subsurface locations.
imaging.

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Key Objectives of Seismic Processing
Improve Signal-to-Noise Ratio
• Enhance the clarity of seismic signals relative to background noise.

Enhance Clarity and Resolution

• Improve the detail and sharpness of subsurface reflectors.

Accurate Positioning
• Place seismic events accurately in 3D space.

Reliable Basis for Interpretation

• Provide dependable data for geological and reservoir interpretation.
Pre-Processing
Noise Removal Deconvolution Static Corrections

• Elimination of • Removes the • Adjustments for

unwanted signals effects of the time shifts due to
and background seismic source variations in the
noise. wavelet. near-surface layer.
• Enhances the • Restores the true • Ensures consistent
clarity of the reflectivity series alignment of
seismic data. of the subsurface. seismic events.

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Stacking
Purpose
• Combine multiple seismic traces to improve the signal-to-noise ratio.

Process
• Align and sum traces that correspond to the same subsurface point.
• Enhances the coherence of seismic reflections.

Common Midpoint (CMP) Sorting

• Data is sorted into CMP gathers based on the midpoint between shot and receiver
locations.
• Ensures traces representing the same subsurface point are grouped together.

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CMP Sorting
•The required coordinate transformation is achieved by sorting the data into common mid
point (CMP) gathers.
•On the base of the field geometry information, every single trace is assigned to the midpoint
of between the shot and receiver locations.

https://seabed.software.slb.com/
 Normal move out (NMO) and common mid point (CMP) Stack

NMO is describing the distance between the source and the receiver
and how it affect the arrival time of the signal from the reflector in the
form of an increasing the time with offset.
Migration
Purpose • Correct the position of reflected events to their true
subsurface locations.

Process • Moves dipping reflectors to their correct positions.

• Improves the spatial accuracy of the seismic image.

Outcome • Provides a more accurate representation of the

subsurface geology.

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Velocity Analysis
• Determine the seismic velocity of subsurface layers.
Purpose

• Essential for accurate imaging and depth conversion.

Importance

• Analyzes travel times of seismic waves to estimate velocities.

Method • Uses velocity models to refine seismic images.

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Additional Concepts
Normal Moveout (NMO)
• Describes the variation in travel time of seismic signals due to the
distance between the source and receiver.
• Corrects for time differences in CMP gathers to improve stacking.
CMP Stack
• Process of summing traces in a CMP gather after NMO correction.
• Enhances signal coherence and reduces random noise.

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3. Data Interpretation
Seismic Stratigraphy: Analyzing seismic data to interpret sedimentary layers
and depositional environments.

Seismic Attributes: Quantitative measures (e.g., amplitude, frequency)

derived from seismic data to enhance interpretation.

Structural Interpretation: Mapping geological structures like faults, folds,

and horizons.

Reservoir Characterization: Identifying and describing potential

hydrocarbon reservoirs.

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 iii. Data interpretation

Seismic data are studied by geoscientists to interpret the composition, fluid content, extent, and geometry of
rocks in the subsurface. In short, to generate a coherent geologic story from an array of seismic reflections.

Interpretation of seismic data will be based on the integrated use of seismic inlines, crosslines, time slices,
and horizon attributes (Dalley et al. 1989, Hesthammer et al. 2001).

Based on the seismic interpretation one will decide if an area is a possible prospect for hydrocarbon (oil or
gas). If the answer is positive, an exploration (wildcat) well will be drilled.

The challenge of seismic interpretation is then to fully utilize all the information contained in the seismic
data. Systematic noise can be related to acquisition procedures, processing artefacts, water-layer multiples,
faults, complex stratigraphy, and shallow gas. Random noise includes natural noise (e.g. wind and wave
motion), incoherent seismic interface, and imperfect static corrections. Without a sound understanding of
these factors as well as knowledge of the limitation of seismic resolution, there is a danger of misinterpreting
noise as real features.
The most important parameters used for interpretation of seismic data are:

Reflection amplitudes: The strength of the reflections. As discussed before, the proportion of the energy reflected at the boundary between
two beds is a function of the difference in the acoustic impedances. If we have an alternating series of different beds, the distance between
the bed boundaries in relation to the wavelength of the transmitted seismic signals will play a major part.

Reflector spacing: The distance between the reflectors will indicate the thickness of the bed, but there will be a lower limit to the thickness
that can be detected, which will depend on the wavelength.

Interval velocity: The interval velocity of a sequence can provide information about lithology and porosity but this will depend on the stacking
velocity and will not be very accurate.

Reflector continuity: The continuity of reflectors will be a function of how continuous the sediment beds are, information which is essential
for reconstructing the environment.

Reflector configuration: If we take the compaction effect into account, the shape of the reflecting beds gives us a picture of the sedimentation
surface as it was during deposition. The slope of the reflectors, for example, represents the slope of prograding beds in a delta sequence with
later differential compaction and tilting superimposed. Erosion boundaries with unconformities will in the same way show the palaeo-
topography during erosion.

Instantaneous phase: A seismic trace can be considered an analytical signal where the real part is the recorded seismic signal itself.
Mathematically we can compute the complex seismic trace (imaginary parts of the signal) and the instantaneous attributes. The instantaneous
phase is a measure of the continuity of the events on a seismic section. The instantaneous phase is on a scale of +180◦ to −180◦. The temporal
rate of change of the instantaneous phase is the instantaneous frequency.
Advanced Techniques
Seismic Inversion: Converting seismic reflection data into a quantitative
rock-property model.

AVO (Amplitude Versus Offset) Analysis: Examining changes in reflection

amplitude with offset to infer properties like fluid content and lithology.

Full Waveform Inversion (FWI): Using the full seismic wavefield to produce
high-resolution subsurface models.

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Basics of the
Reflection
Seismic Method

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a. Seismic Trace, Section, and Volume
Seismic Trace

• A single record of seismic energy reflecting from subsurface layers.

• Represents the response of the Earth to seismic waves.

Seismic Section

• Collection of seismic traces displayed together.

• Provides a cross-sectional view of subsurface structures.

Seismic Volume

• 3D collection of seismic data.

• Offers a detailed view of the subsurface in three dimensions.
• Essential for accurate subsurface characterization.

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 Example of seismic section and volume

(a) North-south seismic section from the Target 3D volume

showing normal faults and Platberg Group palaeo-valleys
and depositional growth packages.

(b) East-west seismic section from the northern Target

3D volume showing Platberg Group growth packages;
and Big Lad backthrust, which has experienced Platberg
extensional reactivation and late post Ventersdorp
contractional reactivation (Jolley et al., 2007)
 b. The convolutional model – Reflection coefficients, wavelet, and travel time

Basic principles
When a wave emanating from the surface reaches a boundary between two media that have different acoustic impedance
(the product of density and velocity), some of the energy is reflected back into the upper medium. Depending on the angle
of incidence, some of the energy may be refracted along the interface between the two media or may be refracted into the
lower medium.

The acoustic impedance is characterized by the reflection coefficient (R)

where ρ is the density and v is the P wave velocity.
v 2  2 − v1 1
R= Rtrans = 1 - R
v 2  2 + v1 1

-The greater the R the stronger the reflection.

-The quality of reflectors and hence the ability to define successions

of rocks and their characteristics depends initially on the natural
variations in the rock.
Source: Selly, 1998
b. Convolutional Model
Reflection Coefficients Travel Times Wavelet

• Measure of the • Time taken by seismic • Basic shape of the

contrast in acoustic waves to travel from seismic pulse.
impedance between the source to the • Convolved with
two layers. reflector and back to reflection coefficients
• Determines the the receiver. to produce the
amplitude of reflected • Crucial for seismic trace.
seismic waves. determining the
depth of subsurface
features.

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(Gardner et al., 1974)
What's the difference between a refracted/transmitted wave?
There is no physical difference. There is only a subtle difference in emphasis.
“Refracted” draws some attention to the change of wave speed that occurs in a transmitted wave.
Synthetic
trace

A wavelet is defined as a transient signal with a

definite time origin. It is characterized by two
properties; it has a definite onset time and it has a
finite energy (Robinson 1983, p. 128).

It is the link between seismic data (traces),

interpretations, and the reflection coefficients (R).
1

2
3

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 Travel time
If the average acoustic velocity of the rock is known, then it is possible
to calculate the depth (D) to the interface.
Guess the weakness of
D = vt/2 this TWT
v is the acoustic velocity
t is the two-way travel time (TWT)

Depth of penetration up to 20,000 ft.

c. Wave Propagation
Reflection
• Seismic waves bounce off layers with different acoustic impedances.
• Primary mechanism for creating seismic reflections.

Refraction
• Seismic waves bend when passing through layers with varying velocities.
• Affects the travel path and travel time of seismic waves.

Attenuation
• Loss of seismic energy as waves propagate through the Earth.
• Reduces the amplitude of seismic signals, particularly with depth and distance.

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 2c. Wave propagation – Reflection, refraction, and attenuation

Seismic reflection and refraction

When a wave emanating from the surface reaches a

boundary between two media that have different
acoustic impedance, some of the energy is reflected
back into the upper medium, and some may be
refracted into the lower medium.
Seismic Reflection: the seismic signal is reflected back to the surface at layer
interfaces, and is recorded at distances less than depth of investigation.
Applications:
• Detection of subsurface cavities
• Shallow stratigraphy
• Site surveys for offshore installations
• Hydrocarbon exploration
• Crustal structure and tectonics

Seismic Refraction: the signal returns to the surface by refraction at subsurface

interfaces, and is recorded at distances much greater than depth of investigation.
Applications:
• Rock competence for engineering applications
• Depth to Bedrock
• Groundwater exploration
• Correction of lateral, near-surface, variations in seismic reflection surveys
• Crustal structure and tectonics

https://www.ukm.my/rahim/Seismic%20Refraction%20Surveying.htm
 Seismic refraction vs. reflection

Seismic refraction is commonly limited to mapping bedrock depths and rippabilities at

depths less than 100 feet, and is generally applicable only where the seismic velocities of
layers increase with depth. Where higher-velocity (e.g., stiff clay) layers may overlie lower-
velocity material (e.g., sand or gravel), this technique may not detect those deeper layers.

Seismic reflection is generally applicable to depths greater than 80 to 100 feet, and is widely
used on land to map a variety of deep features (e.g., stratigraphy, faults). This technique is
also well suited to marine applications (e.g., lakes, rivers, oceans) where the inability of
water to transmit shear waves makes collection of high-quality reflection data possible, even
at very shallow depths that would be impractical or impossible on land.

In situations where both shallow and deep information is needed, both seismic refraction
and reflection will be required. Where both techniques could be applied (i.e., the “overlap”
zone), seismic reflection generally has better resolution, but is considerably more expensive
due to more complex data processing requirements.

https://www.rettew.com/services/geophysics/seismic-refraction-vs-reflection/
 Seismic reflection ray path geometry

A) Single Horizontal Reflector B) Multiple Horizontal Reflector

Attenuation
d. Resolution and Velocity
• Ability to distinguish between two closely spaced features in the subsurface.
• Depends on the frequency of the seismic waves and the bandwidth of the
seismic data.
Resolution • Higher frequencies provide better resolution but are more attenuated.

• Speed at which seismic waves travel through subsurface materials.

• Affected by the density and elasticity of the rocks.
Velocity • Critical for accurate depth conversion and imaging of subsurface structures.

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 d. Resolution and velocity

• Seismic wave reflecting surfaces are due to changes in acoustic impedance

between two adjacent media.

• Seismic resolution is the ability to distinguish between two reflecting

surfaces that are close together.

• The quality of seismic resolution depends on the orientation of the

reflecting surfaces and interference effects.

• Seismic resolution is divided to two:

-Vertical resolution
-Lateral resolution
 Vertical resolution

• Vertical resolution tells us how close two horizontal reflecting surfaces can be and still be separable.
The two reflecting surfaces are the top and bottom of a thin layer.

• Vertical resolution is expressed in terms of the dominant wavelength of a seismic wavelet, λd, which is the ratio of
wavelet velocity vi to the dominant frequency fd:

• The dominant frequency fd is the inverse of dominant period Td. As an illustration, suppose the wavelet velocity is
10,000 ft/s and the dominant period is 40 ms or 0.040 s, then the dominant frequency fd is 25 Hz and the dominant
wavelength is 400 ft.

• Maximum vertical resolution δzV is one fourth of the dominant wavelength λd:

• The maximum vertical resolution in the illustration earlier is approximately 100 ft.

• If the separation between two reflecting surfaces is less than the maximum vertical resolution, it is difficult or
impossible to distinguish each of the reflecting surfaces.

• The maximum vertical resolution can be increased by reducing the dominant frequency of the seismic wavelet.
Lateral resolution
λd = Dominant wavelength
z = Depth from the reflecting interface to the detector
 Seismic velocity

Five velocity-types are in common use in seismic exploration.

These are:

The influence of velocity in seismic reflection:

*NMO = Normal Move Out

 Factors affecting seismic velocity
k is the bulk modulus

Rock type/density: μ is the shear modulus

Velocity typically increases with density. ρ is the density

Denser rock tend to be much harder and faster.
(k and μ are dependent on ρ and increase more rapidly than ρ).

Porosity and fluid saturation:

Increasing porosity reduces velocity.
Filling the porosity with fluid increases the velocity.
Yet in the above equations, density is in
the denominator. This is known as the
Pressure tends to increase the speed. Pressure increases with depth in Earth
“velocity-density paradox”, the answer
because the weight of the rocks above gets larger with increasing depth. to which can be found in the fact that
the elastic moduli tend to increase with
density as well, and at a faster rate.
However, the increase of temperature with depth tends to lower the wave velocity.
The basis of seismic methods is the theory of elasticity, where seismic wave propagation depends on characteristics of rock elasticity.
Elasticity – the recoverable deformation when the load (or stress) is removed.

Elastic waves = When a stress is applied (or released) the corresponding strain propagates out from the source.
Elastic moduli = Describe the physical properties of the rock and determine the seismic velocity.
Ideal seismogram

(Alsadi, 2007)
 Effect of lateral velocity on travel time

Depth model 1 is simple, laterally there is no change in Depth model 2 on the normal fault structure, laterally there
velocity, depth and seismic time imaging is similar. is velocity change.

Model 1 Model 2

TOP “A”

TOP “B”

TOP “C”

D = vt/2
Depth model 3 on the anticline structure, there is a lateral In the depth model 4, there is a lateral high velocity contrast,
velocity change, such as gas bearing reservoir, which has low such as presence of reef. In seismic time imaging, there is a
velocity contrast. In seismic time imaging, there is a “sagging” pseudo image below the lateral rapid velocity changes, “pull up"
effect not similar to the depth structure. not similar to the depth structure.

Model 3 Model 4

From Sjafwan, B. (1999)

THANK YOU

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