Chapter One

Introduction to Communication♣

The ability to speak, read, write and communicate through a wide variety of sophisticated
devices differentiates man from animals. However, a few organizations of humans are
characterized by effective communication. Indeed, it would appear that among all human
faculties, the ability to communicate is one of the least developed in relation to
organizational needs1.

Communication comes from the Latin word ‘Communis’, which means “to make
common to many, share.” There are various definitions of communication. Some of the
definitions are reproduced below.
“Communication occurs when an exchange of messages result in shared meaning.” –
Bovee and Thill
“Communication is a two way process of exchanging ideas or information between
human beings.” – Murphy and Peck
“Communication is the process of conveying messages (facts, ideas, attitudes and
opinions) from one person to another so that they are understood.” – M.W. Cumming
“Communication is the process of people sharing thoughts, ideas and feelings with each
other in commonly understandable ways.” – Hamilton and Parker

All these definitions are having certain common ideas. Exchanging / sharing and
messages are stressed in all of them. Nevertheless, they do not give a complete picture
of communication. In simple terms, 'Communication is the transfer of information to
achieve a goal'. The transfer of information is made with a purpose.

Simplified Model of Communication

A simplified model of communication shown below depicts how a Sender encodes a
message in a medium and transfers it to a Receiver. The Receiver returns a message
(feedback) to the sender in some medium. The Sender checks the feedback against the
intended outcome to find out whether the goal has been achieved2. Hence it can be
termed that communication is goal oriented and purposeful transfer of information.

♣
Notes prepared by Dr V Venkatakrishnan, Department of Public Administration and Development
Management, Addis Ababa University with inputs from Ato Bikila Hurissa. These notes are meant for
classroom discussions only. Students are encouraged to consult the original texts for more details.
1
Nigro, Felix A, Modern Public Administration, Harper and Row, New York, 1970, p 187

2
Deborah C Andrews and William D Andrews, Business Communication, Macmillan Publishing
Company, New York, 1988, p 5

1
 Encoding Medium Decoding
Goal Receiver Understanding
Sender / Message / Sender
Inform or Receiver
Persuade
Medium
Decoding Feedback Encoding Action
Feedback Message Feedback

Fig 1-1: Simplified Model of Communication

Communication takes place in all types of organizations such as Ministries, Government

Departments, Universities, Associations, Business Companies and Religions Institutions.
The goals of these organizations might be varying but the common link is their goal-
orientation.

Components of Communication
From the above-simplified model of communication, we can infer that there are at least
five elements of communication. They are (1) Sender (2) Receiver (s) (3) Medium (4)
Message and (5) Feedback. The environment affects all these components continuously.
As mentioned earlier, communication cannot exist in the absence of any of these
components. It exists when there are at least two parties and there is a message that has to
be communicated. It requires that the receiver of the message understands it and conform
this by nodding or by giving some kind of gesture or by verbally responding.
Processes of Communication
The five elements of communication act and interact in a five-step process. Whether one
is speaking, writing, listening or reading, communication is more than a single act. It is a
chain of events that can be broken into five phases as described below.

A. The sender has an idea

B. The idea becomes a message
C. The message is transmitted
D. The receiver gets a message
E. The receiver reacts and sends a feed back to the sender

A. The sender has an idea

The sender is an individual who initiates the communication. This person is sometimes
referred to as ‘encoder’. At least two things must happen before the sender even wishes
to send a message. First, an internal or external stimulus prompts you to send a message.
This prompt may arrive in the form of letters, memorandum, note, electronic mail, fax,
telex or casual conversation in the staff lounge.
A stimulus alone may not be sufficient to trigger communication. The second
requirement to send a message is sufficient motivation. Think of a situation when a

2
teacher raises a question in the classroom and some of the students are fairly sure that
they know the answer. But they may not respond. Why is it so? Probably, they do not
have sufficient motivation to respond. Either, they would have concluded that there is no
personal benefit in answering or they would have seen greater benefit in not answering.

B. The idea becomes a message

Once stimulated and motivated, the sender must decide how best to convey a message to
the specific receiver (s). The process of framing a message is called as ‘encoding’. It
may consist of verbal (written or spoken) symbols and / or non-verbal (unspoken)
symbols. Whenever a message is composed, one has to consider what contents have to
be included, how the receiver will interpret it and how it may affect your relationship.
Some messages are easy to communicate.

A simple but very important message like, ‘I thank you’ will be relatively easy to
communicate. In contrast, to inform 2000 employees that they will not get dearness
allowance increase in cash form due to insufficient funds will be very difficult.
Similarly, when there is an impending disaster, conveying the message about it will also
have to be planned carefully. The nature of the situation, the language and vocabulary
impose limits on the message.

For sending a message a medium of transmission ie the channel through which the
message is transmitted has to be selected. This may include face-to-face discussions,
letters, radio, television, newspapers, telephone and email.

When formulating a message several things can go wrong. Some of them are i.
Indecision about message content, ii. Lack of familiarity with the situation or the receiver
(s), iii. Emotional conflicts and iv. Difficulty in expressing the idea (s).

i. Indecision about the message content

Deciding about what to say is the first difficulty in the communication process. Many
persons commit the mistake of trying to convey everything they know about a particular
issue or subject. Similarly, sometimes, they commit the error of conveying too few
things about a particular issue. If a message has to reach others, one has to decide what
has to be included in it and what has to be left out, how much detail has to be provided
and what order to follow. Adequate background has to be given to the receiver before
explaining something to any one to avoid confusion. Including the information that is
useful and necessary to the receiver would be desirable. Further, organizing the message
in a way that encourages its acceptance would increase its success.
ii. Lack of familiarity with the situation or the receiver

When there is knowledge about the subject that s/he is talking about and when s/he is
familiar the receiver (s), the message can be delivered very well. Delivering an effective
message is difficult if you do not know how it will be used. If you know why a message
is needed at a given situation then you can communicate successfully.

3
Familiarity with the audience for which a particular message is addressed would also
facilitate its successful transmission. If you know and understand their education, age,
status and biases then you can communicate effectively. For instance, if you know that
you are writing a report for specialists in your field, you can use technical terms that
would be easily understood by them. This would make the communication easy. If you
are addressing common people on the same subject, you have to prepare a report in a
different manner so that everybody can understand it. The sender has to understand the
experience and background of the receiver. The sender and the receiver have to be in the
same frame of reference.
iii. Emotional conflicts

When the sender has conflicting emotions about the subject or the audience, there would
be a problem in communicating. For instance, let us assume that you have been made
responsible to suggest ways to improve the functioning of your department /
organization. You find out that there is a need to reduce the number of staff and combine
some of the positions. By doing so, there is a possibility that one of your close
associate’s position would get eliminated. Personally you might be affected by the
recommendation. As a professional, you have to prepare a report recommending such an
eventuality. To overcome such situations, one has to maintain objectivity.

iv. Difficulty in expressing the ideas

We generally think that it is easy to write and speak. However, when we start writing
and/or speaking things do not come that easily. Lack of previous experience in writing or
speaking can prevent a person from developing effective messages. Limited education, a
lack of aptitude, limited vocabulary, uncertain questions about grammar, punctuation and
style might be frightening a person in preparing a message. This sort of problems can be
overcome with some effort. It is necessary to recognize the problem and take suitable
action. Regular reading and practicing can help in this regard.
C. The message is transmitted

The third step in the communication process is physical transmission of the message from
sender to receiver. How the message can be sent? Should one speak or write? What is
the appropriate means to convey the message? The forms of communication may be
verbal or non-verbal. The chapter 2 deals extensively about these forms of
communication.
D. The Receiver Gets the Message
The receiver (also known as ‘decoder) is the individual to whom the message is directed.
When the encoder’s message is picked up, the receiver tries to make sense out of it by
decoding it. This decoding is a process the receiver goes through in trying to interpret the
exact meaning of the message. If a letter is sent, the recipient has to read it before s/he
can understand it. If somebody is giving a speech, the audience have to be able hear it
and they have to pay attention. Further, the receiver (s) has to absorb the message
mentally. The message has to be understood and stored in the receiver’s mind. If

4
everything goes well, the message is interpreted correctly; the receiver assigns the same
or similar meaning to the words as the sender intended and responds in the expected way.

E. The Receiver Reacts and Provides Feedback to the Sender

Feedback is the receiver’s response to a message. It is the final link in the

communication chain. However, the feedback response involves a reversal of the
communication process so that the receiver now becomes the sender and the sender
becomes the receiver. After receiving the message, the receiver responds in some way
and signals that response to the sender. Feedback is a key element in the communication
process as it enables the sender to evaluate the effectiveness of the message. If the
receiver does not understand the meaning of the message, it can be gauged by the
feedback. This would help in refining the message. Each element in the communication
is critical for the successful completion of the entire process.

Significance
Successful communication is important for each individual and all types of organizations,
private or public. Locker states that “Communication helps organizations and the people
in them achieve their goals. The ability to write and speak well becomes increasingly
important as an individual rises in an organization”3. It has been identified that internal
and external communication are vital ingredients of organizational success. It is found
out that organizations employing positive communication policies will reap significant
competitive benefits. The corollary ‘poor communication programmes will contribute to
lost competitive edge’ is also considered true. Communication serves many purposes in
any organization. It provides a common thread for the management processes of
planning, organizing, leading and controlling. It also plays a vital role in the three
functions of administrators such as interpersonal role, decision role and informational
role. It helps in keeping the employees informed about the organization’s aims and
objectives, policies, problems and strategies.

With regard to governments, communicating with the citizens is very important. It is

necessary that successful governments maintain responsive, mutual understanding based
on two-way communication with citizens4. A democratic government must report its
activities to the citizens and effective government administration requires active citizen
participation and support. Further, governments have to ensure active cooperation of
citizens for its various programs. Citizens’ backing for the policies and programs are also
essential for the governments5. All these imply effective communication by the
government. The statement of James L Garnett in his book ‘Communicating for Results
in Government’ demonstrates the importance of straightforward communication with the
citizens:

3
Locker, Kitty, 2004, Business and Administrative Communication, McGraw Hill, ISBN: 0072964464
4
Scott M Cutlip, Allen H Center, Glen M Broom, Effective Public Relations, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle
River, NJ, 1994, p 463
5
Scott M Cutlip, op. cit, p 466

5
“Whether a government job is primarily managerial or technical, involves preparing
budgets or analyzing educational progress, or is routine or non-routine, effective
communication is crucial to solid performance. Yet communication is not important for
its own sake. As with planning, budgeting, program evaluation and other managerial
tools, communication is important because it affects people’s control over government. It
influences employee morale and productivity and permeates all facets of government.
Because government decisions and actions often affect more people and with greater
consequences, communicating in government tends to be more important and often more
difficult than communicating in business”6

In public sphere, the right to communicate is becoming significant. It may be noted that
‘The right to communicate is first recognized in Article 19 of the United Nations
Declaration of Human Rights:

Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom
to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and
ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers’.7

The Constitution of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) also recognizes the
right to communicate. Its Article 29 (2) states as follows. ‘Everyone has the right to
freedom of expression without any interference. This right shall include freedom to seek,
receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either
orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any media of his choice’. Free
flow of information, ideas and opinion is also considered essential to the functioning of a
democratic order. Article 29 (6) ‘In the interest of the free flow of information, ideas and
opinions that are essential to the functioning of a democratic order, the press shall, as an
institution, enjoy legal protection to ensure its operational independence and its capacity
to entertain diverse opinions’ focuses on this aspect.

Based on the review of research, Clampitt and Downs (1993) concluded that the benefits
of quality internal communication include:
• Improved productivity
• Reduced absenteeism
• Higher quality (of services and products)
• Increased levels of innovation
• Fewer strikes, and
• Reduced costs8

6
James L Garnett, Communicating for Results in Government, Jossey-Bass, Inc, San Francisco, 1992, p 14
cited in Scott M Cutlip, et al, op cit, p 466
7
William F. Birdsall and Merrilee Rasmussen, Citizens at the Crossroads: The Right to Communicate,
Government Information in Canada/Information gouvernementale au Canada, Number/Numéro 20
(February 2000)
8
Hargie, Owen and Dennis Tourish (eds), Handbook of Communication Audits for Organisations,
Routledge, London, 2000, p 6

6
Similarly, Tjosvold (1991) concluded that ‘Communication within and between groups is
needed for innovation in organizations. Continuous improvement occurs when people
within teams and across them are identifying issues, sharing information, influencing
each other, and putting ideas together’9. Hargie and Tourish found out that poor inter-
departmental communication generates considerable feelings of isolation and
dissatisfaction, and is in turn correlated with low levels of involvement in the decision-
making process. Thus, poor information exchange exacerbates uncertainty, increases
alienation and produces a segmented attitude to work, which is inimical to the spirit of
innovation10.
It is also suggested by Hargie and Tourish that through opening the channels of
communication, people can articulate their needs, reduce uncertainty by gaining access to
information, develop opportunities to influence the decision making process and satisfy
the fundamental human need to make a difference. They concluded that effective
communication promotes organizational cohesion and effectiveness because it answers to
people’s basic motivational impulses11.
It is claimed that the role of communications in any organization is changing. Quirke
(1995) summarized the traditional role of internal organizational communication as:
• The announcement of management conclusions
• The working of management thinking into messages which are then efficiently
distributed via communication channels
• Ensuring consistency of information and making messages easily comprehensible,
and easy to disseminate12.

Hargie and Tourish considered that such a role is primarily concerned with one-way
communications; the regulation of the behavior of employees and ensuring compliance
with centrally decreed instructions. They accept that much of it is also still necessary.
They point out that when decisions have been made centrally it is imperative that they are
disseminated widely within the organization as quickly as possible. However, they found
out that organizations are increasingly attempt to set free the creative involvement and
participation of people as well. Hence Quirke argued that additional communication
objectives should now include:
• The stimulation of thinking, participation and ideas
• The networking of know how and learning across the organization
• The involvement of all employees in improving processes
• The identification of ways of providing additional value to customers
• The expansion of what all employees believe is possible13

9
Tjosvold D, Team Organisation: An Enduring Competitive Advantage, John Wiley, New York, 1991, p
81
10
Owen and Tourish, op. cit, p 7
11
Owen and Tourish, op. cit, p 13
12
Quirke, B (1995), Internal Communication in N Hart (ed.), Strategic Public Relations, Macmillan,
Basingstoke, p. 76
13
Quirke, op cit, p 77

7
The changing role of communications is also noted by Prehn, who states that ‘In the past,
the role of communication in human society was seen essentially as to inform and
influence people. It is now being proposed that communication should be understood as a
process of social interaction through a balanced exchange of information and experience
… This shift in perception implies the predominance of dialogue over the monologue.
The aim is to achieve a system of horizontal communication based upon an equitable
distribution of resources and facilities enabling all persons to send as well as to receive
messages’14 (Prehn 1992, 258).
A recent research report entitled ‘Making a difference – Motivating People to Improve
Performance’15 has found out the views of senior executives and employees about what
aspects of the work environment motivated staff in their organizations. There was
considerable consensus between the senior executives and their staff, particularly
regarding the importance of delegation, recognition and communication. This is shown
in Box 1.

The research also sought to identify what things would be likely to ‘demotivate’ staff.
There was a high degree of consensus about the ‘demotivators’ that lower morale and
reduce performance, between staff and senior executives of both private and public
sector. ‘Poor internal communications’ was one of the most often included
‘demotivators’.

The report further found out that “Effective two-way communication drives an
understanding of both vision and values throughout an organisation, and enables

14
Prehn, O. (1992) ‘From Small Scale Utopianism to Large Scale Pragmatism. Trends and Prospects for
Community Orientated Local Radio and Television’, in J. Jankowski, O. Prehn and J. Stappers (eds.)The
People’s Voice: Local Radio and Television in Europe, London: John Libbey, cited in Pantelis Vatikiotis,
‘Communication Theory and Alternative Media’, Westminster Papers in Communication and Culture, .
1(2): 4-29.

15
Andrew Foster, Greg Parston and John Smith, Making A Difference: Motivating People to Improve
Performance, The Public Enquiry Unit, HM Treasury, London, http://www.hm-
treasury.gov.uk/Documents/Public_Spending_and_Services/Public_Services_Productivity_Panel/pss_pspp_maki
ngadifference.cfm accessed on August 7, 2005

8
employees to feedback on what works and what doesn’t in front line service delivery. All
the sites visited demonstrated a high degree of employee involvement and multi-
channeled employee communications systems in place……….. The management style is
consultative and employees are expected to participate; this was summed up as ‘listening
more than telling’. The messages given are consistent and continuous and the vehicles
used are tailored to the information needs of different groups of staff. Other research in
this area suggests that the way organizations communicate with staff is an issue which is
ripe for attention”.
The report mentioned above also compared the actual communications channels that exist
in a range of public service organizations, with staff views about their preferred methods
of communication. It demonstrates that traditional formal methods of ‘finding things out’
in organizations, such as internal newsletters or memoranda, are less preferred than face-
to-face forms of communication, such as briefings by immediate managers, or team
briefings. This underscores the importance of communications methods that allow a two-
way dialogue to take place. These results are shown in the next page.

A research report prepared by Ceri Thomas (2003) on behalf of the Welsh Local
Government Association mentions that “Communication is vital to the performance of
any organisation; it exerts a crucial influence on employees’ loyalty and the extent to

9
which they identify with their employer’s values”16. It has also found out that “Good
internal communication can help to ensure that an organization achieves its strategic
aims: that everyone is pulling in the same direction, especially when they are going
through periods of change. It can enhance performance management and workforce
motivation. Operational benefits include improved cross-departmental co-operation,
sharing good practice, eliminating duplication and reducing costs”17.

Andrews and Andrews state that communication serves three broad purposes in
organizations. They are (1) Definition (2) Control and (3) Maintenance18. First of all, the
organization has to define itself and articulate its goals. It has to say what it is and what it
tries to do. This is called as Definition of the organization.

For example, the vision and mission statements of Ministry of Revenue (MoR), Federal
Democratic Republic of Ethiopia can be considered. MoR states “Our vision is to see a
modern and effective government revenue policy and administration system that is not
exposed to corruption and delivers efficient service to the public and lays down a reliable
basis for the acceleration of the country’s social and economic development.”19 The
mission statement of the MoR, "To enable government revenue be collected by
performing revenue sector reform program continuously, laying down modern
government revenue collection and administration; raising the awareness of the public
and executing revenue laws without discrimination and giving transparent, efficient, fair
and effective service to delivery" also defines what the MoR is and what it tries to do.

Once an organization has defined itself and has communicated that definition both inside
and outside, the work of meeting the goal begins. Communication provides the means of
keeping track of all the purposeful activities so that the right people do the right work at
the right time. This management function is called control and successful
communication is central to control.

In addition to defining its business and carrying out that business, all organizations have
to maintain themselves. Every organization hires people and pay them a salary; it opens
the doors at the appointed time and close them at the chosen time; it buys computers and
printers; it cleans the washrooms and empties the dustbins. Many of these activities are
routine and unexciting. They may also seem to be far away from the activities like
manufacturing and distributing. However these maintenance functions are very much
essential for any organization to achieve its goals. Communication supports these
maintenance functions. All such activities mentioned above need communication, oral
and written, formal and informal, internal and external. The purpose of such
communication is to maintain the organization so that it can do its work and meet its
goals.

16
Ceri Thomas (2003), Talking To Ourselves: Making Internal Communication Effective-Internal
Communication In Local Authorities In Wales, Welsh Local Government Association, Cardiff, p 4
17
Ceri Thomas, op.cit, p 5
18
Andrews and Andrews, op cit, pp 6-8
19
http://www.mor.gov.et/Brief%20Profile.htm accessed on Sep 30, 2005

10
Development of communication in organizations
Communication in its different forms has been in existence in all types of organizations
right from their inception. Its importance has grown over a period of time. A review20 of
the organizational theories from the beginning of the twentieth century provides an idea
how communication has been viewed by various thinkers. It also demonstrates how
communication has come to occupy a central stage in any type of organization.

The traditional or classical model of organizations led by Frederick Taylor, Henri

Fayol and Max Weber has viewed communication as relatively unimportant. Its use was
restricted to the downward communication by the managers. Taylor wrote little about
communication. The bureaucratic theorists like Henri Fayol and Max Weber discussed
the role of communication as it flowed up and down the chain of command and noted the
restrictions placed on communication by the organizational structure. Fayol’s ‘best way’
was an innovative suggestion that direct, horizontal communication between persons of
different departments be allowed in legitimate crisis situations. If person E needed
information from person F that would arrive too late to use if obtained through formal
chain of command, person E could contact person F directly. This method of bypassing
the chain of command is known as ‘Fayol’s bridge’. The figure below displays this
Fayol’s bridge in dotted lines. The arrow marks show the direction in which the
communication would have normally flowed.

Figure: Fayol’s Bridge

B C

D E F G

----------------- Fayol's bridge

20
This section is based on Cheryl Hamilton and Cordell Parker, 1987, ‘Communicating for Results’,
Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont, California (Chapter 2: Communication in the Organizational
Setting, pp 26-43). For more details students are advised to refer to the original texts.

11
Max Weber’s ‘best way’ was to formalize the bureaucracy, which he considered the best
organization structure for the times. Some of his most enduring ideas are summarized
here:

• The policies and rules of an organization should be specified in written form. All
decisions and actions were to be put in writing, even those determined in oral
conversations.

• Managers were to ‘maintain impersonal and detached relationship’ with others in

the organization in order ‘to keep their personal feelings or concerns from biasing
their decisions’

• Since the authority of a bureaucratic organization is limited, the formal, written

rules become the legal basis of authority and control over employees.

Weber’s ideas had great influence: Weber’s bureaucratic ideal type of organization, with
its tight hierarchy, limited communication, and legal, written rules of action rapidly
became the model for governmental agencies and formal organizations

The Human Relations Model of organizations consisting of theorists such as Elton

Mayo and Chester Barnard viewed communication as relatively important. Nevertheless,
it was focused on mainly downward communication from managers to employees. The
Hawthorne studies conducted by Elton Mayo and his colleagues in Harvard University
between 1927 and 1932, substantiated the earlier findings at the Hawthorne plant that
changes in task conditions (for example, lighting) had no effect on productivity. In
addition two radical conclusions more important to organization theory were drawn:

1. Workers who are involved in a friendly, relaxed, and congenial work group
with supervisors who listen to them, are concerned about their needs, and are
supportive are more productive than other workers, even when other working
conditions are not particularly favorable.

2. Workers’ satisfaction with the social and interpersonal relationships they have
with their peers significantly influences their productivity, and workers feel
substantial pressure from their peers to conform to the norms of their work
group

Chester Barnard emphasized the importance of communication to organizational

success. He wrote that ‘The first executive function is to develop and maintain a system
of communication’. He acknowledged the existence and importance of informal
communication, pointing out that informal groups within an organization establish
individual norms and codes of conduct and provide cohesion, communication, and
satisfaction to workers. Despite the importance he placed on communication, Barnard
still viewed it much as the scientific managers did – as one-way communication to be
used by managers for command functions. He urged the use of clearly established,

12
formal communication channels and recommended that bypassing them should not be
allowed.

The Human Resources Model of organizations grew out of the criticisms and problems
of the human relations school. This school of thought felt that communication is
important for organizations. It is felt that there is no clear-cut line between the two
theories, but just a gradual changeover. While the human relationists had been concerned
with the needs of the individual, the new model focused on both increased employee
satisfaction and improved organizational decision-making. Similarly, as the human
relationists emphasized on relational communication (open, supportive and friendly), the
new model focused on both relational and command communication. A comparison
made by Raymond Miles between these two models points out that Human Relations
School emphasized that ‘sharing information with employees will increase their
satisfaction, which will improve morale and reduce resistance to authority, thus
improving productivity’. The Human Resources Model insisted that ‘Managers should
allow and encourage employee participation in routine and important decision making
situations and employee satisfaction is a by-product of improved performance’.

Douglas McGregor identified two sets of management beliefs (Theory X and Theory Y)
about human nature that significantly affect employee performance. The mangers that
believe in the Theory X model usually practice the following communication behaviors.

• Most messages flow downward from managers to subordinates. Information is

often inadequate for employee needs
• Upward communication is extremely limited (thus the informal grapevine is very
important to employees)
• Subordinates fear and distrust management
• Most decisions made by top management are based on inadequate information

On the contrary, the managers who adopt Theory Y beliefs tend to allow the following
communication behaviors.
• Messages travel up, down and across the organization
• Decision-making is spread throughout the organization. Even important decisions
involve input from members at all levels
• Since feedback is encouraged in an upward direction and management listens, no
supplemental upward system is required
• Frequent, honest interaction with employees takes place in an atmosphere of
confidence and trust
• The flow of messages downward is usually sufficient to satisfy the needs of
employees
• Decision making is based upon messages from all levels of the organization, and
thus the accuracy and quality of the decisions are improved

Rensis Likert identified four management styles known as (1) Exploitative /

authoritative (2) Benevolent / authoritative (3) Consultative and (4) Participative. While

13
the Exploitative / authoritative management style treated communication entirely formal,
Benevolent / authoritative style treated communication mostly formal. In the
Consultative management style, communication remained less formal and subordinates
had some involvement in decision making. Participative management style focused on
both formal and informal communication. The communication channels were open, both
upward and downward and participation was used to obtain results.

One of the more recent applications of the human resources model, developed and
successfully used by the Japanese is quality control circle (QCC). It is known as quality
circle (QC) to managers in the United States. Quality circles require certain
organizational climate or culture to prosper. Smeltzer and Kedia suggested that the
following characteristics are necessary in this context.
• Well developed horizontal communication between departments and flexibility
within departments
• Managers willing to listen to employees
• Managers flexible enough to allow employee participation in problem solving
• Organizations open to change
• Two-way communication where management responds to Quality Circle
suggestions within 72 hours
• Cooperation between management and the unions
• Support for QCs from top and middle management

The Systems and Contingency Models of organization comprising of theorists like Joan
Woodward, Daniel Katz and Robert Kahn, Fred Fiedler and Robert House considered the
role of communication very important in organizations. Systems theory applied to
organizations grew out of general systems theory, introduced by Ludwig von Bertalanfy.
It is stated that ‘the central principle of general systems theory rests on the idea that the
whole is more than the sum of its parts; each part must be considered as it interacts with,
changes, and is changed by every other part within the system. The parts, or subsystems,
of any given system are assumed to be interdependent, and is primarily through
communication that this interdependence is facilitated’. The systems theory
acknowledges that communication is central to the success of an organization.

Daniel Katz and Robert Kahn applied systems approach to organizations and called
organizations as ‘open systems’. The focus of an open system is communication that
flows easily in and out of the organization. On the other hand, a closed system has fixed,
static boundaries that limit the flow of communication in and out. In open organizations,
the ‘people who maintain communication with outsiders’ are referred to as boundary role
elements, or boundary spanners. They perform four important functions.
• They provide useful outside information to others in the organization (such as
changes in consumer tastes and new technical data)
• They ‘control the dissemination of information throughout their organizations’ by
storing, summarizing, interpreting and disseminating information
• They ‘protect people inside the organization from outsiders who would like to
influence their behavior’ (for example, a secretary who screens callers)

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 • They attempt to assure outsiders that the organization is striving to meet their
needs

Robert House’s path-goal theory, a type of contingency theory of organization, asserts

that the overall job satisfaction and performance levels of employees are contingent on
three things:

• The degree of satisfaction which employees gain from performing their tasks
• The ambiguity and complexity of their jobs
• The communication strategies adopted by their supervisors

The above review of a few important organization theories demonstrates that

communication has been viewed as a vital element for any organization. It also shows
that its importance is growing over a period of time.

Summary
Communication is the lifeblood of any organization in all the sectors. Behind the success
of every organization and administrator, there is effective internal and external
communication skill. In general, it is important to understand that communication since
the ancient days has been so essential for organizations to share information and develop.
Today's public sector is dynamic and ever changing. Multi directional communication is
required to bring participatory and community based development in all areas of
governmental activities.

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