INTRODUCTION

In today’s information technology era, translation has a broader and more complex
meaning than ever before. Translations in the digital era is not just about translating phrases from
a foreign language to Indonesian, but also involves more in-depth analysis, synthesis and
evaluation of data. Translator need to understand the context, culture and references associated
with the translated text and how the recipient will use the text.

In the era of information technology, translation also requires the ability to utilize digital
technology more efficiently. Translator need to be able to use apps and tools such as Google
Translate to aid translation. While these technologies are useful, translators must have advanced
analytical and creative skills to ensure that the translations they produce are as accurate and
relevant as possible.

In addition, the rapid and dynamic development of modern technology requires

translators to be adaptable. They must be able to utilize their technical skills to improve the
efficiency and quality of their translations and remain relevant and effective with new
technological developments.

The main technology that has changed the translation landscape is computer-aided
translation (CAT) tool software, which provides features such as translation memory, alignment
tools and terminology management.

Machine translation is also growing rapidly, offering speed and cost savings, albeit with
some limitations.

To remain competitive in this day and age, translators must take advantage of resources
such as the Internet and data corpora, which provide access to a wealth of information and
references.

However, this also comes with challenges regarding the reliability and trustworthiness of the
information available. Corpus matching and analysis tools help translators examine language use
in a broader context.
7.1 Translation in The Information Technology Era

Compared with the past, translation in the information technology era has a broader and
more complex meaning. Translation in the digital era is not just the process of translating phrases
from a foreign language into Indonesian; it also includes more in-depth data analysis, synthesis,
and assessment. Translators must understand the context, culture, and references associated with
the translated text as well as how the recipient will use it. In the era of information technology,
translation also requires the ability to use digital technology more efficiently. Translators should
be able to use applications and tools such as Google Translate to assist with translation.
However, although this technology can be helpful, translators must have high analytical and
creative skills to ensure that the translation results they produce are the most accurate and
relevant. Translators must also be able to adapt to the fast and dynamic technological
developments in the modern era. They must be able to utilize technological capabilities to
improve the efficiency and quality of translation and remain relevant and effective with new
technological developments.

7.2 Translation

7.2.1 Concept of Translation

The main concern in translation is with written versus spoken translation (commonly
known as interpretation), although the overlap makes a clear distinction difficult (cf. Gile
2004). More specifically, Otto Kade defines translation as 'a form of translation (in the
broadest sense) in which (a) the source language text is presented only once and cannot be
reviewed or replayed, and (b) the target language text is produced under time pressure, with
little opportunity for correction and revision' (Pade, 2011) (Pöchhacker 2009: 133, following
Kade 1968).

Around 1340, the English term "translation" was first used, derived from the Latin
"translations", meaning "to move". In the field of linguistics, translation has several
meanings:

 As an academic topic or general phenomenon (I study translation at university).

 As a product is a translated text (they publish translations of reports in Arabic).
 As a process of producing translations (translation services).
 One of the three categories of translation described by Russian-American structuralist
Roman Jakobson is "interlingual translation". The traditional configuration from source
language to target text is the most prototypical example of this category.

 Intralingual translation or 'paraphrase' - the interpretation of a verbal sign by another

sign in the same language.
 Interlingual translation or 'true translation' - the interpretation of a verbal sign by a
sign from another language.
 Intersemiotic translation or 'transmutation' - the interpretation of a verbal sign with a
sign from a non-verbal sign system.

According to this definition, semiotics is a field that investigates communication through

signs and sign systems, one of which is language. Not only verbal language can be
interpreted; for example, written text can be used for music, movies, or paintings. For
example, the Bollywood movie "Bride and Prejudice" based on Jane Austen's novel "Pride
and Prejudice" and the Jeff Wayne musical from H. G. Wells' science fiction novel "The War
of the Worlds". When we summarize or rewrite texts in the same language, such as in an
encyclopedia for children, or rearrange words in the same language, it is called intraclass
translation.

For Example:

1. Semiotics Example: (traffic signs, emojis on messages, gestures)

- Traffic Sign Symbol: Red traffic light.
- Meaning: Stop.
- Interpretation: When drivers see a red traffic light, they know that they must stop to
prevent an accident.

Emoji in Text Message:

- Symbol: Smiley face emoji.

- Meaning: Excitement or agreement.
- Interpretation: In text communication, the use of a smiley face emoji may indicate
that the sender is happy or agree with something.
2.  Legal Language to Common Language:
 - Original Text: "Any individual who violates this provision will be subject to sanctions
in accordance with applicable regulations."
- Intrabilingual Translation: "Anyone who violates this rule will be penalized in
accordance with the existing rules."
 Simplifying Language for Children:
- Original Text: "The process of photosynthesis in plants involves the conversion of
light energy into chemical energy."
- Intrabilingual Translation: “Photosynthesis is the process by which plants convert
sunlight into food.”

7.2.2 Study of Translation

In the second half of the twentieth century, research on translation as an academic

discipline only really began. Thanks to American researcher James S. Holmes living in the
Netherlands, the discipline became known in the English-speaking world as "translation
studies". Translation studies developed in four main ways. They reflect the conflict between
the practical side of professional translation and more abstract research. First, the number of
undergraduate and graduate programs dedicated to translation and interpretation increased as
the demand for translations grew. Thousands of students enroll in these programs, which
focus on training professional translators and interpreters, which are highly valued initial
qualifications in such occupations. Furthermore, conferences, books, and journals on
translation in various languages have increased in recent decades. TTR (Traduction,
terminologie, redaction, Canada) in 1988, Target (Netherlands) in 1989, Perspectives
(Denmark) in 1993, and The Translator (UK) in 1995 joined international translation studies
journals such as Babel (the Netherlands) and Meta (Canada), which first appeared in 1955.
Third, the demand for general and analytical tools such as anthologies, databases,
encyclopedias, handbooks, and introductory texts has increased as the number of publications
has increased. The number continues to increase. Finally, international organizations are also
growing. The Société française des traducteurs and its president Pierre-François Caillé (1907-
79) founded the Fédération Internationale des Traducteurs (FIT) in 1953. More and more
countries are organizing international conferences on various topics. Since the early 1980s,
translation studies have developed into one of the most vibrant and dynamic fields of
research.

7.2.3 History of Translation

This more systematic approach started to define the field of the "scientific" translation
investigation. Nida used the term "ilmu pengetahuan" in the title of his 1964 book (Toward a
Science of Translating, 1964a). Wolfram Wilss started teaching and researching the German
equivalent, Übersetzungswissenschaft, at the Universität des Saarlandes at Saarbrücken,
along with Werner Koller in Heidelberg, and the Leipzig School, where scholars like Otto
Kade and Albrecht Neubert became active (see Snell-Hornby 2006). Until then, even the
name of the emerging discipline was still undecided, as many competitors were trying to
catch up with it, such as translatology and its competitors, Translatologie in German,
Translatologie in French, and Translatologie in Spanish (e.g., VázquezAyora 1977 and the
significant contribution of Hurtado Albir 2001).
The Holmes Descriptive translation studies are a subdivision of Holmes' "pure" research,
and can be discussed in the following ways:
1. Descriptive translation studies that focus on existing translation products. This can
include a description or analysis of a single source language-target text pair - or a
comparative analysis of several target text studies of the same source text (in one or
several target language studies). These smaller studies can develop into larger translation
analyses that focus on a particular language, period, or type of text or discourse.

Example: Original Text (English):

"Step out in style with our elegant silk scarf collection. Crafted from the finest silk, these
scarves feature intricate designs and vibrant colors that add a touch of sophistication to
any outfit. Lightweight and versatile, they can be worn in various ways, making them a
perfect accessory for any occasion."
Descriptive Translation (Bahasa Indonesia):
"Tampil gaya dengan koleksi syal sutra kami yang elegan. Dibuat dari sutra terbaik, syal
ini memiliki desain yang rumit dan warna-warna cerah yang menambahkan sentuhan
 elegan pada pakaian apa pun. Ringan dan serbaguna, syal ini dapat dikenakan dengan
berbagai cara, menjadikannya aksesori yang sempurna untuk segala acara."

2. According to Holmes, function-oriented descriptive translation studies include an

explanation of "function of translations in the sociocultural state of the recipient: it is a
study of contexts than texts." Factors that can be studied include the time and place of
translations, as well as the influences involved.

Example: Translation of Technology User Guide Original Text (English):

"To set up your new smartphone, follow these simple steps: 1. Insert the SIM card, 2.
Turn on the device, 3. Follow the on-screen instructions to complete the setup process."

Function-Oriented Translation (Bahasa Indonesia):

"To set up your new smartphone, follow these simple steps: 1. Insert the SIM card, 2.
Turn on the device, 3. Follow the on-screen instructions to complete the setup process."

Function Analysis:

The purpose of this guide is to provide clear and easy-to-follow instructions for users in
Indonesia. The translation maintains simplicity and clarity, ensuring that users can easily
understand and follow the instructions.

3. Holmes's framework of process-oriented descriptive translation studies focuses on

psychology of translation, to finding out what happens in translators' minds while they
translate. Work from a cognitive perspective includes think-aloud protocols, which record
translators' verbalization of the translation process as they translate.

Example: Study Title:

"Analysis of Cognitive Processes in Song Lyrics Translation: An Applied Psychology
Approach with the Think-Aloud Protocols Method".
Research Objectives:
This study aims to identify and analyze the cognitive processes involved in translating
song lyrics from English to Indonesian, focusing on comprehension, problem-solving,
decision-making, and translation revision strategies.
Methodology:
1. Participants: Professional English-Indonesian translators with varying levels of
experience.
2. Text: A collection of song lyrics with various themes and difficulty levels.
3. Procedure: Participants will be asked to

Potential Findings:

1. Identify source text comprehension strategies, such as the use of context and
interpretation of idiomatic meanings.
2. Analyze patterns in problem solving when encountering phrases or words that are
difficult to translate.
3. Evaluation of decision making related to word equivalents, sentence structure, and
language style.
4. Discovery of the monitoring and revision process, including adjusting translations
based on the context of the whole song.

Implication:
The study is expected to provide a better understanding of the psychological aspects
of the song lyrics translation process, help improve translation quality and provide insight
for translator training in this area.

To build a general translation theory or a "restricted" partial translation theory,

research findings in Dynamic Translation Studies (DTS) can be incorporated into
theoretical branches.

1. Machine and human translation are the basis of theories limited by the medium.
These theories are further divided into further subcategories based on whether
machine or human translation works alone (automatic machine translation) or with
computer assistance to assist human translators (computer-aided translation), whether
human translation is written or spoken, and whether interpretation or oral translation
occurs simultaneously or gradually.
Example:
 a. Machine Translation: These theories study the processes and algorithms used by
machine translation systems to translate text from one language to another
automatically. For example, Google Translate uses Machine Learning and Neural
Machine Translation technologies to perform automatic translations between
different languages.
b. Human Translation: These theories focus on the mental processes and strategies
used by human translators in translating texts. It includes understanding the
source text, word decision making and sentence structure, as well as translation
revision. Studies in this theory often involve qualitative analysis of how
translators understand, translate, and revise texts.
2. These theories focus only on a few languages or specific cultural groups or language
groups. Holmes notes that the study of contrastive linguistics and stilistics is closely
related to theories limited to language (for example, about Japanese <> English
pairings).
Example:
a. Contrastive Analysis: Compares the grammatical structure, vocabulary, and
cultural conventions between Chinese and English to understand differences that
might affect the translation process.
b. Translation Strategies: Learn effective strategies in translating text from Chinese
to English and vice versa, including the use of techniques such as transliteration,
transcription, or sentence structure changes.
c. Cultural Influence: Understand the role of culture in the translation process,
including how cultural values, norms, and conventions influence the
understanding and interpretation of texts.
d. Stylistic Adjustment: Examines how to adjust language style and linguistic
expression between Chinese and English to preserve the original meaning and feel
in translation.

e. Theories about language that are limited to strings of words or phrases are
referred to as finite series theories. Morse Code is a communication system that
uses a series of dots (.) and lines (-) to represent letters, numbers, and punctuation
 marks. Each character in Morse Code is represented by a short or long
combination of dots and dashes.

Example:
The letter "A" is represented as ".-" (one dot followed by a line).
The letter "B" is represented as "-..." (one line followed by three dots).
The number "1" is represented as ".----" (one dot followed by four lines).

f. Including different genres and types of discourse, theories about limited text types
examine literary, business, and technical translations.
Example:
- Legal: Translations of contracts, court rulings, and legal documents.
Example: Translation of a business contract between two international
companies from Spanish to Chinese.
- Media: Translations of news articles, editorials, and interviews for
international websites or magazines.
- Example: Translation of news about global political events from Russian to
English.
- Arts and Culture: Translations of art reviews, literary criticism essays, and
museum tour guides.
Example: Translation of contemporary art exhibition reviews from Italian to
Japanese.

g. Time restriction is a term that refers to theories and translations that are limited to
a certain period of time.
Example:
Ancient to Modern Translation:
Julius Caesar's translation of Julius Caesar's "De Bello Gallico" (On the Gallic
Wars), originally written in Latin in the 1st century BC, into modern English. The
project involves translators who understand the language and cultural context of
classical times and have the ability to transfer the meaning and nuances of the text
into a more modern target language.
 h. Theories limited to the problem may refer to specific issues, such as equality, or
the broader question of whether there is a "universal" translation.
Example:
local government committed to ensuring the inclusion and participation of all its
citizens can translate important documents such as laws, public forms, or official
proclamations into minority languages spoken by local communities.
The project reflects efforts to ensure equal access to government information and
services for all citizens, regardless of the language they speak. It also helps in
maintaining and promoting linguistic and cultural diversity in the society.

The 'applicative' branch of Holmes' framework is concerned with application in

translation practice:

a. Translator training, teaching methods, testing techniques, curriculum design.

b. Translation aids such as dictionaries and grammar
c. Translation criticism, evaluation of translations, including assessment of
student translations and reviews of published translations.

Holmes also mentions translation policy, where he sees translation scholars advise on
translation's place in society, including what places, if any, should be occupied in the language
teaching and learning curriculum.

The study of translation itself would be the Phoenician merchants of the longer known
field. It has the potential to establish key links with some of the following disciplines:
linguistics (especially semantics, pragmatics, applied and contrastive linguistics, and cognitive
linguistics); modern languages and language studies; comparative literature; Cultural studies
(including gender and postcolonial studies); philosophy (language and meaning, including
hermeneutics, deconstruction, and ethics).

Translation studies have undergone rapid development in recent years. Previously,

translation was studied as a language learning method or as part of comparative linguistics
courses, translation "workshops", and comparative literature. However, the context has now
evolved. Initially, research consisted of related theoretical, descriptive, and applied translation
 study areas. This shows that translation studies continue to evolve and become increasingly
complex as time goes by.

7.3 Globalization

"Globalization" is a term that refers to the merging of countries around the world in different
fields, such as economic, social, political, and cultural. With the development of information
technology, the demand for international communication is increasing. Messages that are
translated from one language to another language and culture to achieve a goal are known as
localization.

Translators often perform transcreation, which is to convert advertisements into the target
language to make it more effective. This is part of broader translation work, which includes
literal translation, communicative translation, localization, trans editing, and adaptation. Clients
also often request additional services such as copywriting, brand analysis, voice overs, and
voiceovers. Communicative translation is used for product documents, while literal translation is
usually used for online display. While translation is used to translate websites and software, trans
editing, involves editing text for a specific purpose or even editing text from the source before it
is translated.

In the digital age, translation has developed into a significant industry, especially in the
field of software. The term Globalization, Internationalization, Localization, and Translation is
often used to describe these developments. Internationalization is the process of designing and
developing digital products so they can function globally. It is also involves organizing business
processes like management, marketing, and customer care to support both internationalization
and localization.

This ensures that goods are ready for localization, which means tailoring goods for specific
markets, and translation, or conversion of content to multiple languages. Innovative theoretical
work on the effects for translators and the concept of translation has been spurred by
technological advancements. One of Anthony Pym's important works, "The Moving Text:
Localization, Translation, and Distribution" (2004), addresses conventional translation problems
in contemporary contexts, such as applying translation theory to globalization. It is a
modification that changes the conventional communication model by emphasizing the creation
of various target language software versions for worldwide distribution.

In this situation, all localized versions are based on an internationalized interlingua version,
shifting the focus from a single source text to an evolving interlingua. This approach eliminates
the initial source text's primacy, focusing on the target text's functionality rather than strict
equivalence to the source text. Anthony Pym's work identifies key features that distinguish the
new phenomenon in the translation industry, particularly focusing on the complexity and scale of
the environment. In his exploration, Pym highlights how the globalization of digital products has
led to intricate processes involving multiple stages and numerous stakeholders. These processes
include:

1. Complexity: The translation industry now deals with a multifaceted environment where
translation is intertwined with localization, internationalization, and globalization. This
complexity arises from the need to manage various languages, cultural nuances, and
technical requirements simultaneously.
2. Scale: The scale of translation operations has expanded significantly due to the global
reach of digital products. This involves producing multiple target language versions of
software and continually updating these versions to keep pace with new developments,
which is a departure from the simpler source text to target text translation model.

Pym's analysis underscores that the modern translation industry must navigate these
challenges, requiring new theoretical approaches and practical strategies to effectively manage
the complexities and scale of global communication.

Size is one of Anthony Pym's most obvious distinctions. Compared to more focused
approaches, internationalization and localization usually centre on a specific professional
location. In contrast, translational equivalence deals with larger and more complex social
organization, involving differences and distinctions between different cultures. This shows the
broader and complex nature of translational equivalence compared to a more focused approach.

Anthony Pym describes localization as a process that tends to dehumanize because it

prioritizes local marketing over human cultural diversity. He points out that localization projects
are motivated by deadlines, rules, and market pressures, and often lack a thorough understanding
of the broader context. Furthermore, he emphasizes the rise of collaborative translation, or
crowdsourcing, that involves large groups of non-professional translators. Examples like the
translation of Wikipedia or Facebook show this trend, where translation efforts are distributed
across a variety of contributors rather than relying exclusively on professional translators.

With the development of global technology, the roles, relationships, and status of translators
have been significantly changed. In the modern global economy, being away from the
information superhighway is akin to nonexistence for translators. This shows how important it is
that translators have the ability to participate effectively in the growing global marketplace. Here
are some examples of the link between globalization in translation in the digital age:

1. Multilingual Digital Content:

Streaming platforms: Services like Netflix and YouTube provide content in multiple
languages using subtitles and dubbing to reach a global audience.

Company websites: International companies like Apple and Amazon translate their websites
into different languages to attract customers from different countries.

2. Literature and Media:

Books: International bestsellers such as the Harry Potter series are translated into dozens of
languages, allowing readers around the world to enjoy the story.

News articles: News media such as the BBC and Al Jazeera publish news in many languages
to reach a global audience and provide relevant information in different regions.

3. Official and Legal Documents:

International organizations: The United Nations, the European Union, and other international
organizations translate their official documents into multiple languages to ensure that important
information is accessible to all its members.

4. Education and Online Courses:

Learning platforms: Sites like Coursera and Khan Academy offer courses in multiple
languages, allowing students from different countries to access high-quality education.
 Cronin analysis the concept of "proximity" in translation exchange networks in her
investigation of the effects of information technology on translation. With email and
communication tools easily accessible, translation agencies may choose to hire translators in
distant countries with lower salaries than in Western countries. However, inequality in access to
resources means translators around the world, regardless of how close they are, never have the
opportunity to translate. It shows how technology affects access to and participation in the
translation industry, in both language and non-language work.

7.4 Localization

Localization involves taking a product and making it linguistically and culturally

appropriate to the target location (country/region and language) where it will be used and sold
(Localization Standards Industry Association 2003 (www.lisa.org)). Localization refers to the
adaptation of a product to a local target, 'a combination of sociocultural and linguistic areas
within an industrial environment' (Jiménez-Crespo 2013: 12). Localization can involve replacing
inappropriate cultural symbols and translating text, including the need to conform to specific
space constraints on the screen/page, etc. Dunne (2006: 2) makes the important point that
localization is 'a focal point in the corporate matrix', a meeting point between development and
writing (as above), sales, marketing (promotional material may need to be redesigned), legal
advice (to comply local laws) and management (related to restrictions cost).

Example of Localization:

a. E-Commerce Website: an E-Commerce site from the United States in English, meaning
payment by credit card and US dollar currency unit.
If E-Commerce is localised in Indonesia, it becomes a payment method such as local
bank transfer (BCA, Mandiri Bank), E-Wallet (OVO, GoPay), and COD (Cash on
Delivery) and the currency unit is changed to Rupiah (IDR).
b. Date Format:
United States: MM/DD/YYYY (Month/Date/Year)
Indonesia: DD/MM/YYYY (Date/Month/Year)
c. White Colour: In Indonesia, the colour white is often associated with purity or
cleanliness. However, in some East Asian cultures, such as China or Japan, the colour
white is often associated with death, sadness, or funeral rites.
 d. Subtitles in Films or TV Shows: In translated films or TV shows, subtitles can be adapted
to the local language. For example, the subtitle "Thank you" may be translated to
"Terimakasih" in Indonesia.

The LISA website differentiates between localization and translation of the main areas of
computer software explaining that Localization involves more than just the translation of text. In
addition to changing linguistic content, localization also adjusts other elements such as screen
dialogue size, colors, and character sets (especially for complex languages such as Chinese,
Korean, and Japanese) so that the appearance is correct and appropriate for the local market.
Additionally, Visuals such as taxis, telephones and buses may need to be changed to fit the local
context. For example, an image of a taxi in the United States may need to be replaced with an
image of a public transportation or taxi which is common in Indonesia. The clothing of the
people shown in the visuals also often needs to be adapted to local cultural norms. This is
important so that the image is relevant and does not offend local audiences. Financial
Conventions: Financial accounting packages may need to be adapted to local conventions such
as currency formats and tax regulations. In the business world, the term 'localization' is
sometimes used instead of 'translation', although its scope is broader. For example, one writer
was asked by a translation agency to 'localize' two sixteenth-century Spanish poems into English,
showing that localization is not only limited to software but can also be applied to literary texts.
Thus, localization is a more comprehensive process that includes various aspects of adapting
content for local markets, not just translating text from one language to another.

7.5 The Machine and The Translator

The power of computers is harnessed by the translation industry, but it is still Computer
Aided Translation. The goal of fully automated or Machine Translation (MT) remains elusive
although recent developments are increasingly promising. Scientifically, MT is very interesting
because it is an obvious application and testing ground for many concepts in computer science,
artificial intelligence, and linguistics. Several important advances in these areas have already
begun in MT.
 Martin Kay (1980/2003) discusses some of the obstacles to successful Machine
Translation including ‘words with many meanings, sentences with many grammatical structures,
uncertainty about what is meant by pronouns, and other grammatical problems. "Machine and
Translator" refers to the two components in language translation, especially in the context of
machine or automatic translation. In the modern world of translation, these two components
often work together. Machine translation can be used to provide rough translations which are
then refined and perfected by human translators to ensure accuracy and fluency. This
combination is often referred to as machine translation post-editing (MTPE), where humans
make revisions to the translation results produced by the machine.

The Machine is a system or software used to carry out translations automatically. The
most common examples are services such as Google Translate, DeepL, or Microsoft Translator.
Machine translators use technologies such as natural language processing (NLP), machine
learning algorithms, and linguistic databases to convert text from one language to another
without human intervention.

A translator is a human translator who works with text or speech to convert meaning from
one language to another. Human translators have the ability to handle cultural nuances, idioms,
context, and intonation that machine translators often cannot capture.

7.6 The History of Machine Translate

After the Second World War, Alan Turing's team invented Britain's first computer as part
of the now famous code-breaking operation at Bletchley Park. This was the first advance in real-
life Machine Translation (MT) (Hinsley and Stripp 1993). During the beginning of the Cold War
in the late 1940s, the US government spent a lot of money in a Russian-English automatic
translation system for the military. France, Japan, Britain, and the Soviet Union had smaller
programs. Because they were essentially word-based "direct replacement" systems, these first
generations systems were referred to as "direct" systems because each ST word would be
searched for and replaced by the corresponding TL term. Translation does not depend on word-
for-word substitution. MT's reputation fell drastically in the 1960s due to sharp criticism from
Yehoshua Bar-Hillel in his Report on the State of Machine Translation in the United States and
Great English (1959) and in a report published in 1966 by the Automatic Language Advisory
Committee (ALPAC). Instead, he concentrated on the more basic problems of language
processing, a field that came to be called computational linguistics.

7.7 Electronic Corpora and Translation

7.7.1 Definition of Corpus in Translation

Electronic Corpora and Translation (ECT) refers to the use of electronic corpora in
the field of translation and applied linguistics.

According to Mona Baker in her book “In Other Words: A Coursebook on

Translation” (1992), a corpus in translation is defined as “a collection of texts in the source
and target languages that can be used to empirically study language use, both of original and
translated texts”.

Meanwhile, Jeremy Munday in his book “Introducing Translation Studies” (2012)

defines a corpus in translation as “a computerized collection of translated texts that can be
automatically analyzed to identify distinctive language patterns in the translated texts and
compare them with the original texts”.

From these two opinions it can be concluded that a corpus in translation is a

collection of texts, both source texts and translated texts, which are used as data sources to
empirically analyze language use, linguistic patterns and linguistic characteristics of
translations. The corpus enables translators and researchers to find appropriate translation
strategies and produce more accurate and natural translations by using empirical data from
the texts.

7.7.2 Types of Corpus Translation

1. Parallel Corpus: This is a collection of parallel original and translated texts. With this
corpus, translators can directly compare the original and translated texts to analyze
translation patterns and strategies. For example, in a large project, the translator can
use this corpus to ensure the consistency of the translation of certain terms or phrases.
 For example: A translator is translating a novel from English into French. He uses a
parallel corpus containing the original text and its translation to ensure consistency in
the translation of key terms such as “love” to “amour” in French.
2. Comparative corpus: This corpus consists of two subcorps, namely the original text
corpus and the translated text corpus, which allows the comparison of language
features between the two languages. With this corpus, the translator can identify
differences in language style or writing conventions between the original language
and the translated language in order to adjust the translation style.
For example: A translator translates a scientific article from English to Indonesian,
using a comparative corpus, he can find the differences in sentence structure between
English and Indonesian, so that he can adjust his translation to match the writing style
in Indonesian.
3. Monolingual corpus: This corpus contains texts in only one language, both the
original and the translation. Translators can use this corpus to understand natural and
idiomatic language usage in a given context. For example, to find examples of word
or phrase usage in the appropriate context so that the translation is more accurate and
natural.
For example: A translator is translating a children’s book from English into
Indonesian. By using a monolingual Indonesian corpus, she can search for examples
of the use of phrases such as “good morning” in different contexts to produce a
translation that is appropriate for the target language and suitable for Indonesian
Children readers.

7.7.3 Benefits of electronic corpus in translation

The electronic corpus has several advantages for translation:

1. Language References: Electronic corpora provide many references to the use of the
original language and its translation, helping translators understand the context and
nuances of words.
2. Consistency: Electronic corpora allow translators to track the consistency of word
and phrase usage throughout the text, thus ensuring consistency in translation.
 3. Understanding context: Electronic corpora help translators understand the context
and cultural conventions that may have influenced word choice and sentence
structure in the source text.
4. More Accurate Translation: E-Corpore allow translators to match word and phrase
choices with examples in the corpus, resulting in more accurate translations.

A practical example of using an electronic corpus for translation is: Suppose a

translator is translating a psychology book from English to Indonesian.There are specific
terms in the text that are difficult to translate accurately. Electronic corpora allow the
translator to search for previously used translations of these terms in similar contexts.
This allows translators to ensure the consistency and accuracy of their translations.

In addition, electronic corpora can also help translators understand nuances and
contexts that may be missed in traditional translations.

7.7.4 Concordance and Corpus Tools

Concordance is a text analysis process that involves recognizing and collecting

occurrences of certain words or phrases and their contexts in a corpus or collection of texts.
The aim is to study how those words or phrases are used in various contexts to understand
their meaning and usage in the language.

In translation, concordance serves as a tool for the translator to understand how certain
words or phrases are used in the original language. It assists the translator in choosing the
appropriate words in the destination language, ensuring compatibility and accuracy of
meaning in translation.

The benefits of a concordance include helping the translator to:

1. Understand the various meanings of words or phrases in various contexts.

2. Find appropriate and consistent words in translation.
3. Improving the accuracy and acceptability of translation.
4. Identifying patterns of language use that are useful in translating texts with similar styles
or topics.

Here are some examples of popular concordance software:

 1. AntConc: Free software that is often used for text analysis and concordance. AntConc
allows searching for occurrences of a word or phrase in a corpus and analyzing the
context in which it is used.
2. WordSmith Tools: A commercial software package that provides various tools for
linguistic analysis, including concordance, word frequency analysis, and word list
generation.
3. Sketch Engine: A web-based tool that offers concordance functions and various other
corpus analysis tools. Sketch Engine is particularly useful for computational linguistics
and translation with an extensive corpus database.

The software helps translators and language researchers analyze the use of words and
phrases in various contexts, thus improving translation accuracy and quality.

7.8 Exercise

Exercise I

1. The most commonly translated languages in international business are:

a. French
b. Spain
c. English
d. Germany
2. One method to improve translation accuracy is:
a. Using synonyms
b. Avoiding idioms
c. Understand the cultural context
d. Rely on automatic translation
3. What are the main differences between translators and interpreters?
a. Translators work with written texts, interpreters with oral communication
b. Interpreters work only at conferences, translators work in all areas
c. The translator changes the meaning, the interpreter simply repeats the word
d. The interpreter only translates the official language, the translator works with all types
of text
4. Poor translation can cause:
 a. Effective communication
b. Misconceptions and conflicts
c. Increased international cooperation
d. Cost savings
5. The translator must have the ability to:
a. Memorize long texts
b. Adapts to different styles and contexts
c. Translating literally
d. Avoid the use of technology

6. A good translation should consider:

a. Cost
b. Time
c. Cultural context and original meaning
d. Personal preferences of translators
7. Globalization is increasing the demand for:
a. Monoculture
b. Single language
c. Multilingualism
d. Nationalism
8. One of the important roles of translators in international organizations is:
a. Set up a meeting schedule
b. Provide accurate translations for documents and meetings
c. Developing new technologies
d. Write an annual report
9. Film and television show translations help in:
a. Reduce content duration
b. Remove the original language
c. Introducing new cultures and perspectives to a global audience
d. Lower audio quality
10. How does translation affect digital content in an era of globalization?
 a. Restrict access to information
b. Increase the amount of local content
c. Expand the reach and understanding of content in different countries
d. Reduce internet speed

Exercise II

1. Cultural Adaptation: Translate marketing slogans from English to Indonesian, always

paying attention to cultural nuances. For example, the English slogan "Just Do It" from
Nike. Explain any changes you made to better suit the Indonesian market.
2. Date and Time Format: Convert the following dates and times from US format to
Indonesian format:
July 4, 2024, 14.30
December 25, 2024, 10:00
Explain the differences between the two formats.
3. Currency Conversion: Localize pricing tables for products that are initially priced in
USD. Provide prices in Indonesian Rupiah and explain the exchange rate used.
$29.99
$59.99
$99.99
4. Localized Content: Take the electronic device user manual in English and translate the
first two paragraphs into Indonesian. Make sure the translated content is easy to
understand and culturally relevant.
5. Idiomatic Expressions: Translate the following English idioms into Indonesian,
explaining their meaning and similar Indonesian idioms if any:
"Break the ice"
"Bite the bullet"
"Let the cat out of the bag"
6. Below is the Machine Translated text. "Artificial Intelligence is rapidly transforming
industries across the globe. It offers unprecedented opportunities for innovation but also
poses significant ethical challenges. Ensuring responsible development and deployment
of AI technologies is crucial."
7. Translate the above text into Human Translation and Compare the two translations and
discuss the differences in quality and accuracy. Text: "The early bird catches the worm.
This proverb emphasizes the importance of starting early to achieve success. Those who
wake up early and begin their tasks are more likely to achieve their goals than those who
procrastinate." Identify at least five errors and correct them and explain why machine
translation made them.
8. Text: "Rapid technological developments have changed the way we live and work.
However, they have also brought new challenges, especially in terms of privacy and
security”.
Perform post-editing to improve readability and accuracy in the text and explain the
changes you made and the reason behind it.
9. Translate a short story or article from Indonesian to English using a machine translation
tool. Then, translate it back to Indonesian using the same tool. Compare the original text
with the back translation and identify any differences.
10. Text: "Climate change is one of the most pressing issues of our time. It impacts
ecosystems, weather patterns, and human health. Immediate action is necessary to
mitigate its effects and ensure a sustainable future for generations to come". Translate the
text above into Google Translate, Microsoft Translator, DeepL. Compare the results.
Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of each tool based on accuracy, fluency, and
cultural relevance.

Exercise III

1. Define a corpus in translation according to Jeremy Munday definition.

2. Provide an example of how a translator could use a parallel corpus to ensure consistency
in translating a specific term or phrase.
3. In what scenario would a comparative corpus be more useful than a parallel corpus for a
translator?
4. How can a monolingual corpus aid in producing more natural and idiomatic translations.
5. List two benefits of using electronic corpora in translation, and explain each benefit
briefly.
 6. Suppose you are translating a legal document from English to Spanish. How could an
electronic corpus help you ensure accurate and consistent translation of legal
terminology?
7. Define the term “concordance” in the context of translation and explain its purpose.
8. Name one popular concordance software mentioned in the text, and describe its key
function.
9. Explain how concordance tools can help translators identify patterns of language use that
are useful for translating texts with similar styles or topics. Provide a specific example.
10. Give concrete examples of how you can utilize electronic corpora to compare the usage
patterns of the phrases “a lot of” and “many” in different contexts.
7.8 Summary
In the era of information technology, translation has experienced a significant
transformation influenced by globalization, localization, and the development of electronic
translation tools such as electronic corpora. Information technology makes translation easier
with digital tools that increase efficiency and accuracy, while globalization expands the need
for translation to reach international audiences. Localization involves adapting content to suit
local cultural preferences, and machine translation is becoming an important tool for human
translators although the role of humans remains crucial to maintaining quality. Electronic
corpora help improve translation quality through analysis of language patterns and context.
Overall, technology integration improves translation efficiency and quality, but the role of
humans remains critical for accuracy and cultural relevance.