Basic Concept of 4.

PRESSURE
Thermodynamics  NORMAL FORCE per unit AREA.

F Force
P= ¿
THERMODYNAMICS
A Cross−Sectional Area
 Is a science that treats of
the various N phenomena of
lbs ¿ −Pascal
¿energy
2
− psiand 2its conversion from
¿ m
one form to another or vice
versa. KINDS OF PRESSURE

 Power
1. Generation
GAUGE PRESSURE ( P g )
- Power Plants
 PRESSURE measured by a GAUGE.
 Transportation
- Kinetic
2. Energy
VACUUM PRESSURE (Pvac )
 Conversion of Electricity into
 A NEGATIVE GAUGE PRESSURE.
cooling - Refrigeration
and Air Condition
3. BAROMETRIC PRESSURE ¿
 PRESSURE measured by a
1. FORCE BAROMETER.
 A vector quantity that tends
to ATMOSPHERIC
4. ALTER the MOTION of a( PBODY.
PRESSURE ) atm
 PRESSURE near the SEA LEVEL or
Newton DATUM
2nd Law of Motion
PLANE.

5. ABSOLUTE PRESSURE ¿
 PRESSURE affected by the
BAROMETRIC PRESSURE.
net=ma
5.1 = P|¿|¿F = P¯¿+ P ¿
g

5.2 = P|¿|¿ = P¯¿−P ¿ vac

5.3 = Sometimes if P¯¿ ¿ is not

available use P¯¿=P ¿ atm

2. MASS
6. HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE ( P B )
 AMOUNT of MATTER in a BODY.
 is the PRESSURE due to the
HEIGHT & PROPERTY of FLUID.
ρ∙ g
PB =Pf =¿γh ; γ =¿
g0

General Formula:
P2 Z2
ρ∙g
3. WEIGHT ∫ dP=∫ g0
dZ
 FORCE of GRAVITY. P1 Z1

m∙ g mass ∙ Local Gravity Acceleration

W= ¿
g0 Standard Gravity Acceleration
 UNITS OF PRESSURE 7. SPECIFIC WEIGHT (γ )
 The WEIGHT of SUBSTANCE per
lbs UNIT VOLUME.
1 atm = 14.7 2
∨ psi
¿
1 atm = 760 mm HgWor torr
m∙g ρ∙g
1 atm = = =γ=
76 cm γHg =γ =
V g0V g0
1 atm = 29.92 In Hg
1 atm = 33.94 (33.90) ft H20
8. SPECIFIC VOLUME (ν)
1 atm = 1.01325 bar
 VOLUME of SUBSTANCE per UNIT
1 atm = 101325 pascal
MASS.
1 bar = 10 pascal v 1
ν= ; ν=
1 bar = 101.325 kPam ρ
1 bar = 0.101325 MPa
1 bar = 0.986923 atm 9. SPECIFIC GRAVITY (s ∙ g)
 RATIO of the SPECIFIC WEIGHT
1 Pa = 0.001 kPa of SUBSTANCE over the SPECIFIC
1 Pa = 0.000001 MPa WEIGHT of WATER REFERENCE.
νs ρs
1 kPa = 1000 Pa s ∙ g= ; s ∙ g=
ν H 20 referenc e ρH 20 reference
1 MPa = 100000 Pa
@ Standard Equation:
5. TEMPERATURE
 MEASURE of the HOTNESS and
lbs
ν H 20 reference =62.4
COLDNESS of the 3
BODY.
ft
ENGLISH kg
ν H 20UNIT:
reference =1000 3
m
Degreeν Fahrenheit kg (°F)
20 reference =1
Degree HRankine (°R)
l – ABSOLUTE
3
1000 l=1 m ; 1 kg=9.81 N EXAMPLE:
SI UNIT: A cylindrical tank 2m in diameter
and a height of 3m is filled with a
Degree Celsius (°C) kg
fluid whose density is 500 3
Degree Kelvin (°K) - ABSOLUTE m
Determine:
RELATIONSHIP OF TEMPERATURE A. V f
B. M f
9 m
°F = ¿ °C) + 32 C. ν f if g = 9.25 2
5 s
°R = 460 +¿°F D. ν f
E. s∙g of fluid
5
°C = ¿ °F - 32)
9
°K = 273 + °C Filled
6. DENSITY (ρ) with fluid
 The RATIO of MASS and the
VOLUME of SUBSTANCE.
M lbs N kg
ρ= ¿ 3
∨ 3∨ 3
V ft ¿ cm
GIVEN: 11. ENERGY CONCEPT
kg  ENERGY - The ABILITY or the
ρ=¿500
m
3 CAPACITY to do WORK.
SOLUTION:
FOR V f (1) 11.1 WORK
2  W = F ∙ d
2 πd h W =
V f =V T =π r h=
4 F Cos(θ ) ∙ d
2
π 2m 3m
V f =V T =
4
3
V f =V T =3 π m
FOR M f (2) 11.2 POTENTIAL ENERGY (PE)
Vf  ENERGY by virtue of the
ρf= ; M f =ρ f V f
Mf POSITION of the MASS.
kg 3
M f =500 3 ∙ 3 π m P2 Z2
m m∙ g
∫ dP=∫ g0
dZ
P1 Z1
m
FOR ν f if g = 9.25 2 (3)
s
kg m
500 3 ∙ 9.25 2 m∙ g
ρ ∙g m s P = Z
ν f = f =ν f = g0
g0 m
9.81 2
s CHANGE IN
FOR ν f (4)
1 1 POTENTIAL ENERGY
=
ν f = ρf kg
500 3 m∙ g
m ∆P = ¿]
3 g0
ν f = 0.002 m
12. KINETIC ENERGY (K)
FOR s∙g of fluid (5) kg
 ENERGY by virtue of the MOTION
of the MASS.
kg
500 3
ρs m
K2 V2
m
s ∙ g=
ρH 20 reference
=
kg ∫ dK=∫ g dV
1500 3 K1 V1 0
m
10. CONSERVATION OF MASS
m 2
K = V
2 g0

CHANGE IN KINETIC
ENERGY

m
13. POWER ∆K = ¿]
m1 +∆ m=m2 2 g0
 WORK per UNIT TIME.
CONTINUITY EQUATION
A 1 ν1 A 2 ν2 W F∙d d
p1 A 1 ν 1 = p2 A 2 ν 2 = PW = = ; =v
p1 p2 t t t
; if same density A 1 ν 1= A2 ν 2 PW =F ∙ v
 UNIT OF POWER SOLUTION:
lbs−ft lbs−ft ∆ u=Q−W
1 hp = 550 =33000
sec min
1 hp = 0.746 kW ¿ 746 W For W
V2 V2
BTU BTU
1 hp = 42.4 =0.71 W =∫ PdV =P∫ dV
min sec V1 V1
14. WORK NON-FLOW (w) W = P(V2 - V1)
2
BTU
V2 lb f if p = c 3 144 ¿
W = 15 2 (30 - 10)ft x 2 x
lb f
W =∫ pdV ¿W = p(V 2−V 1) ifft v = 778
V 1
c ft 2
W = 55.53 BTU W = 0

For ∆ u
CLOSED∆ u=Q−W
SYSTEM
- a SYSTEM
∆ u=30 BTU −55.53
where there
BTUis NO MASS
CROSSING the GIVEN BOUNDARY, only
the ENERGY
∆ u=−25.53 BTU
OPEN SYSTEM
1st Law of Thermodynamics: - a SYSTEM where there BOTH the
MASS and ENERGY are CROSSING the
GIVEN BOUNDARY.

Q=∆ u+W

∆ u=Q−W → 1st Law of Thermodynamics

∆ u = Internal Energy due to

molecular interaction
Q = Heat due to change in
temperature
W = Non-flow work or flow work.
By Energy Analysis:
EXAMPLE:
Q - W S = ∆ P+ ∆ K +∆ u+ ∆ ( W f )
A certain gas has a constant
pressure of 15 psia while the volume
But from definition of Enthalpy
changes from 10ft3 to 30ft3. If the
h = u +PV
heat is 30 BTU, what is the change
in internal energy? ∆ h=∆u+ ∆ ( PV )

GIVEN: General Energy Equation:

lb Q - W S = ∆ P+ ∆ K +∆ H
P = 15 psia = 2f (constant)
EXAMPLE: ¿
V1 = 10ftlb3
2 3 of steam enters the rotor blade
V2 = 30ft
sec
Q = 30 BTU ft
with a velocity of 2775 and
sec
ft
FIND: leaves with a velocity of 1175 sec .
∆u If the process is adiabatic with no
change in energy, what is the shaft
 a. SPECIFIC HEAT AT CONSTANT
VOLUME (Cv)
 The amount of INTERNAL ENERGY
needed to RAISE the
TEMPERATURE of 1lb of
substance if 1°F

C v =¿
CONSIDER: REQUIRED:
a. Adiabatic (Q = 0) WS in Hp
b. ∆ H =0 du=C v dT
u T
SOLUTION:2 2

Q - W∫ du=∫ C dT
S = ∆ P+ ∆vK +∆ H
u T
Q - W S = ∆ P+ ∆ K +∆ H
1 1
T2

∆u = ∫ C v dT
-W S = ∆ P+ ∆ K T1
C v is a function of Temperature
SinceifnoCmention
v is constant
about and
Z, for in lb mass
∆ uZ2= =mCZ1v (∆ T ¿
Assume
∆ u = mC v ( T 2−T 1 )
FOR ∆ P
mg b. SPECIFIC HEAT AT CONSTANT
∆ P=
g0 2
[ Z −Z 1 ] ∆ P=0
PRESSURE (CP)
 The AMOUNT of ENTHALPY NEEDED
FOR ∆ K to RAISE the TEMPERATURE of
1lb of substance if 1°F
mg
∆ K= [ V 2−V 12 ]
2 g0 2
lb C P =¿
2 2
sec
∆ K= [ (1175)2−(2775)2 ] ft2
ft s
2 (32.2 2 )
s dH = C P dT
lb⋅ ft 1 hp
x
∆K = -196273.2919 s lb ⋅ft u2 T2
550
FOR WS s ∫ du=∫ C v dT
-W S = ∆ P+ ∆ K u1 T1
T2
-W S = 0−¿356.86 hp
∆ H = ∫ C P dT
T1
W S = 356.86 hp C P is a function of Temperature
For m lb of mass & C p is constant
SPECIFIC HEAT ∆ H =mC p ∆ T
- The AMOUNT of HEAT NEEDED to ∆ H =mC p ( T 2−T 1 )
RAISE the TEMPERATURE of 1lb of
substance BY 1°F
 3. GAY LUSSAC'S LAW (V=C)
(Volume is Constant)
RELATIONSHIPS OF SPECIFIC HEATS
Cp P
1. K = K = Gas Ratio: P∝T = T ∝ P P = CT C=
Cv T
2. R = C p−C v R = Gas Constant
R @pt 1 @pt 2
3. C v = From: C p=k C v
k−1 P1 P2
= C = C
T1 T2
kR C
4. C p= From: C v = p
k−1 k P1 P2 P2 T2
IDEAL GAS = PERFECT GAS = =
4. EQUATION
- When MOLECULES COLLIDE OF STATE
with EACH T1 T2 P1 T1
(Ideal Gas
OTHER without DISTORTION. Law)

PV ∝ mT
PV = RmT PV = mRT

5. COMBINED GAS LAW

(PVT Relation Law)
-> Low Density
-> Follow the Ideal Gas Laws P1V 1 P2V 2
=
T1 T2
6. AVOGADRO'S LAW
IDEAL GAS LAWS
NA = Avogadro's Number
1. BOYLE'S LAW (T=C) NA = 6.022x1023
(Temperature is Constant)
7. DALTON'S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE
1 C
P∝ p= PV = C
v V PT = P A + PB + PC
PA PA
Tm = T A = TB = TC Xi=
@pt 1 @pt 2
P 1V 1 = C P 2V 2 = C Vm = V A = V B = VC ∑ P PT

P1 P 2 8. AMAGAT'S LAW
P 1V 1 = P 2V 2 = (Additive Volume Law)
V1 V2

2. CHARLES' LAW (P=C) A B C

(Pressure is Constant) VA VB VC
V
V∝T = T ∝V V = CT C= VT = V A + V B + VC
T
Pm = P A = PB = PC
@pt 1 @pt 2 Tm = T A = TB = TC
V1 V2
= C 9. JOULES =LAW
C
T1 T2
∆ u=∫ (∆ T ) ∆ u=m c v ∆T
V1 V2 T2 V2
= c v ( T 2−T 1 )
∆ u=m =
T1 T2 T1 V1
 PROCESSES APPLICABLE 4. ∆ u
TO IDEAL GAS Answer:
∆ u = mCv∆ T ∆ u = mCv(T2 - T1)
PROCESS
5. ∆ H the STATE
 MANNER of CHANGING
of SUBSTANCE. Answer:
∆ H = mCP∆ T ∆ u = mCv(T2 - T1)
1. REVERSIBLE PROCESS
 A PROCESS that CAN GO BACK to 6. Q
its ORIGINAL STATE. Answer:
If V=C If P=C
2. IRREVERSIBLE PROCESS Q = ∆ u = mCv∆ T Q = ∆ H = mCP∆ T
 PROCESS that CANNOT GO BACK to
its ORIGINAL 7. ∆s
STATE.
Answer:
3. ISENTHALPIC PROCESS d Qrev
∫ (H=C)
T
4. ADIABATIC PROCESS (Q=0)If P=C
If V=C
T2 T2
∆s = mCvln ∆s = mCPln
5. ISOMETRIC PROCESS
T 1 (V=C) T1

6. ISOTHERMAL PROCESS (T=C) Mixture of Gases and Vapor

Description
7. ISOBARIC of Mixture
PROCESS (P=C)
Consider the figure:
8. ISENTROPIC PROCESS (S=C) = PV k = C)

9. POLYTROPIC PROCESS (PVn = C)

1. PVT Relations
Answer:
P1V 1 P2V 2
PV = mRT
T1 T2

2. Wn⋅F
Answer:
V2
GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS
W =∫ PdV If P=C If V=C
 Gives
V 1
the MASS FRACTION OF
COMPONENT in the mixture APPLICABLE
P(V2 -LIQUID,
to SOLID, V 1) = 0
or GAS.
mass of icomponent wi lbi
fmi = = →
mass of mixture wm lbm
3. −∫ vdp
Where:
Answer: fmi = is the mass fraction of component i
If P=C If V=C wi = Represents the sum of the masses of
−∫ vdp=0 −∫ vdp=¿ V(P2 - P1) the i components in the mixture
VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS For the MASS FRACTION OF COMPONENT i
 Is FREQUENTLY USED to DESCRIBE
MIXTURE OF GASES. Bi M i N i Mi
fmi = = [IDEAL GAS]
∑
Bi M i ∑
N i Mi
i i
AMAGAT’S LAW (ADDITIVE VOLUME LAW)
 The TOTAL VOLUME of a MIXTURE OF
GASES is EQUAL to the SUM OF THE Converting VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS TO
VOLUMES that would be OCCUPIED BY GRAVITMETRIC ANALYSIS:
THE VARIOUS COMPONENTS each at the

( )( )
PRESSURE Pm and TEMPERATURE Tm. lb i pmolei f mi pmole i
f mi =
lb m M i lb i Mi lb m
From the above statement applying ideal
gas law
For the MOLE FRACTION OF EACH COMPONENT
P V n R Tm Va na
i:m a = a ; = = Xa
PmV m nm RT m Vm nm
Note: f mi
Where:
i = Means component Mi
Xnim = ∑ ni
( )
ni - mixture f
∑ Mmi
i
In GENERAL FORM, the MOLE FRACTION of the
i COMPONENT OF GAS MIXTURE in THERMAL ∑ Pi
EQUILIBRIUM is: From DALTON’S
i LAW OF ADDITIVE
∑ PRESSURE:
i

ni Pi Pi
Vi Pm = ; Xi = =
Xi = [ ∑ X i=1 ]
∑ ni ∑i
= Pi Pm
Vi

∑ ρi P
the∑DENSITY
i
For i
RT OF MIXTURE:
In the MOLE FRACTION of the i COMPONENT i i m
P m P
in a mixture is Xi then FOR MOLES: From PV = mRT ; = ; ρ =
RT v RT

( Xi
pmolei
pmole m )( Mi
lb i
pmolei ) = X iM i =
lb i
pmole m =
Pm
1545T m
=
PROPERTIES OF MIXTURE:
Where:
mi = is the molecular mass of component i GIBBS-DALTON PRINCIPLE

Statement:
For the EQUIVALENT MOLECULAR MASS OF The VALUE of ANY EXTENSIVE PROPERTY
MIXTURE: ∑ Xi M i of an IDEAL GAS MIXTURE is the SUM
i
of those PARTICULAR PROPERTIES that
M m = X aM a + X bM b + ⋯ each INDIVIDUAL COMPONENT would have
if it EXISTED ALONE in the
PARTICULAR VOLUME.
For SPECIFIC GAS CONSTANT OF MIXTURE:

R 1545 ft−lb
Rm = =
Mm Mm lb−° R
1.0 SPECIFIC ENTHALPY OF MIXTURE: 8.0 MOLAL SPECIFIC HEAT AT CONSTANT
VOLUME OF GAS MIXTURE:
h m = f m ha + f m hb + f m hc + ⋯ ± ∑ f m hi
± ∑ X i C vi
i
a b c
i Cv = Cv Xa + Cv Xb + Cv Xc + ⋯
m a b c

1.1 TOTAL ENTHALPY OF MIXTURE:

Also:
Hm = ∑ W i hi (a) C vm = C pm−R
2.0 SPECIFIC INTERNAL ENERGY: C pm
(b) K m =
C vm
Um = f m U a + f m U b + f m U c + ⋯ ±∑ f m Ui i (c) U m = h m−R T
a b c i

2.1 TOTAL INTERNAL ENERGY OF

MIXTURE: 9.0 ENTROPY OF MIXTURE OF i COMPONENT:

[( )]
T
C p dT Pi m

Um = ∑ W iU i Sm = ∑ hi Si +∫
o
T
−R ln o
i i T P o

3.0 SPECIFIC HEAT OF CONSTANT 10. ENTROPY OF 1 MOLE OF MIXTURE AT

PRESSURE OF MIXTURE: STANDARD STATE TEMPERATURE:

Cp = fm Cp + fm Cp + fm Cp + ⋯
m a a b b c c
±∑ f m C p
i
i i
i P[(
Pi
Sm = ∑ X i Si −R ln o
o
)]
4.0 SPECIFIC HEAT AT CONSTANT VOLUME Note:
OF MIXTURE: If Pi is in atmospheres Po = 1
If the mixture is at 1 atm, Pm = Po = 1
±∑ f m Cv
Cv = f m Cv + f m Cv + f m Cv + ⋯
m a a b b c c
i
i i

Pi Pi
= = Xi
5.0 FOR MOLAL ENTHALPY AND TOTAL Pm Po
MOLAL ENTHALPY:
Where values of:
± ∑ X i hi
h m = X a h a + X b h b + X c hc + ⋯ i
o
Si are found in table 11 & item B11
H m =∑ ni hi 11. If i components of an IDEAL GAS
i
MIXTURE are INITIALLY in INDIVIDUAL
EQUILIBRIUM STATES defined by Pi and T i 1 1

6.0 MOLAL INTERNAL ENERGY AND TOTAL The CHANGE OF ENTROPY during their
MOLAL INTERNAL ENERGY: ADIABATIC MIXING TO an EQUILIBRIUM
±∑ Xi Ui
[ ( )]
STATE is: Pi TOTAL
Um = X aU a + X bU b + X c Uc + ⋯ i ∆ S=∑ n i Ø i −Ø i −R ln AMOUNT
2

i
2
Pi 1
1

U m =∑ ni U i

∑[ ( )]
i
Pi PER MOLE
∆ S= X i Ø i −Ø i −R ln 2
MIXTURE
i
2 1
Pi
7.0 MOLAL SPECIFIC HEAT AT CONSTANT
1

PRESSURE OF GAS MIXTURE:

±∑ Xi Cp
C Pm = C p X a + C p X b + C p X c + ⋯
a b c
i
Where:
Pi = Is the partial pressure of i
2

component of the mixture

Note: For constant C p To solve for XiMi

( )
Tm X O M O = (0.217)(32) = 6.944
∆ Ø i=C p ln
2 2

Ti X CO M CO = (0.348)(28) = 9.744
1

If the component are of the same X H M H = (0.435)(2) = 0.870

2 2

temperature before and after the

mixing, ∆ Ø i=0 M m = X aM a + X bM b + ⋯ ∑ Xi M i
i

12. If the components are also at 1 Mm = 6.944 + 9.744 + 0.870

ATM PRESSURE before MIXING and P i Mm = 17.558
ATM afterwards:
∆ S=∑ [ n i (−R ln Pi ) ] TOTAL To solve for fm (Gravimetric)
i
1
AMOUNT mass of icomponent wi X i Mi
fmi = = =
mass of mixture wm ∑ X i Mi
∆ S=∑ [ X i (−R ln P i ) ] PER MOLE
f m = 6.944
1
i MIXTURE f m = 0.395
O2
17.558 O2

9.744
fm = fm = 0.555
13. THE ABSOLUTE ENTROPY Smo of a CO
17.558 CO

MOLE of MIXED GASES in STANDARD ∑f mf m = 0.870 f m = 0.050

Pi i H2
17.558 H2

STATE ( P m=Po=1 ATM ), X i =

Pm
Sm =∑ ( X i Si −X i R ln X i )
o o
= 0.395 + 0.555 + 0.050 = 1.000
i

EXAMPLE (VOLUMETRIC & GRAVIMETRIC) To solve for Pi

A mixture of gas contains moles of Pi
02, 8 Moles of CO and 10 Moles of H 2 From Pm = ∑ Pi Xi=
at 40°F and 200 psia for the ∑ Pi
mixture. Determine (a) Volumetric & Pi= X i ∑ Pi Pi = X i Pm
Gravimetric Analyses. The equivalent
molicular mass, and specific gas PO = (0.217)(200)
2
PO = 43.4 psia
2

constant (b) The partial pressure of PCO = (0.348)(200) PCO = 69.6 psia
O2 and (C) The Volume occupied V m. P H = (0.435)(200) P H = 87.0 psia
2 2

SOLUTION: To solve for Rm

For total number of moles: R 1545 ft−lb
5 + 8 + 10 = 23 Moles Rm = =
Mm Mm lb−° R
To solve for Mole fraction of each
1545 ft−lb
ni Rm = Rm = 87.994 or 88
component X i = 17.558 lb−° R
∑ ni
For Molicular mass To solve for Vm
5 of each component 1545 nO2 T m 1545(5)(40+ 460)
XO = = 0.217 Vm = = Vm =
2
23 see Item B-1 PO2 43.4 (144)
8 M O = 32 618.04ft3
X CO = = 0.348 2

23 M CO = 28
10 MH = 2 To Check:
XH = = 0.435 2
2
23 1545 nm T m 1545(23)(500)
Vm = = Vm = 616.93ft3
Pm 200(144 )
(b) the mass of each constituents THEORETICAL POWER CYCLE
(c) mols of each constituents in the
mixture and (d) Rm POWER CYCLE
 Is a cycle that OPERATES for
SOLUTION: the PURPOSE of PRODUCING WORK
or POWER.
fm
Substance fm mi i
i
mi GAS CYCLES
O2 0.32 32 0.01  Are POWER CYCLE in which the
CO2 0.44 44 0.01 WORKING SUBSTANCE IS GAS
N2 0.24 28 0.0086
CONSIDERATION IN GAS ANALYSIS:
fm 1. Heat Supplied
∑ mi
= 0.01 + 0.01 + 0.0086 = 0.0286
i

2. Heat Rejected
3. Net Work
4. Efficiency
(a) Molicular weight of mixture (M m) 5. Mean Effective Pressure
∑ Xi M i
M m = X aM a + X bM b + ⋯
i
ELEMENTS OF THERMODYNAMICS ENGINE:
1. Working Substance
Mm = 11.2 + 15.4 + 8.4 2. Source of Heat
lbs 3. Heat Sink
Mm = 35 4. Engine
mole

(b) Mass of each constituents INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

 Are engines that CONVERT HEAT
Mass of 02 ENERGY into USEFUL WORK through
X O M O = 0.35(32) = 11.2 lbs O2 the COMBUSTION OF FUEL inside
2 2
the cylinders.
Mass of CO2
X C O M CO = 0.35(44) = 15.4 lbs CO2 OTTO CYCLE (SVSV)
 THEORETICAL PROTOTYPE of the
2 2

Mass of N2 SPARK IGNITION ENGINE and was

X N M N = 0.30(28) DEVELOPED BY NICHOLAS OTTO.
= 8.4 lbs N2
2 2
 It is an IDEAL CYCLE which is
the BASIS of the ACTUAL
(c) Mols of each constituent
fm GASOLINE ENGINE
i
 It is COMPOSED of 2 CONSTANT
mi VOLUME and 2 ISENTROPIC PROCESS
Xi=
fm
∑m i

i
0.01
XO = = 0.349 = 0.35 MOLS O2
2
0.0286
0.01
X CO = = 0.349 = 0.35 MOLS CO2
0.0286
2

0.0086
XN = = 0.300 = 0.30 MOLS N2
2
0.0286

(d) Rm
R 1545 ft−lb
Rm = =
Mm Mm lb−° R
ANALYSIS: (OTTO CYCLE) 4. Cycle
1. QA = mCv(T3–T2) W net
l cycle = x 100 %
2. QR = mCv(T4–T1) QA
3. Wnet = QA–QR (Network) mC p ( T 3−T 2 )−mC v ( T 4 −T 1)
= mCv(T3–T2) - mCv(T4–T1) =
= mCv[(T3–T2)-(T4–T1)] mC p ( T 3 −T 2 )
4. Cycle (Cycle Thermal Efficiency) m kr mR
k−1
[ T 3−T 2 ] −
k−1 4
( T −T 1 )
=
W net mkR
l cycle = X 100 % [ T −T 1 ]
k −1 3
QA

=
Q A−Q R
QA
x 100 % = 1−
{[ ( T 4−T 1 )
]}
k ( T 3−T 2 )
x 100%

[ 1
]
= 1− k −1 x100%
(rk )
5. MEP

W net W net
V1 V D + CV D MEP = = =
C+1 VD V 1−V 2
rk = = = C =
V2 CV D C mC p ( T 3−T 2 )−mC v ( T 4 −T 1)
1 V 1−V 2
r k −1
DUAL COMBUSTION CYCLE/ENGINE (SVPSV)
Where:  THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE that
r k = Compression Ratio COMBINES the OTTO CYCLE and
C = Percent Clearance DIESEL CYCLE.
 Also known as LIMITED PRESSURE
5. Mean Effective Pressure (MEP) DIESEL CYCLE (SPSV)CYCLE
or MIXED
 SEILIGER or SABATH CYCLE

ANALYSIS: (DIESEL CYCLE)

1. QA = Mcp(T3–T2)
2. QR = mCv(T4–T1) ANALYSIS: (DUAL COMBUSTION CYCLE)
= mCv(T1–T4) 1. QA = Qcv + Qcp
3. Wnet = QA–QR = mcv(T3-T2) + mcp(T4-T3)
= mCp(T3–T2) - mCv(T4–T1) 2. QR = mcv(T5–T1)
3. Wnet AIR STANDARD TURBINE CYCLE
= QA-QR  OPEN SYSTEM MODELLED as CLOSED
= mcv(T3-T2) + mcp(T4-T3) – mcv(T5-T1) SYSTEM
= mcv[(T3-T2)-(T5-T1)] + mcp(T4-T3)  AIR is the WORKING MEDIUM
 IDEAL GAS ASSUMPTION are
4. Cycle APPLIED
W net
l cycle = CLOSED x 100 %
SYSTEM GAS TURBINE
QA
=

mc v
[ ( T 3−T 2 )−( T 5−T 1 ) ] +mc p ( T 4 −T 3 ) x 100 %
mc v ( T 3−T 2 ) +mc p ( T 4 −T 3 )

Note:

l cycle = 1− 1
(r k)
k−1
[ r p x ( r c k −1 )
( r p−1 ) + kr p ( r c −1 ) ]
V1
rk = Comparison Ratio =
V2
P3
rp = Pressure Ratio =
P2
V4
rc = Cut-off Ratio =
V3
BRAYTON CYCLE (SPSP)
 CONSTANT PRESSURE CYCLE named
after GEORGE BRAYTON (1830-1892)
The American Engineer who
developed it.
 Also known as JOULE CYCLE
 It is an OPEN SYSTEM but
Processes:
THERMODYNAMICALLY ANALYZE as
1-2 CLOSED
Isentropic Compression (Compressor)
SYSTEM.
2-3 Constant Pressure Heat Addition
 Application in COMMERCIAL and
3-4 MILITARY
Isentropic Expansion
AIRCRAFT. (Turbine)
4-1 Constant Pressure Heat Rejection

ANALYSIS: BRAYTON CYCLE/ AIR

STANDARD TURBINE CYCLE

1. QA = mcp(T3-T2)
2. QR = mcp(T1-T4) = -mcp(T4-T1)
3. Wnet = QA-QR
= mcp(T3-T2)-mcp(T4-T1)
= mcp[(T3-T2)-(T4-T1)]
4. Cycle Also
W net R T1
l cycle = x 100 % PV = mRT V 1=
QA P1
mc P [ ( T 3−T 2 ) −( T 4−T 1 ) ] (kJ =kN −m)
= x 100 % (0.2871 )(300 K )
mc P ( T 3−T 2 ) kg−K
V 1= V1 =
kN
100 2
W net m
5. Mep = m
3
VD 0.861
EXAMPLE (OTTO CYCLE) kg
An Engine operates on air standard
Otto Cycle. The condition at the start V1 V1
rk = ; V2 =
of compression are 27°C and 100 kPa. V2 rk
kJ
The heat added is 1840 . The
kg m
3
3
compression ratio is 8. V2 = 0.861 V 2 = 0.108 m
kg
kg
8
Determine: Process (2-3) (V=C)
a. P, V, T at each point m
3

b. Thermal Efficiency V2 = V3 = 0.108

kg
c. Pmep P1 P2 P
Given: = T 2 = T 1( 2 )
rk = 8 T1 T 2 P1
kJ
QA = 1840 1837.92 kPa
kg T 2 = 300K( ) T 2 = 5513.76K
P1 = 100 kPa 100 kPa

ALSO
QA
QA = mCv(T3–T2) T3 = +T
Cv 2
kJ
1840
kg
T3 = +5513.76K T3 =
kJ
0.7186
kg−K
8074.29K

100 kPa
Process (3-4) (PVk=C)

( )
T1 = 27 k
+273 k k
P3 V4
P3 V 3 =P4 V 4 =
300 K P4 V3
SOLUTION:
Consider Process (1-2) (PVk=C) m
3
m
3
But V4=V1 = 0.861 ; V3=V2 = 0.108
kg kg

( )
k
k k
P2 V1
P1 V 1 = P2 V 2 =
P3
P1 V2
R T3
( )
k
PV=mRT P 3= P4 = V4
V3
( )
k
V1 V1 k V3
But = rk ; P2 = P1 = P1 ( r k )
V2 V2
( kJ =kN−m )
(0.2871 )(8074.29 K )
P2 = 100 kPa ( 8 )1.4 P2 = 1837.92 kPa kg−K
P 3= 3
m
0.108
kg
b. l cycle P2 = 100 kPa ( 16 )1.4 P2 = 4850.29 kPa

l cycle = 1−
[ 1
(rk )
k −1
]
x100%
PV = mRT V 1=
R T1
P1
= 1−[
( 8 )1.4−1
1
]
x100%
V 1=(0.2871)
( kJ =kN −m)
kg−K
¿ (300 K) ¿
kN V1 =
l cycle = 56.47% 100 2
m
3
c. Pmep m
0.861
W net mC v [(T 3 – T 2)−(T 4 – T 1)] kg
MEP = =
VD V 1−V 2
V1 V1
rk = ; V2 =
V2 rk
MEP =
( kJ =kN−m )
(0.7186 )[(8074.29 K – 5513.76 K )−(8074.27 K – 300 K)]m3
kg−K
3
V 2 = 0.861 kg V 2 = 0.054
m
(0.861−0.108) 16
kg EXAMPLE
3 (DIESEL CYCLE)
m
An engine operates on a standard
kg
Diesel Cycle. The condition at the
start of compression are 27°C and
P1V 1
100kPa.
T1
=
P2V 2
2
T 2 =
P2 V 2 kJ
TheT heat supplied is 1840 T
P1 V 1 kg1 . [ ]
The Compression ratio is 16.

[ ]
3
m
Determine: (4850 kPa)(0.054 )
kg
a.T 2PVT
= at all points 3 300 K T2 =
m
b. l cycle (100 kPa)(0.861 )
kg
c. Mep
912.54K
Given:
Process kJ (2-3) (P=C)
Q P= 1840
= P
2 3 kg 4850.29 kPa
=
rk = 16
T2
V2
=
T3
V3
V 3=V 2
[ ]
T3
T2

QA
QA = Cp(T3-T2) T3 = + T2
Cp
100 kPa T1 = 27
+273 = 1840
300 K
T3 = kJ + 912.54K T3 =
SOLUTION: 1.0062
Consider Process (1-2) (PVk=C) kg−K
2741.20K

( )
k
P2 V1 V1
[ ]
k k 3 3
P1 V 1 = P2 V 2 = ; = rk m 2741.20 K m
P1 V2 V2 V3 = 0.054 V3 = 0.162
kg 912.54 K kg

( )
k
V Process (3-4) (PVk=C)
P2 = P1 1 = P1 ( r k )
k
V2
T4 = 1405.24K R T1
PV = mRT V 1=
P1
b. l cycle kJ
mC p ( T 3−T 2 )−mC v ( T 4 −T 1) (0.287 )(300 K)
kg−K m
3
l cycle = V 1= V =0.861
mC p ( T 3 −T 2 ) kJ 1
kg
100 3
= m
1.0062 ( 2741.20 K −912.54 K )−0.7186 ( 1405.24 K−300 K )
1.0062 ( 2741.20 K−912.54 K ) V V
rk = 1 ; V 2 = 1
V2 rk
l cycle = 56.84%
3
m 3
c. MEP V2 = 0.861 V m
kg 2 = 0.06
W net mC p ( T 3−T 2 )−mC v ( T 4 −T 1) kg
15
MEP = =
VD V 1−V 2

MEP =
P1V 1
T1
1.0062 ( 2741.20 K −912.54 K )−0.7186 ( 1405.24 K−300 K )
=
P2V 2
T2
T2 =
P2 V 2
P1 V 1 1
T
[ ]

[ ]
m3 EXAMPLE (DUAL CYCLE)m3
(0.861−0.054) (4431.27 kPa)( 0.06 )
kg An ideal dual cycle kg has a compression
Tratio
2 = of 15 and a cutoff3
300 K
ratio Tof2 =1.4.
m
(100 kPa)(0.861
The pressure ratio kg )
during constant
volume heat addition process is 1.1.
926.40K
The state at the beginning of
compression are 100 kPa and 27°C.
Process (2-3) (V=C)
Determine:
P2V 2 P3V 3 3
a. PVT= at all point
; V 2 = V 3 = 0.06 m
T2 l
b. T3 kg
cycle
c. MEP
T3 =
[ ]
P3
P2 2
T ;
P3
P2
= rp T 3 = [rp ]T 2

T 3 = [ 1.1 ] 926.40 T 3 = 1019.04K

P3 = rp(P2) P3 = 1.1(4431.27kPa)
P3 = 4874.4kPa

100 kPa T1 = 27
+273 = 300 Process (3-4) (P=C)
K

rk = 15 rc = 1.4 rp = 1.1 P3 = P4 = 4874.4 kPa

Process (1-2) (S=C) (PVk = C)

k
P1 V 1 = P2 V 2
k
P2
=
V1 k
;
V1
= rk ( )
T3
V3
=
T4
V4
; T4 =
[ ]
V4
T ;
V3 3
V4
V3
= rc

P1 V2 V2
T 4 = [ rc ] T 3 T 4 = [ 1.4 ] 1019.04 K

( )
V1 k
k
T 4 = 1426.66K
P2 = P1 = P1 ( r k )
V2
3
P2 = 100[ 15 ] 1.4 P2 = 4431.27kPa V 4 = rc(V3) V 4 = 1.4(0.06 m )
kg
 [ ][ ]
P4 V 4 P5V 5 P5 V 5 and hydrogen) with oxygen is a
= ; T5 = T4 process
T4 T5 P4 V 4
termed combustion, wherein new
T 5 = 1426.66 K ¿
compounds (chiefly carbon dioxide and
T 5 = 562.38K water vapor) are formed from the
reacting materials and heat is
liberated.
b. l cycle  The most important of the fuel
W net materials are the compounds of
l cycle = x 100 % carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that
QA
form the bulk of the mineral fuels,
such as peat, ignite, bituminous
Q A = mcv(T3-T2) + mcp(T4-T3)
coal, anthracite, natural gas, and
Q A = 0.7186(1019.04-926.40) + petroleum as well as their solid,
1.0062(1426.66-1019.04) liquid, and gaseous derivatives. Wood
kJ and carbonaceous agricultural wastes,
Q A = 476.72
kg such as corncobs and bagasse from
sugarcane, are of such as iron,
Q R = mcv(T5-T1) silicon, aluminum, calcium,
Q R = 0.7186(562.38-300)K magnesium, nitrogen, sulfur, sodium,
kJ and potassium, but these add nothing
Q R = 188.55
kg to the fuel value. The natural
mineral fuels are fuels solely by
kJ virtue of the hydrogen and carbon
Wnet = QA-QR Wnet = (476.72-188.55)
kg they contain.
kJ
Wnet = 288.17
kg ANALYSIS OF FUELS

W net  Two methods of analyzing solid fuels

l cycle = x 100 %
QA are in general use. One termed the
kJ ultimate analysis, consists in
288.17 determining the percentage of each
kg
l cycle = x 100 % major element present in the fuel, to
kJ
476.72 wit, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
kg
l cycle = 60.45% nitrogen, and sulfur. The other
method, in more general use, is the
proximate analysis and consists in
C. Mep determining the percentage of
W net W net moisture, volatile matter, fixed
Mep = = carbon and ash. This is an empirical
VD V 1−V 2
test, and chemists have adopted a
kJ rigid procedure that must be followed
288.17
kg for satisfactory results.
Mep = 3 Mep =
m
(0.861−0.06)
kg FORMS OF FUEL:
359.76kPa
• Commercial fuels in their natural form
FUELS or prepared form are classified as
• Solid
• By common definition, a fuel is • Liquid
 SOLID FUELS (Principal Component: 2 CLASSIFICATIONS BY GRADE
Carbon - C) • Quality determined by size
• Coal • Lignites designation, calorific value, ash, ash
• Cokes • Woods softening, temperature, and sulfur.
• Charcoal • Bagasse
• Coconut shell • Combustible waste 3 CLASSIFICATIONS BY TYPE OR VARIETY
& husk from many • Determined by the nature of the
processing original plant material and subsequent
Operations alteration thereof.

LIQUID FUELS (Principal Component: GENERAL COAL SUBDIVISION BY RANK:

Hydrocarbon - CnHm)
• Gasoline • Alcohol 1 ANTHRACITE
• Kerosine • Diesel • Is a very hard coal having a shiny
• Bunker • Other fuel oils black luster, it is non coking and has a
high percentage of fixed carbon and less
than 8 percent volatile matter. The coal
Gaseous Fuels (Principal Component: is slow to ignite unless the furnace
Hydrocarbons - CuHm) temperature is high, and it requires a
• Natural Gases • Producer Gas strong draft. Anthracite coal burns
• Methane • Ethane either without flame or with very short
• Blast Furnace Gas • Liquefied bluish flames and is desirable where
• Acetelyne Petroleum Gas smokeless combustion is essential.
• Propane (LPG)
2. SEMIANTHRACITE COAL
Coal Classification: • Occurs in small quantities in various
Three Methods of classifying coals localities of the United States and is
[Adopted in US since 1927] not used commercially as a steam coal.
The principal differences from a true
Coal anthracite are that it has less fixed
• Is a mixture of carbon, hydrogen, carbon, 8 to 14 percent volatile matter,
oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, moisture, less luster and it burns with longer and
and ash, which once existed primarily more luminous flames.
as vegetable matter.
3. SEMIBITUMINOUS COAL
1 CLASSIFICATION BY RANK: • The highest grade of bituminous coal
• Degree of metamorphism, or burns with very small amount of smoke.
progressive alteration, in the natural This is softer than the anthracites
series from lignite to anthracite. contain from 14 to 22 percent volatile
• Probably the most universally matter and has a tendency to break into
applicable method of classification, small sizes during storage or
in which coals are arranged according transportation.
to fixed carbon content and calorific
value, in BTU calculated on the 4. BITUMINOUS COAL
mineral-matter free basis. • Are "soft" have high percentages of
volatile matter, burn with long yellow
CLASSIFICATION OF COAL BY RANK: and smoky flames, and vary greatly in
• Anthracite the percentages of volatile matter,
• Bituminous moisture, ash, and sulfur.
• Sub-bituminous
• Lignite
 5. SUBBITUMINOUS COAL 1.4 OXYGEN
• Sometimes known as black lignites • All oxygen in the coal is assumed to
are low grade bituminous coal which be in combination with hydrogen as
have lost the woody structural moisture.
appearance of lignites. Subbituminous
coals disintegrate when exposed to the 1.5 NITROGEN
air and required careful attention • A small amount of nitrogen is present
during storage. in almost all coal. It produces no
harmful effects except that its weight
6 LIGNITES must be handled in the tonnage bought
• Are in the transition state between and it absorbs energy when passing
peat and the subbituminous grade of through an engine or furnace.
coal and have a woody or often a clay
like appearance, together with low 1.6 SULFUR
heat values and high moisture and high • Most coals contain some sulfur, which
ash content. can be determined only by chemical
analysis.
COAL ANALYSIS:
1.7 ASH
1. ULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF COAL: • The residue left after the sample is
• Three methods of analysis and fixed at 2000°F until there is no
reporting of heating value of coal. further loss in weight.
1. As received or as fired.
2. Dry or moisture free. 2. PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF COAL
3. Ash and moisture free or on a
combustible basis. • Separation of coal into its physical
4. Ash, moisture, and sulfur free. component
• It is made by means of chemical
ULTIMATE ANALYSIS - Percentage by balance and an oven with temperature
Weight control.
1.1 MOISTURE
• Moisture in coal exist as: 2.1 MOISTURE
1. Surface moisture – from • The determination of moisture is made
weather as in ultimate analysis.
and from washing operation.
2. Inherent moisture – 2.2 VOLATILE MATTER
Chemically • The combination of carbon, hydrogen
bound within the coal structure. and other gases which distil easily make
up the volatile matter.
1.2 TOTAL CARBON
• Total carbon is the sum of the fixed 2.3 ASH
carbon and that in the volatile • The non-combustible residue is
matter. determined as for the ultimate analysis.
Fixed Carbon - Is that which
does 2.4 FIXED CARBON
not distil easily when heated – • The percentage of fixed carbon is
It constitutes the carbon in determined by subtracting from 100 of
coke the sums of the percentages of moisture,
Volatile Matter - Is liberated volatile matter, and ash.
when coal is heated.
 3. COAL IMPURITIES LIQUEFIED - PETROLEUM GASES:
• LPG is primarily propane (C 3H8) and
• Moisture - Has no fuel value Butane (C4C10)
• Ash - Reduces the value of heating • Such gases excellent fuel for all
value of fuel and its removal from purposes but usually are more expensive
furnaces is expensive. than fuel oil because of the cost of
• Sulfur - Unless its occur in free handling and storing under pressure.
state, does not have its full heating
value. Un the sulfate form sulfur is ADVANTAGES OF LPG:
worthless as fuel. 1 Easy starting in cold weather due to
• Oxygen - Has the effect of lowering high volatility.
the heating value of fuel. 2 Greater efficiencies since the fuel
• Nitrogen - Is chemically inert and will withstand high compression.
like ash, it decreases the energy per 3 A clean engine and lubrication system
ton of coal. because the fuel does not condense in
the crankcase.
OTHER SOLID FUELS:
BY PRODUCT GASES:
1. Wood
• As a fuel is not of general BLAST FURNACE GAS
commercial importance and its use is • Is recovered from smelting operation
confined to more or less isolated in which air is forced through layers of
conditions. coke and iron ore. After filtering it
may be blended with richer gas or used
2.Coke directly in gas engine.
• is the solid residue left after the
destructive distillation of certain COKE OVEN GAS
kinds of coals. • Results from the hearting of
bituminous coal to produce coke.
3. Briquettes
• Are made from fine coal or coke by SEWER GAS
compressing the material into small • Is obtained from the fermentation and
lumps with extreme pressure. decay that occurs in sewage disposal
vats.
NATURAL GASES:
PRODUCER GASES
• Methane and Ethane [CH4 & C2H2] are • Results from the partial oxidation of
the main constituents of natural coal, coke, or peat when they are burned
gases. to destruction with an insufficient
amount of air.
Notes:
Gaseous fuels are ideal for furnace WATER OR ILLUMINATING GAS
firing for the following reasons: • Water gas is produced by blowing steam
into white hot coke or coal.
1 They contain no ash or residue.
2 They are easily mixed with oxygen PETROLEUM:
and therefore little excess air is • The natural mineral oil that exists at
needed. varying depths and in many localities on
3 They are adaptable to automatic the earth.
control.
4 They are quickly responsive to load
• It is a mixture of thousands of FUEL HANDLING AND STORAGE INTRODUCTION
hydrocarbons, each having its own
physical and chemical properties and • Fuel was been a necessity for all
molecular form. the humans but also for the industries
• Fractional distillation is the using them. It was one of the most
primary method of petroleum refining. used products that may affect
someone’s life. As the time pass by,
SPECIAL PROCESSES OF PETROLEUM humans afford to make and discover new
REFINING types of fuel. These fuels have
different characteristics that may
1. CATALYTIC CRACKING prolong its capabilities to make heat.
• Subjects oil to high pressure and
high temperature in the presence of a • Every groups of fuels have their own
catalyst. types of proper handling and storage.
These storages may differ, but they do
2. HYDROGENATION one thing in common, to store and
• Is the process of catalytic cracking protect the fuel from foreign element
in a hydrogen atmosphere whereby that may affect its ability to make
unsaturated hydrocarbons absorb a combustion heat!
hydrogen.
FUEL STORAGE
3. POLYMERIZATION
• Make use of high pressure, high • A bunker is a storage container used
temperature and a catalyst to combine for any type of fuel. It is widely
light, volatile gases into gasoline. used and easy to carry via transport
cargos and other means of
4 THERMAL CRACKING transportation. It differs in its form
• Changes heavy oils into gasoline by and kind of fuel to be stored.
use of high pressure, high temperature
and exposure time. SOLID FUEL HANDLING AND STORAGE

GASOLINES: • Solid fuels, such as coal and wood,

was been used for ages in our era.
• Is a mixture of Liquid hydrocarbons These kinds of fuels are easy to use,
which fall within specified limits. and cheaper than any other fuel. These
fuels can be found from our own
• Volatility - refers to the surroundings, making it very
percentage of fuel by volume that will accessible for everyone.
evaporate at a given temperature.
• Octane Number - is an index of the • The most common storage for solid
capacity of a gasoline to withstand fuels such as coal was called
high compression and high temperature coal bunkers. This type was used to
without spontaneous burning or maximize its lifespan and prevents
detonating. leaves, dust, water, and other
• Performance Number - Is a measure of elements that may contaminate the
the power that can be obtained from fuel.
the gasoline by supercharging as
compared to that which can be obtained HOW TO HANDLE COAL?
from iso-octane by super charging.
• Coal needs to be stored at various
stages of the preparation process and SAFE HANDLING OF PETROLEUM PRODUCTS
conveyed around the facilities. Coal
handling is part of the larger field • All petroleum products are hazardous.
of bulk material handling and is a They can cause fire or explosion. All
complex and vital part of the coal petroleum products are Technically
preparation plant. generated mists or sprays may be
flammable and able to be ignited below
• Stockpiles provide surge capacity to the Flashpoint. Fire extinguishers must
various parts of the coal is delivered be placed within 37 meters of the
with large variations in production facility.
rate of tonnes per hour stockpile is
used to allow the wash plant to be fed WHAT IF THERE’S A FIRE?
coal at lower, constant rate. A simple
stockpile is formed by machinery • Use firefighting foam or dry powder,
dumping coal into a pile, either from but only if safe to do so request
dump trucks, pushed into heaps with separate information on fire
build from conveyor booms. extinguishers: do not use water jets;
these will spread the fire
• Tunnel conveyors can be fed by
a continuous slot hopper or bunker DISPENSING LIQUID FUELS
beneath the stockpile to reclaim
material. Front end loaders and • Liquid fuel dispensing devices shall
bulldozers can be used to push the be provided with an easily accessible
coal into feeders. Sometimes front-end and clearly identified shut off device,
loaders are the only means such as a switch or circuit breaker, to
of reclaiming coal from the stockpile. shut off the power in an emergency.

LIQUID FUEL HANDLING AND STORAGE • Liquid fuel dispensing devices, such
as pumps, shall be mounted either on a
• Liquid fuels are usually collected concrete island or be otherwise
from the earth’s crust, and usually protected against collision damage.
made from fossil plants and animals.
These are categorized depending on the • Flammable liquids may be dispensed in
class of petroleum collected. the open from a tank or from other
Thus, these types were usually vehicles equipped for delivering fuel
contained and stored in tanks and pill to another vehicle only dispensing
proof bars. hoses do not exceed 7 feet in length
and
• liquid fuels not handled by pump
shall be handled and transported only • Any powered dispensing note used are
in portable containers or equivalent of the automatic closing type.
means designed for that purpose.
portable containers shall be metal, SAFETY MEASURES USED
have tight closures with screw or
spring covers and shall be equipped • In case of spillage, filler caps
with spouts or other means to allow shall be replaced, and spillage
pouring without spilling. Leaking disposed of before engines are started.
containers shall not be used. Smoking and open flames shall
be prohibited in areas used for
fueling, fuel storage or enclosed
storage of equipment containing fuel.
• Liquid fuels not handled by pump of escaping fuel gas are sufficient,
shall be handled and transported only under certain conditions, to form an
in portable containers or equivalent ignitable mixture.
means designed for that purpose.
Portable containers shall be metal, • There is only a small risk that the
have tight closures with screw or lower ignition limits will be reached
spring covers and shall be equipped in large working areas that have good
with spouts or other means to allow natural ventilation or are in the open
pouring without spilling. leaking air.
containers shall not be used.
• Leaking fuel gases may form ignitable
GASEOUS FUEL HANDLING AND STORAGE mixtures with the surrounding air and
lead to fire or explosions.
• Unlike solid and liquid fuels, gas
fuels have more complicated design GAS FUEL STORAGE
of storage containers. The special
designs are used to make sure that • Stored fuel containers shall be
these fuels won’t leak, preventing it located to minimize exposure to
to have accumulation in an area that excessive temperatures and physical
may lead to gas explosion. damage and containers shall not be
stored near exits, stairways or areas
• The tanks used for gas fuels are normally used or intended for egress.
usually pressurized and been leak Outlet valves of containers in storage
free. The pressure, acts as a preserve or transport shall be closed. relief
to adjust and compress the fuel inside valves shall connect with vapor spaces.
the tank and to store the fuel in a
well state condition. If the pressure DISPENSING GAS FUEL
at the tank decreases, the fuel will
start to move out of the tank. • When removable fuel containers are
used, the escape of fuel when
RISKS OF FLAMMABLE GASES containers are exchanged shall be
minimized by Automatic quick closing
• Acetylene, hydrogen, propane, couplings closing in both directions
propylene, and methane are all when uncoupled! in fuel lines
flammable gases referred to as fuel or closing fuel container valves and
gases. allowing engines to run until residual
fuel is exhausted. pressure relief
• Often these gases are mixed with an valve openings shall be in continuous
oxidant and provided with an ignition contact with the vapor space on top of
source, they will burn. As the the cylinder.
percentage of fuel gas increases, the
risk of fire becomes greater. COAL CLASSIFICATION

• After the concentration has exceeded The three methods of classifying coals
the upper value, the air becomes as related to power plants have been
saturated by the gas and ignition adopted as standards in the United
becomes less likely. States and Canada. In general, they are
based of rank, grade, and type or
If a container is kept inside or in a variety.
confined space, even small quantities
 Classification by Rank

Probably the most universally applicable method of classification is by rank

(See Table 1), in which coals arranged according to fixed carbon content and
calorific value, in BTU or kJ, calculated on the mineral matter-free basis. The
high-rank coals are classified according to fixed carbon on a dry basis while
the lower-rank coals are classified according to BTU or kj.
*Rounded off figures
Table 1. Classification of Coals by Rank 1

Class Group Limits of Fixed Carbons or J (Mineral

Matter-Free Basis)

1. Meta-anthracite DRY FC, 98% or more (Dry VM, 2% or less)

I. 2. Anthracite Dry FC, 92% or more and less than 98%

Anthracite (Dry VM, 8% or less and more than 2%)

3. Semianthracite Dry FC, 86% or more and less than 92%

(Dry VM, 14% or less and more than 8%)

1. Low volatile bituminous coal Dry FC, 78% or more and less than 86%
(Dry VM, 22% or less and more than 14%)

2. Medium volatile bituminous Dry FC, 69% or more and less than 78%
coal (Dry VM, 31% or less and more than 22%)

II. Dry FC, less than 69% (Dry VM, more than
Bituminous 3. High volatile A bituminous 31%); and moist J, 14.7x106 or more
coal
Moist J, 13.7x106 or more and less than
14.7x106
4. High volatile B bituminous
coal Moist J, 11.6x106 or more and less than
13.7x106

5. High volatile C bituminous

coal
1. Subbituminous A coal Moist J, 11.6x106 or more and less than
13.7x106
III.
Subbituminous 2. Subbituminous B coal Moist J, 107 or more and less than
11.6x106
3. Subbituminous C coal
Moist J, 8.8x106 or more and less than
107

1. Lignite Moist J, 8.8x106

IV.
Lignite 2. Brown Coal Moist J, 8.8x106

Legend:
FC = Fixed Carbon
 Classification by Grade

The standard for classification of coal by grade provides a symbol designation

system indicating size, BTU content, ash-softening temperature, and sulfur
content of coals. The size designation is given first in accordance with the
standard screen analysis method followed by calorific value (expressed in
hundreds of BTU per pound to the nearest hundredth), and symbols representing
ash, ash-softening temperature, and sulfur, in accordance with Table 2.
Table 2. Symbols for Grading Coal According to Ash-softening Temperature 2

Ash † Softening Temperature of Sulfur †

Ash †

Symbol %, t Inclusive Symbol °F, inclusive Symbol %, inclusive

[sic]
A4 0.0 – 4.0 F28 2800 and higher S0.7 0.0 – 0.7
A6 4.1 – 6.0 F26 2600 - 2790 S1.0 0.8 – 1.0
A8 6.1 – 8.0 F24 2400 - 2590 S1.3 1.1 – 1.3
A10 8.1 – 10.0 F22 2200 - 2390 S1.6 1.4 – 1.6
A12 10.1 – 12.0 F20 2000 - 2190 S2.0 1.7 – 2.0
A14 12.1 – 14.0 F20 minus Less than 2000 S3.0 2.1 – 3.0
A16 14.1 – 16.0
A18 16.1 – 18.0 S5.0 3.1 – 5.0
A20 18.1 – 20.0 S5.0 plus 5.1 and higher
A20 plus 20.1 and higher
Classification by Type or Variety
matter, fixed carbon, and ash. These
The types of coal are also classified constituents are expressed in
and determined by the nature of the percentage by mass, and their sum is
original plant material according to equal to 100%.
geological age and geographic source.
• Moisture - exists in two forms: 1) as
Coal Analysis inherent and 2) as free moisture. The
inherent moisture is the combined
Two methods of analysis are used to moisture held in the pores of the coal.
determine the composition of coal. It is never removed from the coal used
They are known as the proximate for power plants as removal is a costly
analysis, which determines the procedure. The free moisture is the
composition of coal by mechanical moisture present in the coal which can
processes, and the ultimate analysis, be removed. merely by exposing the coal
which separates coal into its chemical to the natural air flow or by drying
constituents by chemical processes. with the help of air flow or by drying
The analysis to be used depends with the help of air at 50°C.
largely on the use that is to be made
of the data. • Volatile Matter - consists of carbon
combined with hydrogen together with
Proximate Analysis other gas-forming constituents that are
driven off by heat. The volatile matter
In the proximate analysis of coal, as- in the coal may be combustible gases
received, four determinations are such as methane, hydrogen, carbon
usually made: moisture, volatile monoxide, and other hydrocarbons or
incombustible gases like CO2 and N2. part of hydrogen exists in the coal in
combined form with oxygen known as
• Fixed Carbon - the carbon which is inherent moisture. This inherent
not in combination with any other moisture is objectionable as it carries
element. It is not pure carbon since heat with flue gases without playing
the carbonized residue contains, in any part in combustion. Hight
addition to the ash-forming percentage of free hydrogen is always
constituents, amounts of hydrogen, desirable as it increases the heating
oxygen and nitrogen, and approximately value of the coal.
half the original sulfur content. The
percentage of fixed carbon is • Oxygen - it is always in combined
determined by subtracting from 100% form with hydrogen. Low percentage of
the sum of the percentages of oxygen is always desirable as it
moisture, volatile matter, and ash. reduces the percentage of hydrogen
available for free heating.
• Ash - exists in two forms: 1) as
fixed ash and 2) as free ash. The • Nitrogen - the percentage of nitrogen
fixed ash comes from the original in coal does not play any importance in
vegetable matter and it cannot be the combustion calculations as it has
removed from the coal before burning. no heating value. Nitrogen is
The free ash comes with the coal in chemically inert, and like ash, it
the form of coal, shade, and pyrites. decreases the energy per ton of coal.
The free ash can be reduced or removed
by mechanical processing of coal such • Sulfur - the percentage of sulfur
as washing and screening, but the present in coal varies from 0.50 to 7%.
presence of fixed ash is more or less It adds a little heating value but
unavoidable. Ash reduces the heating furnishes many undesirable
value of a fuel and its removal from characteristics. It occurs in coal as
furnaces is expensive. The ash and pyrites, sulphates, iron sulphide, and
moisture items determined in the organic sulfur compounds. The high
proximate analysis are the same as percentage of sulfur is highly
stated in the ultimate analysis. They objectionable because sulfur is
are obtained by completely burning and responsible for clinkering; slagging;
drying a sample of coal. corrosion of air preheaters,
economizers, and stacks; and air
Ultimate Analysis pollution.

This analysis expresses the • Ash - as defined under Proximate

composition of coal in percentage by Analysis.
mass of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, sulfur, and ash; and their Methods of Reporting Analysis
sum is taken as equal to 100%.
Both the proximate and ultimate
• Carbon - the percentage of carbon analyses may be expressed in terms of
plays the most important role in the
selection of coal for thermal power 1. "Fuel as-received" or fuel as-fired
plant. Higher percentage of carbon 2. "Fuel as moisture-free" or dry fuel
gives high heat value and reduces the 3. "Fuel as moisture and ash free" or
size of combustion chamber required. combustible
4. "Fuel as moisture, ash, and sulfur
• Hydrogen - it is always assumed that free"
 LIQUID FUELS indirectly from crude petroleum
3. Crude petroleums and weathered crude
NATURAL LIQUID FUELS petroleums of relatively low commercial
value
Crude Petroleum 4. Blended fuels which are mixtures of
two or more of the preceding classes.
Crude oil or petroleum is a naturally
occurring mixture of hydrocarbons, The different grades of fuel oil are
liquid at ordinary pressure but classified generally on the basis of
generally containing dissolved gaseous distillation range. The different
hydrocarbons which are liberated and grades of commercial fuel oil are as
collected when the fluid is brought to follows:
the surface of the earth.
Grade No. 1 - a distillate oil intended
A barrel of crude petroleum contains for vaporizing pot-type burners and
42 gallons (159 L) of oil, which when other burners requiring this grade of
refined yields, on an average, 18.8 fuel.
gallons (71.2 L) of gasoline, 9.3 Grade No. 2 - A distillate oil for
gallons (35.2 L) of gas oil and general-purpose domestic heating in
distillate, 3.2 (12.1 L) of jet fuel, burners not requiring No. 1 fuel oil.
3.2 gallons (12.1 L) of residual fuel Grade No. 4 - an oil for burner
oil, 1.2 gallons (4.5 L) of kerosene, installations not equipped with
and 6.3 gallons (23.9 L) of other preheating facilities.
products, such as lubricating oil, Grade No. 5 - a residual-type oil such
asphalt, coke, and liquefied gases. as Bunker B and C for burner
installations equipped with preheating
PREPARED OR MANUFACTURED LIQUID FUELS facilities.
Grade No. 6 - an oil such as Bunker B
Fuel Oil and C for burners equipped with
permitting a high viscosity fuel.
Fuel oil is a mixture of liquid
hydrocarbons produced as a by-product ADVANTAGES OF FUEL OIL AS FUEL FOR
of the refining of petroleum and the BOILER FURNACES
type of refining process. Fuel oil,
like the crude oil from which they are 1. Reduction in the cost of fuel
obtained, consists mainly of carbon handling and storage facilities.
and hydrogen with varying amounts of 2. Heat value of fuel oil is much
moisture, sulfur, nitrogen, arsenic, higher than that of a high grade coal
phosphorus, and silt. The moisture on the basis of energy content, kJ/kg
content caries from 1 to 30% and or BTU/lb.
affects the heat value of the fuel. 3. Reduction of labor and equipment
needed for fuel firing.
The four classes of commonly used fuel 4. There is no problem of dust and ash
oil are as follows: disposal.
5. There is greater flexibility of
1. Residual oils which are topped operation.
crude petroleums or viscous resideums 6. Reduced cost of maintenance.
obtained in refinery operations 7. Higher combustion efficiency may be
2. Distillate fuel oils which are attained due to thorough mixing of air
distillates derived directly or and fuel oil.
 DISADVANTAGES OF FUEL OIL HHV
35011 kJ/kg (20620 BTU/lb)
1. There is danger of explosions.
2. High maintenance cost of furnace Distillation Range
refractories when furnaces are not 37.8-205°C (100-400°F)
properly designed for oil burning.
3. There is an element of uncertainty Octane Number
over the prices and supply of fuel 87-96 (Minimum)
oil.
4. In cold climates the oil in the Sulfur
storage tanks should be heated in Less than 0.30%
order to prevent the stoppage of oil
flow. KEROSENE

GASOLINE Kerosene is a refined petroleum product

distilled from the fraction of normal
Gasoline is a volatile and inflammable crude oil boiling between approximate
mixture of liquid hydrocarbons derived temperature limits of 180 and 320°C. It
from crude petroleum by fractional is less volatile and is obtained by
distillation, catalytic or thermal continuing the distillation of crude
cracking, and by other processes. It oil after gasoline has been recovered.
is also produced from natural gas by
compression and cooling, but now this The general properties of kerosene are
extraction method from natural gas has as follows:
been superseded by absorption and
distillation. Gasoline obtained from API Gravity
natural gas is so volatile that it 50-35 degrees at 15.6°C (60°F)
cannot be used alone, so that blending
with a less volatile product is Specific Gravity
necessary before it can be marketed as 0.78-0.85 at 15.6°C/15.6°C (60°F/60°F)
a commercial gasoline. Chemically,
gasoline contains more than 120 Flash Point
individual hydrocarbons which include 37.8-71.1°C (100-160°F)
paraffins, olefins, naphthenes, and
aromatics depending on the nature of HHV
crude oil and gas. Commercial gasoline 45123-46983 kJ/kg (19400-20200 BTU/lb)
(C8H18) used as a fuel for internal
combustion engines has a chemical Distillation Range
composition of about 85% carbon and 93.3-315.6°C (200-600°F)
15% hydrogen by weight.
Most kerosene is used for illuminating
The general properties of gasoline are purposes or as fuel in wick-fed
as follows: burners. At present it is primarily
employed as a fuel in heaters, cooking,
API Gravity and farm equipment and as a component
54-72 degrees at 15.6°C (60°F) of jet fuels.

Specific Gravity ALCOHOL

0.70-0.76 at 15.6°C/15.6°C (60°F/60°F)
Alcohol is used widely as a fuel in
Flash Point
countries having no petroleum COAL TAR AND TAR OIL
resources, but having, instead,
abundant plant and vegetable materials Coal tar is a product of the
that can be processed. Central destructive distillation of bituminous
America, Cuba and the Philippines are coal carried out on high temperature. A
producers of these materials. typical composition of tar is C, 86.7%;
H2, 6.0%; N2, 0.1%; S, 0.8%; O2, 3.1%;
The four kind of alcohol that can be ash, 0.1%; and water, 3.2%. The black
used as fuels are color is due to free carbon in
suspension (about 4%).
1. Ethyl (grain) alcohol, C2H5OH
2. Methyl (wood) alcohol, CH3OH The high heating value equals 37 925
3. Butyl alcohol, C4H10O kJ/kg. The viscosity is about 140
4. Propyl alcohol, C3H8O Saybolt seconds at 60°C. Coal tar
weighs 1.14 kg/L. This analysis shows
However, ethyl alcohol (or ethanol) tar to have almost the same chemical
and methyl alcohol (or methanol) are composition as the combustible matter
the most common alcohols considered as of the coal from which it is made. Tar
fuels for internal combustion engines. is used principally in reheating
Ethanol is obtained primarily by furnaces and open-heart furnaces of
distillation of fermented sugar steel works. It is not easily
solutions or by fermenting any starchy obtainable in the open market. Since it
materials. Grains such as corn, is a by-product, its price is more or
sorghum, sugarcane, potatoes, and less arbitrary.
other farm plants are good sources of
ethyl alcohol. DEFINITION OF TERMS AS APPLIED TO
LIQUID FUELS
Ethyl alcohol has been used for many
years as a motor fuel when blended • Aniline Cloud Point - measure of the
with gasoline. Five to 25% of paraffinicity of a fuel oil. A high
anhydrous alcohol is used in value indicates a straight-run
commercial blends. The specific paraffinic oil and a low value
gravity and higher heating value of indicates an aromatic, naphthenic, or a
methanol are 0.797 at 15.6°C/15.6°C highly cracked oil.
(60°F/60°F) and 29795 kJ/kg (12810
BTU/lb), respectively. • Aniline Point - the temperature where
equal parts of oil and aniline (a coal
Methanol, formerly obtained from tar derivative) will dissolve each
distillation of wood, or material other.
containing cellulose, is now made
almost entirely from carbon monoxide • Cetane Number - the percentage of
and hydrogen. The specific gravity and cetane in a mixture of cetane (C 16H34)
higher heating value of methanol are and alpha-methylnapthalene (C11H10) which
0.797 at 15.6°C/15.6°C (60°F/60°F) and will give the same ignition quality as
22329 kJ/kg (9600 BTU/lb), the fuel oil under test is called the
respectively. It is occasionally used cetane number. Thus, a fuel with cetane
in special fuel blends. Alcohol has number 45 has the same ignition quality
good antiknock properties; its octane as a mixture of 45% of C16H34 and 55% of
number ranges from 98 to 100. C11H10. The recommended minimum cetane
numbers are 25-35 for low-speed, 35-45
for medium-speed, and 45-50 for high-
• Cloud Point - the temperature at lag or delay. Good ignition quality as
which a solution becomes cloudy represented by high Cetane Number,
because wax or other solid begins to minimizes the delay period and the
separate or crystallize from it. It is tendency of the engine to knock.
also the temperature at which the
paraffin elements separate from oil. Octane Number

• Diesel Index - one of the methods The octane number of a gasoline is the
extensively employed in measuring and percentage by volume of iso-octane in a
controlling the ignition quality in a mixture of isooctane (C8H18) and normal
fuel. The higher the diesel index, the heptane (C7H16) which produces the same
better the ignition quality of the knock intensity as the given fuel. Thus,
fuel. Diesel index is expressed as a mixture of 70% octane and 30% heptane
follows: has an octane number of 70. It has been
established that pure isooctane is
Diesel Index = practically free from knock, whereas
API gravity x Aniline cloud point pure heptane knocks worse than any known
100 gasoline. The greater the octane number,
the better is the antiknocking property
• Fire Point - the lowest temperature of the gasoline.
of a liquid fuel oil in an open
container at which oil gives off vapor Pour Point
that burns continuously when ignited.
The minimum temperature at which fuel
• Flash Point of Fuel Oil - the oil will not flow freely under specified
temperature at which the vapor will conditions.
flash when exposed to flame. It is of
little value except as a rough Specific Gravity
indication of the volatility of an
oil. The ratio of the weight of any volume
oil at 60°F (15.6°C) to the weight of an
Ignition Quality equal volume of pure water at 60°F
(15.6°C). The API gravity of pure water
This is one of the most important at 60°F (15.6°C) is 10°. The range of
characteristics of fuel oil. It API for fuel oil is approximately from
measures the ability of fuel oil to 10 to 40° API.

[ ]
ignite spontaneously and promptly in 141.5
−131.5
the combustion chamber after °API = S . G .at 60 ° F
injection, thus ensuring a progressive 60 ° F
smooth burning and easy starting. It OR

[ ]
is believed that combustion knock in 141.5
compression-ignition engine is caused −131.5
°API = S . G .at
15.6 ° C
by delay in ignition during the first
15.6 ° C
part of the injection, causing
accumulation of fuel which burns

[ ]
simultaneously with the fuel injected 140
−130
during the latter part of the °Bé = S . G .at 60 ° F
injection. Such a situation occurs 60 ° F
because of an injection lag in the OR

[ ]
combustion of the fuel between the
140
time of injection and the actual −130
°Bé = S . G .at 15.6 ° C
15.6 ° C
Viscosity with richer gas or used directly in gas
engines. In blast-furnace operations a
The internal resistance of a fluid to gas is derived from the various
flow, usually expressed in a viscosity reactions occurring throughout the
index Saybolt Seconds Universal (SSU). furnace. The principal combustible
It is determined by measuring the time constituent is carbon monoxide (CO)
in seconds required for a standard resulting from the partial combustion
quantity of oil (60 cc) to flow of coke.
through the orifice of the Saybolt
viscosimeter at a standard The gas contains relatively high
temperature. Another viscosity index percentages of inert gases. A typical
is Saybolt Seconds Furol (SSF). composition percentage of the gas is
Viscosity is an important indicator of CO2, 11.5%; H2, 1.0%; CO, 27.5%; and N2,
how readily the oil will atomize and 60.0%; with a gross calorific value of
how it will affect the injection pump. 3428 kJ/m3 (92 Btu/ft3). Calorific value
ranges from 3354 to 4099 kJ/m3 (90-110
Viscosity Index Btu/ft3).

The relative change in viscosity of an • By-product coke-oven - gas is a by-

oil for a given product in the manufacture of coal.
temperature change. Instead of burning the gaseous
distillate at its point of origin, as
Volatility in a beehive or retort coke-oven, it is
conducted through suitable apparatus
the percentage of fuel by volume that and cooled, yielding tar, ammonia,
will evaporate at a given temperature. illuminating and fuel gas.

GASEOUS FUELS This is gas produced by the

distillation of bituminous coal. A
Natural Gaseous Fuels typical coke- oven gas has the
percentage composition of CO 2, 2.2%;
Natural Gas C2H4, 3.5%; C6H6, 0.5%; O2, 0.8%; CO,
6.3%; H2, 46.5%; CH4, 32.1%; and N2,
Natural gas is the only gas of 8.1%. It has a gross calorific value of
commercial importance as a fuel for 21 390 kJ/m3 (574 Btu/ft3).
steam generation. It is a product of
nature and is composed primarily of A certain portion of the gas is burned
carbon and hydrogen in varying in the oven, and the remainder is
proportions with small quantities of available for fuel or illuminating
nitrogen, oxygen, and occasionally purposes. This gas resembles natural
sulfur. Methane (CH4) and ethane gas more closely than does blast-
(C2H6) are the main constituents of furnace gas.
natural gas.
• Blue gas or water gas - is produced
Prepared or Manufactured Gaseous Fuels by alternately blasting an incandescent
fuel bed with air and with steam. The
• Blast-Furnace Gas - is recovered gases produced during the air blast,
from smelting operations in which air containing the nitrogen admitted with
is forced through layers of coke and the air, are discharged to the
iron ore. After filtering, it may be atmosphere, while the gases generated
blended during the steam blast provide the
useful fuel gas. Depending on the HEATING VALUE OF FUELS
character of the fuel, calorific value
of blue gas ranges from 10 621 to 12 The heating value or calorific value of
484 kJ/m3 (285 to 335 Btu/ft3). A fuel (see Table 5) is defined as the
typical blue gas produced from coke amount of heat energy liberated or
has a percentage composition of CO 2, released by the complete combustion of
5.4%; O2, 0.7%; CO, 37.0%; H2, 47.3%; a unit mass or volume of a fuel and
CH4, 1.3%; and N2, 8.3%. The gross when the products of combustion are
calorific value is 10 695 kJ/m (287 cooled to the original temperature of
Btu/ft3). the fuel. For solid and liquid fuels,
the heating value is expressed in
• Producer Gas - is a mechanical kJ/kg, kcal/kg, or Btu/lb; for gaseous
mixture of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, fuels, in kJ/m3, kcal/m3, or Btu/ft3.
nitrogen, and small amounts of Fuels which contain hydrogen have two
methane, ethylene, oxygen, and carbon heating values; the higher heating
dioxide. It is obtained from the value is designated as HHV, and the
incomplete combustion of anthracite lower heating value is designated as
coal, bituminous coal, coke or peat, LHV.
and also from briquettes of anthracite
slack and lignite. The higher heating value of a fuel is
the amount of heat liberated per
The typical percentage compositions of kilogram or pound of fuel as indicated
producer gas are as follows: by a constant-volume calorimeter (Bomb
calorimeter) in which the steam
With anthracite coal, CO2, 8.0%; O2, produced is condensed and the heat of
0.1%; CO, 23.2%; H2, 17.7%; CH4, 1.0%; vapor is recovered. The heating value
and N2, 50%. The gross calorific value of a fuel may be found by calculation
is 5329 kJ/m3 (143 Btu/ft3). using empirical formula as well as by
the use of a calorimeter and is
With bituminous coal, CO2, 4.5%; O2, designated as HHV.
0.6%; CO, 27.0%; H2, 14.0%; CH4, 3.0%;
and N2, 50.9%. The gross calorific The lower heating value of a fuel is
value is 6074 kJ/m3 (163 Btu/ft3). found by deducting from the higher
heating value the heat needed to
With coke, CO2, 6.4%; CO, 27.1%; H2, vaporize the mechanical moisture and
13.3%; CH4, 0.4%; and N2, 52.8%. The the moisture formed when a fuel burns
gross calorific value is 5031 kJ/m 3 and is designated as LHV.
(135 Btu/ft3).
Heating Value of Solid Fuels
Gaseous fuels are ideal for furnace
firing for the following reasons: The heating value of solid fuels may be
determined by the following
1. Contain no ash or residue methods:
2. Easily mixed with oxygen, and
therefore little excess air is needed 1. By the use of oxygen bomb fuel
3. Adaptable to automatic controls calorimeter (most accurate values)
4. Quickly respond to load demands, 2. By computation based on the ultimate
thereby reducing standby losses analysis of the solid fuels
5. High thermal efficiency of 3. By computation using proximate
utilization. analysis.
Dulong's formula is the generally 1050 = Latent heat of water vapor,
accepted formula for calculating the BTU/lb fuel
heating value of coal. It is based on the W = 9H, lb water vapor/lb fuel
assumption that all the oxygen in the H = Mass of hydrogen, lb per lb fuel
fuel, and enough hydrogen to unite with
it, are inert in the form of water and The heating value of coal may also be
that the remainder of the hydrogen and expressed in SI or metric units based on
all of the carbon and sulfur are Dulong's formula,
available for oxidation.
O
HHV = 33830C + 144270 (H - )
Dulong's Formula: 8
+ 9420S kJ/kg
O LHV = HHV – 2442W kJ/kg
HHV = 14600C + 62000 (H - ) + 4000S
8
BTU/lb OR

Where: O
HHV = 8080C + 34460 (H - )
HHV = Higher (gross) heating value, 8
BTU/lb + 2250S kcal/kg
C = Mass of carbon per pound of fuel, lb LHV = HHV – 583W kcal/kg
H = Mass of hydrogen per pound of fuel,
lb Where:
O = Mass of oxygen per pound of fuel, lb W = 9H, kg water vapor/kg fuel
S = Mass of sulfur per pound of fuel, lb H = Mass of hydrogen, kg per kg fuel
2442 = Latent heat of water vapor, kJ/kg
NOTE vapor
583 Latent heat of water vapor, kcal/kg
The percentages of the combustibles are vapor
based on the ultimate analysis of coal.
Part of the hydrogen in coal is assumed NOTE
to be in combination with the oxygen in
the coal. The hydrogen available for The heating value of coal may also be
producing heat is therefore the actual calculated by proximate analysis using
hydrogen minus that already combined with the formula found on Table 4, page 21 of
Oxygen to form water. This of hydrogen this book.
combined with which Oxygen is available
not for combustion is equal to one-eighth Heating Value of Liquid Fuels
of the mass of oxygen present in the
coal. The available or free hydrogen is The heating value of liquid fuels may be
equal to determined by the following methods:
O
(H - ).
8 1. Using the oxygen bomb calorimeter.
The true heating value of liquid fuels
In this book, Dulong's formula as stated can be found by direct calorimeter
in the fuel bulletins of U.S. Geological measurements.
Survey and the Bureau of Mines is used 2. Using the general chemical reaction
for calculating the heating value of equation involving the total enthalpies
coal. Dulong's formula is stated as of reactants and products of combustion.
follows: 3. Using an empirical formula based on
specific gravity of the fuel which gives
O approximate values only.
HHV = 14544C + 62028 (H - ) + 4050S
8
 Other Suggested Empirical Formulas

ASME Formula Sherman and Kropff Formula for Fuel Oil

HHV = 17680 + 60 x °API BTU/lb HHV = 18250 + 40 x (°Bé -10) BTU/lb

HHV = 41122 + 139.6 x °API kJ/kg HHV = 18250 + 40 x (-10) kJ/kg
HHV = 9822 + 33.33 x °API kcal/kg HHV = 18250 + 40 x (-10) kcal/kg

Bureau of Standards Formula for all J.N. Le Conte Formula for Anhydrous
Petroleum Products Crude Oils

HHV = 22230 - 3780 x (S.G)2 BTU/lb HHV = 17680 + 60 x °Bé BTU/lb

HHV = 51705 - 8792 x (S.G)2 kJ/kg HHV = 41122 + 139.6 x °Bé kJ/kg
HHV = 12350 - 2100 x (S.G)2 kcal/kg HHV = 9822 + 33.33 x °Bé kcal/kg

Heating Value of Gaseous Fuels

The heating value of gaseous fuels may be determined by the following

methods:

1. Using the constant-pressure steady flow gas calorimeter commonly known as

Junker gas calorimeter. The heating value thus obtained is the higher heating
value and the only one used in steam boiler practice.
2. Using the general chemical reaction equation involving the total enthalpies
of reactants and products of combustion.
3. The heating value of the gaseous fuels may also be calculated by adding the
product of each constituent volume (as a decimal) and its individual volumetric
heating value expressed in kJ/m3 or Btu/ft 3. This method requires knowledge of
the character, amount, and heating value of the component gas. The standard
volumetric heating values of various gases may be found on Table 3.

Table 3. Volumetric heating value of various gases 3

Gas Symbol BTU/ft3 (kJ/m3)a

Hydrogen H2 325 — 349 12111 — 13005
Carbon Monoxide CO 318 — 347 11850 — 12931
Methane CH4 992 — 1053 36967 — 39240
Acetylene C 2H 2 1460 — 1556 54407 — 57984
Ethylene C 2H 4 1573 — 1675 58618 — 62419
Ethane C 2H 6 1735 — 1862 64655 — 69387

NOTE

1 BTU/ft3 = 37.265 Kj/m3

Heating values in kJ/m3 in last column of table 3 are expressed in rounded off
figures.
Table 4. Properties of coal based on proximate analysis 4

Property of States Range of Formulae

Coal Volatile Matter
Desired in Combustible
H.V. =
Pa., Ohio, W. Va., 0% — 16% (14550 + 7810V) 2.326
Heating Md., Va., Ky., Ga., H.V. =
value of Tenn., Ala., Ind., 16% — 36% (16160 – 2250V) 2.326
the Iowa, Neb., Kan., Mo.,
combustible Okla., Ark., and H.V. =
Texas. 36%+ (18750 – 9440V) 2.326

Ill. and Mich. All values H.V. =

(16062 – 3830V) 2.326
0% — 36% C = 0.943 – 0.242V
Penn., Ohio, W. Va.,
Ky., Ga., Tenn., Ala. 36%+ C = 1.095 – 0.663V
Total
carbon in
Ill. Ind., Mich.,
the
Iowa, Neb., Kan., Mo., All values C = 0.953 – 0.362V
combustible
Okla., Ark., and
= C
Texas.
Col., Utah, N, Mex.,
Ariz., Wyo., Mont., 36% — 60% C =
Wash., Ore., and ( H . V .+17547.3 ) ( 0.0099+0.0208 ) V
Calif. 1715.4 +465.2
All states. 60%+ C =
( H . V .+17547.3 ) ( 0.0099+0.0 045 ) V
26.3+465.2
4% — 16% H = 0.013 + 0.225V
Hydrogen in All states but Ark.
the 16%+ H = 0.0457 + 0.0206V
combustible

HV = Heating value of the combustible in J/g.

V = Decimal fraction of volatile matter in the combustible
C = Decimal fraction of total carbon in the combustible
H = Decimal fraction of hydrogen in the combustible

NOTE

The above table does not include lignites, peats, woods, or cannel coal except
as noted in main parts of report.
Table 5. Standard Gross Heating Value of Various Fuels 5
Solid Fuels BTU/lb kJ/kg

Coal 9000 20900

Bagasse (50% moisture) 4000 9300
Wood Haste (30% moisture) 4000 9300
Rice Hull 6000 14000
Coco-shell 8630 20100
Coco Husk 7400 17200

Liquid Fuels BTU/lb kJ/L

Gasoline 20620 35400

Diesel 19650 38600
Fuel Oil 18600 41800
Kerosene 19800 36500
LPG (1 kg = 1.86 L) 21180 27100
Naphtha 20620 35400
Waste Oil 18600 41800
Methanol 9600 17800
Ethanol 12800 23600
Coco-oil 15750 33900

Gaseous Fuels BTU/ft3 kJ/m3

Natural Gas 1020 37975

Biogas 650 24200

EXPRESSION OF ENERGY IN TERMS OF LOE (Liter Oil Energy)

41800 million kJ = 1 million LOE

1 LOE = 41800 kJ
Performance of Internal Combustion
Engine Where:

1. Indicated Horsepower (IHP) P = Mean effective pressure

L = Length of stroke
A. IHP for 2 strokes A = Area
N = Number of revolutions
PLANn n = No. of cylinder
IHP = (English Unit)
33000
PLANn 2. Computing for Brake horsepower
IHP = (Metric Unit)
4563 (BHP)

B. IHP for 4 strokes 2 πTN 2 π NFr

BHP = BHP =
33000 33000
PLANn (E.S. Unit)
IHP = (English Unit)
33000 x 2
PLANn 2 πTN 2 πNFr
IHP = (S.I Unit) BHP = BHP = (S.I.
4563 x 2 4563 4563
Also 8. Brake Mean Effective Pressure

BHP = IHP x ηm HHV = 17680 + 60°API

HHV = 22230 ‒ 3780 (S.G.)2
Where: HHV = 18250 + 40 (°Bé ‒ 10)
ηm = Mechanical Efficiency
T = Torque 141.5
°API = −131.5
N = No. of revolutions S.G.
F = Force
r = Radius 14 0
°Bé = −13 0
S .G .
3. Frictional Horsepower (FHP)
9. Brake Mean Effective Pressure
FHP = IHP – BHP
Bmep for 4 Strokes
4. Mean Effective Pressure (MEP)
BHP x 33000
Bmep=
A n (English Unit)
MEP = xS LAN
L 2
BHP x 4563
Bmep=
Where: n (Metric Unit)
LAN
A = Area of Indicator Card (in 2) or (m2) 2
L = Length of Card (in) or (m)

( ) (
Bmep for 2 Strokes
S = Spring Scale Use
kg
2
cm −cm
or 2
lb
¿ −¿ )
BHP x 33000
Bmep= (English Unit)
5. Indicated Thermal Efficiency ( η ti ) LANn
BHP x 4563
Bmep= (Metric Unit)
2545 LANn
ηti = (E.S. Unit)
W i x HHV
1 HP x 4563
ηti = (Metric Unit)
W x Cv x J

Where:
lb
W i = Rate of fuel consumed
IHP−hr
HHV = Higher Heating Value of Fuel
W = Weight ( )
kg
min
C v = Calorific Value of Fuel
kcal
kg ( )
J = Joule equivalent J =427 (kg−m
kcal )
6. Brake Thermal Efficiency ( η t b )

2545
ηtb = (E.S. Unit)
W b x HHV
BHP x 4565
= (Metric Unit)
Wb x Cv x J