7 Chemical Reactions & the Per.

Table Solutions and Solubility (1 of 16)

We learned the terms solute, solvent, and solution. Solubility (how MUCH solute will dissolve) is measured in g/100 mL of H2 O or sometimes in M. This information may be given numerically or graphically. A saturated solution is one in which any additional solute added will simply settle on the bottom of the container. An unsaturated solution is any amount less than saturated. Supersaturated implies that the solution was saturated at some higher temperature and then carefully cooled. This unstable situation can be changed with a seed crystal. Recall the supersaturated solution of NaC2 H3 O2 demo. The terms concentrated and dilute refer to the amount of solute and do not necessarily coincide with saturation.

7 Chemical Reactions & the Per. Table Electrolytes: Weak and Strong (2 of 16)

Solutions of acids, bases, and salts contain mobile ions and conduct electricity. These solutions are called electrolytes. Salts are ionic compounds that dissociate in water. Acids are actually molecular compounds (covalently bonded) the become ions when dissolved in water. Only 8 acids are strong electrolytes and completely dissociate when dissolved. All others dissolve completely, but only partially dissociate into ions. Only 8 bases are strong electrolytes because they dissolve completely. All others have low solubility and remain solids rather than dissolve. One common exception is the weak base NH4 OH . It dissolves, but partially dissociates.

7 Chemical Reactions & the Per. Table Ionic Reactions (3 of 16)

A common class of chemical reactions occurs when two ionic solutions are mixed. The double replacement or metathesis reaction involves the formation of two new combinations of ions. AgNO 3 + NaCl AgCl + NaNO3 (molecular equation) The new combinations may be more stable than the original due to low solubility (precipitate forms), weak electrolyte, gas formation, or complex ion formation. The reaction is written above as though the substances exist as molecules. This is the easiest time to balance. The ionic equation shows strong electrolytes as separate ions. The net equation eliminates spectator ions.

7 Chemical Reactions & the Per. Table Arrhenius Acids and Bases (4 of 16)

Acid: a substance that increases the [H+] in solution. Base: a substance that increases the [OH] in solution. Diprotic acids have more than one removable H. (H 2 SO4 ) However, only the first H is ever easily dissociated. Oxides of nonmetals (SO2 ) are acid anhydrides. Oxides of metals (Na2 O)are basic anhydrides. Just add water... to get the acid or base. SO2 + H2 O H2 SO3 Na 2 O + H2 O 2 NaOH Acids and bases neutralize each other because the H+ and OH ions form the very weak electrolyte... H2 O (and a salt). Acid salts are the partially neutralized polyprotic acids. NaH2 PO4 or Na2 HPO4 or NaHSO4 , etc... solid acids.

7 Chemical Reactions & the Per. Table Brnsted-Lowry Acids and Bases (5 of 16)

Acid: a proton (H+) donor. Base: a proton acceptor. This is a more general definition of acids and bases because it does not require the substance to be dissolved in water. Consider the following equations: The species that accepted the proton (base) can be considered a donor (conjugate acid) in the reverse reaction. HF + H 2 O H3 O+ + F (acid) (base) (acid) (base) NH3 + H2 O NH4 + + OH (base) (acid) (acid) (base) Strong baseweak conjugate acid, (good acceptorlousy donor). Conjugates differ by only a H+ (e.g. HF and F )

7 Chemical Reactions & the Per. Table Ions in Water Some Metal Ions Make Acidic Solutions (6 of 16)

Since water molecules are polar, they surround ions in solution (called hydration). When we write Na+(aq) and Cl (aq) we are implying this more complex situation. Some highly charged ions (Al3+ , Cr3+ , Fe3+ ) tend to tightly bind the water molecules. We can write them as complex ions: Al(H2 O) 6 3+ The electron clouds are drawn toward the central ion and away from the oxygen and therefore the O-H bond. This extra-polar O-H bond results in the H atom more readily joining with a passing water molecule... making the solution acidic. [Note: this is a conjugate acid-base situation.] Al(H 2 O) 6 3+ + H2 O H3 O+ + Al(H2 O) 5 OH2+

7 Chemical Reactions & the Per. Table Trend in Strengths of Acids and Bases Three cases to explain (7 of 16)

Case 1: The more oxygens on an oxoacid, the stronger the acid. H2 SO4 > H2 SO3 .. HClO4 > HClO 3 > HClO 2 > HClO Why?: The electronegative oxygens draw electron density away from the central atom and therefore from the H-O bond... making it more polar. H leaves more easily. Case 2: The more electronegative the central atom, the stronger the oxoacid. H 3 PO4 < H2 SO4 < HClO 4 Why? Same as above... the more electronegative atom in the center makes the O-H bond more polar. Case 3: Binary acid strength depends on the SIZE of the atom... HF < HCl < HBr < HI... not the electronegativity. Why?: The greater distance means a weaker attraction.

7 Chemical Reactions & the Per. Table Lewis Acids and Bases (8 of 16)

Consider the formation of a coordinate covalent bond: Acid: electron pair acceptor [Note: proton donor] Base: electron pair donor [Note: proton acceptor] This definition is more general than the other two because this covers cases that dont even involve hydrogen (protons). Classic case: HN3 + BF3 NH3 BF3 Other important cases: oxide of metal + oxide of nonmetal salt (base anhydride + acid anhydride) CaO + SO2 CaSO3 (s) and the oft-confusing reactivity of CO2 OH + CO 2 HCO3

7 Chemical Reactions & the Per. Table Oxidation Numbers (9 of 16)

Definition: Oxidation numbers are the apparent charges atoms have if shared e s are assigned to the more electronegative atom. You can assign ox. #s by studying a Lewis diagram or... The Rules: ox. # of neutral atoms is 0 In compounds simple ions have ox. #s equal to their charge. F (-1), Family I (+1), II (+2), Al (+3) O is usually (-2) except peroxide and OF 2 H is usually (+1) except hydrides of Fam. I, II, Al the sum of the ox. #s of individual atoms equals the charge on the entire species.

7 Chemical Reactions & the Per. Table Balancing Redox Equations Oxidation Number Change Method Step-By-Step (10 of 16)

1. Identify the ox. #s of elements that change PER ATOM. One element will change UP (oxidation / lose e s) one element changes DOWN (reduction / gain e s). 2. Adjust coefficients and e changes for situations where more than one atom MUST change: ex: 2HCl + K2 Cr 2 O7 KCl + 2CrCl3 + Cl 2 + H2 O Cr: 2 x (3 e per Cr) Cl: 2 x (1 e per Cl) 3. Balance these changes in e s (e gained = e lost). 4. Balance all elements except H and O. 5. Balance Os (add H2 Os as needed). 6. Balance Hs (add H+s as needed). 7. If solution is basic, see card #12.

7 Chemical Reactions & the Per. Table Balancing Redox Equations Ion-Electron Method (Half-reaction Method) Step-By-Step (11 of 16)

1. Identify the substances involved in the oxidation and reduction changes. Include substances so that all elements are represented (except H and O). For each half-reaction 2. Balance all elements except H and O. 3. Balance Os (add H2 Os as needed). 4. Balance Hs (add H+s as needed). 5. Balance charges (add e s to the more positive side). 6. Balance e s in the two half-reactions. 7. Combine the two half-reactions. Cancel substances that show up on both sides of the equation (e s must cancel). 8. If solution is basic, see card #12.

If the reaction occurs in a basic solution (usually stated clearly in the problem) then instead of H+s and H2 Os, you utilize OH s and H2 Os.

7 Chemical Reactions & the Per. Table Balancing Redox Equations Reactions in Basic Solution (12 of 16)

An easy method is: - balance as though the reaction were in an acid solution. - add OH s to each side of the equation until all H+s are turned into H2 Os. - cancel H2 Os that show on both sides of the equation.

In each case, the metal changes to the + ion: M M+ + e Since the metal is oxidized, it is a reducing agent. Metals that most easily lose e s (those with low ionization energy and low electronegativity) make the best reducers.

7 Chemical Reactions & the Per. Table Metals as Reducing Agents (13 of 16)

M E M O R I Z E T H I S:

Some metals react with H2 O [to H 2 (g) and OH ] Some react with non-oxidizing acids such as HCl, and cold, dilute H2 SO4 (the H+ is the reacting species) [to H 2 (g)] Some react only with oxidizing acids: dilute HNO3 [to colorless NO(g) + H2 O], conc. HNO 3 [to red-brown NO 2 (g) and H2 O], and hot, conc. H2 SO4 [to SO2 (g) and H2 O]

FOUR GROUPS OF METALS

7 Chemical Reactions & the Per. Table The Activity Series of Metals (14 of 16)

1 - Most active - Families I and II - great reducing agents reduction half-reaction: 2H2 O + 2e H2 + 2OH 2 - Most metals... Zn, Fe, Al, etc. reduction half-reaction: 2H+ + 2e H 2 3 - Ag, Cu, Hg ex. half-reaction: 2H+ + NO3 + e NO2 + H2 O 4 - Noble Metals - Au, Pt, Ir only changed by aqua regia [HNO3 + HCl forms Cl 2 ] A more active metal can reduce or displace the ion of a less active metal. Ex. Zn is more active than Cu, so Zn + Cu2+ Zn2+ + Cu Cu + Zn2+ no reaction

Elemental nonmetals (O, Cl, F, S, etc.) form negative ions by gaining electrons (reduction) and are oxidizing agents. The strongest oxidizing agents are those to the right of each period (excluding noble gases) and those at the top of each family. So we can predict that F>Cl>Br>I and O > S. Example: Cl will displace Br , but not F Cl2 (g) + 2NaBr Br2 (l) + 2NaCl Cl2 + NaF N.R. Oxygen, O2 , is a common and powerful oxidizing agent. Corrosion of metals, formation of oxides, and combustion are all examples of redox with O2 as the oxidizer.

7 Chemical Reactions & the Per. Table Nonmetals as Oxidizing Agents Oxygen as an Oxidizing Agent Combustion as a Redox Reaction (15 of 16)

7 Chemical Reactions & the Per. Table Amphiprotic/Amphoteric & Leveling Effect (16 of 16)

Anything with a lone pair can act as a proton acceptor (base) Anything with a H atom can act as a proton donor (acid). See water on card 5 act as either an acid or a base. See acetic acid on page 241 act as both acid and base. We say these are amphiprotic or amphoteric substances. Leveling effect... You cannot tell which strong acid is strongest in water, because donating a proton to water is not a good enough challenge. Strong acids completely dissociate in water because water is a pretty good acceptor of protons. We say that water has a leveling effect. Acetic acid is amphiprotic, but a poor proton acceptor and therefore is a great test for which strong acid is the strongest...