sustainability

Article
Safety Risk Assessment of Low-Volume Road Segments
on the Tibetan Plateau Using UAV LiDAR Data
Yichi Zhang 1,2,3,4 , Xuan Dou 1,2,3,4 , Hanping Zhao 1,2,3,4, *, Ying Xue 1,2,3,4 and Jinfan Liang 1,2,3,4

1 Key Laboratory of Environmental Change and Natural Disasters, Ministry of Education,

Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
2 State Key Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes and Resource Ecology (ESPRE),
Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
3 Academy of Disaster Reduction and Emergency Management, Ministry of Emergency Management
and Ministry of Education, Beijing 100875, China
4 Faculty of Geographical Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
* Correspondence: 06136@bnu.edu.cn

Abstract: The intricate topography and numerous hazards of highland roads contribute to a signifi-
cantly higher incidence of traffic accidents on these roads compared to those on the plains. Although
precise road data can enhance the safety evaluation and management of these road segments, the cost
of data acquisition in highland areas is prohibitively high. To tackle this issue, our paper proposes
a system of assessment indices and extraction methods specifically designed for plateau regions,
supplementing existing road safety audit techniques. We are pioneers in integrating a high-precision
3D point cloud model into the safety risk assessment of low-traffic plateau roads, utilizing unmanned
aerial vehicle (UAV) LiDAR technology. This innovative approach enhances both the efficiency and
accuracy of road mapping. Building on this, we amalgamated three categories of indices—road
3D alignment, geographical environment, and natural disasters—to formulate a comprehensive
safety risk assessment model. Applying this model to seventeen representative road segments on
the Tibetan Plateau, we found that road alignment significantly influences road safety risk. The
segments with the highest risk ratings are predominantly those located in the southwestern part of the
Tibetan region, such as Zanda and Gar. Road safety management should prioritize road alignment,
Citation: Zhang, Y.; Dou, X.; Zhao,
particularly the role of the curve radius, without overlooking the impact of environmental factors
H.; Xue, Y.; Liang, J. Safety Risk
Assessment of Low-Volume Road
and natural disasters.
Segments on the Tibetan Plateau
Using UAV LiDAR Data. Keywords: road safety risk assessment; UAV LiDAR; Tibetan Plateau; high-altitude areas; road
Sustainability 2023, 15, 11443. geometry parameters; geographical environment
https://doi.org/10.3390/
su151411443

Academic Editor: Antonio D’Andrea

1. Introduction
Received: 5 June 2023 An efficient and robust road system is the cornerstone of a nation’s sustainable eco-
Revised: 14 July 2023 nomic and social development. The number of traffic accidents has generally increased
Accepted: 18 July 2023
in China. Over the past ten years, the average number of car accidents per year has been
Published: 24 July 2023
about 146,113, accounting for 67.77% of the total traffic accidents, with 44,257 deaths and
direct economic losses of about CNY 1021.86 million per year. Therefore, road safety risk
assessment is essential to reduce casualties and property damage. We are able to identify
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
potential dangers that may lead to accidents, determine the factors affecting traffic safety
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
and objectively describe their effectiveness [1]. Such information helps to prevent and
This article is an open access article reduce traffic accidents, improving road safety and reducing the cost of road operation and
distributed under the terms and management [2].
conditions of the Creative Commons The Tibetan Plateau is a significant ecological security barrier for China and even
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// Asia [3]. The area has low road capacity and traffic volumes [4]. Compared to other cities
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ in China, Tibet ranked the lowest in average daily traffic volume in 2020, accounting for
4.0/). only 4.2% of the city with the highest value (Shanghai). According to the results compiled

Sustainability 2023, 15, 11443. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151411443 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2023, 15, 11443 2 of 19

from the National Highway Traffic Status Report, the traffic volume on the five national
highways in and out of Tibet is low. The Qinghai–Tibet Highway, which has the highest
traffic volume, has an annual average daily traffic volume of around 2500 vehicles per
day. The second is the Chengzhang Highway (G318), with an annual average daily traffic
volume of about 455 vehicles per day, and the other three national highways have a traffic
volume of less than 400 vehicles per day [5]. Only the Qinghai–Tibet Highway is open to
traffic all year round. Natural disasters such as snow and ice in winter and mudslides in
summer cause the remaining national highways to be open to traffic intermittently. Since
the opening of the Qinghai–Tibet Railway, the Qinghai–Tibet highway has seen a sharp
decline in its daily traffic volume [6]. Even though the roads are already low-volume, the
region experiences higher average rates of single-vehicle accidents and higher average
accident fatality rates than other Chinese regions [7]. In China, traffic accidents on low-
volume roads, especially in remote highland mountainous areas, have reached a critical
level [6].
At present, many scholars are studying traffic accidents and their causes on the
highway and urban roads, for which safety assessment technology is more advanced [8].
Compared with urban roads, research on highland road safety has received limited at-
tention. The Tibetan Plateau, one of the world’s most unique geographical regions, faces
threats to its transport infrastructure due to its extreme climate, rugged topography, and
frequent hazards [9]. Given the wide variation among road sections, it is crucial to select
specific road segments for safety risk assessment in order to prevent traffic accidents and
minimize casualties. Traditional road safety assessments, which rely on field measurements
being taken by surveyors, are challenging and costly in remote highland areas due to the
complex topography and environment. Therefore, we attempted to use unmanned aerial
vehicle (UAV) LiDAR scanning technology to improve the accuracy and efficiency of data
collection, providing practical technical support for road safety risk assessment.
The contributions of this work are presented as follows: we establish a road safety
assessment framework applicable to the Tibetan Plateau by combining the hazard and
environmental characteristics of high-altitude areas. Meanwhile, we use the data acquired
by UAV LiDAR as the input, improving the accuracy of the data and the convenience of
road safety audits.
The rest of this paper is organized as follows: Section 2 provides a review of road
safety assessment and measurement methods. Section 3 mainly introduces the study area’s
situation. Section 4 designs the road safety risk indices and constructs a road safety risk
assessment model. Then, Section 5 applies the assessment model to road segments and
analyzes their risk characteristics. Finally, Section 6 concludes and discusses the paper.

2. Literature Review
2.1. Road Safety Risk Assessment
The road segment safety risk assessment methods can be divided into those based on
accident data and those based on road performance indices. The former methods use the
history of past accidents as input data. The latter methods rely on the inspection of indices
to detect safety deficiencies.
Evaluating road safety based on historical data can identify true accident black
spots [10,11], but it highly depends on the accuracy and availability of accident data.
Insufficient accident data can lead to the failure to identify potential hazards for areas or
road sections with sparse traffic volumes. Moreover, Tibet has a small resident population,
and some areas are tourist hotspots. The overall traffic flow in this region is small but
unevenly distributed, so the accident sample is insufficient to reflect road safety condi-
tions [6]. Consequently, road safety analysis for Tibet is more applicable and feasible when
a comprehensive assessment of road safety factors is conducted.
In studies of index-based road safety assessment, the main factors can be divided into
three general categories: the first is road design and road alignments, such as geometric
consistency indices, surface conditions [8], lane width, and intersection density [12]; the
Sustainability 2023, 15, 11443 3 of 19

second is the road surroundings, such as the distribution of settlements around the road
segment [13], road structures [14] and the environment [15]; and the third is the vehicle
driving status, such as vehicle driving and traffic flow [16]. The above studies mainly
focus on general road traffic systems, but such areas as the Tibetan Plateau must be fully
considered for their unique characteristics. Complex and varied road alignments, such as
steep slopes and sharp curves, are formed by complex topography [17]. The harsh driving
environment, such as low pressures and a lack of oxygen, affects driver judgment and vehicle
dynamics [18]. Different hazards, such as earthquakes, hydrological and meteorological
natural disasters, can affect regional safety [9].
Despite its many noteworthy unique characteristics, research on remote highland road
safety is limited. Most studies have been conducted on road alignment and the traffic
environment [19]. For example, Zhong (2014) [20] constructed an assessment index system
containing the traffic environment, traffic flow condition, and road design data of a road
section through design information and expert interviews. Hu (2020) [21] proposed the
suggested values of key alignment indicators by simulating the impact of plateau road
alignment on driver physiology and psychology. There is a lack of research to consider the
risk of natural disasters. This is because disasters are sudden and often easy to overlook in
field measurements, but they can significantly impact travel safety [22]. In addition, the
road data for the above studies are mainly derived from simulation modeling or design
schemes. However, this information lacks field validation, and it is challenging to conduct
road safety assessments without management information. Therefore, there is no well-
developed framework for research on road safety risk assessment in the plateau, and data
acquisition is a major bottleneck to the problem. Highland conditions increase the risk and
cost of obtaining accurate data for road segments.

2.2. LiDAR Measurement Technology

Currently, remote sensing has been incorporated into road surveys. For instance, road
surveyors manually digitize lanes from aerial images and interpolate 3D models with
sparse ground GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) measurements, which mitigates
the disadvantages of field surveys. However, the accuracy of GNSS limits the accuracy of
3D models [23]. LiDAR provides the technology required to acquire high-precision models,
reducing data collection and the processing time. It has been determined that the correctness
and completeness of measurements are significantly improved by LiDAR. Therefore, we
use the data acquired by LiDAR as an input source for the road safety risk assessment.
LiDAR has been used in many areas of pavement recognition [24], road width [25], road
geometric consistency [26], line-of-sight analysis [27], lane identification [28], and pavement
crack and distress detection [29,30], providing more possibilities for comprehensive road
safety assessment. For example, Antonio (2018) [26] assessed road safety by extracting
road horizontal alignments from a mobile LiDAR system in order to obtain geometric
consistency indices. Ravi (2020) [28] proposed a method used to estimate lane widths
using LiDAR-based mobile mapping systems to collect detailed information about the road
surface. However, most of the literature considers only separate road feature indices. In
real-life scenarios, drivers may be distracted by road conditions, environmental, vehicular,
or other factors. Therefore, the refined road data should be integrated with environmental
and other indices in the assessment process so to be more informative.
The scanning range of mobile LiDAR is limited and does not provide sufficient in-
formation about the road environment. In recent years, UAV laser scanning (ULS) has
been utilized extensively as a promising technology. The UAV LiDAR also acquires point
cloud data, but has the following advantages [31]. First, ULS provides a sufficient coverage
area for road safety assessment. Second, ULS can give a complete sample of the road
boundaries and markings unaffected by obstacle occlusion. Third, collecting data via
ULS is cheap and ensures the safety of drivers and surveyors. Researchers have already
developed processing methods and analysis frameworks for the UAV-based point cloud.
For example, Mohan (2021) [32] has developed a fully automated highway inspection
 for road safety assessment. Second, ULS can give a complete sample of the road bounda-
ries and markings unaffected by obstacle occlusion. Third, collecting data via ULS is cheap
Sustainability 2023, 15, 11443 and ensures the safety of drivers and surveyors. Researchers have already developed pro- 4 of 19
cessing methods and analysis frameworks for the UAV-based point cloud. For example,
Mohan (2021) [32] has developed a fully automated highway inspection framework based
on a convolutional
framework based onneural network using
a convolutional neurala network
novel low-power drone.
using a novel Biçici (2021)
low-power [33] Biçici
drone. has
proposed a method for road classification and extraction from a UAV point cloud
(2021) [33] has proposed a method for road classification and extraction from a UAV point based
on random
cloud based onforest and further
random combines
forest and furtherit combines
with the Voronoi diagram
it with the to diagram
Voronoi improve totheimprove
qual-
ity quality
the of road centerline extractionextraction
of road centerline [34]. These[34].
techniques make ULS data
These techniques makeideal
ULSfordata
roadideal
safety
for
assessment.
road safety assessment.
Asaaresult,
As result, we
we designed
designed the
the assessment
assessment framework
frameworkpresented
presentedininthis
thispaper
paperusing
using
UAV LiDAR data, thus providing an efficient and high-precision measurement
UAV LiDAR data, thus providing an efficient and high-precision measurement method for method
for road
road safety
safety inspection.
inspection.

3.3.Study
StudyArea
Area and
and Data Sources
3.1.
3.1.Study
StudyArea
Area
The
Thestudy
studyarea includes
area includesRikaze (Namling,
Rikaze Yadong,
(Namling, Kamba,
Yadong, Dinggye,
Kamba, Nyalam,
Dinggye, Gyirong,
Nyalam,
and Zhongba);
Gyirong, Ngari Prefecture
and Zhongba); (Purang,(Purang,
Ngari Prefecture Zanda, Gar,
Zanda,Rutog,
Gar, and Ge’gyai);
Rutog, and Nagqu
and Geʹgyai); and
(Nyima, Shenza, and
Nagqu (Nyima, Baingoin).
Shenza, As shown
and Baingoin). Asinshown
Figurein1,Figure
data collection and analysis
1, data collection included
and analysis
seventeen specific road
included seventeen segments:
specific national,national,
road segments: provincial, county, county,
provincial, and village
and roads.
village roads.

Figure 1. Tibetan road network and sample point.

Figure 1. Tibetan road network and sample point.
Affected by climate, topography, and geology, natural disasters such as soil deserti-
Affected by climate, topography, and geology, natural disasters such as soil desertifica-
fication, freeze–thaw action, mudslides, and landslides are frequent, dangerous, and
tion, freeze–thaw action, mudslides, and landslides are frequent, dangerous, and widely
widely distributed, posing a significant threat to the safety of road construction projects.
distributed, posing a significant threat to the safety of road construction projects. Figure 2
Figure 2 depicts the hazard zones close to the road.
depicts the hazard zones close to the road.
According to statistics, the single-vehicle accident rate in Tibet is 1.58% higher than the
regional average, and the average accident fatality rate per period is 2.19 times higher [35].
Figure 3 shows that the road traffic safety situation continues to be dismal. Analyzing road
safety in order to reduce traffic accidents and enhance driving safety is essential.
Sustainability
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15, x11443
FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 19 5 of 1

Figure 2. Examples of hazards around roads.

According to statistics, the single-vehicle accident rate in Tibet is 1.58% higher than
the regional average, and the average accident fatality rate per period is 2.19 times higher
[35]. Figure 3 shows that the road traffic safety situation continues to be dismal. Analyzing
Figure
road
Figure 2.2.Examples
safetyExamples
in order ofto
hazards
reduce
of hazards around
traffic
around roads.
roads.accidents and enhance driving safety is essential.

According to statistics, the single-vehicle accident rate in Tibet is 1.58% higher than
the regional average, and the average accident fatality rate per period is 2.19 times highe
[35]. Figure 3 shows that the road traffic safety situation continues to be dismal. Analyzing
road safety in order to reduce traffic accidents and enhance driving safety is essential.

3.Traffic
Figure 3.
Figure Trafficaccidents in Tibet
accidents (2011~2020).
in Tibet (2011~2020).
3.2. Data Sources
3.2. Data Sources
We used data from field measurements and open-source databases. The road 3D data
We used
acquisition data from
equipment field the
utilized measurements andRTK
DJI Matrice 300 open-source databases.
UAV, outfitted The road
with Zenmuse L1 3D data
acquisition equipment
LiDAR (elevation accuracy:utilized the DJI
5 cm; plane Matrice10300
accuracy: RTK
cm), UAV, outfitted
an inertial guidance with Zenmuse
system, an L1
Figure 3.
LiDAR
auxiliary Traffic accidents
(elevation
positioningaccuracy:
camera, in Tibet
and a(2011~2020).
5 cm; plane accuracy:
mapping camera. It10
cancm), an inertial collect
simultaneously guidance system, an
LiDAR
point clouds
auxiliary and RGB camera,
positioning images. The andenvironmental data were
a mapping camera. mainly
It can obtained from
simultaneously the LiDAR
collect
3.2. Data
Tibetan Sources
Plateau scientific research database and published studies, as shown
point clouds and RGB images. The environmental data were mainly obtained from the in Table 1.
WePlateau
Tibetan used data from field
scientific measurements
research andpublished
database and open-source databases.
studies, The road
as shown 3D dat
in Table 1.
acquisition equipment utilized the DJI Matrice 300 RTK UAV, outfitted with Zenmuse L
LiDAR (elevation accuracy: 5 cm; plane accuracy: 10 cm), an inertial guidance system, an
auxiliary positioning camera, and a mapping camera. It can simultaneously collect LiDAR
point clouds and RGB images. The environmental data were mainly obtained from th
Tibetan Plateau scientific research database and published studies, as shown in Table 1.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 11443 6 of 19

Table 1. Environmental data source.

Data Type Data Source

DING mingjun. Grid data of annual temperature and
Average annual temperature annual precipitation on the Tibetan Plateau and its
Average annual precipitation surrounding areas during 1998–2017. National Tibetan
Plateau Data Center.
GB18306—2015 Seismic ground motion parameters
Seismic risk
zonation map of China [36]
Landslide collapse, mudslide risk Tibetan Plateau Scientific Research Database
Snowstorm risk [37]
Sandstorm risk [38]
Flood risk [39]
Freeze–thaw risk Tibetan Plateau Scientific Research Database

4. Road Safety Risk Assessment Method

4.1. Assessment Index Selection
The Tibetan region has a complex topography and is susceptible to natural disasters.
Therefore, the road alignment index, environmental index, and natural disasters must
be considered.
(1) Road alignment index
The road alignment design follows the elevation change, and the alignment changes
abruptly, which is a significant factor affecting road safety risk. The road’s three-dimensional
alignment is horizontal, vertical, and cross-sectional.
Horizontal alignment: In China, as many as 36% of traffic accidents occur on curved
roads [40]. When the radius of a curve is small, the turn’s centrifugal force is high, making
it easy for a vehicle to lose its balance. Therefore, the curve radius (X1 ) is chosen as an
index. Additionally, if too many curves are on a segment, the driver will be forced to take in
information increasingly faster and drive with difficulty [41]. We thus defined the number
of curves per unit length as the curve density (X2 ) and used it as an assessment index. In
particular, the accident rate is often higher for consecutive sharp turns than for single sharp
turns. This is because the alignment of the segments with consecutive sharp turns is more
complex, and often the limit design criteria are used, meaning that the sighting distance
must be greater than or equal to the safe traveling sighting distance [42]. Consequently, we
chose the number of consecutive sharp turns (X3 ).
Vertical alignment: The primary parameters of a vertical curve are its slope, slope
length, and grade change point curvature. The slope has the most direct effect on safety, so
we used the maximum longitudinal slope (X4 ).
Cross-sectional alignment: The road width (X5 ) is one of the road cross-sectional
elements influencing traffic safety. Kronprasert (2021) [43] concluded that the lane width
significantly affects the frequency of traffic accidents. Wu (2019) [44] found that a standard-
sized lane always has the lowest crash frequency, while undersized and oversized lanes
increase the crash frequency. This is because a road that is too wide can prevent drivers
from maintaining their attention, and a road that is too narrow cannot meet the demand for
lane width when different types of vehicles are mixed, and can also make drivers nervous
and hinder passing. Consequently, the road width must comply with the Highway Route
Design Specification.
(2) Environmental index
Regarding accident statistics, some environmental factors are implicated in driver
errors [45]. Several factors, including vegetation cover and elevation, have been the focus of
recent research. It was discovered that the number of drivers making complex reaction and
disposition judgment errors on oasis roads is significantly lower than on desert roads [46].
Sustainability 2023, 15, 11443 7 of 19

The heart rate of drivers in highland areas increases with altitude [18], making them
susceptible to fatigue and unsafe driving. High and low temperatures also diminish
drivers’ physical abilities and driving skills [12]. In contrast, rainy weather can reduce
accidents due to decreased traffic flow [47] and drivers’ more cautious driving behavior [48].
As a result, the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) (X6 ), elevation (X7 ), average
annual temperature (X8 ), and average annual precipitation (X9 ) were chosen as indices of
the environment.
(3) Natural disaster index
Natural disasters in Tibet are widespread and frequent, so they cannot be disregarded
as a significant impact factor. The primary disaster types include seismic hazards, geological
hazards (landslides, collapses, mudslides), and meteorological hazards (snowstorms, sand
storms, floods, and freeze–thaw cycles) [49].
As shown in Table 2, a three-dimensional highland road safety risk assessment index
system is constructed via road alignment, environment, and natural disasters.

Table 2. Road safety assessment indices.

Road Safety Risk Index Literature Basis Data Source

Curve radius Rcirc (m) [16,50]
Curve density Scirc (pcs/km) [41]
Road 3D alignment Number of consecutive sharp turns nst (pcs) [51] LiDAR road point cloud
Maximum longitudinal slope gmax (%) [52]
Road width w (m) [44]
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index NDV I [46] UAV orthophoto
Environment Elevation H (m) [18] road point cloud
Average annual temperature Tem (◦ C) [12] National Tibetan Plateau
Average annual precipitation Pre (mm) [47,48] Data Center
Earthquake [53] [36]
Landslide collapse, mudslide [54] Research Database
Snowstorm [55] [37]
Natural Disasters
Sandstorm [56] [38]
flood [57] [39]
Freeze–thaw [58] Research Database

4.2. Assessment Index Extraction Method

The road 3D alignment index was extracted from the aerial point cloud model
(Figure 4). The road point clouds were extracted by filtering and classifying the pho-
tographed area’s point clouds. The model included both grounded and non-grounded
points. The ground point clouds were filtered using the cloth simulation filter (CSF) algo-
rithm [59]. Then, we combined the reflection intensity with the elevation information of
the LiDAR to extract the road point cloud.
Roads are generally symmetrical to the centerline, which is the basis for road alignment.
The density analysis tool in ArcGIS was used to extract the road contour, and the polygon-
to-centerline function was used to extract the centerline. The road plane alignment was
quickly determined. The road plane alignment comprises circular arcs, straight lines, and
clothoids. Likewise, we had to classify the extracted road centerline into various line
elements based on its curvature. We applied the least-squares method to eliminate the
impact of measurement errors. The algorithm steps are depicted in Figure 5. The alignment
point cloud ( xi , yi ), y = f ( x ). The line element fits the sample points as ( Xi , Yi ), the fitted
curve is noted as Y = F ( X ), and the fitted alignment point cloud coordinates ( xi , yi ),
y = f ( x ).
023, 15, x Sustainability
FOR PEER REVIEW2023, 15, 11443 8 of 198 of 19

Figure 4. Road alignment index extraction process.

Figure 4. Road alignment index extraction process.

Roads are generally symmetrical

Based on to thethecenterline,
the fitting results, which
minimum value is the
of the basis
curve forwithin
radius road the
align-
segment
was selected as the measurement result (Equation (1)).
ment. The density analysis tool in ArcGIS was used to extract the road contour, and the
polygon-to-centerline function was used to extract the centerline. The road plane align- (1)
Rcirc = min{ Rcirci }
ment was quickly determined. The road plane alignment comprises circular arcs, straight
lines, and clothoids.The curve density
Likewise, we had is the ratio of the
to classify thenumber of circular
extracted curves ncircinto
road centerline to the alignment
various
total on
line elements based length, which is theWe
its curvature. number of curves
applied per unit lengthmethod
the least-squares (Equations (2)–(4)). the
to eliminate
impact of measurement errors. The algorithm steps are n depicted in Figure 5. The align-
S = circ (2)
ment point cloud (𝑥 , 𝑦 ), 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥). The line element fits the sample points as (𝑋 , 𝑌 ), the
Lroad
fitted curve is noted as 𝑌 = 𝐹(𝑋), and the fitted alignment point cloud coordinates (𝑥̅ , 𝑦 ),
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥̅ ).
 Sustainability 2023, 15, 11443 9 of 19

i
L = ∑ Dk k = 1, 2, 3 . . . (3)
i =1
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o
q
2 2 (4)
Dk = ( x i +1 − x i ) + ( y i +1 − y i ) i = 1, 2, 3 . . .

Figure5. 5.
Figure Road
Road alignment
alignment fitting
fitting process.
process.

Based on the fitting results, the minimum value of the curve radius within the s
ment was selected as the measurement result (Equation (1)).
𝑅 = min 𝑅
The curve density is the ratio of the number of circular curves 𝑛 to the alignm
Sustainability 2023, 15, 11443 10 of 19

Consecutive sharp turns generally refer to a segment with three or more consecutive
flat curves that are smaller than a specified radius, and the distance L between each curve
is shorter than a specified distance. According to the Guideline for Implementation of
the Highway Safety Enhancement Project, we rated the index as a grade II highway and
counted the number of consecutive sharp turns.
The longitudinal slope reflects the longitudinal topographic relief. It refers to the
longitudinal segment of the same slope between the two points of the height difference
(∆Zi ) and its horizontal distance (∆Li ) ratio (Equations (5) and (6)).

∆Zi
gi = × 100% (5)
∆Li

gmax = max { gi } (6)

where ∆Z and ∆L represent the height difference and distance between the two endpoints
of the same segment. The longitudinal slope requires segmenting the longitudinal section
point cloud and dividing it into distinct slope sections. The Douglas–Peucker algorithm
was used to segment the midline longitudinal section point cloud. It is a line simplification
algorithm that can approximate the curve as a series of folded lines. It uses a small number
of points to represent the general shape of the curve.
For the road width index, we used CloudCompare 2.12.4 software to measure the
widths and took the average.
Environmental and disaster indices are easier to extract from the overall road safety
risk assessment process. UAV collected the elevation, while the NDVI was derived from
orthophoto maps using image analysis tools in ArcGIS. We obtained the average annual
temperature and precipitation using the raster calculator tool. The natural disaster index
was transformed from the open-source databases shown in Table 2.

4.3. Road Safety Risk Assessment Model

The scoring criteria were established based on the above model. The value of each
index was assigned on a Likert scale ranging from 1 to 5; the greater the risk value, the
lower the index’s safety level. Table 3 displays the index’s assessment criteria.

Table 3. Quantification of indices.

Risk Value 1 2 3 4 5 Basis

Curve radius Rcirc (m) Rc ≥ 200 100 ≤ Rc < 200 65 ≤ Rc < 100 30 ≤ Rc < 65 Rc < 30 [60]
Curve density Scirc
S<3 3≤S<5 5 ≤ S < 10 10 ≤ S < 20 S ≥ 20 [41]
(pcs/km)
Number of consecutive
n=0 1≤n<2 2≤n<3 3≤n<4 n≥4 [61]
sharp turns nst (pcs)
Maximum longitudinal
i<3 3≤i<4 4≤i<5 5≤i<6 i≥6 [62]
slope gmax (%)
Road width w (m) 7.5 ≤ b < 15 7 ≤ b < 7.5 6.5 ≤ b < 7 6 ≤ b < 6.5 b < 6 or b ≥ 15 [60]
Normalized difference
NDV I ≥ 0.5 0.4 ≤ NDV I < 0.5 0.35 ≤ NDV I < 0.4 0.3 ≤ NDV I < 0.35 0.2 ≤ NDV I < 0.3 [63]
vegetation index NDV I
Elevation H (m) 3000 ≤ H < 4000 4000 ≤ H < 4500 4500 ≤ H < 5000 5000 ≤ H < 5500 H ≥ 5500 [18]
Average annual
7 ≤ Ann < 35 4 ≤ Ann < 7 2 ≤ Ann < 4 0 ≤ Ann < 2 Ann < 0 or Ann ≥ 35 [12]
temperature Tem (◦ C)
Average annual
Pre ≥ 500 400 ≤ Pre < 500 300 ≤ Pre < 400 200 ≤ Pre < 300 Pre < 200 [48]
precipitation Pre (mm)
Earthquake acceleration amax = 0.1 or amax = 0.2
amax = 0.05 amax = 0.4 amax > 0.4 [36]
amax (g) amax = 0.15 or amax = 0.3
Landslide collapse, Research
Level 0 Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4
mudslide risk Database
Snowstorm risk Lowest Low Medium Mid-high Highest [37]
Sandstorm risk None Level 0 Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 [38]
Flood risk Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 [39]
Research
Freeze–thaw risk Non-erosion Slight Mild Moderate Strong
Database
 Snowstorm risk Lowest Low Medium Mid-high Highest [37]
Sandstorm risk None Level 0 Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 [38]
Flood risk Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 [39]
Non- Research
Freeze–thaw
Sustainability 2023, 15,risk
11443 Slight Mild Moderate Strong 11 of 19
erosion Database

Each of the sixteen indices presented in Table 3 contributes differently to the level of
roadEach of so
safety, thewe
sixteen
needed indices presented
to assign in Table
a weight 3 contributes
to each differently
index. Weights measure toeach
the level of
index’s
road safety,
size and so wesignificance
relative needed to assignin theaassessment
weight to each index.
process. Weights methods
Weighting measure each
such index’s
as prin-
size
cipaland relative significance
component analysis (PCA) in the[64],
assessment process. such
expert opinions Weighting
as themethods
analytic such as princi-
hierarchy pro-
pal
cesscomponent
(AHP) [65],analysis
and the(PCA) entropy[64], expertcan
method opinions
be usedsuch as the analytic
to calculate hierarchy
index weights process
[66]. How-
(AHP) [65],method
ever, each and the hasentropy method
its benefits candrawbacks,
and be used to and
calculate index weights
no weighting method [66]. However,
is foolproof.
each method has its benefits and drawbacks, and no weighting method
The entropy method can assign weights based on the entropy provided by the index is foolproof.
Theand
values entropy method
is widely can assign
utilized weights
in various based disciplines
scientific on the entropy
[67].provided
We usedby the the index
entropy
values
methodand is widely utilized
to determine the index in weights
various inscientific
order todisciplines
reduce the[67]. We usedofthe
subjectivity entropy
weight de-
method to determine
termination and simplifythe index weights
the safety in order to
assessment reduce Then,
process. the subjectivity
we used of theweight
linear
determination
weighted sum and methodsimplify the the
to obtain safety
roadassessment
safety risk process.
values. Then, we used the linear
weighted sum method to obtain the road safety risk values.
The road safety risk value (𝑅 = 1, 5 ) was divided into four categories by the
The road safety
“Transportation Safetyrisk value (Rm
Production = Source
Risk [1, 5]) was divided into
Classification four categories
Regulations”: Lowerby theI,
Risk/
“Transportation Safety Production Risk Source
General Risk/II, Greater Risk/III, and Material Risk/IV. Classification Regulations”: Lower Risk/I,
General Risk/II, Greater Risk/III, and Material Risk/IV.
5. Safety Risk Assessment Results and Analyses
5. Safety Risk Assessment Results and Analyses
5.1. Road
5.1. Road Index
Index Extraction
ExtractionResult
Result
Consider Segment
Consider Segment 22 (Figure
(Figure 6)
6) as
as an
anillustration
illustration of
of the
the above
above road
road safety
safety risk
risk index
index
technical extraction
technical extraction procedure.
procedure. Segment
Segment 22 (27.51229
(27.51229° N, 88.95426437
◦ N, 88.95426437° E) isis between
◦ E) between twotwo
valleys and is part of the 204 provincial highway in Yadong County,
valleys and is part of the 204 provincial highway in Yadong County, near the Chinese near the Chinese
border. ItIt isisvulnerable
border. vulnerable totoearthquakes,
earthquakes,floods,
floods,mudslides,
mudslides,landslides,
landslides, snowstorms,
snowstorms, and and
other natural disasters.
other natural disasters.

Figure6.6.Location
Figure Locationand
andscanning
scanningmodel
modelof
ofroad
roadSegment
Segment2.2.

AfterAfter
filtering, objectsobjects
filtering, irrelevant to road safety,
irrelevant to roadsuch as tallsuch
safety, vegetation,
as tall high-voltage
vegetation, lines, and
high-voltage
houses,
lines, andwere effectively
houses, wereremoved. Following
effectively filtration,
removed. the road
Following alignment
filtration, thewas extracted.
road alignment was
extracted. Verification was performed using the buffer accuracy assessment method [68] to
quantify the accuracy of the extracted road median axis. The accuracy of midline extraction
was as high as 88% (Table 4).

Table 4. Quantitative evaluation of the extracted alignments.

Wb (cm) Correctness % Completeness %

25 74.967 73.842
30 78.913 77.761
35 88.094 86.876
 Table 4. Quantitative evaluation of the extracted alignments.

𝑾𝒃 (cm) Correctness % Completeness %

25 74.967 73.842
Sustainability 2023, 15, 11443 30 78.913 77.761 12 of 19
35 88.094 86.876

The curvature
The curvature distribution
distribution and fitting results of each
each curve
curve segment
segment are shown
shown in
in
Figure 7.
Figure 7.

Figure 7.
Figure 7. Curvature
Curvature distribution
distribution of
of road
road alignment
alignment and
and its
its fitting
fitting results.
results.

The fitted
The fitted straight-line length L 𝐿 line , circular arc length L𝐿circ ,, and
and circular
circular arc
arc radius
radius
𝑅circ are
R aredisplayed
displayedininTable
Table5. 5.
TheThe minimum
minimum radius
radius of the
of the curve
curve is 18ism,
18and
m, the
androad’s
the road’s
total
total length
length is 303.357
is 303.357 m. The
m. The casecase of the
of the curvecurve density
density is equal
is equal to to 9.89
9.89 pcs/km.The
pcs/km. Thedistance
distance
between
between each
eachcircular
circulararc
arcexceeds
exceedsthetherequirement
requirementofof5050m, m,sosoSegment
Segment2 2doesdoesnot contain
not containa
consecutive
a consecutive sharp
sharpturn.
turn.

Table 5. The
Table 5. The parameters
parameters of
of Segment
Segment 2.
2.

Category CategoryPile Number Pile Number Parameters

Parameters
Straight line BP:K0line
Straight + 000~ZY:K0 + 018.797
BP:K0 + 000~ZY:K0 + 018.797 𝐿 = 18.7971
Lline = 18.7971
𝐿 = 21.6419
Lcirc = 21.6419
Circular arc ZY:K0 + 018.797~ YH:K0 + 040.439
Circular arc ZY:K0 + 018.797~ YH:K0 + 040.439 𝑅 = 250
R = 250
circ
Clothoid YH:K0 + 040.439~HZ:K0 + 065.005
Clothoid YH:K0 + 040.439~HZ:K0 + 065.005
Straight line HZ:K0 + 065.005~ZH:K0 + 108.069 𝐿 = 43.0642
Straight line HZ:K0 + 065.005~ZH:K0 + 108.069 Lline = 43.0642
Clothoid ZH:K0 + 108.069~HY:K0 + 141.927
Clothoid ZH:K0 + 108.069~HY:K0 + 141.927 𝐿 = 27.0536
Circular arc HY:K0 + 141.927~YH:K0 + 168.981
𝑅 =Lcirc
18 = 27.0536
Circular arc HY:K0 + 141.927~YH:K0 + 168.981
Clothoid YH:K0 + 168.981~HZ:K0 + 204.870 Rcirc = 18
Straight line Clothoid
HZ:K0 + 204.870~ZH:K0 YH:K0 + 168.981~HZ:K0 + 204.870
+ 231.055 𝐿 = 26.1859
Clothoid ZH:K0
Straight+ line
231.055~HY:K0 + 270.544
HZ:K0 + 204.870~ZH:K0 + 231.055 Lline = 26.1859
Clothoid 𝐿 = 29.9841
Circular arc HY:K0 + 270.544~YZ:K0ZH:K0 + 231.055~HY:K0 + 270.544
+ 300.528
𝑅 = 85
Lcirc = 29.9841
Straight line YZ:K0 + arc
Circular 300.528~EP:K0HY:K0
+ 303.357
+ 270.544~YZ:K0 + 300.528 𝐿 = 2.8289
R = 85
circ
Straight line YZ:K0 + 300.528~EP:K0 + 303.357 Lline = 2.8289

The accumulated distance and elevation create the longitudinal section of the road.
The segmentation control parameter dth = 0.3m, and the results are depicted in Figure 8.
Segment 2 is a continuous uphill segment with an average longitudinal slope of 4.178%.
The longitudinal section line is divided into three segments, with the steepest segment
having a longitudinal slope of 6.779% and the slowest having a longitudinal slope of 2.084%.
There is one segment with a gradient greater than 6%. Within this segment, drivers should
drive cautiously and pay close attention to driving safety. The average width of the road
was resolved to 7.39 m.
 Segment 2 is a continuous uphill segment with an average longitudinal slope of 4.178%.
The longitudinal section line is divided into three segments, with the steepest segment
having a longitudinal slope of 6.779% and the slowest having a longitudinal slope of
2.084%. There is one segment with a gradient greater than 6%. Within this segment, driv-
Sustainability 2023, 15, 11443 ers should drive cautiously and pay close attention to driving safety. The average
13 of 19 width
of the road was resolved to 7.39 m.

Figure
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8.Road
Figure 8. Roadlongitudinal
longitudinalslope of Segment
slope 2.
of Segment 2. 14 of 19

For the environment, the vegetation around road segment 2 is lush and covers a large
area, For
withthe environment,
an NDVI the vegetation
value of 0.758. The average around road
elevation segment
of this 2 is lushisand
road segment covers
3148.69 m. a large
area, with an NDVI value of8 0.758. The average
3.07 elevation
8 of
According to the database, the area has an average annual temperature of 6.18 C and an this road
Greater segment
◦
Risk/III is 3148.69
m. According
average annual to the database,
precipitation the area
9 438.33
of mm.has2.25 an average 6 annual temperature
Lower Risk/I of 6.18 °C and
Zhongba
an average annual
For natural precipitation
disasters, although
10 of
the 438.33
road mm.
segment
2.00 is in
3 an area with a lowRisk/I
Lower risk of flood,
snow,For
andnatural
freeze–thaw
Gar disasters,
disasters, although
11 it has seismic
the 3.77 risk
road segmentand a high risk
17 is in an area of landslide mudslide.
withRisk/IV
Material a low risk of flood,
Managers should add protective
snow, and freeze–thaw disasters, 12 nets to
it the
has road
seismic
3.46 section
risk to
12 prevent
and a high falling
risk rocks
of caused
landslide
Material Risk/IV by
mudslide.
Zanda
earthquakes or landslides from impeding traffic passage or injuring vehicles and people.
Managers should add protective 13 nets to3.73 the road section16 to prevent Materialfalling
Risk/IVrocks caused by
earthquakes or landslides
Assessment Results of 14
5.2. RiskNyima from impeding
the Study Area1.91 traffic passage
2 or injuringLower Risk/I and people.
vehicles
The designed multi-index 15 extraction 3.60 framework was 15 appliedMaterial Risk/IV
to 17 road segments
5.2. Risk Assessment
in Tibet.Shenza Results
Table 6 illustrates the of the Study Area
16ranking of segments
1.75 1 study area.
for the Lower
TheirRisk/I
road safety
Baingoin
risk value
The distribution
designed 17 extraction
is depicted
multi-index in Figure3.35 9. framework
Road safety11 auditors
was applied Greater
should Risk/III
todetermine the
17 road segments in
Note: Classification
priority road risk by natural
sections breakpoint
and management method (Lower
measures Risk/I: 1
according≤ 𝑅 to≤ 2.26;
the
Tibet. Table 6 illustrates the ranking of segments for the study area. Their road safety risk General
ranking Risk/
order II:
and
2.26 < 𝑅 ≤ level.
assessment 2.79; Greater Risk/ III: 2.79 < 𝑅 ≤ 3.35; Material Risk/IV: 3.35 < 𝑅 ≤ 5)
value distribution is depicted in Figure 9. Road safety auditors should determine the pri-
ority road risk sections and management measures according to the ranking order and
assessment level.

Table 6. Ranking of segments based on assessment results.

Segment
County Name R Rank Assessment Result
Number
Namling 1 2.79 7 General Risk/II
Yadong 2 3.07 9 Greater Risk/III
3 2.21 5 Lower Risk/I
Kamba
4 3.11 10 Greater Risk/III
5 2.08 4 Lower Risk/I
Dinggye
6 3.58 14 Material Risk/IV
Gyirong 7 3.48 13 Material Risk/IV

Figure 9.
Figure 9. Road
Road safety
safety risk
risk value
value distribution.
distribution.

The risks posed by Segments 11, 13, 6, 15, 7, and 12 were evaluated as material (Figure
10). They are all mountainous roads with generally small curves. There is a significant
difference in elevation between the segments, and some of them have sparse vegetation.
They are located where snow, flooding, freeze–thaw cycles, and sandstorms are likely to
cause road damage.
 8 3.07 8 Greater Risk/III
9 2.25 6 Lower Risk/I
Zhongba
10 2.00 3 Lower Risk/I
Sustainability 2023, 15, 11443 Gar 11 3.77 17 14 of 19
Material Risk/IV
12 3.46 12 Material Risk/IV
Zanda
13 3.73 16 Material Risk/IV
Table 6. Ranking of segments based
14 on assessment results.
1.91 2 Lower Risk/I
Nyima
County Name 15
Segment Number 3.60
R 15Rank Material Risk/IV
Assessment Result
Shenza
Namling 1 16 1.75
2.79 1 7 Lower Risk/I
General Risk/II
Baingoin 17 3.35 11 Greater Risk/III
Yadong 2 3.07 9 Greater Risk/III
Note: Classification by natural breakpoint method (Lower Risk/I: 1 ≤ 𝑅 ≤ 2.26; General Risk/ II:
𝑅 ≤ 2.79; Greater Risk/
2.26 <Kamba 3 III: 2.79 < 𝑅 ≤2.21 5
3.35; Material Risk/IV: 3.35 < Lower
𝑅 ≤ 5)Risk/I
4 3.11 10 Greater Risk/III
5 2.08 4 Lower Risk/I
Dinggye
6 3.58 14 Material Risk/IV
7 3.48 13 Material Risk/IV
Gyirong
8 3.07 8 Greater Risk/III
9 2.25 6 Lower Risk/I
Zhongba
10 2.00 3 Lower Risk/I
Gar 11 3.77 17 Material Risk/IV
12 3.46 12 Material Risk/IV
Zanda
13 3.73 16 Material Risk/IV
14 1.91 2 Lower Risk/I
Nyima
15 3.60 15 Material Risk/IV
Shenza 16 1.75 1 Lower Risk/I
Baingoin 17 3.35 11 Greater Risk/III
Note: Classification by natural breakpoint method (Lower Risk/I: 1 ≤ Rm ≤ 2.26; General Risk/II:
Figure
2.26 < Rm9.≤
Road
2.79; safety
Greaterrisk value2.79
Risk/III: distribution.
< Rm ≤ 3.35; Material Risk/IV: 3.35 < Rm ≤ 5).

The risks
The risks posed
posedbybySegments
Segments11,11,
13,13,
6, 15,
6, 7,
15,and
7, 12
andwere
12 evaluated as material
were evaluated (Figure
as material
10). They are all mountainous roads with generally small curves. There
(Figure 10). They are all mountainous roads with generally small curves. There is a is a significant
difference difference
significant in elevationinbetween
elevationthe segments,
between the and some of
segments, andthem
somehave sparsehave
of them vegetation.
sparse
They are located
vegetation. where
They are snow,
located flooding,
where freeze–thaw
snow, flooding, cycles, and
freeze–thaw sandstorms
cycles, are likelyare
and sandstorms to
causeto
likely road damage.
cause road damage.

Figure10.
Figure 10.Point
Pointcloud
cloudreconstruction
reconstruction models
models of of material
material riskrisk segments
segments andand
theirtheir actual
actual surround-
surroundings.
ings.
Segments 9, 3, 5, 10, 14, and 16 were rated as less risky (Figure 11). These segments
have a large radius of curvature and a slight longitudinal slope, but some are susceptible to
landslides, mudslides, and freeze–thaw cycles.
We then calculated each road segment’s index of road alignment, environment, and
natural disasters as a proportion of the risk value (Figure 12).
The results indicated that alignment risk accounts for a more significant proportion
of greater and material risk roads. It is distinct from environmental and disaster risks.
For roads in Tibet, ensuring safe alignment is the primary objective. However, there are
portions of the segments in which environmental and natural disaster risks are the primary
causes. For instance, the leading cause of Segment 16’s risk is its environment (Figure 13).
 Segments 9, 3, 5, 10, 14, and 16 were rated as less risky (Figure 11). These segment
have a large radius of curvature and a slight longitudinal slope, but some are susceptibl
Sustainability2023,
Sustainability 2023,15,
15,11443 to landslides, mudslides, and freeze–thaw cycles.
x FOR PEER REVIEW 15
15 of 19
of 19

Segments
A steep 9, 3, 5,slope
topographic 10, 14,
andand
the16potential
were rated as less rocks
for falling risky (Figure
surround11).
theThese
road.segments
Natural
have a large
disasters radius of5 curvature
in Segment (Figure 13)and
areathe
slight longitudinal
primary slope,
reason for roadbut some
risk. It isare susceptible
subject to soil
to landslides,
sanding, mudslides,
and the moving dunesand freeze–thaw
can bury thecycles.
road.

Figure 11. Point cloud reconstruction models of lower risk segments and their actual surround-
ings.

We then calculated each road segment’s index of road alignment, environment, and
natural
Figure
Figure 11.disasters
11. Point cloudas
Point cloud a proportion
reconstruction
reconstruction of the
models
models of risk value
oflower
lower (Figure
risksegments
risk segments 12).
and
and theiractual
their actualsurroundings.
surround-
ings.
4.5 0.8
We then calculated
Alignmenteach road segment’s
risk value Percentage
index ofof alignment risk
road alignment, environment, and
Environmental risk value Percentage of environmental risk
4.0disastersNatural
natural as a proportion of the riskPercentage
disaster risk value
value (Figure 12).disaster risk
of natural 0.7
4.5
3.5 0.8

Percentage of each part

Percentage of alignment risk
Alignment risk value
Environmental risk value Percentage of environmental risk
0.6
4.0
3.0 Natural disaster risk value Percentage of natural disaster risk 0.7
0.5
Risk Value

3.5

Percentage of each part

2.5 0.6
3.0 0.4
2.0 0.5
Risk Value

2.5
1.5 0.3
2.0 0.4
1.0 0.2
1.5 0.3
0.5
1.0 0.2 0.1
0.0
0.5
11 13 15 6 7 12 17 4 2 8 1 9 3 5 10 140.1
16
0.0 UAV shooting point number
11 13 15 6 7 12 17 4 2 8 1 9 3 5 10 14 16
Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Figure 12.Ranking
Ranking of road safety risk values and calculation of the percentage 16 of 19
Figure 12. ofUAV
road shooting
safety point
risk values and number
calculation of the percentage of each partofaccording
each part accord
ing to risk category.
to risk category.
Figure 12. Ranking of road safety risk values and calculation of the percentage of each part accord-
ing to risk category.
The results indicated that alignment risk accounts for a more significant proportion
of greater and material risk roads. It is distinct from environmental and disaster risks. Fo
The results indicated that alignment risk accounts for a more significant proportion
roads in Tibet, ensuring
of greater and material risk safe
roads.alignment is from
It is distinct the primary objective.
environmental However,
and disaster there
risks. For are por
tions in
roads of Tibet,
the segments
ensuring insafewhich environmental
alignment is the primary and naturalHowever,
objective. disaster risks
there are the primary
are por-
causes. For instance, the leading cause of Segment 16’s risk is its
tions of the segments in which environmental and natural disaster risks are the primaryenvironment (Figure 13)
A steepFor
causes. topographic
instance, theslope
leadingand the of
cause potential
Segmentfor 16’sfalling rocks
risk is its surround(Figure
environment the road.13). Natura
A steep topographic
disasters in Segment slope and the13)
5 (Figure potential
are thefor falling rocks
primary reason surround
for roadthe road.
risk. Natural
It is subject to soi
disasters
sanding,inand Segment 5 (Figure
the moving 13) are
dunes canthebury
primary reason for road risk. It is subject to soil
the road.
sanding, and the moving dunes can bury the road.

Figure13.
Figure 13.Point
Pointcloud
cloud reconstruction
reconstruction models
models of Segment
of Segment 16 and16 and Segment
Segment 5 and
5 and their their
actual actual sur-
surroundings.
roundings.

6. Conclusions and Discussion

Highland roads, unlike urban roads, are low-volume traffic roads. Influenced by ge-
ographical factors, they often have problems such as an unreasonable road alignment de-
sign, unsafe road environments, and a lack of management data. Therefore, it is necessary
Sustainability 2023, 15, 11443 16 of 19

6. Conclusions and Discussion

Highland roads, unlike urban roads, are low-volume traffic roads. Influenced by
geographical factors, they often have problems such as an unreasonable road alignment
design, unsafe road environments, and a lack of management data. Therefore, it is necessary
to study a suitable assessment method for plateau road traffic safety. However, obtaining
road safety measurements on the Tibetan Plateau is dangerous. To address these challenges,
we first introduced LiDAR into road safety risk assessment and proposed a set of assessment
index systems and extraction methods applicable to the plateau. The above are essential
contributions to our study.
Based on the point cloud data from UAV LiDAR and open-source data, we selected
seventeen road segments on the Tibetan plateau for road safety risk assessment. We ana-
lyzed different factors affecting road safety by combining special topography conditions
and harsh environmental features. Finally, we integrated 3D road alignments, the environ-
ment, and natural disaster components into the method in order to build a risk assessment
framework applicable to the plateau. The entropy and linear weighted sum methods were
introduced in order to calculate the risk value. This value indicates the risk level and
ranking order of the road segments. The framework enables the safety levels of different
risky road segments to be assessed and ultimately identifies the safety of specific locations.
In addition, the framework can be used to identify dangerous road segments and the main
factors limiting the road system’s safety. This study helps highland road managers to
manage and maintain the road infrastructure in the absence of human management re-
sources and historical data on road traffic safety accidents. This study provides an excellent
opportunity to answer key research questions: What factors influence road safety risk in
the highlands? How can the safety and efficiency of road safety audits be improved in
the highlands?
The specific results of the case studies are as follows: the road sections with high-risk
rankings are all located in the southwestern part of the Tibet region. The high-risk road
segments are mountainous roads with a small curve radius and are in areas prone to natural
disasters. Low-risk road segments generally have better road alignment, but their environ-
mental and disaster risks cannot be ignored, as they can cause accidents [22]. Observing
the proportion of the three risk elements separately, we found that road alignment is more
significant for the higher-risk road segments, consistent with Antonio et al.’s study [26].
For roads in Tibet, ensuring safe alignment is the primary goal. Although it is difficult to
change the alignment due to the topographic constraints, we can still take measures to
mitigate the risks. Road managers can establish a traffic management system on sharply
curved, longitudinal slope sections, install warning/slow-down signs and vibrating belts,
and regularly maintain road traffic signs and markings. Traffic safety investments should
be prioritized for road sections with a small curve radius.
Although we study the Tibetan Plateau as an example, our proposed framework can
be extended to other hazard-prone areas and high-altitude regions. Several extensions are
anticipated in our future work. The application of UAV LiDAR to analyze road 3D data
is still in its preliminary exploration stage. We can continue to expand and propose more
diverse and efficient road index extraction algorithms. In addition, the construction and
maintenance of transportation infrastructure in highland areas are complex and costly, so
road infrastructure can also be included in the assessment system in the future.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Y.Z. and H.Z.; Methodology, Y.Z. and H.Z.; Software,
Y.Z.; Validation, X.D., Y.X. and J.L.; Formal Analysis, Y.Z.; Investigation, Y.Z. and H.Z.; Resources,
H.Z.; Data Curation, X.D. and Y.Z.; Writing—Original Draft Preparation, Y.Z., X.D. and H.Z.;
Writing—Review and Editing, Y.Z., X.D., Y.X., J.L. and H.Z.; Visualization, Y.Z.; Supervision, Y.Z. and
H.Z.; Project Administration, H.Z.; Funding Acquisition, Y.Z. and H.Z. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Sustainability 2023, 15, 11443 17 of 19

Funding: This research was supported by The Second Tibetan Plateau Scientific Expedition and
Research Project (12806-212000007) and Project Supported by State Key Laboratory of Earth Surface
Processes and Resource Ecology.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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