HAJEE MOHAMMAD DANESH SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY,

DINAJPUR 5200.

An Assignment on
STRATEGIES ON GENE EXPRESSING AND ITS CONTROL

Course Title: Molecular Genetics

Course Code: FBG 504

Submitted To:
Dr. Md.Rashidul Isam
Associate Professor
Department of Fisheries Biology and Genetics
Faculty of Fisheries, HSTU.

Submitted By :
Md.Waliul Islam
Student ID: 1706012
M.S. Student
Session: July-December 2022
Faculty of Fisheries, HSTU.
 STRATEGIES ON GENE EXPRESSING AND ITS CONTROL
INTRODUCTION:
Gene expression is the phenotypic manifestation of a gene or genes by the processes of genetic
transcription and genetic translation. It is the process by which information from a gene is used
in the synthesis of a functional gene product that enables it to produce end products, protein or
non-coding RNA, and ultimately affect a phenotype, as the final effect. These products are often
proteins, but in non-protein-coding genes such as transfer RNA (tRNA) and small nuclear RNA
(snRNA), the product is a functional non-coding RNA. Gene expression is summarized in the
central dogma of molecular biology first formulated by Francis Crick in 1958, further developed
in his 1970 article, and expanded by the subsequent discoveries of reverse transcription and
RNA replication.
The process of gene expression is used by all known life—eukaryotes (including multicellular
organisms), prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea), and utilized by viruses—to generate the
macromolecular machinery for life.
In genetics, gene expression is the most fundamental level at which the genotype gives rise to
the phenotype, i.e., observable trait. The genetic information stored in DNA represents the
genotype, whereas the phenotype results from the "interpretation" of that information. Such
phenotypes are often displayed by the synthesis of proteins that control the organism's structure
and development, or that act as enzymes catalyzing specific metabolic pathways.
All steps in the gene expression process may be modulated (regulated), including the
transcription, RNA splicing, translation, and post-translational modification of a protein.
Regulation of gene expression gives control over the timing, location, and amount of a given
gene product (protein or ncRNA) present in a cell and can have a profound effect on the cellular
structure and function. Regulation of gene expression is the basis for cellular differentiation,
development, morphogenesis and the versatility and adaptability of any organism. Gene
regulation may therefore serve as a substrate for evolutionary change.
Genes encode proteins and proteins dictate cell function. Therefore, the thousands of genes
expressed in a particular cell determine what that cell can do. Moreover, each step in the flow
of information from DNA to RNA to protein provides the cell with a potential control point for
self-regulating its functions by adjusting the amount and type of proteins it manufactures.
At any given time, the amount of a particular protein in a cell reflects the balance between that
protein's synthetic and degradative biochemical pathways. On the synthetic side of this balance,
recall that protein production starts at transcription (DNA to RNA) and continues with
translation (RNA to protein). Thus, control of these processes plays a critical role in determining
what proteins are present in a cell and in what amounts. In addition, the way in which a cell
processes its RNA transcripts and newly made proteins also greatly influences protein levels.

DIFFERENT CELLS GENES EXPRESSING:

Only a fraction of the genes in a cell are expressed at any one time. The variety of gene
expression profiles characteristic of different cell types arise because these cells have distinct
sets of transcription regulators. Some of these regulators work to increase transcription, whereas
others prevent or suppress it.
Normally, transcription begins when an RNA polymerase binds to a so-called promoter
sequence on the DNA molecule. This sequence is almost always located just upstream from the
starting point for transcription (the 5' end of the DNA), though it can be located downstream of
the mRNA (3' end). In recent years, researchers have discovered that other DNA sequences,
known as enhancer sequences, also play an important part in transcription by providing binding
sites for regulatory proteins that affect RNA polymerase activity. Binding of regulatory proteins
to an enhancer sequence causes a shift in chromatin structure that either promotes or inhibits
RNA polymerase and transcription factor binding. A more open chromatin structure is
associated with active gene transcription. In contrast, a more compact chromatin structure is
associated with transcriptional inactivity (Figure 1).
Some regulatory proteins affect the transcription of multiple genes. This occurs because
multiple copies of the regulatory protein binding sites exist within the genome of a cell.
Consequently, regulatory proteins can have different roles for different genes, and this is one
mechanism by which cells can coordinate the regulation of many genes at once.

Figure 1: Modulation of transcription An activator protein bound to DNA at an upstream enhancer sequence can
attract proteins to the promoter region that activate RNA polymerase (green) and thus transcription. The DNA can
loop around on itself to cause this interaction between an activator protein and other proteins that mediate the
activity of RNA polymerase.

GENE EXPRESSION INCREASED OR DECREASED IN RESPONSE TO

ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE:
In prokaryotes, regulatory proteins are often controlled by nutrient availability. This allows
organisms such as bacteria to rapidly adjust their transcription patterns in response to
environmental conditions. In addition, regulatory sites on prokaryotic DNA are typically
located close to transcription promoter sites — and this plays an important part in gene
expression.
Figure 2: Transcription repression near the promoter region.
Molecules can interfere with RNA polymerase binding. An inactive repressor protein (blue)
can become activated by another molecule (red circle). This active repressor can bind to a region
near the promoter called an operator (yellow) and thus interfere with RNA polymerase binding
to the promoter, effectively preventing transcription.
For an example of how this works, imagine a bacterium with a surplus of amino acids that signal
the turning "on" of some genes and the turning "off" of others. In this example, cells might want
to turn "on" genes for proteins that metabolize amino acids and turn "off" genes for proteins
that synthesize amino acids. Some of these amino acids would bind to positive regulatory
proteins called activators. Activator proteins bind to regulatory sites on DNA nearby to
promoter regions that act as on/off switches. This binding facilitates RNA polymerase activity
and transcription of nearby genes. At the same time, however, other amino acids would bind to
negative regulatory proteins called repressors, which in turn bind to regulatory sites in the
DNA that effectively block RNA polymerase binding (Figure 3).
The control of gene expression in eukaryotes is more complex than that in prokaryotes. In
general, a greater number of regulatory proteins are involved, and regulatory binding sites may
be located quite far from transcription promoter sites. Also, eukaryotic gene expression is
usually regulated by a combination of several regulatory proteins acting together, which allows
for greater flexibility in the control of gene expression.

Figure 3 : The complexity of multiple regulators

Transcriptional regulators can each have a different role. Combinations of one, two, or three
regulators (blue, green, and yellow shapes) can affect transcription in different ways by
differentially affecting a mediator complex (orange), which is also composed of proteins. The
effect is that the same gene can be transcribed in multiple ways, depending on the combination,
presence, or absence of various transcriptional regulator proteins.
As previously mentioned, enhancer sequences are DNA sequences that are bound by an
activator protein, and they can be located thousands of base pairs away from a promoter, either
upstream or downstream from a gene. Activator protein binding is thought to cause DNA to
loop out, bringing the activator protein into physical proximity with RNA polymerase and the
other proteins in the complex that promote the initiation of transcription.
MECHANISMS:

Figure: An overview of the flow of information from DNA to protein in a eukaryote

TRANSCRIPTION:
The production of a RNA copy from a DNA strand is called transcription, and is performed by
RNA polymerases, which add one ribonucleotide at a time to a growing RNA strand as per the
complementarity law of the nucleotide bases. This RNA is complementary to the template 3′
→ 5′ DNA strand, with the exception that thymies (T) are replaced with uracils (U) in the RNA.

The process of transcription is carried out by RNA polymerase (RNAP), which uses DNA
(black) as a template and produces RNA (blue).
In prokaryotes, transcription is carried out by a single type of RNA polymerase, which needs
to bind a DNA sequence called a Pribnow box with the help of the sigma factor protein (σ
factor) to start transcription. In eukaryotes, transcription is performed in the nucleus by three
types of RNA polymerases, each of which needs a special DNA sequence called the promoter
and a set of DNA-binding proteins—transcription factors—to initiate the process (see
regulation of transcription below). RNA polymerase I is responsible for transcription of
ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes. RNA polymerase II (Pol II) transcribes all protein-coding genes
but also some non-coding RNAs (e.g., snRNAs, snoRNAs or long non-coding RNAs). RNA
polymerase III transcribes 5S rRNA, transfer RNA (tRNA) genes, and some small non-coding
RNAs (e.g., 7SK). Transcription ends when the polymerase encounters a sequence called the
terminator.
mRNA PROCESSING:
While transcription of prokaryotic protein-coding genes creates messenger RNA (mRNA) that
is ready for translation into protein, transcription of eukaryotic genes leaves a primary transcript
of RNA (pre-RNA), which first has to undergo a series of modifications to become a mature
RNA. Types and steps involved in the maturation processes vary between coding and non-
coding preRNAs; i.e. even though preRNA molecules for both mRNA and tRNA undergo
splicing, the steps and machinery involved are different. The processing of non-coding RNA is
described below (non-coding RNA maturation).
The processing of premRNA include 5′ capping, which is set of enzymatic reactions that add
7-methylguanosine (m7G) to the 5′ end of pre-mRNA and thus protect the RNA from
degradation by exonucleases. The m7G cap is then bound by cap binding complex heterodimer
(CBC20/CBC80), which aids in mRNA export to cytoplasm and also protects the RNA from
decamping.
Another modification is 3′ cleavage and polyadenylation. They occur if polyadenylation signal
sequence (5′- AAUAAA-3′) is present in pre-mRNA, which is usually between protein-coding
sequence and terminator. The pre-mRNA is first cleaved and then a series of ~200 adenines (A)
are added to form poly(A) tail, which protects the RNA from degradation. The poly(A) tail is
bound by multiple poly(A)-binding proteins (PABPs) necessary for mRNA export and
translation re-initiation. In the inverse process of deadenylating, poly(A) tails are shortened by
the CCR4-Not 3′-5′ exonuclease, which often leads to full transcript decay.

Illustration of exons and introns in pre-mRNA and the formation of mature mRNA by splicing.
The UTRs (in green) are non-coding parts of exons at the ends of the mRNA.
A very important modification of eukaryotic pre-mRNA is RNA splicing. The majority of
eukaryotic pre-mRNAs consist of alternating segments called exons and introns. During the
process of splicing, an RNA-protein catalytical complex known as spliceosome catalyzes two
transesterification reactions, which remove an intron and release it in form of lariat structure,
and then splice neighbouring exons together. In certain cases, some introns or exons can be
either removed or retained in mature mRNA. This so-called alternative splicing creates series
of different transcripts originating from a single gene. Because these transcripts can be
potentially translated into different proteins, splicing extends the complexity of eukaryotic gene
expression and the size of a species proteome.
Extensive RNA processing may be an evolutionary advantage made possible by the nucleus of
eukaryotes. In prokaryotes, transcription and translation happen together, whilst in eukaryotes,
the nuclear membrane separates the two processes, giving time for RNA processing to occur.
NON-CODING RNA MATURATION:
In most organisms non-coding genes (ncRNA) are transcribed as precursors that undergo
further processing. In the case of ribosomal RNAs (rRNA), they are often transcribed as a pre-
rRNA that contains one or more rRNAs. The pre-rRNA is cleaved and modified (2′-O-
methylation and pseudo uridine formation) at specific sites by approximately 150 diff erent
small nucleolus-restricted RNA species, called snoRNAs. SnoRNAs are associated with
proteins, forming snoRNPs. While snoRNA part base pair with the target RNA and thus
position the modification at a precise site, the protein part performs the catalytical reaction. In
eukaryotes, in particular a snoRNP called RNase, MRP cleaves the 45S pre-rRNA into the 28S,
5.8S, and 18S rRNAs. The rRNA and RNA processing factors form large aggregates called the
nucleolus.
In the case of transfer RNA (tRNA), for example, the 5′ sequence is removed by RNase P,
whereas the 3′ end is removed by the tRNase Z enzyme and the non-templated 3′ CCA tail is
added by a nucleotidyl transferase. In the case of micro RNA (miRNA), miRNAs are first
transcribed as primary transcripts or pri-miRNA with a cap and poly-A tail and processed to
short, 70-nucleotide stem-loop structures known as pre-miRNA in the cell nucleus by the
enzymes Drosha and Pasha. After being exported, it is then processed to mature miRNAs in the
cytoplasm by interaction with the endonuclease Dicer, which also initiates the formation of the
RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC), composed of the Argonaute protein.
Even snRNAs and snoRNAs themselves undergo series of modification before they become
part of functional RNP complex. This is done either in the nucleoplasm or in the specialized
compartments called Cajal bodies. Their bases are methylated or pseudouridinilated by a group
of small Cajal body-specific RNAs (scaRNAs), which are structurally similar to snoRNAs.

RNA EXPORT:
In eukaryotes most mature RNA must be exported to the cytoplasm from the nucleus. While
some RNAs function in the nucleus, many RNAs are tran sported through the nuclear pores and
into the cytosol. Export of RNAs requires association with specific proteins known as exportins.
Specific exportin molecules are responsible for the export of a given RNA type. mRNA
transport also requires the correct association with Exon Junction Complex (EJC), which
ensures that correct processing of the mRNA is completed before export. In some cases, RNAs
are additionally transported to a specific part of the cytoplasm, such as a synapse; they are then
towed by motor proteins that bind through linker proteins to specific sequences (called "zip
codes") on the RNA.
TRANSLATION:
For some RNA (non-coding RNA) the mature RNA is the final gene product. In the case of
messenger RNA (mRNA) the RNA is an information carrier coding for the synthesis of one or
more proteins. mRNA carrying a single protein sequence (common in eukaryotes) is
monocistronic whilst mRNA carrying multiple protein sequences (common in prokaryotes) is
known as polycistronic.

During the translation, tRNA charged with amino acid enters the ribosome and aligns with the
correct mRNA triplet. Ribosome then adds amino acid to growing protein chain.
Every mRNA consists of three parts: a 5′ untranslated region (5′UTR), a protein-coding region
or open reading frame (ORF), and a 3′ untranslated region (3′UTR). The coding region carries
information for protein synthesis encoded by the genetic code to form triplets. Each triplet of
nucleotides of the coding region is called a codon and corresponds to a binding site
complementary to an anticodon triplet in transfer RNA. Transfer RNAs with the same anticodon
sequence always carry an identical type of amino acid. Amino acids are then chained together
by the ribosome according to the order of triplets in the coding region. The ribosome helps
transfer RNA to bind to messenger RNA and takes the amino acid from each transfer RNA and
makes a structure-less protein out of it. Each mRNA molecule is translated into many protein
molecules, on average ~2800 in mammals
In prokaryotes translation generally occurs at the point of transcription (co-transcriptionally),
often using a messenger RNA that is still in the process of being created. In eukaryotes
translation can occur in a variety of regions of the cell depending on where the protein being
written is supposed to be. Major locations are the cytoplasm for soluble cytoplasmic proteins
and the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum for proteins that are for export from the cell or
insertion into a cell membrane. Proteins that are supposed to be produced at the endoplasmic
reticulum are recognised part-way through the translation process. This is governed by the
signal recognition particle—a protein that binds to the ribosome and directs it to the
endoplasmic reticulum when it finds a signal peptide on the growing (nascent) amino acid chain
FOLDING:
Protein before (left) and after (right) folding Each protein exists as an unfolded polypeptide or
random coil when translated from a sequence of mRNA into a linear chain of amino acids. This
polypeptide lacks any developed three-dimensional structure (the left-hand side of the
neighboring figure). The polypeptide then folds into its characteristic and functional three-
dimensional structure from a random coil.Amino acids interact with each other to produce a
well-defined three-dimensional structure, the folded protein (the right-hand side of the figure)
known as the native state. The resulting three-dimensional structure is determined by the amino
acid sequence (Anfinsen's dogma).

The correct three-dimensional structure is essential to function, although some parts of

functional proteins may remain unfolded. Failure to fold into the intended shape usually
produces inactive proteins with different properties including toxic prions. Several
neurodegenerative and other diseases are believed to result from the accumulation of misfolded
proteins. Many allergies are caused by the folding of the proteins, for the immune system does
not produce antibodies for certain protein structures.
Enzymes called chaperones assist the newly formed protein to attain (fold into) the 3-
dimensional structure it needs to function. Similarly, RNA chaperones help RNAs attain their
functional shapes. Assisting protein folding is one of the main roles of the endoplasmic
reticulum in eukaryotes.

TRANSLOCATION:
Secretory proteins of eukaryotes or prokaryotes must be translocated to enter the secretory
pathway. Newly synthesized proteins are directed to the eukaryotic Sec61 or prokaryotic
SecYEG translocation channel by signal peptides. The efficiency of protein secretion in
eukaryotes is very dependent on the signal peptide which has been used.
PROTEIN TRANSPORT :
Many proteins are destined for other parts of the cell than the cytosol and a wide range of
signalling sequences or (signal peptides) are used to direct proteins to where they are supposed
to be. In prokaryotes this is normally a simple process due to limited compartmentalisation of
the cell. However, in eukaryotes there is a great variety of different targeting processes to ensure
the protein arrives at the correct organelle.
Not all proteins remain within the cell and many are exported, for example, digestive enzymes,
hormones and extracellular matrix proteins. In eukaryotes the export pathway is well developed
and the main mechanism for the export of these proteins is translocation to the endoplasmic
reticulum, followed by transport via the Golgi apparatus.
REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION:
Regulation of gene expression is the control of the amount and timing of appearance of the
functional product of a gene. Control of expression is vital to allow a cell to produce the gene
products it needs when it needs them; in turn, this gives cells the flexibility to adapt to a variable
environment, external signals, damage to the cell, and other stimuli. More generally, gene
regulation gives the cell control over all structure and function, and is the basis for cellula r
differentiation, morphogenesis and the versatility and adaptability of any organism.
Numerous terms are used to describe types of genes depending on how they are regulated; these
include:
• A constitutive gene is a gene that is transcribed continually as opposed to a facultative
gene, which is only transcribed when needed.
• A housekeeping gene is a gene that is required to maintain basic cellular function and
so is typically expressed in all cell types of an organism. Examples include actin,
GAPDH and ubiquitin. Some housekeeping genes are transcribed at a relatively
constant rate and these genes can be used as a reference point in experiments to measure
the expression rates of other genes.
• A facultative gene is a gene only transcribed when needed as opposed to a constitutive
gene.
• An inducible gene is a gene whose expression is either responsive to environmental
change or dependent on the position in the cell cycle.
Any step of gene expression may be modulated, from the DNA-RNA transcription step to post-
translational modification of a protein. The stability of the final gene product, whether it is RNA
or protein, also contributes to the expression level of the gene—an unstable product results in
a low expression level. In general gene expression is regulated through changes in the number
and type of interactions between molecules that collectively influence transcription of DNA
and translation of RNA. Some simple examples of where gene expression is important are:

• Control of insulin expression gives a signal for blood glucose regulation.

• X chromosome inactivation in female mammals to prevent an "overdose" of the genes
it contains.
• Cyclin expression levels control progression through the eukaryotic cell cycle.

TRANSCRIPTIONAL REGULATION:
Regulation of transcription can be broken down into three main routes of influence; genetic
(direct interaction of a control factor with the gene), modulation interaction of a control factor
with the transcription machinery and epigenetic (non-sequence changes in DNA structure that
influence transcription).
The lambda repressor transcription factor (green) binds as a dimer to major groove o f DNA
target (red and blue) and disables initiation of transcription. From PDB: 1LMB.
Direct interaction with DNA is the simplest and the most direct method by which a protein
changes transcription level. Genes often have several protein binding sites around the coding
region with the specific function of regulating transcription. There are many classes of
regulatory DNA binding sites known as enhancers, insulators and silencers. The mechanisms
for regulating transcription are varied, from blocking key binding sites on the DNA for RNA
polymerase to acting as an activator and promoting transcription by assisting RNA polymerase
binding. The activity of transcription factors is further modulated by intracellular signals
causing protein post-translational modification including phosphorylation, acetylation, or
glycosylation. These changes influence a transcription factor's ability to bind, directly or
indirectly, to promoter DNA, to recruit RNA polymerase, or to favor elongation of a newly
synthesized RNA molecule.
The nuclear membrane in eukaryotes allows further regulation of transcription factors by the
duration of their presence in the nucleus, which is regulated by reversible changes in their
structure and by binding of other proteins. Environmental stimuli or endocrine signals may
cause modification of regulatory proteins eliciting cascades of intracellular signals, which result
in regulation of gene expression.
It has become apparent that there is a significant influence of non-DNA-sequence specific
effects on transcription. These effects are referred to as epigenetic and involve the higher order
structure of DNA, non-sequence specific DNA binding proteins and chemical modification of
DNA. In general, epigenetic effects alter the accessibility of DNA to proteins and so modulate
transcription.
In eukaryotes the structure of chromatin, controlled by the histone code, regulates access to
DNA with significant impacts on the expression of genes in euchromatin and heterochromatin
areas.
DNA METHYLATION AND DEMETHYLATION IN
TRANSCRIPTIONAL REGULATION:

DNA methylation is the addition of a methyl group to the DNA that happens at cytosine. The
image shows a cytosine single ring base and a methyl group added on to the 5 carbons. In
mammals, DNA methylation occurs almost exclusively at a cytosine that is followed by a
guanine.
DNA methylation is a widespread mechanism for epigenetic influence on gene expression and
is seen in bacteria and eukaryotes and has roles in heritable transcription silencing and
transcription regulation. Methylation most often occurs on a cytosine (see Figure). Methylation
of cytosine primarily occurs in dinucleotide sequences where a cytosine is followed by a
guanine, a CpG site. The number of CpG sites in the human genome is about 28 million.
Depending on the type of cell, about 70% of the CpG sites have methylated
cytosine.Methylation of cytosine in DNA has a major role in regulating gene expression.
Methylation of CpGs in a promoter region of a gene usually represses gene transcription while
methylation of CpGs in the body of a gene increases expression.TET enzymes play a central
role in demethylation of methylated cytosines. Demethylation of CpGs in a gene promoter by
TET enzyme activity increases transcription of the gene.
TRANSCRIPTIONAL REGULATION IN CANCER :
The majority of gene promoters contain a CpG island with numerous CpG sites.When many of
a gene's promoter CpG sites are methylated the gene becomes silenced.Colorectal cancers
typically have 3 to 6 driver mutations and 33 to 66 hitchhiker or passenger mutations. However,
transcriptional silencing may be of more importance than mutation in causing progression to
cancer. For example, in colorectal cancers about 600 to 800 genes are transcriptionally silenced
by CpG island methylation (see regulation of transcription in cancer). Transcriptional
repression in cancer can also occur by other epigenetic mechanisms, such as altered expression
of microRNAs. In breast cancer, transcriptional repression of BRCA1 may occur more
frequently by over-transcribed microRNA-182 than by hypermethylation of the BRCA1
promoter.
Post-transcriptional regulation In eukaryotes, where export of RNA is required before
translation is possible, nuclear export is thought to provide additional control over gene
expression. All transport in and out of the nucleus is via the nuclear pore and transport is
controlled by a wide range of importin and exportin proteins. Expression of a gene coding for
a protein is only possible if the messenger RNA carrying the code survives long enough to be
translated. In a typical cell, an RNA molecule is only stable if specifically protected from
degradation. RNA degradation has particular importance in regulation of expression in
eukaryotic cells where mRNA has to travel significant distances before being translated. In
eukaryotes, RNA is stabilized by certain post-transcriptional modifications, particularly the 5′
cap and poly-adenylated tail.
Intentional degradation of mRNA is used not just as a defiance mechanism from foreign RNA
(normally from viruses) but also as a route of mRNA destabilization. If an mRNA molecule
has a complementary sequence to a small interfering RNA, then it is targeted for destruction
via the RNA interference pathway.
Translational regulation:
Neomycin is an example of a small molecule that reduces expression of all protein genes
inevitably leading to cell death; it thus acts as an antibiotic. Direct regulation of translation is
less prevalent than control of transcription or mRNA stability but is occasionally used.
Inhibition of protein translation is a major target for toxins and antibiotics, so they can kill a
cell by overriding its normal gene expression control. Protein synthesis inhibitors include the
antibiotic neomycin and the toxin ricin.
POST-TRANSLATIONAL MODIFICATIONS:
Post-translational modifications (PTMs) are covalent modifications to proteins. Like RNA
splicing, they help to significantly diversify the proteome. These modifications are usually
catalyzed by enzymes. Additionally, processes like covalent additions to amino acid side chain
residues can often be reversed by other enzymes. However, some, like the proteolytic cleavage
of the protein backbone, are irreversible.
PTMs play many important roles in the cell. For example, phosphorylation is primarily involved
in activating and deactivating proteins and in signaling pathways. PTMs are involved in
transcriptional regulation: an important function of acetylation and methylation is histone tail
modification, which alters how accessible DNA is for transcription.They can also be seen in
the immune system, where glycosylation plays a key role. One type of PTM can initiate another
type of PTM, as can be seen in how ubiquitination tags proteins for degradation through
proteolysis. Proteolysis, other than being involved in breaking down proteins, is also important
in activating and deactivating them, and in regulating biological processes such as DNA
transcription and cell death.
CONCLUSION:
Genes encode proteins and proteins dictate cell function. Therefore, the thousands of genes
expressed in a particular cell determine what that cell can do. Moreover, each step in the flow
of information from DNA to RNA to protein provides the cell with a potential control point for
self-regulating its functions by adjusting the amount and type of proteins it manufactures. To
live, cells must be able to respond to changes in their environment. Regulation of the two main
steps of protein production — transcription and translation — is critical to this adaptability.
Cells can control which genes get transcribed and which transcripts get translated; further, they
can biochemically process transcripts and proteins in order to affect their activity. Regulation
of transcription and translation occurs in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, but it is far more
complex in eukaryotes.
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