DESIGNING, MODELING AND FABRICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEM FOR A RAM-AIR PARACHUTE

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Need for an Autonomous control system for a ram air parachute

Ram air parachutes are used in both the commercial and defense sectors to ensure safety,
effective operations, and people deployment. However, the incorporation of autonomously
operated systems within these parachutes has become increasingly important, providing a range
of benefits that directly meet the needs and difficulties of modern operations.

Autonomously controlled ram air parachutes are critical for improving safety and precision in the
commercial sector, particularly in operations such as skydiving, cargo delivery, and aerial
firefighting. These technologies can detect environmental parameters such as wind speed and
direction and change the parachute's flight independently to achieve a more accurate landing. This
level of control greatly minimizes the margin for human error, mitigates hazards, and improves
overall operational safety, instilling greater trust in users and stakeholders.

Furthermore, in the defense industry, the use of autonomously operated ram air parachutes is
extremely significant. Precision, stealth, and dependability are required for military paradrops
including people insertion, equipment delivery, or humanitarian supplies. An autonomously
controlled device may adjust dynamically to changing battlefield conditions, ensuring that the
payload drops exactly where it is supposed to while avoiding potential hazards. Furthermore,
these systems can be used with modern technology such as GPS and inertial navigation systems
to enable precision targeting and mission success even in dangerous circumstances.

The use of autonomous control systems further improves operational efficiency and flexibility. In
commercial applications, this means faster and more effective cargo delivery, shorter turnaround
times, and fulfilling strict deadlines. The ability to adapt to changing events without direct human
intervention can be a game changer in defense scenarios, delivering tactical advantages and
saving essential time in important operations.

Furthermore, the usage of autonomously operated ram air parachutes in both the commercial and
defense sectors is consistent with the current trend towards automation and unmanned systems. It
allows for seamless coordination and collaboration within a larger operational framework by
facilitating the integration of small parachutes with bigger unmanned aerial systems (UAS).

While the use of autonomously operated systems in ram air parachutes has several advantages,
issues such as guaranteeing robustness, reliability, and compliance with safety rules must be
carefully considered. To ensure the effectiveness and integrity of these systems, rigorous testing,
validation, and continual technological developments are required.

Finally, the introduction of autonomously controlled systems in ram air parachutes has numerous
benefits in both the commercial and defense sectors. These technologies offer a huge leap
forward in the evolution of parachute technology, addressing the ever-increasing demands of

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 DESIGNING, MODELING AND FABRICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEM FOR A RAM-AIR PARACHUTE

modern missions and operations by boosting safety and precision, as well as operational
efficiency and adaptability.
1.2 Types of Parachute Configurations

Round Parachute

One of the earliest designs is the round parachute, which has a circular canopy form that collects
air when deployed. This traditional parachute design is distinguished by its simplicity,
dependability, and ease of usage. Round parachutes were frequently used in military purposes,
particularly for soldier drops and supply deliveries during World War II. They provide a very
stable fall but lack the manoeuvrabilityand control that more recent versions provide. The round
parachute functions on the drag principle, resulting in a slower descent rate than freefall. While
they are less widely used for recreational skydiving nowadays due to their limited control, they
are nevertheless used in some emergency situations and training exercises when simplicity and
dependability are essential.

Ram Air Parachute

The ram air parachute, commonly known as the square parachute, has a rectangular or square
canopy made up of separate cells that inflate during descent. When compared to circular
parachutes, this design provides improved maneuverability, control, and stability. Because of
their adaptability and controllability, ram air parachutes are frequently employed in sports
skydiving, military operations, and cargo delivery. These parachutes generate lift and forward
movement by allowing air to enter and inflate the cells, allowing skydivers to steer and control
their descent. Ram air parachutes are the favored choice for most skydiving enthusiasts and
professionals due to their ability to maneuver and regulate the parachute's direction and speed,
providing a more dynamic and exciting experience.

Paraglider

A paraglider is a sort of parachute that looks like a non-rigid, elliptical wing. Paragliders are
used for slow, soaring flights, as opposed to regular parachutes, which are meant for fast fall
and deployment. These canopies are mostly used in paragliding, a sport in which pilots launch
from hills or cliffs and use rising air currents to achieve altitude and sustain flight. Paragliders
are made of lightweight, long-lasting materials and have numerous cells that form an inflatable
wing structure. Pilots can control the direction and speed of the paraglider by changing their
weight and manipulating the risers attached to the canopy. This style of parachute is popular
with leisure fliers because it provides an exhilarating and tranquil experience of soaring and
gliding through the air for extended periods of time.

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 DESIGNING, MODELING AND FABRICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEM FOR A RAM-AIR PARACHUTE

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

1.1. Literature survey 1:

[1] Gordon Strickert, Study on the relative motion of parafoil-load-systems, Aerospace

Science and Technology, Volume 8, Issue 6, 2004, Pages 479-488, ISSN 1270-9638,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ast.2004.04.003.
(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1270963804000409)

The study examines the relative motion between the parafoil canopy and payload in
the experimental vehicle ALEX, focusing on the flexible textile linkage between the parafoil
and load. The study characterizes different types of relative motions and their impact on the
vehicle's flight qualities. A sensor system is designed to record relative motion during flight
tests, and flight data is acquired using a customized video-measurement system and image
processing algorithms. The parafoil-load system is modeled in a computer simulation
environment, and parameters are estimated and validated using additional flight test data.
These computer models are used for simulation studies to analyze the effects of relative
motion, providing measurement improvements and deeper insights into flight mechanics. The
study concludes with a discussion of the applicability of the proposed methods for future
projects.

1.2. Literature survey 2

[2] Ward, Michael; Costello, Mark; and Slegers, Nathan, "On the Benefits of In-Flight System
Identification for Autonomous Airdrop Systems" (2010). Faculty Publications - Biomedical,
Mechanical, and Civil Engineering. 10. https://digitalcommons.georgefox.edu/mece_fac/10

Airdrop systems are characterized by their inherent variability in flight dynamic characteristics,
which can lead to significantly different responses for the same physical article dropped on

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 DESIGNING, MODELING AND FABRICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEM FOR A RAM-AIR PARACHUTE

different occasions. Autonomous airdrop systems often assume knowledge of these

characteristics, but the question arises whether to use precomputed dynamic characteristics or
compute them in-flight. This paper identifies when in-flight identified characteristics should be
used, focusing on turn rate dynamics, and when precomputed results are better. It shows that in-
flight identification generally produces more accurate dynamic behavior of lateral dynamics than
a precomputed model of the nominal system, even with highly inaccurate sensor data. However,
in high atmospheric winds and without direct heading measurements, a precomputed estimate of
the time constant of lateral dynamics is more accurate. These conclusions were reached through a
comprehensive simulation study using a validated airdrop flight dynamic model applied to both
small and large parafoils.

Literature Gap: From the above papers we have understood the research done on the
components. We take the calculations from these papers and modelled our components with
respect to the dimensions calculated.

1.3. Objectives

The objective of this project will be to demonstrate the following points:

 Designing a control system for Ram-Air Parachute.

 Modelling the control system for Ram-Air Parachute.
 Fabricating the control system for Ram-Air Parachute.
 Testing the control system for Ram-Air Parachute.

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 DESIGNING, MODELING AND FABRICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEM FOR A RAM-AIR PARACHUTE

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

1. 3. Control
2. Sensor 4. Hardware
Requirements Algorithm
Integration Selection
Analysis Development

5. Software 6. Testing and 8. Redundancy

7. Field Testing
Selection Simulation and Fail-Safes

11. Data 12.

9. Regulatory 10. User
Logging and Maintenance
Compliance Interface
Analysis and Upkeep

13. Scaling and 14. Continuous

Deployment Improvement

The steps we will be following in the designing of the Autonomous Control System for Cargo
Delivery Paraglider are as follows:

1. Requirements Analysis: We begin by defining the specific requirements of the autonomous

paraglider system, including payload capacity, range, and environmental conditions.

2. Sensor Integration: Selection and method integration of a range of sensors such as GPS,
altimeters, accelerometers, and weather sensors to provide real-time data for navigation and
control.

3. Control Algorithm Development: Development of a sophisticated control algorithms that

combine sensor data with predefined flight paths, obstacle detection, and decision-making
logic to ensure safe and accurate navigation.

4. Hardware Selection: Selecting of suitable hardware components, including actuators for

wing control and payload release mechanisms, as well as a robust onboard computer for real-
time data processing.

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 DESIGNING, MODELING AND FABRICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEM FOR A RAM-AIR PARACHUTE

5. Software Development: Writing and optimizing software for the control system,
encompassing flight planning, path following, collision avoidance, and emergency protocols.

6. Testing and Simulation: Conduct rigorous simulations and testing in controlled

environments to validate the system's functionality and safety measures.

7. Field Testing: Performing of extensive field testing, gradually increasing complexity and
risk to evaluate real-world performance and reliability.

8. Redundancy and Fail-Safes: Minimization of parts in critical components and incorporating

fail-safe mechanisms to handle unexpected situations

9. Regulatory Compliance: Ensuring compliance with aviation regulations and obtain

necessary approvals and certifications.

10. User Interface: Adapting a user-friendly interface for operators to monitor and override
the system when required.

11. Data Logging and Analysis: Collecting data logging for post-flight analysis, allowing for
system optimization and troubleshooting.

12. Maintenance and Upkeep: Establishing a maintenance schedule and protocols for regular
inspection, calibration, and software updates.

13. Scaling and Deployment: Once the system is proven effective, we intend to scale up the
deployment of autonomous cargo paragliders, considering logistical and operational factors.

14. Continuous Improvement: Continuously monitor performance, gather feedback, and

iterate on the system to enhance efficiency, safety, and payload delivery capabilities.

To develop a prototype of the system where it can safely operate and be deployed on cargo
weighing 15 to 20 kgs. The Methodology would be followed till step 11. And further
development would be done based on the results obtained from the data collected and
analyzed.

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 DESIGNING, MODELING AND FABRICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEM FOR A RAM-AIR PARACHUTE

3.1 Requirements for the Project

In order to guarantee the effectiveness, accuracy, and security of cargo delivery, a number of
crucial elements must be included in the specifications for the construction of an
autonomously controlled parachute. These requirements can be categorized into key elements:

1. Parachutes: The parachute needs to be able to land objects without damaging anything
and be nimble and precise. Furthermore, it should be simple to steer and control,
highlighting the necessity of a smooth transition between autonomous control and
aerodynamic principles.

2. Actuators: Actuators are essential to the accurate control of the parachute because they
need to be responsive, space-efficient so that they fit into the system seamlessly,
sensitive to small inputs, and have the necessary force and torque capabilities.

3. Controller: The controller system comprises integral components for effective

autonomous operation:

 Computer: This main part receives and interprets data from multiple sensors,
runs the necessary algorithms, and produces the right outputs for parachute
control.

 Sensors: A variety of sensors, such as GPS for tracking location, an altimeter

for measuring altitude, a gyroscope for orientation, and an accelerometer for
data on acceleration, enable real-time data collection.

4. Battery: All of the systems need a steady supply of power to run the parachute's entire
flight, from start to finish. An essential component for providing power to the
actuators, sensors, and control system is the battery.

5. Communications Module: A communications module is included to improve

monitoring capabilities and make updates easier. This module gives the option for
manual intervention in inclement weather and allows real-time communication for
tracking the flight path.

6. Frame: The payload and parachute attachment points are accommodated by a sturdy
structural frame. This guarantees structural integrity and stability during the cargo
delivery procedure.

7. Fail-Safe Mechanisms: These are designed to minimize damage to cargo and prevent

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deviation from the intended flight path in the event of a system failure. By serving as
precautions, these actions improve the autonomous parachute system's overall
dependability.

3.2 Components of Parafoil/payload System

Canopy
The canopy is the main lifting surface of the parafoil/payload system. The canopy has upper
and lower membrane surfaces, an airfoil cross-section, and a rectangular planform. The airfoil
section is formed by airfoil-shaped ribs sewn chord wise between the upper and lower
membrane surface at a number of span wise intervals forming a series of cells. The leading
edge is open over its entire span so that ram air pressure maintains the wing shape. The fabric
used for parafoil construction is as impervious as possible to obviate pressure loss. The
canopy consists of the following components:

 Pennants

Some parafoils have triangular fabric panel “pennants” distributed along the lower surface
to which suspension lines are attached. In addition to evenly distributing aerodynamic
load to suspension lines and thus helping to maintain the lower surface profile, these
panels partially channel the flow into two-dimensional pattern, reducing tip loss and also
aid directional stability. The penalty is to be paid in weight, bulk and constructional
complexity.

 Stabilizer panels

Stabilizer panels are attached at both ends of the canopy. They are often used to provide
partial end-plating. They also enhance directional stability of the parafoil.

 Ribs

Ribs join the upper and lower surfaces. There are two types of ribs - load bearing and non-
load bearing. Load-bearing ribs have attachment points for suspension lines. Cross-port
vents are cut in the ribs to allow airflow between cells to ensure even pressurization across

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the entire canopy.

 Cell

A cell is one dual opening formed between two load bearing ribs of parafoil canopy. It
allows the air to rush inside the canopy during inflation and pressure equalization.

Lines
Parafoil/payload system consists of large number of lines. They connect the payload
to parafoil canopy and transfer the weight of the payload to the canopy. These lines
are of two types:

 Suspension lines

Suspension lines are generally attached to alternate ribs at multiple chord wise positions
with typically 1m spacing. Suspension lines are necessary to maintain the chord wise
profile of the lower surface of the canopy. Lines are often cascaded to reduce drag.

 Steering lines

Steering lines are attached to the trailing edge of the canopy. These lines form crow’s-foot
pattern such that pulling down on one line causes the trailing edge on one side of the
canopy to deflect. These lines provide means for lateral-directional and longitudinal
control. Turn control is affected by asymmetric pull on the steering lines, and angle of
incidence control and flare-out are accomplished by even pull.

Payload
Payload is located at the bottom the parafoil/payload system. It can be anything
which is to be delivered at the required destination. It is generally a bluff body which
adds to the aerodynamic drag of the parafoil/payload system.

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3.3 Parachute Selection

Parameters Round Parachute Cruciform Ram-Air Parachute
Parachute
Manoeuvrability Round parachutes have limited Cruciform parachutes offer Ram-air parachutes offer
manoeuvrability due to their limited manoeuvrability, superior manoeuvrability
simple design, mainly used for primarily used for cargo due to their square shape,
basic descent without advanced drops with basic steering allowing precise turns and
steering capabilities. capabilities but not ideal for control during descent.
precision landings.
Weight Has a high weight range of 150 Has a high weight range of Has a mediocre weight
to 250 kgs for each parachute. It 150 to 250 kgs, but only a range of 50 to 180 kgs, but
Limitation can be increased by increasing single canopy can be used only a single canopy can be
the number of canopies used. for manoeuvrability used due to its high
reasons. manoeuvrability.
Soft Landing Based on the weight and It has better soft-landing It has the best chance for a
number of canopies used soft capabilities but it is not soft landing due it being
landing is achievable but only ideal for precision landing able to control the direction
in specific conditions. due to its low and the rate of descend of
manoeuvrability. the payload.
Range of Motion Its range of motion is to only Its range of motion is to Its range of motion is to
slow down the rate of descend slow down the rate of slow down the rate of
of the payload. descend of the payload with descend of the payload with
low manoeuvrability. high manoeuvrability and
precision steering.

Using Ram-Air Parachutes for the autonomous cargo delivery system is the decision that was
made after a thorough analysis and comparison of various parachute types. Selected for their
outstanding mobility, these parachutes perform exceptionally well for soft landing payloads in
challenging circumstances. Their ability to steer with precision assures minimal deviation,
which is essential for precisely reaching intended locations. While there are weight
restrictions with Ram-Air Parachutes, these are considered negligible considering how crucial
accuracy is to the Autonomous Control System. The choice to employ Ram-Air Parachutes
emphasizes the dedication to obtaining the best possible performance and dependability in the
transportation of cargo through sophisticated aerodynamics and precise steering.

3.4 Defining Ram-Air Parachute Geometry

Airfoil shape

Parafoils use low speed airfoil shape for their cross-section. The generally used airfoil shapes
are Clark-Y and LS-0417 airfoils. The Clark-Y airfoil is popular because of its special feature

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 DESIGNING, MODELING AND FABRICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEM FOR A RAM-AIR PARACHUTE

of having flat bottom. This feature of Clark Y airfoil makes construction of parafoil easier,
and allows use of suspension lines of equal length. The parafoils with LS-0417 airfoil give
higher performance than with Clark-Y airfoil at lower speed. Thus, LS-0417 airfoil is used for
high performance parafoil/payload system.

Parafoil Cord

Since leading edge of the original airfoil is cut for parafoil construction, therefore, the chord
of the original airfoil is not used for parafoil performance calculation. Thus, if the original
airfoil chord line is horizontal then the parafoil chord line is taken as horizontal line joining
the upper leading edge and trailing edge of the airfoil. For a CLARK-Y airfoil, the chord of a
parafoil is taken as the distance between the upper leading edge and the trailing edge of the
parafoil, measured parallel to the flat-bottomed lower surface.
Parafoil Leading Edge

In case of parafoil, the leading edge of original airfoil is missing due to provided cut for
inflation. Generally, the cut is at an angle 135-150 degrees in anti-clock-wise direction from
original airfoil chord line. Thus, the upper leading edge of the cut airfoil becomes leading
edge of the parafoil.

Parafoil Inlet
The parafoil has an inlet created due to the leading edge cut of the airfoil so that air can rush

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 DESIGNING, MODELING AND FABRICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEM FOR A RAM-AIR PARACHUTE

inside the parafoil and cause inflation to take place. The inlet has following geometrical
features:
 Angle of cut: The angle of cut is taken as the angle subtended at chord line and
measured anti-clock wise from the chord line as. In case of Clark-Y the angle subtends
at the flat bottom surface.
 Line of cut: The line of cut is the line drawn at angle of cut. It is the line joining the
upper and lower leading edges. For a CLARK-Y airfoil, the line of cut is drawn through
the upper leading edge of the parafoil making an angle of θ with the lower surface in
anti-clockwise direction
 Height of cut: The height of cut is the height of the upper leading edge from the lower
leading-edge measure normal to the chord line. For a CLARK-Y airfoil, the height of the
inlet or the mouth of the parafoil is the height of the upper leading edge of the parafoil
from the flat-bottomed lower surface. It is expressed in terms of percentage of parafoil
chord length.
 Span: Parafoil wing becomes an arc shape when viewed from front during flight. Its
tips are below the level of middle portion. The span of the parafoil is taken as length
of this arc from one tip to another tip of parafoil. It is denoted by b.
 Planform Area: The planform area of the parafoil is product of its span and
chordlength.
 Anhedral Angle: Since parafoil wing has an arc anhedral shape, the anhedral angle of
this arc anhedral is taken as angle between horizontal line and line joining the middle
point and tip of the lower surface of the parafoil. It is denoted by ℸ.

Parafoil Control Surface

The control surface of parafoil is the trailing edge portion of the parafoil which is deflected
in order to control the flight of the system. By definition it is rear 25 percent of airfoil
cross-section of the parafoil. It is deflected about point of contact of last suspension line.
This point is generally at a distance of 75 percent of the chord length from top leading
edge. Span-wise length of the control surface is approximately one-third of the span.

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3.5 Aerodynamic Forces Acting on Parafoil/Payload System

Lift Force

Air Velocity Canopy Lift Weight Payload Drag Line

Drag Canopy Drag Figure 4.1: Aerodynamic forces on
parafoil/payload system. 4.2 Lift Force Lift force is
assumed to act at the quarter chord of the parafoil
canopy in the perpendicular direction of the flight path.

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 DESIGNING, MODELING AND FABRICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEM FOR A RAM-AIR PARACHUTE

In parafoil/payload system, source of lift force generation is parafoil canopy. This is because
canopy has airfoil shape cross-section. Earlier, Clark-Y shape airfoil was used for parafoil
canopy. Modern high performance parafoil canopy uses low speed NASA LS (1)-0417 airfoil
shape. Parafoil canopy has leading edge cut so that ram air pressure can maintain the airfoil
shape of the canopy. The increased air velocity over upper surface relative to the air velocity
over lower surface gives rise to lift force. For small angles of attack, lift force is considered as
a linear function of the angle of attack. For a system to fly, there should be enough lift force
so that it can balance the total weight of the system. Lift force is commonly expressed in non-
dimensional form as lift coefficient CL , which is defined as

where L is lift force, ρ is air density, V is the airspeed of the system (relative to air along
the flight path), and S is the reference canopy planform area.
Factors affecting lift force generated by parafoil canopy are as shown in Fig. 4.2. These
factors are also discussed below

Effect of low aspect ratio of canopy

Parafoil canopy is a low aspect ratio wing. Based on lifting line theory, Lingard gives
expression for lift curve slope of a wing for a given aspect ratio AR, and two-dimensional lift
curve slope a2D, as:

For a low aspect ratio wing, the two-dimensional lift curve slope, a 2D, is reduced by a factor k;
that is,

Where,

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 DESIGNING, MODELING AND FABRICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEM FOR A RAM-AIR PARACHUTE

Hence, lift curve slope for a low aspect ratio canopy wing becomes

where τ is a small positive factor, which is a function of aspect ratio, as shown in Fig. 4.3. It
increases the angle of incidence over that for the minimum case of elliptic loading.

The increase in lift for a low aspect ratio canopy wing with angle of incidence, in addition to
basic lift curve slope, is obtained as

where αZL is zero-lift angle of attack and k1 is a function of aspect ratio and shape of the
wing’s lateral edges. For 1 < AR ≤ 2.5, it is given as

For AR > 2.5, k1 = 0.

Total lift coefficient for a low aspect ratio rectangular canopy wing before stall becomes

where CLc = a (α – αZL) is linear lift coefficient due to circulation.

Effect of canopy arc anhedral:

The parafoil canopy has arc anhedral shape as shown in Fig. 4.4. This is because all the lines
have equal length and they join together at common point near payload. The anhedral angle ζ
is defined as

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 DESIGNING, MODELING AND FABRICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEM FOR A RAM-AIR PARACHUTE

where b is span and R is anhedral radius of parafoil canopy.

Total lift for low aspect ratio parafoil canopy with arc-anhedral becomes
CL = a (α – αZL) cos2 ζ + k1 sin2 (α – αZL) cos (α – αZL)

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 DESIGNING, MODELING AND FABRICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEM FOR A RAM-AIR PARACHUTE

Effect of aspect ratio and arc anhedral on CL

Lift coefficient vs angle of attack plot.

The effect of aspect ratio and arc anhedral on lift of parafoil is studied by taking a case of
parafoil having aspect ratio, AR = 2, canopy arc radius (line length) to span ratio R/b = 1, i.e.,
anhedral angle ζ = 14.325 deg. The value of zero lift angle of attack α ZL = −7 deg and two-
dimensional lift curve slope a2D = 6.89 rad−1 of 18% thick Clark-Y airfoil are taken as per
figure 4 of Lingard [4]. Figure 4.5 shows the effect of arc anhedral on lift coefficient of low
aspect ratio parafoil canopy. The lift curve slope is reduced due to increased arc anhedral of
the canopy. The decrease in lift of parafoil canopy is more at large angle of attack, than at
small angle of attack. Figure 4.6 shows variation of lift coefficient of parafoil canopy with
angle of attack for different aspect ratios for a given arc anhedral. There is a increase in lift
curve slope for higher aspect ratio canopy. For high aspect ratio canopy, increase in lift is
more at high angle of attack than at low angle of attack.

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 DESIGNING, MODELING AND FABRICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEM FOR A RAM-AIR PARACHUTE

Drag Force
Drag is the component of resultant aerodynamic force in the direction of flight path. In
parafoil/payload system, sources of drag force are parafoil canopy, lines, and payload. Various
components of drag force are shown in Fig. 4.7. Drag force is commonly expressed

Components of drag force.

in non-dimensional form as drag coefficient CD, which is defined as

where D is the drag force, ρ is air density, V is the airspeed of the system (relative to air along
the flight path), and S is the reference canopy planform area.

Canopy Drag
The canopy produces drag force due to pressure drag and skin friction drag. The pressure drag
is caused due to positive pressure gradient over the upper and lower surface of the canopy
from leading edge to trailing edge. The skin friction drag is caused due to skin friction on the
upper and lower surface of the canopy. The total drag experienced by canopy consists of
profile drag, induced drag.
1. Profile drag

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 DESIGNING, MODELING AND FABRICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEM FOR A RAM-AIR PARACHUTE

The profile drag is due to shape of the canopy. According to Lingard [4], for
Clark-Y 18 % thick airfoil, profile drag consists of following components:
(a) Basic airfoil drag, Cb DZL = 0.015
(b) Surface irregularities and fabric roughness drag, Cs DZL = 0.004
(c) Inlet drag due to open airfoil nose (e.g. of height h = 0.14c), Cn DZL = 0.5h/c
= 0.07, where c is chord length.
Thus, total profile drag for Clark-Y airfoil becomes,

2. Induced drag
Induced drag is primarily pressure drag due to trailing edge and tip vortices of the
canopy wing. The induced drag force coefficient CDi consists of following
components:
(a) Drag due to linear lift
The induced drag force coefficient Cli Di depends upon linear lift force
coefficient CLc. The relationship between Cli Di and CLc is given as

AR is aspect ratio of the canopy planform, δ is a small factor for non-elliptic wing
loading as plotted in Fig. 4.8.
(b) Drag due to non-linear lift
For low aspect ratio canopy wing, a drag component corresponding to non-
linear lift component is given as

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 DESIGNING, MODELING AND FABRICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEM FOR A RAM-AIR PARACHUTE

Total induced drag becomes

Hence, the total drag coefficient for a low aspect ratio rectangular canopy wing is obtained by
sum of profile drag and induced drag which is given as

Line Drag
From Lingard [4], the drag due to number of lines is estimated by

where
 n = number of lines
 R = mean line length
 d = line diameter
 S = Canopy planform area
If all the lines are of same length then number of lines n is calculated using relation
n = 8 + 16AR
Hence,
1. Higher aspect ratio leads to large number of lines which results in increase in line drag
force.
2. Large line length means increased line drag.

Total drag coefficient

Induced drag and profile drag are approximately independent of arc-anhedral [5]. Therefore,
total drag on a parafoil with arc-anhedral becomes

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 DESIGNING, MODELING AND FABRICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEM FOR A RAM-AIR PARACHUTE

where AR is aspect ratio, Cp D is payload drag based on canopy area S. Figure 4.9 shows
effect of drag of different components of parafoil/payload system, while Fig. 4.10 shows
variation of drag coefficient with angle of attack for different aspect ratios. Assumed parafoil
has wing area 36 m2 and line diameter 2.5 mm, AR = 2 and ratio R/b = 1, Cp D = 0.006, n =
32. Values of zero lift angle of attack αZL = −7 deg and two-dimensional lift curve slope a2D
= 6.89/rad of 18% thick Clark-Y airfoil are taken from Lingard [4]. Table 4.1 gives various
components of drag in terms of percentage of total drag of parafoil/payload system.
Following points can be noted based of percentage contribution of different drag
components
1. The highest drag contribution is from inlet drag. The inlet drag is nearly half of the
total drag of the system. The inlet drag can be reduced by decreasing inlet height
in such a way that reduced inlet height does not cause much delay in canopy
inflation process.
2. Second highest drag contribution is from canopy induced drag. Its contribution to
total drag is nearly one-fourth. It can be minimized by increasing aspect ratio of
the canopy in such a way that there is not much increase in line drag due to
increased number of lines.

Drag contributions of parafoil/payload system.

3. Third most drag contribution is from line drag. Its contribution is nearly one-
fourth. Line drag can be reduced by bifurcation of the lines. Lines of small
diameter and high strength can help in reducing line drag.
4. Basic airfoil drag has one-sixth contribution in total drag of the parafoil/payload
system. Airfoil drag of LS-0417 airfoil is less than Clark-Y airfoil drag. Thus
airfoil drag contribution can be reduced by using LS series airfoil shape.
5. Payload drag
can be reduced by
using
streamlined
containers.

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 DESIGNING, MODELING AND FABRICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEM FOR A RAM-AIR PARACHUTE

Effect of drag components.

3.6 Electronics

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 DESIGNING, MODELING AND FABRICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEM FOR A RAM-AIR PARACHUTE

1. Turn on the GPS module, IMU sensor, and barometric pressure sensor to start
the system: The GPS (Global Positioning System) module is activated to determine
the device's geographical location, the IMU (Inertial Measurement Unit) sensor
detects and measures orientation, and the barometric pressure sensor gauges height
based on air pressure.

2. Calibrate the IMU sensor to ensure accurate orientation analysis: Calibration is

required to eliminate any biases or inaccuracies in the IMU sensor's readings and
ensure proper orientation analysis. This procedure guarantees that the sensor
accurately measures the device's position and motion.

3. Determine and enter the desired location into the system: The desired delivery
location must be identified and given into the system, most likely using GPS
coordinates or another suitable technique, to ensure the system understands exactly
where the goods must be delivered.

4. Launch the plane and drop the cargo at a predetermined altitude: The cargo-
equipped aircraft takes off and reaches a predetermined altitude before releasing the
contents. This stage may need the use of a drone or other airborne device.

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 DESIGNING, MODELING AND FABRICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEM FOR A RAM-AIR PARACHUTE

5. Using the barometric pressure sensor, monitor the height and trigger the
parachute at a certain altitude based on the conditions: The altitude is
continuously measured by the barometric pressure sensor. The technology activates
the deployment of a parachute at a predetermined altitude to ensure the items' safe
descent

6. Use the IMU sensor to analyze the parachute's orientation and, if necessary,
trigger the servomotors to alter the parachute's direction: The IMU sensor
determines the parachute's orientation. If necessary, servomotors are activated to direct
the parachute's drop towards the intended point.

7. Use the GPS module to track the parachute's location and guarantee it arrives at
the desired area: The GPS module continuously tracks the precise location of the
parachute, allowing the system to direct it to the preset delivery point.

8. Turn off the system once the goods have been delivered: The system is powered
down after a successful delivery, finishing the delivery procedure.

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 DESIGNING, MODELING AND FABRICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEM FOR A RAM-AIR PARACHUTE

CHAPTER 4: DESIGNING OF THE PARACHUTE

AND THE CONTROL SYSTEM

4.1 Parachute Geometry

Parafoil Cross-Section

We proceeded on a laborious procedure to translate the available information into a tangible

and accurate depiction after receiving comprehensive airfoil parameters from the
manufacturer.

The first stage was to collect critical dimensional values from the manufacturer's paperwork,
which were then painstakingly plotted with the sophisticated "XFLR 5" program. This
plotting phase sought to create a visual representation of the airfoil, allowing us to thoroughly
scrutinize and adjust the drawing to guarantee an exact fit with the stated airfoil.

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 DESIGNING, MODELING AND FABRICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEM FOR A RAM-AIR PARACHUTE

With the improved drawing as a precise reference, we proceeded to incorporate a Clark Y

airfoil into the computational framework. This stage necessitated paying close attention to the
production drawing's specifics, particularly the thickness and camber properties. By importing
the Clark Y airfoil with these reference points, we hoped to incorporate a comparative
element that conformed closely to the manufacturer's design while assuring compatibility
within our selected software environment.

Moving on, we concentrated on the design of the parafoil within the "XFLR 5" platform.
Using the known anhedral angle, chord length, and span of the airfoil, we travelled through
the wing and plane design possibilities, adjusting the parameters to correspond smoothly with
the specified criteria. This part of the procedure was critical in laying the groundwork for the
subsequent modelling of the parachute system.

To improve the precision and granularity of our modelling approach, we divided the
parachute into different cells. Each cell was then meticulously modelled, paying close
attention to the anhedral angle connected with it. This granular modelling method enabled us
to accurately capture and recreate the design's complexities, ensuring that each component of
the parachute system was faithfully represented within the computational framework.

In summary, our comprehensive approach involved a sequential series of steps, from

dimensional extraction and global refinement of the airfoil drawing to the integration of a
Clark Y airfoil and the detailed modeling of the parafoil system. This methodology, executed

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 DESIGNING, MODELING AND FABRICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEM FOR A RAM-AIR PARACHUTE

within the advanced capabilities of "XFLR 5," aimed to achieve a high-fidelity representation
of the specified airfoil and its associated parachute configuration, providing a robust
foundation for further analysis and simulation.

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REFERENCES
[1] Prakash, Om & Ananthkrishnan, N. (2004). Aerodynamics, Longitudinal Stability
and Glide Performance of Parafoil/Payload System Preliminary Project Report.
10.13140/RG.2.2.28497.84329.
[2] Breuer, Joep CM, and Rolf H. Luchsinger. "Inflatable kites using the concept of
Tensairity." Aerospace Science and Technology 14.8 (2010): 557-563.
[3] Slegers, Nathan J. "Effects of canopy-payload relative motion on control of
autonomous parafoils." Journal of guidance, control, and dynamics 33.1 (2010): 116-
125.
[4] Prakash, Om, and Narayan Ananthkrishnan. "Modeling and simulation of 9-DOF
parafoil-payload system flight dynamics." AIAA Atmospheric Flight Mechanics
Conference and Exhibit. 2006.
[5] Strickert, Gordon. "Study on the relative motion of parafoil-load-systems."
Aerospace Science and Technology 8.6 (2004): 479-488.

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