EXPERIMENT 1

AIM: To determine resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting a sraph of potential difference
versus current.

APPARATUS

Aresistance wire, a voltmeter (0-3) Vand an ammeter (0-3) Aof appropriate range, a battery
(battery eliminator), a rheostat, a metre scale, one-way key, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.
Measurement of Resistance 47

THEORY

According to the Ohm's law, the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional
to the potential difference across its ends, provided the physical conditions(temperature, dimensions,
pressure, etc.) of the conductor remain the same. If I be the current flowing through aconductor and
Vbe the potential difference across its ends, then according to Ohm's Law,
Ic V
Voc I or V= RI
where, Ris the constant of proportionality. It is known as resistance of the conductor.
=R ...Working formula
Rdepends upon the nature of material, temperature and dimensionsof the conductor.
In SI units, the potential difference Vis measured in volt and the current I in ampere, the
resistance R is measured in ohm.
(1) To establish the current-voltage relationship, it is to be shown that the ratio V/I remains
constant for a given resistance. Therefore, a graph between the potential difference (V)
and the current () must be a straight line.

(2) The constant ratio gives unknown value of resistance,

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Battery

Rheostat

A
Unknown resistance
wire

Fig. Circuit diagram.

PROCEDURE
1. Arrange the apparatus in the same manner as given in the arrangement diagram.
2. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sand paper to remove the insulations, if any.
3. Make neat, clean and tight connections according to the circuit diagram. While making
connections ensure that +ve marked terminals of voltmeter and ammeter are joined towards
the +ve terminal of the battery.
4. Determine the least count of voltmeter and ammeter, and also note the zero error, if any.
5. Insert the key K, slide the rheostat contact and see that ammeter and voltmeter are working
properly.
 Comprekenslve Practical PhysicsX

O. Adjust the sliding contact of the rheostat such that a measurablecurrent passes through
the resistance coil or the
resistance wire.
. Note down thevalue of potential diference Vfrom voltmeter and current I from ammeter.
S. Shift the rheostat contact slightly so that both ammeter and voltmeter show full divisions
readings and not in fraction.
9. Record the readings of the voltmeter and
ammeter.
Note. In case of battery eliminator, follow these steps:
Tun the knob at 2Vin battery eliminator and put the constant point in rheostat at fixed position.
Now record the reading in voltmeter and ammeter.
Without disturbing the rheostat, turn the knob of battery to different voltage, say 4, 6, 8, 10 and
12 volts and recordcorresponding readings in voltmeter and ammeter.

10. Take at least five sets of independent observations.

11. Cut the resistance wire at the pointswhere it leaves the terminals, stretch it and find its
length by the metre scale.
12. Record your observations.
 Measurement of Resistance
49
OBSERVATIONS
1. Length
Length of the resistance wire l =
2. Range
Range of the given ammeter =....
Rangeof the given voltmeter =
3. Least count
Least count of ammeter
Least count of voltmeter=
4. Zero error

Zero error in ammeter, e,

Zero error in voltmeter, e, =
5. Zero correction

Zero correction for ammneter, c,

=-e = ...*
Zero correction for voltmeter, c,
=-e,= ...
6. Table for Ammeter and Voltmeter
Readings
Serial No. of Ammeter Reading I (A) Voltmeter ReadingV(V) V
=R
Obs.
Observed Corrected Observed Corrected I
(Ohm)
I=L,+, V=V,+,
(1) (2a) (2b) (3a) (3b) (4)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Mean value of resistance, R =.....hms.

CALCULATIONS
1 Find the ratio ofV and I for each set of observations.
2. Plot a graph between potential difference V(column 35) and current I (column 2b), taking
Valong X-axis and Ialong Y-axis. The graph comes to be a straight line.
From thegraph, the resistance can be calculated.
AB AI
In AABC, tan = ...(1)
CB AV
AV
Or
cot = ...2)
50
Comprekenslue Practical Physics-Xn
But, R=
..3)
R= cot0
R= .... Q.

Graph between Potential Difference and Current

Scale
X-axis : 1cm =0.5 V of potential difference
Y-axis :1cm = 0.25 mA of current
V

1.5
amperes

in 1.0
(I)
Curtent

0.5

1.0 2.0 3:0

Potential difference (V) in volts

Fig. Graph between potential difference

and current. It is a straight line.
3. Constant ratio gives resistance of the wire.
4. Resistance of the wire pe cm =....

RESULT

() Resistance per cm of the wire is ..... L cm1.

(i) The graph between Vand I is a straight line.
PRECAUTIONS
1 The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. Thick copper wires should be used for the connections after removing the insulations neat
their ends by rubbing with sand paper.
3 Voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range.
4. A low resistance rheostat should be used.
5 The key should be inserted only while taking observations toavoid heating of resistanct
(otherwise its resistance will increase).
6 The electriccurrent through resistance wire should not bevery high, so as to avoid heatn;
effect of current.
7 The switch should be open when you are not taking readings.
Measurementtof Resistance

SOURCES OF ERROR 51

The instrument screws may be loose.

2.
Thick connecting wires1 may not be
3. Rheostat may have high available.
resistance.
EXPERIMENT 2
AIM: To find resistance of agiven wire
(specific resistance) of its material.using metre bridge and hence determine the resistivity
APPARATUS
Ametre bridge (slide wire
resistance box, a jockey, a one waybridge),
a Leclanche cell
wires
key, resistance wire, a (Battery
a a eliminator), galvanometer,
a
connecting and a piece of sand screw gauge, a metre Scale, a set square,
paper.
THEORY
() The unknown
resistance Xis given by,
X U00--)
1
XR
where Ris known resistance placed in the left
gap and unknown
metre bridge wire from zeroresistance
of metre bridge. Icm is the length of Xin the right gap
(i) Specificresistance (p) of the end upto balance point.
material of the given wire is given by,
XnD'
4L
where, L is the length and D is the diameter of the given
wire.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Known resistance Unknown resistance
R X
R. B.
Resistance
box B

(G)Galvanometer
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
uuluhutusu¡uhukualuakuuuuluduuutal
D
A

(100- 1)
E
K

Leclanche cell (Battery eliminator)

Fig. Circuit diagram--Metre bridge.
52
Comprekene Practical Physics-X
PROCEDURE
For Resistance
1. Arrange the apparatus as shown in the
diagram.
2. Connect the resistance wire whose resistance is to be determined in the right gap between C
and B. Take care that no part of the wire forms a loop.
3. Connect resistance box of low range in the left hand gap between A and B.
4. Make all the other connections as shown in the circuit
diagram.
5. Take out some resistance (say 2 ohms) from the resistance box, plug the key K.
6. Touch the jockey gently first at left end and then at right end of the bridge wire.
7. Note the deflections in the galvanometer. If the galvanometer shows deflections in opposite
directions, the connections are correct. If the deflection isone side only, then there is some
fault in the circuit. Check or take help of your teacher and rectify the fault.
8. Move (slide) the jockey gently along the wire from left to right tillgalvanometer gives zero
deflection. The point where the jockey is touching the wire is null point D.
9. Choose an appropriate value of Rfrom the resistance box such that there is no deflection in the
galvanometer when the jockey is nearly in the middle of the wire (ie, between 45 to 55 cm).
10. Note position of point D(with the help of aset square) to know balancing length, AD =1.
11. Take at least four sets of observations in the same way by changing the value of Rin steps.
12. Record your observations.
Measurement of Resistance 53
For Specific Resistance
13. Cut the resistance wire at the points where it leaves the terminals, stretch it and find its
by using a metre scale. length
14. Measure the diameter of the wire at least at four places. in two mutually
at each
place with the help of screw perpendicular directions
15 Record your observations as given ingauge.
tables.
OBSERVATIONS
1. Length of given wire, L= .... cm.
2. Table for unknown resistance (X)
Serial No. of Resistance from the Length AB =1
Obs.
Length Unknowwn
resistance box (cm) BC= (100-1) resistance
R
(cm) X=R (100 -)
(ohm) 1

(ohm)
(1) 2 (3) (4) (5)
1.
2.
3. ......

4.
3. Least count of the screw gauge
Pitch of screw gauge=..... mm
Total no. of divisions on the circular scale
Pitch
:. LC. of the given screW gauge
No. of divisions on the circular scale
=...... nin

Zero error, e= ...... mm

Zero correction, c=-e =...... mm
4. Table for diameter (D) of the wire
Serial Linear Scale Circular Scale Reading Observed diameter Corrected
No. Reading N Value D, =N+nxL.C. diameter
No. ofcircular
of Obs. (mm) scale division on nx (L.C.) (mm) D=D,+c
reference line (n) (mm) (mm)
(1) (2) (3a) (3b) (4) (5)
1, (a) D, (a) = D, (a) =
() D,(6) = D,(b) =
2. (a) D, (a) = D, (a) =.
(6) D, (b) = D, (b) =
3 (a) D, (a) = D, (a) =.......

(b) D, (6) = D, (6) =,

4 D, (a) = D, (a) =.
(6 D, (6) = D,(b) =.
54
CALCULATIONS
X
1. Calculation for
and write in column 3 of Table 1.
(a) From position of D, findlcm
column 4.
(b) Find length (100-) cm and write in
column 5.
() Calculate Xand write in
Mean X=
X, +X, +X, + X ohm

2. Calculation for D
D,(a) + D,(b) +..+ D, (a) + D,(b)
Mean corrected diameter
=..... Inm=...... CI

3. Calculation for Specific Resistance

Specificresistance of the material of the given wire,
p=X.
4L
= .... ohm-cm

ohm-m
wire (if given),
Standard value of the specific resistance of the material of the given
Po . . . . ohm-m

p-Po x 100
Percentage error
Po
=...... %

RESULT
1. The value of unknown resistance, X = ...
2. The specific resistance of the material of the given wire =
3. Percentage error =

PRECAUTIONS
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. All the plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
3. Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it.
4. The plug in key Kshould be inserted only when the observations are to be taken.
5. Null point should be brought between 45 cm and 55 cm.
6. Set square should be used to note null point to avoid error of parallax.
7. At one place, diameter of wire should be measured in two mutually perpendicular directions.
8. The wire should not make a loop.

SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The instrument screws may be
loose.
2. The plugs may not beclean.
3. The wire may not have uniforn thickness.
4. The screw gauge may have faults like back lash error and wrong pitch.
Measurementof Resistance 55

EXPERIMENT 3
AM: To verify the laws ofcombination (series) of resistances using ametre briäge.
APPARATUS

Ametre bridge, a Leclanche cell (battery eliminator), a galvanometer,aresistance box, ajockey,

oresistance wires or two resistance coils known resistances, a set square, sand paper and connecting
wires.

THEORY
(100-I) xR
() The resistance () of a resistance wire or coil is given by, r=
where Ris the resistance from the resistance box in the left gap and l is the length of the metre
bridge wire from zero end upto balance point.
(G) When twO resistances r, and r, are connected in series, then their combined resistance,
R, =, +r,
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

(i) In series
E
K

4I
I R
I4 B

(100- 1)
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
10 20
Luulunhmluuluuululuuluuuuuuuuluiluululuhuluuluu

A
G
Fig. Series combination of resistances.

(ii) Resistances in series

Fig. Resistances in series.

 Comprekenstue Practical(
56

PROCEDURE
Physics-
1. Mark the two resistance coils as r, and r,
2. To find r, and r, proceed same way as in Experiment 1. (If r, and r, are not known.)
3. Connect the two coils r, and r, in series as shown in figure in the right gap of metre bridge and
findthe resistance of this combination. Take at least three sets of observations.
4. Record your observations as follows.
OBSERVATIONS
Table for length (1) and unknown resistance (X)
Resistance Serial Resistance Length Length Resistance Mean
co No. of from the AD =1 DC= 100 -1
resistance
Obs. resistance (cm) (cm) (ohm)
box
R (ohm)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
1

r, only 2.
3

1.
, only 2.
......

3
1.
r, and r, in
2
series
3. R,=....

CALCULATIONS
L. Calculation for r, only, r, only, r, and r, in series.
Same as in Experiment 1.
2. Calculation for verification of laws
Experimental value of R, =
Theoretical value of R=r, t , =..
Difference (if any)
RESULT
Within limits of experimental error,
law of resistances in
series is verified. experimental and theoretical values of R_ are same. ien
PRECAUTIONS
Same as given in
Experiment 1.
Measurementof Resistance
57

EXPERIMENT 4
AIM: To verifythelaws of combination (parallel) ofresistances using a metre bridge.
APPARATUS

Ametrebridge, a Leclanche cell (battery eliminator), a

galvanometer, a
resistance
two resistance wires or two resistance coils known resistances, a sett square, sand
box, a
jockey,
paper and connecting
wires.

THEORY

() Theresistance () of a resistance wire or col is (100-I)

given by, r = xR
where Ris theresistance from the resistance box in the left gap and l is the length of the metre
bridge wire from zero end up to balance point.
() When r, and r, are connected in parallel, then their combined resistance,

R=
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
() Inparallel
+

(100- )
10 20 30 40 50 \60 70 80 90 100
umluluuluuluuhuuuluuluuupluuluuluuulunkuuluuluu
D
A

Fig. Parallel combination of resistances.

(i) Resistances in parallel

Fig. Resistances in parallel.

 58
Comprehenslue Practical Physics-
PROCEDURE
1. Mark the two resistance coils as r, and r,
2. To find r, and r, proceed same way as in Experiment 1. (If r, and r, are not known.)
3. Connect the two coils r, and r, in parallel as shown in figure in the right gap
of
and find the resistance of this combination. Take at least three sets of observatione metre bridn
4. Record your observations.

OBSERVATIONS
Table for length ()and unknown resistance (X)
Resistance Serial Resistance Length Length Resistance
coil No. of from the AD =1 DC =100-1 Mean
Observatino resistance (cm) (cm) resistance
box (ohm)
R(ohm)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
1 (7)

, only 2

r, only 2.

3.

1,
r, and r, in
2.
parallel
3 R, =

CALCULATIONSfor
Calculation verification of laws
Bxperimental value of R_ =
Theoretical value of
Difference (if any)
Measurement of Resistance 59

RESULT

Within limits of experimental error, experimental and theoretical values of pR_are same. Hence,
law of resistances in parallel is verified.
PRECAUTIONS

Same as in Experiment 1.